Chapter 3

Sampling and Sampling Distribution

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 Introduction :

 Collecting data , relying on the entire

population is neither feasible nor practical.
 Researcher has to select a sample instead
of going in for a complete census .
 Inferential or inductive statistics is
primarily concerned with making
conclusions about a certain population or
populations.
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 On the basis of information obtained from the
sample (through sample statistic) , an
inference about the population (population
parameter) is made.
 In this process , we need to keep in mind
that the sample contains only a portion of the
population and not the entire population . So
a proper sampling method should be used
for selecting a sample.
 In order to make a good estimate of the
population characteristics , selecting a
reasonably good sampling method is of
paramount importance.
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Two methods
 Census method ( Complete enumeration )
 Sample method (Partial enumeration)

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Census

100% inspection of the population

Enumeration of each and every unit of population.
It seems to provide more accurate and exact information .
For instance , census conducted by Govt of India every 10 years
(Regarding age, martial status, occupation, religion, education,
employment , income, property etc.)

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Population
 This is a collection of all the units of a specified type defined over a
given space or time

 It is defined by :

 Content – this refers to who or what exactly are the subjects of

interest. Eg. All persons above aged 18 and over

 Units – this refers to how the subjects are grouped. Eg. Within
households

 Extent – this refers to the spatial feature of the population. Eg.

The subjects can only be living in Delhi.

 Time – this refers to what period of time that your subjects must
possess the particulars named above. Eg. June – October 1998

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Advantages
 Accurate
 Reliable

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Disadvantages

 More resources in terms of manpower , money,

time and administrative staff etc.
 If the test is destructive i.e. the item is destroyed
while collecting the information about the item ,
this option is totally ruled out.
 Census method generally time consuming, by the
time results are available it is not of much use
due to changed conditions.

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When to use :

 Information required about each unit of the

population.
 In any manufacturing process in industry, 100%
enumeration should be considered under
following conditions:
1. Serious casualty or loss of life b’coz of defect.
2. A defect may cause loss or serious casulaty.
3. Lot size is small .

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Sampling method
 Sampling is the most widely used tool for gathering
important and useful information from the population.
 A researcher generally takes a small portion of the
population foe study, which is referred to as sample.
 The process of selecting a sample from the
population is called sampling.
 Sampling over census are defined just in four word “
speed, economy, adaptability and scientific approach.
 A properly designed and carefully executed sampling
plan yields fairly good results than those obtained by
the census method.

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Why is sampling essential?

 Sampling saves time.

 Sampling saves money
 When the research process is destructive in nature ,
sampling minimizes the destruction.
 Sampling broadens the scope of the study in light of the
scarcity of resources.
 It has been noticed that sampling provides more accurate
results , as compared to census because in sampling ,
non sampling error can be controlled more easily .
 In most cases complete census is not possible sampling
is the only option left.

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 Merits of sample method over the census:

1. Speed :less time

2. Economy : reduced cost of the enquiry
3. Administrative convenience : less personal staff and
limited field of enquiry
4. Reliability :
Sample method contains sampling and non sampling
errors both.
Carefully designed and scientifically executed sample
survey gives results more reliable than those obtained
from a complete census.

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Sampling errors
Only a small portion of the population is studied ,
results are different from census and have certain
amount of error. If the sample is random and
highly representative of the population then also
error would always be there. Sampling error is
always due to fluctuations of sampling .

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Reasons are :

1. Faulty selection of sample( purposive or judgement

sampling
2. Substitution : due to difficulty unit is replaced by another
of target population
3. Faulty demarcation of sampling units: depends on
discretion of investigators.
4. Errors due to bias in estimation method
5. Variability of population

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In a sample survey these errors can
be controlled by
 Employing highly qualified ,skilled and
trained personal
 Imparting adequate training to the
investigators for conducting the enquiry.
 Better supervision
 Using more sophisticated equipment and
statistical techniques for the processing
and analysis of the relatively limited data.

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Non-sampling errors
 Non-sampling errors are not attributed due
to chance and are a consequence of
factors which are within human control. It
presents both in census and sample .

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Non-sampling errors
 Important factors for non-sampling errors are
1. measuring and recording observations, 2.
inaccuracy or incomplete information
3.non response , incomplete response
4. training of investigators ,
5. interpretation of questions
6. Lack of coverage
7. Defective method of interviewing and asking
questions.
8. Publication errors

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 Sampling

Sampling is the process

of selecting a small number of elements
from a larger defined target group
of elements such that
the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups

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Objectives
 To obtain the optimum results .
 To obtain the best possible estimates of the
population parameters.

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Sampling Frame
 This is a list of the all the units with their
identifications in the target population from
which the sample is to be chosen
 A subset of subjects for a survey should only be
taken from a sampling frame
 Generally we identify each unit of the population
by giving it a distinct number, generally from
1,2,3,…,N where N is the population size.

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Unit of Analysis
 Sometimes referred to as Sampling Units
 A Unit is an element or group of elements ,
living , non- living, on which observations
can be made.
 This is the items/units being investigated
 A person living in city /household
/employee/a branch/in a bank etc.
 Eg : Individuals, households, hospitals
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Sampling Units
 This refers to the items/units selected for
inclusion in the sample

 Eg : If Mr. Brown was selected to be

included in the sample then he is a
sampling unit

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Size of a sample

 Population size: Normally proportionate

 Heterogeneity : More heterogeneity in data , more
the size of sample is required.
 Accuracy and Reliability :Bigger size sample
would be more accurate and reliable.
 Allocation of Resources : Sample size depends
on the resources allocated . More the resources
(manpower, money, time )are made available,
more the sample size can be increased.

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Basics of Sampling Theory
Population

Element

Defined target
population

Sampling frame

Sampling unit

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Sampling Methods

Probability Non probability

sampling sampling

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 Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Non-probability
 Simple random  Convenience
sampling sampling
 Systematic random  Judgment sampling
sampling  Quota sampling
 Stratified random

sampling
 Cluster sampling

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 Probability Sampling
 Probability Samples

 Random Samples (though sample units are not chosen

haphazardly)

 The probabilities for selecting different samples are

specified

 For each unit of the population the probability of it

appearing in any sample is known (I/N : of being selected
in the group ;with replacement)

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Example 1
 Let a, b and c be three units in the
population , and we want to select a
sample of 2 units from the 3 units.

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Solution :
Sampling with replacement
Total number of possible samples: ⁿPr

= 3!/1! = 6
Sampling without replacement
Total number of possible samples: ⁿCr
= 3!/(2!)(1!) = 3

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 There are 3 main steps involved in
choosing a probability sample :

1. Decide on the population of interest

2. Establish a sampling frame
3. Select units from the frame using a
probabilistic algorithm

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Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a method of

probability sampling in which
every unit has an equal nonzero
chance of being selected

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Simple Random Sampling IV
 There are two main ways of choosing a
simple random sample

1. Table of Random Numbers

2. Lottery Method

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Example
 Suppose our population consists of
500 units and we have to select a
sample of size 5.
 In the random number tables, the digits
0 to 9 have equal chance of appearing
in a particular position. The steps of
selecting the sample are as follows:

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Procedure:
 First identity all sampling unit with 1 to 500
 We choose any three columns(row or
diagonal) anywhere in the random
number table.
 Now we move downwards-selecting 3
digited numbers less than 500 till 5
numbers.

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Random Table
 12135 65186 86886
 49031 45451 07369
 70387 53186 97116
 93451 53493 56442
 74077 66687 45394

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Ans
 121 490
 454
 073 453

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Systematic (Quasi) Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling is a
method of
probability sampling
in which the defined
target population is ordered
and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval

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Procedure:
 In this method only the 1st unit is
selected at random( by Random
Table). The rest of the units are
selected according to a pattern
depending on a factor which is also
called the sampling ratio.
 e.g once in a day, a unit after every 2
lots of production

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Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random
Sample
1: Obtain a list of units that contains an acceptable
frame of the target population
2: Determine the number of units in the list and the
desired sample size
N
3: Compute the skip interval k =
n
4: Determine a random start point
5: Beginning at the start point, select the units by
choosing each unit that corresponds to the skip
interval

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Case Let 1
 There are 50 employees in an
organization , and each of them has the
employee number from 1 to 50 . We wish
to select 10% for assessment of their view
on job satisfaction among the employee of
the organisation . Discuss


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Procedure
 N = 50; n = 5 = 10% of N
 We may select one random number as
single digit random number varying from 0
to 9 say 5.
 K = N/ n = 10
 Thus the five employee numbers :
5,15,25,35,45 .

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 Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a

method of probability sampling in which the
population is divided into different subgroups
of non-overlapping homogenous and
Samples are selected from each.

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Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random
Sample
 1: Divide the target population into
homogeneous subgroups or strata
(strata could be on the basis of geographical
area, different age groups, gender , rural and
urban etc. )
 2: Draw random samples from each stratum
 3: Combine the samples from each stratum into
a single sample of the target population

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Stratified Random Sampling III

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Eg :
N

N1 N2 Nk

n1 n2 nk

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 Stratified Random Sampling IV
Examples :
 Household income or expenditure surveys
 urban rural

 Business surveys
 employee size
 Production
 sales
 industrial classification

 Agricultural surveys

Stratification depends on purpose of survey

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Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is a method of probability

sampling where the sampling units
are selected on SRS basis in non-overlapping groups
rather than individually.
In cluster sampling , the sampling unit is cluster.
But Clusters should be as small as possible consistent
with resources
The number of sampling unit in each cluster should be
approximately same. In stratified sampling , strata
happens to be homogenous but in cluster sampling,
clusters are internally heterogeneous. 47
 Thus cluster sampling involves formation of
suitable clusters of units, and then
selecting a sample of clusters treating them
as unit ……

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Steps
 first select a random sample of clusters
 from these selected clusters random units
are then selected for study.

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Example:
 A sample of districts is first selected and
then households are again randomly
chosen from the selected districts.
 Cluster sampling is generally used when
the population has natural groupings,
usually in terms of geographical areas.

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Case let 2
 A survey is conducted among 240 students
of PGDM. They are grouped into 4
divisions of 60 each. Then a division could
be considered a cluster. If a sample size is
decided to be 60, then one of the four
cluster could be selected as a sample, and
each of the student of this cluster could be
included in the sample if n =60.

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Non-Probability Sampling
 In probability sampling , each unit in the
population or specified group has a chance of
being selected in the sample. The prerequisite in
such sampling is defining the sampling frame i.e
identifying and numbering each and every unit of
the population. However there are certain
situations when it is not feasible and selection is
done on per the convenience . Such sampling
compromising accuracy for convenience , is
referred as Non-probability sampling .

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 Non-Probability Sampling II
 Non-Probability Sampling
 This involves the selection of a units by arbitrary
methods
 The probability of selection for each unit is unknown
 It is dangerous to make inferences about the target
population
 It is often used to test aspects of a survey such as
questionnaire design rather than make inferences
about the target population

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Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling relies upon convenience and access
 This sampling is also by taking into consideration of
convenience of the investigator .
 This method is not very efficient.
 It is also used quite a lot in pilot surveys before
,say, launching of a product in the market.

 Used for pre-testing of questionnaire.

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 Such sampling is dictated by the needs of
convenience rather than any other
consideration.
 For opinion poll when one may find it easier
to get the opinion of those in shops, or
restaurants , on pavement rather than
going house to house.

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Judgement sampling

Judgment sampling relies upon belief

that participants fit characteristics

 In this type of sampling, the investigator decides

which units to include or exclude in the sample.
 Judgement sampling is very simple and
convenient.
 It is not as economical as convenience sampling.
 Also used for pre-testing of questionnaire.
 It is useful if the sample size is small.

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There is no well-defined scientific method which can
tell us that how one person’s judgment is better
than another persons judgment.
Generally , judgment sampling is useful when a
sample size is small. In case of large samples,
the bias from researcher’s end may be high.
Disadvantages :
There is scope for personal bias .It may be
influenced by personal bias of the investigator.

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Quota sampling
 Quota sampling emphasizes representation of
specific characteristics.,
 For example to study eating habits of school
children and college students ,students under
18 years.
 The quota is fixed due to constraints on
availability of time, cost.
 Within the quota stipulated , one has to select a
sample which is representative of the
population.

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Example
 Within the overall quota of interviewing 100
persons for some opinion poll, one may contact
some persons from various categories like college
students, housewives, shopkeepers, office goers ,
daily wage earners etc.
 In an organization , one might include persons
from all categories of staff cadre-wise as well as
function-wise, department-wise etc.

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 Advantages:
The benefits of stratification are available.
 Disadvantages :

There is scope for personal bias.

 Suitability

It is suitable in marketing research studies

where it is not possible to stick to it without
delay and expenditure.

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 Sampling and Non – Sampling
Errors
 Sampling errors arise from the fact that a
sample has been used to study the population.
 These errors are generally not present in a
complete census as they are associated with
the process of selecting a sample.
 A sampling error is the difference between the
estimate obtained from sampling and the true
value for the entire population.

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 Sampling errors may be due to
 faulty selection of the sample,
 improper data collection method,
 Human being’s limitation of recording data
due to lack of competence, training or human
fatigue.
 incorrect methodology of analyzing the data
 Wrong calculation
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 

Sampling Errors

Sample size

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 Non-sampling errors are errors arising
during the course of all survey
activities other than sampling.

They exist both in sample surveys as well
as censuses.

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 Figure 1

Non-Sampling
Error

Sample Size
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Factors to Consider in Sample Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources Time frame

Knowledge of
target population Research scope

Statistical analysis needs

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Steps in Developing a Sampling
Plan

1. Define the Target Population

2. Select the Data Collection Method
3. Identify the Sampling Frame(s) Needed
4. Identify the Appropriate Sampling Method
5. Determine Sample Sizes and Contact Rates

6. Create Plan for Selecting Sampling Units

7. Execute the Operational Plan

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