Introduction in Ship Hydromechanics: Lecture MT519 Draft Edition

INTRODUCTION IN
SHIP HYDROMECHANICS
Lecture MT519
Draft Edition
J.M.J. Journée and Jakob Pinkster
Delft University of Technology
April 2002
2
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Ocean Surface Waves 7

2.1 Regular Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 Potential Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Water Particle Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.3 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.4 Wave Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.5 Numerical Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Irregular Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 Simple Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.2 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.3 Energy Density Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.4 Standard Wave Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.5 Wave Prediction and Climatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.6 Numerical Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Behavior of Structures in Waves 31

3.1 Behavior in Regular Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.1 Axis Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.2 Frequency of Encounter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.3 Motions of and about CoG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.4 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.5 Motions Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.6 Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.1.7 Frequency Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2 Behavior in Irregular Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4 Maneuvering of Ships 51
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 Requirements and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2.2 Rudder Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.3 Rudder Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2.4 Rudder Forces and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2.5 Rudder Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Motion Stability De…nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4 Maneuverability Activities of IMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3
4 CONTENTS
4.4.1 Maneuverability Information On-Board Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.4.2 Impaired Maneuverability of Tankers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4.3 Estimation of Maneuverability in Ship Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4.4 Standards for Ship Maneuverability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4.5 Prediction Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5 Full Scale Maneuvering Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5.1 Loading Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5.2 Trial Site Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5.3 Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5.4 Selection of Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5.5 Stability Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.6 Mathematical Maneuvering Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.7 Estimation of Nomoto’s K and T Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7.1 Use of Turning Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.7.2 Use of Zig-Zag Maneuver Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.7.3 Experimental Data on K and T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.8 Speed Changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.8.1 Stopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.8.2 Coasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.8.3 Backing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.8.4 Accelerating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
CONTENTS 5
PREFACE
This preliminary text book is a …rst attempt to provide a short introduction in ship hy-
dromechanics for Maritime Engineering students (second year) at the Delft University of
Technology. Topics have been selected for inclusion based upon their applicability in mod-
ern maritime engineering practice. The treatment of these selected topics includes both
the background theory and its applications to realistic problems.
The notation used in this book is kept as standard as possible, but is explained as it
is introduced in each chapter. In some cases the authors have chosen to use notation
commonly found in the relevant literature - even if it is in con‡ict with a more universal
standard or even with other parts of this text. This is done to prepare students better to
read the literature if they wish to pursue such maters more deeply. In some other cases,
the more or less standard notation and conventions have been adhered to in spite of more
common practice.
These lecture notes on an introduction in ship hydromechanics consists of three parts:
waves, shipmotions and maneuvering.
For both the waves part and the shipmotions part, use has been made of the extensive
new lecture notes on ”O¤shore Hydromechanics”, First Edition, August 2000, by J.M.J.
Journée and W.W. Massie, Interfaculty O¤shore Technology of the Delft University of
Technology; see Internet: http://www.shipmotions.nl.
For the maneuvering part, use has been made of the ”Principles of Naval Architecture”,
1989, Volume III, Chapter IX on Controllability by C.L. Crane, H. Eda and A. Landsberg,
as well as various proceedings of the International Towing Tank Conference (ITTC) on
maneuvering.
Existing lecture notes in Dutch on ”Waves, Shipmotions and Maneuvering, Parts I and II”,
Reports 563-K and 487-K of the Ship Hydromechanics Laboratory of the Delft University
of Technology, 1989, by J. Gerritsma (retired Professor in Ship Hydromechanics) were a
very useful guide for the authors.
Both authors of these lecture notes are employed at the Ship Hydromechanics Laboratory,
Maritime Technology Department, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD
Delft, The Netherlands:
² Ir. J.M.J. Journée, Associate Professor,
Tel: +31 15 278 3881, Fax: +31 15 278 1836,
E-mail: J.M.J.Journee@wbmt.tudelft.nl, Internet: http://www.shipmotions.nl
² Prof. Dr. Ir. J.A. Pinkster, Full-Time Professor,
Tel: +31 15 278 3598, Fax: +31 15 278 1836,
E-mail: J.A.Pinkster@wbmt.tudelft.nl
Feel free to contact them with positive as well as negative comments on this text. The
authors are aware that this preliminary edition of ”Ship Hydromechanics, Part I” is still in
progress and is not complete in all details. Some references to materials, adapted from the
work of others may still be missing and occasional additional …gures and text can improve
the presentation as well.
Delft, January 2001.
0
J.M.J. Journée and J.A. Pinkster, ”SHIP HYDROMECHANICS, Part I: Introduction”, Draft Edition,
January 2001, Ship Hydromechanics Laboratory, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD
Delft, The Netherlands. For updates see web site: http://www.shipmotions.nl.
6 CONTENTS
.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Since about 1950, the industrial and commercial interest for the behavior of ships and other
‡oating structures in seaway has been increased signi…cantly. Nowadays, it becomes more
and more usual to judge a ship or other o¤shore designs on its seakeeping performance.
Among others, the behavior of a ship in seaway has a large in‡uence on:
- the safety of passengers, crew, cargo and ship,
- the comfort of passengers and crew,
- the dynamic loads on the ‡oating structure, its cargo or its equipment and
- the sustained sea speed of the ship and the fuel consumption of its propulsion plant.
The motions of a ship or o¤shore structure in waves are important from a safety point of
view. Roll motions combined with lateral wind loads can cause dangerous heeling angles
or even capsizing. Because of this, modern (static) stability criteria are based on the
(dynamic) roll behavior too.
When compared with the ship’s stability characteristics in still water, following waves can
cause a considerable reduction of the transverse stability and unacceptable large roll angles
can be the result. This can happen with fast ships in following waves with wave lengths
equal to about the ship length.
Transverse accelerations on the ship by combined sway and roll motions can cause a shift
of cargos like ore or grain. Sea-fastenings of containers at deck can collapse by to large
accelerations and vulnerable cargos like fruits can be damaged. Bilge keels, …n stabilizers
and anti-rolling ‡ume tanks can be used to reduce the roll motions.
Because of its drilling capability, the design of a ‡oating o¤shore drilling structure is
generally such that its vertical motion responses on waves are small; one tries to design a
‡oating structure with an optimal workability.
An important aspect of ship motions is its convenient or inconvenient behavior for human
beings in seaway. Ships with a large initial metacentric height can be very inconvenient;
high dynamic acceleration levels are often the result of small natural roll periods. A
combination of the acceleration level and its average frequency of oscillation rules the
amount of comfort aboard. The human acceptance of these combinations is given in …gure
1.1.
A lot of researchers have found a high correlation between the magnitude of the accel-
erations and the frequency on one hand and the appearance of seasickness on the other
0
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1: Human Appreciations of Accelerations
hand. At low frequencies, as they appear for the motions of a ship in seaway, it is found
that the product of the acceleration amplitude and the frequency (so the amplitude of the
derivative of the acceleration) is a measure for the experienced hindrance. Seasickness is
caused by an excessive stimulation of the human balance organ, particularly that part of
this organ that is sensitive for linear accelerations.
Motions of ships and other ‡oating structures have adverse e¤ects on human performance.
Degradation can be an important factor when carrying out complicated tasks aboard (navy,
o¤shore).
In the past, static considerations were use to determine the required ship’s strength. The
ship was placed in a ”frozen” wave with a wave length equal to the ship length and a double
wave amplitude equal to 1/20 of the length. Dynamic e¤ects caused by ship motions were
accounted for in a very simple way; even they were ignored in a lot of cases. The increased
ship size and its forward speed have lead to an extension of these standard calculations,
accounting for hydrodynamic loads on the hull, vertical accelerations and even fatigue
considerations.
Large local loads can appear when the vertical relative accelerations of the forefoot of the
ship exceeds a certain threshold value, when hitting the wave surface at re-entrance after
bow emergence (slamming). Very high peak pressures (7 times the atmospheric pressure
or more) have been measured, which can cause bottom damage. Also, slamming can cause
a 2-node vertical vibration of the ship’s hull with an increased amidships bending moment;
see …gure 1.2.
It is very complicated or even impossible to give a general de…nition of an optimal behavior
of a ship or another ‡oating structure in seaway. This optimum can be related to various
phenomena, like motions, accelerations, speed loss, fuel consumption, workability at certain
locations, degradation, noise, etc. Sometimes, contradictory e¤ects will be found. Attempts
to de…ne general criteria for these phenomena can be found in the literature.
[Kent, 1950] has given the following qualitative description of a ”sea-kindly ship”:
3
A ”sea-kindly ship” is one which rides the seas in rough weather, with decks free of seawater:
that is green seas are not shipped and little spray comes inboard. No matter in which
direction the wind and waves meet the ship, she will stay on her course with only an
occasional use of helm, she will respond quickly to small rudder angles and maintain a
fair speed without slamming, abnormal ‡uctuations in shaft torque, or periodic racing of
her engines. Open decks will be easy to transverse in all weathers, without danger or
discomfort to her passengers and crew, and her behavior in a seaway - i.e. her rolling,
pitching, yawing, heaving, surging and leeway drift - will be smooth and free from baulks
of shocks. Expert handling of the ship by her master and crew will always be required to
produce a sea-kindly performance by any vessel in rough weather.
In the second part of the 19th century William Froude, 1810 - 1879, proposed the British
Admiralty to build what would become the world’s …rst towing tank at Torquay in England.
He had recently developed scaling laws for predicting the resistance of ships from tests on
ship models and he intended to use this tank for the required scale model experiments.
The British Admiralty accepted Froude’s proposal on the condition that he also used the
tank to investigate the ways of reducing the rolling motion of ships. That was when sails
were being replaced by steam driven propulsion systems and roll was becoming more of
a problem. On March 3 1872, the …rst indoor professional model test in the world was
carried out in a basin of 85 x 11 x 3 meter, as shown in …gure 1.3. About half a century
later, Froude’s towing tank was pulled down.
In 1883, the world’s …rst privately owned towing tank, the Denny tank as shown in …gure
1.3 too, was built at Dumbarton in Scotland, using the original design of Froude’s tank
in Torquay. The Denny tank - with dimensions 93.00 x 6.80 x 2.75 meter - was closed in
1983, but it was re-opened in 1986 under the umbrella of the Scottish Maritime Museum.
The tank testing and museum parts are separate. Since 1989, the tank testing facility
operates under the management of Strathclyde University’s Department of Ship and Marine
Technology.
In due course towing tanks were built in many di¤erent countries. These were often …tted
with wave makers which allowed the behavior of model ships in waves to be studied at
leisure and provided, for the …rst time, a technique for re…ning a full-scale design to ensure
adequate performance in rough weather. These model experiments were usually con…ned
to tests in regular head or following waves with occasional tests at zero speed in beam
waves. Tests at other headings or in more realistic irregular waves were impossible because
Figure 1.2: Amidships Vertical Bending Moments During Slamming

Figure 1.3: The World’s First Towing Tanks
of the long narrow shape of the towing tanks and the simplicity of the wave makers.
These early model experiments allowed some limited developments in the study of seakeep-
ing but they could not he used to predict the actual performance of ships at sea because
no technique for relating the behavior of the model in the regular waves of the laboratory
to the behavior of the ship in the chaotic environment of the real ocean was available.
This situation prevailed for sixty years or more and the study of seakeeping remained in
e¤ective limbo until the publication of a landmark paper by St. Denis and Pierson in 1953.
This showed, for the …rst time, how this problem could be solved using the techniques of
spectral analysis borrowed from the …eld of electromagnetic communications.
St. Denis and Pierson supposed the sea as being a superposition of many simple regular
waves, each regular wave with its own frequency (or length), amplitude and direction of
propagation. The ship is supposed to respond on each of these individual waves as being
a linear system. This holds that doubling the wave amplitude will result in a doubled
response amplitude, while the phase lag between the response and the regular wave has
not changed. A summation of the responses on each of these individual regular waves
provides the irregular response in a seaway.
At about the same time, theoretical methods of predicting the behavior of ships in regular
waves were being developed. The breakthrough came in 1949 with Ursell’s theory for
predicting the characteristics of the ‡ow around a circular cylinder oscillating in a free
surface. Classical transformation techniques allowed these results to be applied to a wide
range of shapes of ship-like cross-section and the fundamentals of modern ship motion
theory were born.
These developments some 50 years ago provided the basic tools required to develop routine
techniques for the prediction of ship motions in something approaching the real irregular
wave environment of the ocean. It was now possible for the …rst time to predict the rough
weather performance of a ship at the design stage and to allow seakeeping to take its
rightful place in the design process. Since that time seakeeping has remained an active
…eld of research, but developments have been in the nature of progressive re…nements rather
than spectacular advances. Techniques for designing roll stabilizers, criteria determination,
prediction of long-term motion statistics and operational e¤ectiveness have all been added
5
to the naval architect’s armory of weapons: seakeeping performance prediction should now
be a routine in any ship design o¢ce.
The history of scienti…c research on maneuvering of ships started already in 1749 with the
classic work of Euler on equations of motion of a ship, but shipbuilding still remained for
almost two centuries fully based on a shipbuilder’s experience-based knowledge. In about
1920, some …rst attention on a more analytic approach appeared when single-plated rudders
were replaced by ‡ow-line-curved rudders. This development was based on research on
airfoils, carried out in the new aviation industry. More systematic work on maneuvering
has been started during World War II. Shortly after this War, in 1946, Davidson and
Schi¤ published a paper dealing with maneuvering problems on a (for that time) modern
approach.
The …rst International Symposium on Ship Maneuverability was held in 1960 in Washing-
ton in the U.S.A. There, among others, Norrbin gave his view on the ”state of the art” of
scienti…c work carried out on maneuverability of ships. Since then, an increasing attention
has been paid on research in this particular hydrodynamic …eld. Especially, (inter)national
organizations - such as the IMO (International Maritime Organization), the ITTC (In-
ternational Towing Tank Conference) and the SNAME (Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers) - became more active in the stimulation of research on those aspects of
ship maneuverability which are vital for safer shipping and cleaner oceans.
During the last four decades, research on ship maneuverability was also stimulated strongly
by the increasing ship size problems (crude oil carriers and container vessels), the related
shallow water problems when entering harbors, the increasing ship speed problems (nuclear
submarines and fast ferries), newly-developed experimental oscillatory techniques (planar
motion mechanisms) and - last but not least - the enormous developments in the computer
industry with related new possibilities for computer simulations.
.
Chapter 2
Ocean Surface Waves
Ocean surface waves cause periodic loads on all sorts of man-made structures in the sea.
It does not matter whether these structures are …xed, ‡oating or sailing and on the surface
or deeper in the sea. To understand these loads, a good understanding of the physics of
water waves is necessary.
Looking over the sea, one gets the impression that there is an endlessly moving succession
of irregular humps and hollows reaching from horizon to horizon. If the winds are light, the
irregularities are small. If the winds are heavy, you may be awed by the resulting gigantic
stormy seas. Since water moves ”easily” and ‡at calms seldom occur, an undisturbed
water surface is rarely found at sea. Even when drifting in glassy calm, one will usually
…nd the ocean heaving itself in a long smooth swell whose source is a storm which may
have occurred days before and hundreds of miles away.
Ocean surface waves are generally distinguished in two states: sea or wind waves, when
the waves are being worked on by the wind that raised them and swell, when they have
escaped the in‡uence of the generating wind. Sea is usually of shorter period (higher
frequency) than swell. As a rule of thumb, a period of about 10 seconds may be taken as
separating sea from swell; although one must allow for considerable overlap. Sea is shorter
in length, steeper, more rugged and more confused than swell. Since wind-generated waves
have their origin in the wind - which is proverbially changeable - they too are changeable,
varying both seasonally and regionally.
Wind waves, especially, are short crested and very irregular. Even so, they can be seen
as a superposition of many simple, regular harmonic wave components, each with its own
amplitude, length (or period or frequency) and direction of propagation. Such a concept
can be very handy in many applications; it allows one to predict very complex irregular
behavior in terms of the much simpler theory of regular waves.
B. Kinsman wrote Wind Waves - Their Generation and Propagation on the Ocean Surface
while he was Professor of Oceanography at The Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore,
Maryland. The book, published in 1963 was complete for its time; the wit scattered
throughout its contents makes is more readable than one might think at …rst glance.
First, an introduction to the most relevant phenomena is given here for the case of regular
deep water waves; the (general) shallow water case will be treated in a next lecture. Then,
0
7
8 CHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES
the superposition principle will be used to de…ne the irregular ocean surface waves.
2.1 Regular Waves

Figure 2.1 shows a harmonic wave, ³, as seen from two di¤erent perspectives:
² Figure 2.1-a shows what one would observe in a snapshot photo made looking at the
side of a (transparent) wave ‡ume; the wave pro…le (with wave amplitude ³ a and
wave length ¸) is shown as a function of distance x along the ‡ume at a …xed instant
in time: ³ x´
³ = ³ a cos 2¼ ¢ (2.1)
¸
² Figure 2.1-b is a time record of the wave pro…le (with wave amplitude ³ a and wave
frequency !) observed at one location along the ‡ume; it looks similar in many ways
to the …rst …gure, but the angle 2¼x=¸ has been replaced by !t:
³ = ³ a cos (! ¢ t) (2.2)
Figure 2.1: Harmonic Wave De…nitions
Notice that the origin of the coordinate system is at the still water level with the positive
z-axis directed upward; most relevant values of z will be negative. The still water level is
the average water level or the level of the water if no waves were present. The x-axis is
positive in the direction of wave propagation. The water depth, h, (a positive value and
in…nite here) is measured between the sea bed (z = ¡h) and the still water level (z = 0).
The highest point of the wave is called its crest and the lowest point on its surface is the
trough. If the wave is described by a sine wave, then its amplitude ³ a is the distance from
the still water level to the crest, or to the trough for that matter. The subscript a denotes
amplitude, here. The wave height H = 2³ a is measured vertically from wave trough level
to the wave crest level; it is the double amplitude.
The horizontal distance (measured in the direction of wave propagation) between any two
successive wave crests is the wave length, ¸. The same distance along the time axis is the
wave period, T : Since the distance between any two corresponding points on successive
sine waves is the same, wave lengths and periods are usually actually measured between
two consecutive upward (or downward) crossings of the still water level. Such points are
also called zero-crossings, and are easier to detect in a wave record.
Wave heights are always much smaller than wave lengths. The ratio of wave height to wave
length is often referred to as the wave steepness, H=¸. When waves become too high, they
2.1. REGULAR WAVES 9
become unstable with a tendency to fall apart at the slightest nudge. One theory - that of
Stokes - sets the upper limit at H=¸ = 1=7.
Since sine or cosine waves are expressed in terms of angular arguments, the wave length
and period are converted to angles using:
¯ ¯
¯ 2¼ ¯
k¸ = 2¼ or: ¯k = ¯
¯ ¸¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
!T = 2¼ or: ¯ ! = 2¼ ¯ (2.3)
¯ T ¯
in which k is the wave number (rad/m) and ! is the circular wave frequency (rad/s).
Obviously, the wave form moves one wave length during one period so that its propagation
speed or phase velocity, c, is given by:
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯c = ¸ = ! ¯ (2.4)
¯ T k¯
Fortunately, the water particles themselves do not move with this speed; only the wave
form (wave crests or troughs) moves with this phase velocity, c.
If the wave moves in the positive x-direction, the wave pro…le (shape of the water surface)
can now be expressed as a function of both x and t as follows:
j³ = ³ a cos(kx ¡ !t)j (2.5)
2.1.1 Potential Theory

A velocity potential, ©(x; y; z; t), is a function - a mathematical expression with space and
time variables - which is valid in the whole ‡uid domain. This potential function has been
de…ned in such a way that it has one very important property: in any point in the ‡uid,
the derivative of this function in a certain direction provides the velocity component of a
‡uid particle in that point in that direction. This will be explained here by a very simple
example.
Suppose a uniform ‡ow with a velocity U in the positive x-direction. Then, the velocity
potential of the ‡uid is © = Ux, because the velocity of each ‡uid particle in the x-direction
is u = d©=dx = U . For other potential ‡ow elements, such as sources, sinks and vortices,
reference is given to lecture notes on ‡uid dynamics.
The velocity potential of a harmonic oscillating ‡uid in the x-direction is given by © =
Ux ¢cos !t. If the magnitude of the potential © - the potential value - will be doubled, then
the velocity component will be doubled too; u = d©=dx = U ¢ cos !t. This follows directly
from the de…nition of the phenomenon ”potential”, so the potential has been described
by a linear function. This means also that all potential ‡ow elements (pulsating uniform
‡ows, sources, sinks, etc.) may be superposed.
In order to use the linear potential theory for water waves, it will be necessary to assume
that the water surface slope is very small. This means that the wave steepness is so small
that terms in the equations of motion of the waves with a magnitude in the order of the
steepness-squared can be ignored.
Only the …nal result of the derivation of the velocity potential of a simple harmonic wave
is given here. A detailed derivation of this de…nition will be treated in a next lecture.
Velocity Potential
In order to use this linear theory with waves, it will be necessary to assume that the water
surface slope is very small. This means that the wave steepness is so small that terms
in the equations of the waves with a magnitude in the order of the steepness-squared can
be ignored. Using the linear theory holds here that harmonic displacements, velocities
and accelerations of the water particles and also the harmonic pressures will have a linear
relation with the wave surface elevation.
The pro…le of a simple wave with a small steepness looks like a sine or a cosine and the
motion of a water particle in a wave depends on the distance below the still water level.
This is reason why the wave potential is written as:
©w (x; z; t) = P (z) ¢ sin (kx ¡ !t) (2.6)

in which P (z) is an (as yet) unknown function of z.
The velocity potential © w (x; z; t) of the harmonic waves has to ful…ll some requirements,
which will be treated in detail in a next lecture. The inviscid irrotational ‡uid is supposed
to be incompressible, from which follows the so-called Continuity Condition and Laplace
Equation. The vertical velocity of the ‡uid particles at the sea bottom is zero; the bottom
is impervious. The pressure at the surface of the ‡uid is equal to the atmospheric pressure;
there is no pressure jump between the ‡uid domain and the air domain.
These requirements lead to a more complete expression for the velocity potential as will
be explained in a next lecture:
³ a g cosh k (h + z)
©w = ¢ ¢ sin(kx ¡ !t) (2.7)
! cosh kh
Waves are dispersive; they run at speeds which depend on their length (and water depth).
The relationship between c and ¸ in deep water, or equivalently between ! and k, can be
established from the condition that ‡uid particles in the surface of the ‡uid remain there
(the ‡uid surface is impervious too) as:
!2 = k ¢ g ¢ tanh kh (2.8)
These relations are valid for all water depths, but the fact that they contain hyperbolic
functions makes them cumbersome to use. Therefore we restrict ourselves in the following
to deep water waves.
For deep water, h ! 1, this expression for the velocity potential and the dispersion
relation reduce to:
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯©w = ³ a g ¢ ekz ¢ sin(kx ¡ !t)¯ and j! 2 = k ¢ gj (2.9)
¯ ! ¯
This last dispersion relation provides other de…nitions for the phase velocity in equation
2.4 of waves in deep water too:
r
! g g
c= = = (2.10)
k ! k
Simple and very practical relations between the wave length (m) and frequency (rad/s) or
period (s) follow from this:
2¼g 61:6
¸ = 2
t 2
! !
2
gT
= t 1:56 ¢ T 2 (2.11)
2¼
or:
7:85 p
!t p and T t 0:8 ¢ ¸ (2.12)
¸
Mind you that these relations between the wave length and the wave frequency or the wave
period are valid for regular deep water waves only. They may not be used as relations
between the average values of these phenomena in irregular waves, which are treated in a
following section.
2.1.2 Water Particle Kinematics

The kinematics of a water particle is found from the velocity components in the x- and
z-directions, obtained from the velocity potential and the dispersion relation.
Velocities
The resulting velocity components - in their most general form - can be expressed as:
¯ ¯
¯ @© dx ¯
¯u = w
= ¯ = ³ a ! ¢ e kz ¢ cos (kx ¡ !t)
¯ @x dt ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯w = @ ©w = dz ¯ = ³ a ! ¢ e kz ¢ sin (kx ¡ !t) (2.13)
¯ @z dt ¯
An example of a velocity …eld is given in …gure 2.2.

Beneath the crest of a wave, the water movement is with the wave. Beneath the trough it
is against the wave. This can be seen easily by watching a small object, such as a bottle,
‡oating low in the water. It will move more or less with the water particles.
The combined motions in the x- and z-directions become circles, as will be treated hereafter.
The circular outline velocity or orbital velocity follows from the two equations 2.13:
p
Vo = u2 + w 2
= ³ a ! ¢ ekz (2.14)
This velocity, which consists of two harmonic contributions, is in this case not harmonic;
in this case it is constant.
Figure 2.2: Velocity Field in a Deep Water Wave
Displacements
Because of the small steepness of the wave, x and z in the right hand side of the equa-
tions 2.13 can be replaced by the coordinates of the mean position of the considered water
particle: x1 and z 1. Hence the distances x¡x1 and z ¡z1 are so small that di¤erences in ve-
locities resulting from the water motion position shifts can be neglected; they are of second
order. Then, an integration of velocity equations over t yields the water displacements:
¯ ¯
¯ Zt ¯
¯ ¯
¯ x = u ¢ dt¯ = ¡³ a ¢ ekz ¢ sin (kx1 ¡ !t) + C1
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
0
¯ ¯
¯ Z t ¯
¯ ¯
¯ z = w ¢ dt¯ = +³ a ¢ e kz ¢ cos (kx1 ¡ !t) + C2 (2.15)
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
0
Trajectories
It is obvious that the water particle carries out an oscillation in the x- and z-directions
about a point (C1; C2 ). This point will hardly deviate from the situation in rest, so: C 1 ¼ x1
and C 2 ¼ z1 .
The trajectory of the water particle is found by an elimination of the time, t, by using:
sin2 (kx1 ¡ !t) + cos2 (kx1 ¡ !t) = 1 (2.16)

which provides:
¡ ¢2
(x ¡ x1)2 + (z ¡ z1 )2 = ³ a ¢ e kz1 (2.17)
This equation shows that the trajectories of water particles are circles, with a radius, ³ a ekz 1 ,
which decreases exponentially with distance below the surface.
Figure 2.3 shows an example of these trajectories.
Figure 2.3: Trajectories of Water Particles in a Deep Water Wave
The trajectory radius, r, decrease very fast with increasing distance below the free surface
as a result of the negative value for z 1 in the exponential term ekz 1 . This is illustrated here:
z = 0 ¡! r = ³ a ¢ ekz = ³ a ¢ e0 = 1:000 ¢ ³ a
kz ¡¼
z = ¡0:50¸ ¡! r = ³ a ¢ e = ³ a ¢ e = 0:043 ¢ ³ a
kz ¡2¼
z = ¡¸ ¡! r = ³ a ¢ e = ³ a ¢ e = 0:002 ¢ ³ a
One should remember from kinematics that the velocity of the water particles will have a
constant magnitude in this case and that it is always directed tangentially to the trajectory
circle.
Accelerations
The water particle accelerations follow directly from a di¤erentiation of the velocity com-
ponents, which yields:
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯u_ = du ¯ = +³ a !2 ¢ ekz ¢ sin (kx ¡ !t)
¯ dt ¯
¯ ¯
¯ dw ¯
¯ w_ = ¯ = ¡³ a !2 ¢ ekz ¢ cos (kx ¡ !t) (2.18)
¯ dt ¯
Relative to the velocity components, the accelerations have amplitudes which have been
multiplied by !; also their corresponding phases have been shifted by 90 degrees as well.
It is wise to note that in a circular motion, the magnitude of the acceleration is constant
and that it is always directed toward the center of the circle. This acceleration vector is
therefore also always perpendicular to the velocity vector.
2.1.3 Pressure
The pressure, p, in the …rst order wave theory follows from the Bernoulli equation:
¯ ¯
¯ @©w 1 p ¯
¯ 2 2 0¯¯ (2.19)
¯ @t + 2 (u + w ) + ½ + gz =
or:
@©w 1 ¡ 2 ¢
p = ¡½gz ¡ ½ ¡ ½ u + w2 (2.20)
@t 2
The de…nition of the wave potential, the expressions for the water particle velocities and
some algebra lead to:
1
p= ¡½gz + ½g³ ae kz ¢ cos(kx ¡ !t) ¡ ½³ 2a! 2e2kz (2.21)
2
Three parts can be distinguished in this expression for the pressure:
1. The …rst part, p(0) = ¡½gz, is the (zeroth order) hydrostatic pressure as used in
Archimedes’ law and treated in the hydrostatic stability theory for ‡oating bodies.
2. The second part, p(1) = +½g³ ae kz ¢ cos(kx ¡ !t), is the (…rst order) dynamic pressure
due to the wave form and will be used in a next chapter when treating ”…rst order
wave loads” on ‡oating bodies.
3. The third part, p(2) = ¡ 12 ½³ 2a !2e 2kz , is the (second order) pressure due to the local
kinetic energy in the waves - also called radiation pressure - and will be used in a
next chapter when treating ”second order wave drift forces” on ‡oating bodies.
2.1.4 Wave Energy

The theory about wave energy will be treated in detail in a next lecture; only the …nal
theoretical results are given here.
If one drops a stone in still water, shortly later radial waves come into existence and they
travel away from the point of impact. A certain amount of energy has been put into the
water by the impact. Part of this energy is stored in the deformation of the water surface
as potential energy and, part of it is found in the motion of the deformation as kinetic
energy.
The total energy in the waves can be written as:
¯ ¯
¯ 1 ¯
¯ E = ½g³ a ¯
2
per unit horizontal sea surface area (2.22)
¯ 2 ¯
This total energy will be used in a following section on wave energy spectra.
2.1.5 Numerical Exercises

Consider a towing tank …lled with fresh water with a length of 150 meters, a width of 5
meters and a wave maker in one end that generates long-crested regular waves. Assume in
this tank a generated regular deep water wave with an amplitude ³ a = 0.20 meter and a
wave period T = 2.0 seconds.
Determine:
1. The circular wave frequency, !, the wave number, k, and the wave length, ¸.
2. The maximum ‡uid particle velocity in the tank.
3. The path of a ‡uid particle in the surface of the wave.
4. The path of a ‡uid particle at 0.50 meter below the still water level.
5. The maximum pressure at 0.50 meter below the still water level.
6. The phase velocity, c, of these waves.
7. The time between passing an observer along the tank side of two successive wave
crests.
8. The phase of the wave elevation 2.50 meter closer to the wave maker relative to the
position of an observer.
Solutions:
1. ! = 3:14 rad/s, k = 1:0 m¡1 and ¸ = 6:25 m.
2. umax = vmax = 0:63 m/s.
3. Circular motion with a radius of 0:20 m.
4. Circular motion with a radius of 0:12 m.
5. pmax = 0:62 ¢ 104 N/m2 .
6. c = 3:12 m/s.
7. t = T = 2:0 s.
8. " = ¡2:5 rad = ¡144±.

2.2 Irregular Waves

Ocean surface waves can be classi…ed into two basic categories:
² Sea
A sea is a train of waves driven by the prevailing local wind …eld. The waves are
short-crested with the lengths of the crests only a few (2-3) times the apparent wave
length. Also, sea waves are very irregular; high waves are followed unpredictably
by low waves and vice versa. Individual wave crests seem to propagate in di¤erent
directions with tens of degrees deviation from the mean direction. The crests are
fairly sharp and sometimes even small waves can be observed on these crests or there
are dents in the larger wave crests or troughs. The apparent or virtual wave period,
Te, varies continuously, as well as the virtual or apparent wave length, ȩ.
² Swell
A swell is waves which have propagated out of the area and local wind in which they
were generated. They are no longer dependent upon the wind and can even propagate
for hundreds of kilometers through areas where the winds are calm. Individual waves
are more regular and the crests are more rounded than those of a sea. The lengths
of the crests are longer, now several (6-7) times the virtual wave length. The wave
height is more predictable, too. If the swell is high, 5 to 6 waves of approximately
equal heights can pass a given point consecutively. If the waves are low, they can
stay low for more than a minute even though the surface elevation remains irregular.
In the general case, the total irregular waves are a superposition of the sea and the swell
at that location; they can be added as is shown in the following sections.
2.2.1 Simple Statistical Analysis

Figure 2.4 shows a part of a simple time history of an irregular wave. When such a time
history is available, then a simple analysis can be carried out to obtain statistical data from
this record. The length of this time history should be at least 100 times the longest wave
period, to obtain reliable statistical information. The analysis presented in this section can
be carried out by hand
Figure 2.4: Time History of a Seaway

2.2. IRREGULAR WAVES 17
Figure 2.5: Histogram of Wave Heights
Average Wave Period
The average wave period, T¹; can be found easily (by hand) from the average zero up-
crossing period or from the average period of the wave crests or troughs. The simplest
way to do this is to divide the record duration one less than the number of upward (or
downward) zero crossings found.
Wave Height Statistics
Obtaining an average wave height requires more work. Successive wave heights are mea-
sured and classi…ed in groups with intervals of, for instance, 0.5 meter. The number of
wave heights in each group is then counted. These counts for each group are divided by the
total number of wave heights to obtain the frequency quotients or the probability density
function, f (x). Finally these frequency quotients are added cumulatively to obtain the
cumulative frequency quotients. The probability density function of wave heights, f(x), is
given in …gure 2.5 as a histogram. As one uses even more waves to determine this function,
the function converges to a stable form.
Statistical information can be obtained from the probability density function, f(x). For
ew , exceeds a certain threshold value, a, in
example, the probability that the wave height, H
this record is given by:
n o Z1
e w > a = f (x) ¢ dx
P H (2.23)
a
A numerical example of this approach is given in the table below.

wave height wave height number frequency

intervals average of waves quotient
(m) (m) n f(x)

0.25-0.75 0.5 15 0.100
0.75-1.25 1.0 30 0.200
1.25-1.75 1.5 55 0.367
1.75-2.25 2.0 21 0.140
2.25-2.75 2.5 14 0.093
2.75-3.25 3.0 9 0.060
3.25-3.75 3.5 5 0.033
3.75-4.25 4.0 1 0.007
total 150 1.000
The table shows that, if a = 3:25 meter, the probability of …nding a wave higher than that
threshold value is given by this integral (or in this case):
n o n o
P Hew > 3:25 = 5 + 1 = 0:04 or: P He w > 3:25 = 0:033 + 0:007 = 0:04
150
Signi…cant Wave Height

The so-called signi…cant wave height, H1=3 , de…ned as the average (centroid) of the highest
1/3 of the waves in the record. Thus, in this case:
2:0 ¢ 21 + 2:5 ¢ 14 + 3:0 ¢ 9 + 3:5 ¢ 5 + 4:0 ¢ 1

H1=3 =
50
= 2:51 m
or from f(x):
2:0 ¢ 0:140 + 2:5 ¢ 0:093 + 3:0 ¢ 0:060 + 3:5 ¢ 0:033 + 4:0 ¢ 0:07
H1=3 =
1=3
= 2:51 m
The signi…cant wave height, H1=3, plays an important role in many practical applications
of wave statistics. Often there is a fair correlation between the signi…cant wave height and
a visually estimated wave height. This comes, perhaps, because higher waves make more
impression on an observer than do the smallest ones.
2.2.2 Superposition
Wind waves, especially, are very irregular. Even so, they can be seen as a superposition
of many simple, regular harmonic wave components, each with its own amplitude, length,
period or frequency and direction of propagation. Such a concept can be very handy in
many applications; it allows one to predict very complex irregular behavior in terms of much
simpler theory of regular waves. This so-called superposition principle, …rst introduced in
hydrodynamics by [St. Denis and Pierson, 1953], is illustrated in …gure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: A Sum of Many Simple Sine Waves Makes an Irregular Sea
This means that the irregular waves can be written as:

¯ ¯
¯ XN ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ³(x; t) = ³ an cos(! n t ¡ kn x + " )
n ¯
¯ ¯
n=1
see …gure 2.7.
2.2.3 Energy Density Spectrum

Suppose a time history, as given in …gure 2.8, of the wave elevation during a su¢cient long
but arbitrary period:
¿ = N ¢ ¢t
The instantaneous wave elevation has a Gaussian distribution and zero mean. The am-
plitudes ³ an can be obtained by a Fourier analysis of the signal. However, for each little
time shift of the time history one will …nd a new series of amplitudes ³ an . Luckily, a mean
square value of ³ an can be found: ³ 2an .
When ³(t) is an irregular signal without prevailing frequencies, the average values ³ 2an close
to !n will not change much as a function of the frequency; ³ 2a is a continuous function.
The variance ¾2³ of this signal is equal to the average value of the squares of the wave
elevation:
¾2³ = ³ 2
Figure 2.7: Wave Record Analysis
Figure 2.8: Registration and Sampling of a Wave
N N
1 X 2 1 X 2
= ³n = ³ ¢ ¢t
N n=1 N ¢ ¢t n=1 n
Z¿ Z¿ (XN
)2
1 1
= ³ 2 (t) ¢ dt = ³ an cos(! nt ¡ kn x + "n ) ¢ dt
¿ ¿ n=1
0 0
N
X 1 2
= ³ (2.24)
n=1
2 an
The wave amplitude, ³ an , can be expressed by a wave spectrum, S³ (! n):

¯ ¯
¯ !nX
+¢! ¯
¯ 1 2 ¯
¯De…nition: S³ (!n ) ¢ ¢! = ³ an (!)¯ (2.25)
¯ 2 ¯
!n
where ¢! is a constant di¤erence between two successive frequencies; see …gure 2.9. Mul-
tiplied with ½g, this expression is the energy per unit area of the waves in the frequency
interval ¢!, which will be treated in detail in a next lecture.
Figure 2.9: De…nition of Spectral Density
Letting ¢! ! 0, the de…nition of the wave energy spectrum, S³ (!), becomes:

¯ ¯
¯ 1 ¯
¯ S³ (!n) ¢ d! = ³ a ¯
2
(2.26)
¯ 2 n¯
and the variance, ¾2³ , of the water surface elevation is simply equal to the area under the
spectrum:
Z1
¾ 2³ = S³ (!) ¢ d! (2.27)
0
Figure 2.7 gives a graphical interpretation of the meaning of a wave spectrum and how
it relates to the waves. The irregular wave history, ³(t), in the time domain at the lower
left hand part of the …gure can be expressed via Fourier series analysis as the sum of a
large number of regular wave components, each with its own frequency, amplitude and
phase in the frequency domain. These phases will appear to be rather random, by the way.
The value 12 ³ 2a (!)=¢! - associated with each wave component on the !-axis - is plotted
vertically in the middle; this is the wave energy spectrum, S³ (!). This spectrum, S³ (!),
can be described nicely in a formula; the phases are usually thrown away.
Wave Height and Period

Relationships with statistics can be found from computing the moments of the area under
the spectrum with respect to the vertical axis at ! = 0.
If m denotes a moment of properties of the wave spectrum with respect to the vertical axis
at ! = 0, then mn³ denotes the nth order moment given in this case by:
¯ ¯
¯ Z1 ¯
¯ ¯
¯mn³ = ! ¢ S³ (!) ¢ d!¯
n (2.28)
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
0
This means that m0³ is the area under the spectral curve, m1³ is the …rst order moment
(static moment) of this area and m2³ is the second order moment (moment of inertia) of
this area.
As has already been indicated, m0³ is an indication of the variance squared, m0³ = ¾ 2³ , of
the water surface elevation. Of course this m0³ can also be related to the various wave
amplitudes and heights:
¯ ¯
¯¾³ = RMS = pm0³ ¯ (Root Mean Square of the water surface elevation)
¯ ¯
¯ p ¯
¯³ a1=3 = 2 ¢ m0³ ¯ (signi…cant wave amplitude)
¯ ¯
¯H1=3 = 4 ¢ pm0³ ¯ (signi…cant wave height) (2.29)
Characteristic wave periods can be de…ned from the spectral moments:
m1³ = !1 ¢ m0³ with !1 is spectral centroid

m2³ = !22 ¢ m0³ with !2 is spectral radius of inertia (2.30)
as follows:
¯ ¯
¯ m 0³ ¯
¯T1 = 2¼ ¢ ¯ (mean centroid wave period)
¯ m1³ ¯
¯ r ¯
¯ m 0³ ¯
¯T2 = 2¼ ¢ ¯ (mean zero-crossing wave period) (2.31)
¯ m2³ ¯
The mean zero-crossing period, T2 , is sometimes indicated by Tz . One will often …nd the
period associated with the peak of the spectrum, Tp, in the literature as well.
Rayleigh Distribution
Expressed in terms of m0³ , the Rayleigh distribution is given by:
½ ¾
x x2
f(x) = ¢ exp ¡ (Rayleigh distribution) (2.32)
m0³ 2 ¢ m0³
in which x is the variable being studied and m0³ is the area under the spectral curve.
This distribution can be used for more or less narrow spectra. This is true for normal
wave spectra; they are not too wide. Generally, its frequencies vary between ! = 0:2 and
! = 1:5-2:0.
With this distribution, the probability that the wave amplitude, ³ a, exceeds a chosen
threshold value, a, can be calculated using:
Z1
P f³ a > ag = f (x) ¢ dx
a
Z1 ½ ¾
1 x2
= x ¢ exp ¡ ¢ dx (2.33)
m0³ 2 ¢ m0³
a
or:
¯ ½ ¾¯
¯ 2 ¯
¯ P f³ a > ag = exp ¡ a ¯ (2.34)
¯ 2 ¢ m0³ ¯
The number of times per hour that the threshold value, a, will be exceeded by the waves
is this probability, P f³ a > ag, times the number of oscillations per hour, 3600 = T2:
¯ ¯
¯ 3600 ¯
¯ Nhour = P f³ a > ag ¢ ¯ (2.35)
¯ T2 ¯
2.2.4 Standard Wave Spectra

Investigators have attempted to describe a wave frequency spectrum in a standard form.
Two important ones often found in the literature are described here. The mathematical
formulations of these normalized uni-directional wave energy spectra are based on two
parameters: the signi…cant wave height, H1=3, and average wave periods T = T1 , T2 or T p:
¯ ¡ ¢¯¯
¯ 2
¯ S³ (!) = H1=3 ¢ f !; T ¯ (2.36)
Note that this de…nition means that the spectral values are proportional to the signi…cant
wave height squared; in other words S³ (!)=H1=3
2
is a function of ! and T only.
Bretschneider Wave Spectra
One of the oldest and most popular wave spectra was given by Bretschneider. It is especially
suited for open sea areas and mathematically given by:
2 ½ ¾
173 ¢ H1=3 ¡5 ¡692 ¡4
S³ (!) = ¢! ¢ exp ¢! (2.37)
T14 T14
For not-truncated wave spectra, other wave period de…nitions can be used by substituting:
T1 = 1:086 ¢ T2 or T1 = 0:772 ¢ Tp
JONSWAP Wave Spectra
In 1968 and 1969 an extensive wave measurement program, known as the Joint North
Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP) was carried out along a line extending over 100 miles into
the North Sea from Sylt Island. Analysis of the data yielded a spectral formulation for
fetch-limited wind generated seas.
The following de…nition of a Mean JONSWAP wave spectrum is advised by the 17th ITTC
in 1984 for fetch limited situations:
2 ½ ¾
320 ¢ H1=3 ¡1950
¡5
S³ (!) = ¢! ¢ exp ¢ ! ¡4 ¢ °A (2.38)
Tp4 Tp4
with:
° = 3:3 (peakedness factor)

8 Ã ! 29
< !
¡1 =
!p
A = exp ¡ p
: ¾ 2 ;
2¼
!p = (circular frequency at spectral peak)
Tp
¾ = a step function of !: if ! < !p then: ¾ = 0:07
if ! > !p then: ¾ = 0:09
Taking ° A = 1.522 results in the formulation of the Bretschneider wave spectrum with the
peak period, Tp. Sometimes, a third free parameter is introduced in the JONSWAP wave
spectrum by varying the peakedness factor, °.
For not-truncated wave spectra, other wave period de…nitions can be used by substituting:
Tp = 1:200 ¢ T1 or Tp = 1:287 ¢ T2
Wave Spectra Comparison

Figure 2.10 compares the Bretschneider and mean JONSWAP wave spectra for three sea
states with a signi…cant wave height, H1=3, of 4 meters and peak periods, Tp, of 6, 8 and
10 seconds, respectively. The …gure shows the more pronounced peak of the JONSWAP
spectrum, while the areas under all spectral density curves are the same.
6
H1/3 = 4.0 m J ONSWAP spec trum
Bretschneider spec trum
Tp = 10 s ec
Tp = 8 sec
Spec tral Density (m 2s)
Tp = 6 sec
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Wave Frequency (rad/s)
Figure 2.10: Comparison of Two Spectral Formulations
2.2.5 Wave Prediction and Climatology

In 1805, the British Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort devised an observation scale for measuring
winds at sea. His scale measures winds by observing their e¤ects on sailing ships and waves
and is still used today by many weather stations. A de…nition of this Beaufort wind force
scale is given in …gure 2.11.
The pictures in …gure 2.12 give a visual impression of the sea states in relation to Beaufort’s
scale.
Short Term Wave Data

An entire storm can be characterized by just two numbers: one related to the wave height
and one to the wave period. It now becomes important to predict these values from other
data - such as geographical and meteorological information. Figure 2.13 for ”Open Ocean
Areas” and ”North Sea Areas” gives an indication of an average relationship between the
Beaufort wind scale and the signi…cant wave height H1=3 and the average wave periods T1
and T2 , de…ned before.
Notice that these short term or storm wave data are linked here to wind data. This is quite
common in practice since wind data is often much more available or can be predicted rather
easily from other available meteorological data. But, these relations are an indication only.
Fixed relations between wave height and period does not exist; the history and duration
of the wind plays an important role.
Long Term Wave Data

Longer term wave climatology is used to predict the statistical chance that for instance
a given wave-sensitive o¤shore operation - such as lifting a major topside element into
place - will be delayed by sea conditions which are too rough. Sets of characteristic wave
data values can be grouped and arranged in a table such as that given below for all wave
directions in the winter season in areas 8, 9, 15 and 16 of the North Atlantic Ocean. A
”storm” here is an arbitrary time period - often of 3 or 6 hours - for which a single pair of
values has been collected. The number in each cell of this table indicates the chance that
a signi…cant wave height is between the values in the left column and in the range of wave
periods listed at the top of the table.
W int er D a t a o f A r ea s 8 , 9 , 1 5 a nd 1 6 o f t he N o r t h At la nt ic ( G lob a l Wave St a t ist ics )
T2 (s )
3.5 4 .5 5 .5 6 .5 7 .5 8 .5 9 .5 10 .5 1 1 .5 1 2 .5 13 .5 To t a l
Hs ( m )
1 4 .5 0 0 0 0 2 30 154 362 46 6 370 202 1586

1 3 .5 0 0 0 0 3 33 145 293 32 2 219 101 1116
1 2 .5 0 0 0 0 7 72 289 539 54 8 345 149 1949
1 1 .5 0 0 0 0 17 160 585 996 93 1 543 217 3449
1 0 .5 0 0 0 1 41 363 1200 1852 1 57 9 843 310 6189
9 .5 0 0 0 4 109 845 2485 3443 2 64 8 1283 432 11249
8 .5 0 0 0 12 295 1996 5157 6323 4 33 3 1882 572 20570
7 .5 0 0 0 41 818 4723 10537 11 2 4 2 6 75 5 2594 703 37413
6 .5 0 0 1 1 38 2273 10967 20620 18 7 1 8 9 66 5 3222 767 66371
5 .5 0 0 7 4 71 6187 24075 36940 27 7 0 2 1 1 96 9 3387 694 11 1 4 3 2
4 .5 0 0 31 1 5 86 15757 47072 56347 33 5 3 9 1 1 71 0 2731 471 16 9 2 4 4
3 .5 0 0 148 5 0 17 34720 74007 64809 28 9 6 4 7 80 4 1444 202 21 7 1 1 5
2 .5 0 4 681 1 3 4 41 56847 77259 45013 13 9 6 2 2 72 5 381 41 21 0 3 5 4
1 .5 0 40 26 9 9 2 3 2 84 47839 34532 11554 2208 28 2 27 2 12 2 4 6 7
0 .5 5 350 33 1 4 8 1 31 5858 1598 216 18 1 0 0 19491
To t a l 5 394 68 8 1 5 2 1 26 170773 277732 25 6 0 5 1 1 50 1 6 1 6 1 73 8 19271 4863 99 9 9 9 5
These wave scatter diagrams can be used to determine the long term probability for storms
exceeding certain sea states. Each cell in this table presents the probability of occurrence
of its signi…cant wave height and zero-crossing wave period range. This probability is equal
Figure 2.11: Beaufort’s Wind Force Scale

Figure 2.12: Sea State in Relation to Beaufort Wind Force Scale

12 12
Open Ocean Areas North Sea Areas
11 (Bretschneider) 11 (JONSWAP)
10 10
9 9
Significant Wave Height (m)

Significant Wave Height (m)
Average Periods (s)

8 8
Average Periods (s)
T1
7 7 T1
W ave Period T2 T2
6 6
H1/3 W ave Period H1/3
5 5
4 4
3 3
Wave Height Wave Height
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Beaufort Bea ufort
Figure 2.13: Wave Spectrum Parameter Estimates
to the number in this cell divided by the sum of the numbers of all cells in the table, for
instance:
© ª 47072
Pr 4 < H1=3 < 5 and 8 < T2 < 9 = = 0:047 = 4:7%
999996
For instance, the probabilty on a storm with a signi…cant wave height between 4 and 6
meters with a zero-crossing period between 8 and 10 seconds is:
© ª 47072 + 56347 + 74007 + 64809
Pr 3 < H1=3 < 5 and 8 < T2 < 10 = = 0:242 = 24:2%
999996
The probabilty for storms exceeding a certain signi…cant wave height is found by adding
the numbers of all cells with a signi…cant wave height larger than this certain signi…cant
wave height and dividing this number by the sum of the numbers in all cells, for instance:
© ª 6189 + 3449 + 1949 + 1116 + 1586
Pr H1=3 > 10 = = 0:014 = 1:4%
999996
2.2.6 Numerical Exercises

Exercise 1
The following histogram of wave heights has been derived from a time history of the surface
elevation of an irregular wave system.
wave height number

ew (m)
H n (-)
< 0.25 0
0.25 - 0.75 30
0.75 - 1.25 60
1.25 - 1.75 110
1.75 - 2.25 42
2.25 - 2.75 28
2.75 - 3.25 18
3.25 - 3.75 10
3.75 - 4.25 2
> 4.25 0
1. Give a de…nition of the conception ”signi…cant wave height, H1=3 ” and calculate this
value.
ew , will exceed
2. What is the probability in this storm that the double wave amplitude, H
a value of 2.75 meter?
3. What is the probability that the signi…cant wave height, H1=3, will be exceeded?
Solutions:
1. H1=3 = 2:51 m.
n o
2. P H ew > 2:75 m = 0:10.
n o
3. P Hew > H1=3 t 0:146.
Exercise 2
A simpli…ed wave energy spectrum is given by:
! (1/s) 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5

S³ (!) m2s 0.00 0.75 0.95 0.43 0.12 0.00
1. Calculate (by using the trapezoid rule) the signi…cant wave height, H1=3, and the
mean wave periods T1 and T2. Give a physical explanation of each of these phenom-
ena.
2. Determine the probability, P , of exceeding a wave height of 4:0 meter in this wave
spectrum by using the Rayleigh probability density function.
Figure 2.14: Simpli…ed Wave Energy Spectrum
3. Determine also the number of times per hour that this wave height will be exceeded.
4. Explain the term m0 in the Rayleigh probability density function.

Which restriction should be kept in mind when using this probability density func-
tion?
5. What is the probability that the signi…cant wave height, H1=3, will be exceeded?
6. What is the disadvantage of the use of T2 when analyzing a measured wave spectrum?
Solutions:
1. H1=3 = 2:7 m, T1 = 7:0 s and T2 = 6:9 s.
2. P = 1:2 %
3. 6:3 times per hour. Note: Use T 2 for this and not T 1!
4. The magnitude of m0 in the Rayleigh probability density function is the spectral

area of the considered time-dependent variable. This Rayleigh distribution is valid
for more or less narrow spectra.
© ª
5. P 2³ a > H1=3 = e¡2 t 0:135.
6. The more or less uncertain or truncated ”tail” of the spectrum has a larger in‡uence
on T2 than it has on T1.
Chapter 3
Behavior of Structures in Waves
The dynamics of rigid bodies and ‡uid motions are governed by the combined actions of
di¤erent external forces and moments as well as by the inertia of the bodies themselves.
In ‡uid dynamics these forces and moments can no longer be considered as acting at a
single point or at discrete points of the system. Instead, they must be distributed in a
relatively smooth or a continuous manner throughout the mass of the ‡uid particles. The
force and moment distributions and the kinematic description of the ‡uid motions are in
fact continuous, assuming that the collection of discrete ‡uid molecules can be analyzed
as a continuum.
Two very good and readable books are advised here as a supplement to these lectures.
A.R.J.M. Lloyd published in 1989 his book on ship hydromechanics, Seakeeping, Ship
Behaviour in Rough Weather, ISBN 0-7458-0230-3, Ellis Horwood Limited, Market Cross
House, Cooper Street, Chichester, West Sussex, P019 1EB England.
O.M. Faltinsen, Professor of Marine Technology at the Norwegian University of Science
and Technology is the author of Sea Loads on Ships and O¤shore Structures, published in
1990 in the Cambridge University Press Series on Ocean Technology.
3.1 Behavior in Regular Waves

When on board a ship looking toward the bow (front end) one is looking forward. The
stern is aft at the other end of the ship. As one looks forward, the starboard side is
one’s right and the port side is to one’s left.
The motions of a ship, just as for any other rigid body, can be split into three mutually
perpendicular translations of the center of gravity, G, and three rotations around G:
² three translations of the ship’s center of gravity (CoG or G) in the direction of the
x-, y- and z-axes:
– surge in the longitudinal x-direction, positive forwards,

– sway in the lateral y-direction, positive to port side, and
– heave in the vertical z-direction, positive upwards.
0
31
32 CHAPTER 3. BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES IN WAVES
Figure 3.1: De…nition of Ship Motions in Six Degrees of Freedom
² three rotations about these axes:
– roll about the x-axis, positive right turning,

– pitch about the y-axis, positive right turning, and
– yaw about the z-axis, positive right turning.
These de…nitions have been visualized in …gure 3.1.
In many cases these motion components will have small amplitudes. Any ship motion is
build up from these basic motions. For instance, the vertical motion of a bridge wing is
mainly build up by heave, pitch and roll motions.
Another important motion is the vertical relative motion, de…ned as the vertical wave
elevation minus the local vertical motion of the ship. Thus, this is the motion that one
observes when looking over the rail downwards to the waves.
3.1.1 Axis Conventions

Three right-handed orthogonal coordinate systems are used to de…ne the ship motions:
² An earth-bound coordinate system S(x0; y0; z 0).

The (x0; y0)-plane lies in the still water surface, the positive x0 -axis is in the direction
of the wave propagation; it can be rotated at a horizontal angle ¹ relative to the
translating axis system O(x; y; z) as shown in …gure 3.2. The positive z0 -axis is
directed upwards.
² A body–bound coordinate system G(xb ; yb ; zb ).

This system is connected to the ship with its origin at the ship’s center of gravity,
G. The directions of the positive axes are: xb in the longitudinal forward direction,
yb in the lateral port side direction and z b upwards. If the ship is ‡oating upright in
still water, the (xb; yb)-plane is parallel to the still water surface.
3.1. BEHAVIOR IN REGULAR WAVES 33
² A steadily translating coordinate system O(x; y; z).

This system is moving forward with a constant ship speed V . If the ship is stationary,
the directions of the O(x; y; z) axes are the same as those of the G(xb ; yb ; zb ) axes.
The (x; y)-plane lies in the still water surface with the origin O at, above or under
the time-averaged position of the center of gravity G. The ship is supposed to carry
out oscillations around this steadily translating O(x; y; z) coordinate system.
Figure 3.2: Coordinate Systems
The harmonic elevation of the wave surface ³ is de…ned in the earth-bound coordinate
system by:
³ = ³ a cos(!t ¡ kx0) (3.1)
in which:
³a = wave amplitude (m)

k = 2¼=¸ = wave number (rad/m)
¸ = wave length (m)
! = circular wave frequency (rad/s)
t = time (s)
3.1.2 Frequency of Encounter

The wave speed c, de…ned in a direction with an angle ¹ (wave direction) relative to the
ship’s speed vector V , follows from:
¯ ¯
¯ ! ¸ ¯
¯c = = ¯ (see chapter 2) (3.2)
¯ k T¯
The steadily translating coordinate system O(x; y; z) is moving forward at the ship’s speed
V , which yields:
jx0 = V t cos ¹ + x cos ¹ + y sin ¹j (3.3)
Figure 3.3: Frequency of Encounter
When a ship moves with a forward speed, the frequency at which it encounters the waves,
!e , becomes important. Then the period of encounter, Te , see …gure 3.3, is:
¸ ¸
Te = = (3.4)
c + V cos(¹ ¡ ¼) c ¡ V cos ¹
and the circular frequency of encounter, !e , becomes:
2¼ 2¼ (c ¡ V cos ¹)
!e = = = k (c ¡ V cos ¹) (3.5)
Te ¸
Note that ¹ = 0 for following waves.
Using k ¢ c = ! from equation 3.2, the relation between the frequency of encounter and the
wave frequency becomes:
j! e = ! ¡ kV cos ¹j (3.6)
Note that at zero forward speed (V = 0) or in beam waves (¹ = 90± or ¹ = 270±) the
frequencies !e and ! are identical.
In deep water, with the dispersion relation k = !2=g, this frequency relation becomes:
!2
!e = ! ¡ V cos ¹ (deep water) (3.7)
g
Using the frequency relation in equation 3.6 and equations 3.1 and 3.3, it follows that the
wave elevation can be given by:
j³ = ³ a cos(! e t ¡ kx cos ¹ ¡ ky sin ¹)j (3.8)
3.1.3 Motions of and about CoG

The ship motions in the steadily translating O(x; y; z) system are de…ned by three trans-
lations of the ship’s center of gravity (CoG) in the direction of the x-, y- and z-axes and
three rotations about them as given in …gure 3.1:
Surge : x = xa cos(! e t + " x³ )

Sway : y = ya cos(! e t + " y³ )
Heave : z = z a cos(!e t + "z³ )
Roll : Á = Áa cos(!e t + "Á³ )
Pitch : µ = µ a cos(!e t + "µ³ )
Yaw : Ã = Ã a cos(!e t + "Ã³ ) (3.9)
in which each of the " values is a di¤erent phase angle.
Knowing the motions of and about the center of gravity, G, one can calculate the motions
in any point on the structure using superposition.
The phase shifts of these motions are related to the harmonic wave elevation at the origin
of the steadily translating O(x; y; z) system, the average position of the ship’s center of
gravity - even though no wave can be measured there:
Wave elevation at O or G: ³ = ³ a cos(! e t) (3.10)
3.1.4 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

The harmonic velocities and accelerations in the steadily translating O(x; y; z) coordinate
system are found by taking the derivatives of the displacements.
For roll:
Displacement : Á = Áa cos(!e t + "Á³ )
Velocity : Á_ = ¡!e Áa sin(!e t + "Á³ ) = !e Áa cos(!e t + "Á³ + ¼=2)
Acceleration : Ä = ¡!2e Áa cos(!e t + "Á³ ) = !2e Áa cos(!e t + "Á³ + ¼) (3.11)
Á
Figure 3.4: Harmonic Wave and Roll Signal
The phase shift of the roll motion with respect to the wave elevation, "Á³ in …gure 3.4,
is positive, here because when the wave elevation passes zero at a certain instant, the
roll motion already has passed zero. Thus, if the roll motion, Á, comes before the wave
elevation, ³, then the phase shift, "Á³ , is de…ned as positive. This convention will hold for
all other responses as well of course.
Figure 3.5 shows a sketch of the time histories of the harmonic angular displacements,
velocities and accelerations of roll. Note the mutual phase shifts of ¼=2 and ¼.
Figure 3.5: Displacement, Acceleration and Velocity
3.1.5 Motions Superposition

Knowing the motions of and about the center of gravity, G, one can calculate the motions
in any point on the structure using superposition.
Absolute Motions
Absolute motions are the motions of the ship in the steadily translating coordinate system
O(x; y; z). The angles of rotation Á, µ and Ã are assumed to be small (for instance < 0.1
rad.), which is a necessity for linearizations. They must be expressed in radians, because
in the linearization it is assumed that:
jsin Á t Áj and jcos Á t 1:0j (3.12)
For small angles, the transformation matrix from the body-bound coordinate system to
the steadily translating coordinate system is very simple:
0 1 0 1 0 1
x 1 ¡Ã µ xb
@ y A=@ Ã 1 ¡Á A ¢ @ yb A (3.13)
z ¡µ Á 1 zb
Using this matrix, the components of the absolute harmonic motions of a certain point
P (xb ; yb ; zb) on the structure are given by:
jxP = x ¡ ybÃ + zb µj
jyP = y + xbÃ ¡ z bÁj
jz P = z ¡ xb µ + yb Á j (3.14)
in which x, y, z, Á, µ and Ã are the motions of and about the center of gravity, G, of the
structure.
As can be seen in equation 3.14, the vertical motion, zP , in a point P (xb; yb; z b) on the
‡oating structure is made up of heave, roll and pitch contributions. When looking more
detailed to this motion - it is called here now h (! e ; t) for convenient writing - it can be
found:
h (! e ; t) = z ¡ xb µ + yb Á
= za cos(!e t + "z³ ) ¡ xb µ a cos(!e t + "µ³ ) + yb Áa cos(!e t + "Á³ )

= f+za cos "z³ ¡ xbµ a cos "µ³ + ybÁa cos " Á³ g ¢ cos(!e t)
¡ f+za sin "z³ ¡ xb µa sin "µ³ + ybÁa sin "Á³ g ¢ sin(! e t) (3.15)
As this motion h has been obtained by a linear superposition of three harmonic motions,
this (resultant) motion must be harmonic as well:
h (!e ; t) = ha cos(!e t + "h³ )

= fha cos " h³ g ¢ cos(!e t) ¡ fha sin " h³ g ¢ sin(! et) (3.16)
in which ha is the motion amplitude and "h³ is the phase lag of the motion with respect to
the wave elevation at G.
By equating the terms with cos(!e t) in equations 3.15 and 3.16 (!e t = 0, so the sin(!e t)-
terms are zero) one …nds the in-phase term ha cos "h³ ; equating the terms with sin(!e t) in
equations 3.15 and 3.16 (!e t = ¼=2, so the cos(!e t)-terms are zero) provides the out-of-
phase term ha sin "h³ of the vertical displacement in P :
ha cos "h³ = +za cos "z³ ¡ xb µ a cos "µ³ + ybÁa cos "Á³
ha sin "h³ = +za sin "z³ ¡ xbµ a sin "µ³ + yb Áa sin "Á³ (3.17)
Since the right hand sides of equations 3.17 are known, the amplitude ha and phase shift
"h³ become:
¯ q ¯
¯ ¯
¯ha = (ha sin "h³ ) + (ha cos "h³ ) ¯
2 2
¯ ¯
¯ ½ ¾ ¯
¯ ¯
¯" h³ = arctan ha sin "h³ with: 0 · " · 2¼ ¯ (3.18)
¯ ha cos "h³ h³ ¯
The phase angle " h³ has to be determined in the correct quadrant between 0 and 2¼. This
depends on the signs of both the numerator and the denominator in the expression for
the arctangent. If the phase shift "h³ has been determined between ¡¼=2 and +¼=2 and
ha cos "h³ is negative, then ¼ should be added or subtracted from this "h³ to obtain the
correct phase shift.
For ship motions, the relations between displacement or rotation, velocity and acceleration
are very important. The vertical velocity and acceleration of point P on the structure follow
simply from the …rst and second derivative with respect to the time of the displacement in
equation 3.15:
h_ = ¡!e ha sin (!e t + "h³ ) = f! e hag ¢ cos (! e t + f" h³ + ¼=2g)

© ª
Äh = ¡!2e ha cos (! e t + " h³ ) = ! 2e ha ¢ cos (!e t + f"h³ + ¼g) (3.19)
The amplitudes of the motions and the phase shifts with respect to the wave elevation at
G are given between braces f:::g here.
Vertical Relative Motions

The vertical relative motion of the structure with respect to the undisturbed wave surface
is the motion that one sees when looking overboard from a moving ship, downwards toward
the waves. This relative motion is for instance of importance for shipping water on deck.
The vertical relative motion s at P (xb ; yb ) is de…ned by:
js = ³ P ¡ hj = ³ P ¡ z + xb µ ¡ yb Á (3.20)
with for the local wave elevation:
³ P = ³ a cos(!e t ¡ kxb cos ¹ ¡ kyb sin ¹) (3.21)
where ¡kxb cos ¹ ¡ kyb sin ¹ is the phase shift of the local wave elevation relative to the
wave elevation in the center of gravity.
The amplitude and phase shift of this relative motion of the structure can be determined
in a way analogous to that used for the absolute motion.
3.1.6 Equations of Motion

Consider a seaway with irregular waves of which the energy distribution over the wave
frequencies (the wave spectrum) is known. These waves are input to a system that possesses
linear characteristics. These frequency characteristics are known, for instance via model
experiments or computations. The output of the system is the motion of the ‡oating
structure. This motion has an irregular behavior, just as the seaway that causes the
motion. The block diagram of this principle is given in …gure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: Relation between Motions and Waves
The …rst harmonics of the motion components of a ‡oating structure are often of interest,
because in many cases a very realistic mathematical model of the motions in a seaway can
be obtained by making use of a superposition of these components at each of a range of
frequencies; motions in the so-called frequency domain will be considered here.
In many cases the ship motions have mainly a linear behavior. This means that, at each
frequency, the ratios between the motion amplitudes and the wave amplitudes and also the
phase shifts between the motions and the waves are constant. Doubling the input (wave)
amplitude results in a doubled output amplitude, while the phase shifts between output
and input does not change.
As a consequence of the linear theory, the resulting motions in irregular waves can be
obtained by adding together results from regular waves of di¤erent amplitudes, frequencies
and possibly propagation directions. With known wave energy spectra and the calculated
frequency characteristics of the responses of the ship, the response spectra and the statistics
of these responses can be found.
Kinetics
A rigid body’s equation of motions with respect to an earth-bound coordinate system follow
from Newton’s second law. The vector equations for the translations of and the rotations
about the center of gravity are respectively given by:
~ d ³ ~´ ~ d ³~´
F = mU and M= H (3.22)
dt dt
in which F~ is the resulting external force acting in the center of gravity (N), m is the
mass of the rigid body (kg), U~ is the instantaneous velocity of the center of gravity (m/s),
~
M is the resulting external moment acting about the center of gravity (Nm), H ~ is the
instantaneous angular momentum about the center of gravity (Nms) and t is the time (s).
The total mass as well as its distribution over the body is considered to be constant during
a time which is long relative to the oscillation period of the motions.
Loads Superposition
Figure 3.7: Superposition of Hydromechanical and Wave Loads
Since the system is linear, the resulting motion in waves can be seen as a superposition
of the motion of the body in still water and the forces on the restrained body in waves.
Thus, two important assumptions are made here for the loads on the right hand side of
the picture equation in …gure 3.7:
a. The so-called hydromechanical forces and moments are induced by the harmonic
oscillations of the rigid body, moving in the undisturbed surface of the ‡uid.
b. The so-called wave exciting forces and moments are produced by waves coming
in on the restrained body.
The vertical motion of the body follows from:

d
(½r ¢ z)
_ = ½r ¢ zÄ = Fh + F w (3.23)
dt
in which ½ is the density of water (kg/m3), r is the volume of displacement of the body
(m3), Fh is the hydromechanical force in the z-direction (N) and Fw is the exciting wave
force in the z-direction (N).
This superposition will be explained in more detail for a circular cylinder, ‡oating in still
water with its center line in the vertical direction, as shown in …gure 3.8.
Figure 3.8: Heaving Circular Cylinder
Hydromechanical Loads
First, a free decay test in still water will be considered. After a vertical displacement
upwards (see 3.8-b), the cylinder will be released and the motions can die out freely. The
vertical motions of the cylinder are determined by the solid mass m of the cylinder and
the hydromechanical loads on the cylinder.
Applying Newton’s second law for the heaving cylinder:
z = sum of all forces on the cylinder

mÄ
= ¡P + pAw ¡ bz_ ¡ aÄ z
= ¡P + ½g (T ¡ z) Aw ¡ bz_ ¡ aÄ z (3.24)
With Archimedes’ law P = ½gT Aw , the linear equation of the heave motion becomes:
(m + a) zÄ + bz_ + cz = 0 (3.25)
in which z is the vertical displacement (m), P = mg is the mass force downwards (N),
m = ½Aw T is the solid mass of cylinder (kg), a is the hydrodynamic mass coe¢cient
(Ns2/m = kg), b is the hydrodynamic damping coe¢cient (Ns/m = kg/s), c = ½gAw is the
restoring spring coe¢cient (N/m = kg/s2), Aw = ¼4 D 2 is the water plane area (m2 ), D is
the diameter of the cylinder (m) and T is the draft of the cylinder at rest (s).
The terms aÄz and bz_ are caused by the hydrodynamic reaction as a result of the movement
of the cylinder with respect to the water. The water is assumed to be ideal and thus to
behave as in a potential ‡ow.
The vertical oscillations of the cylinder will generate waves which propagate radially from
it. Since these waves transport energy, they withdraw energy from the (free) buoy’s oscilla-
tions; its motion will die out. This so-called wave damping is proportional to the velocity of
the cylinder z_ in a linear system. The coe¢cient b has the dimension of a mass per unit of
(a) (b)
20 0.25
0.20
Mass Coefficients m, m+a (ton)

15
Dam ping Coefficient b (ton/s)

Mas s + Added Mass
D amping
Mas s
0.15
10
0.10
5
Vertical Cylinder
0.05
D = 1.97 m
T = 4.00 m
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency (rad/s) Frequency (rad/s)
Figure 3.9: Mass and Damping of a Heaving Vertical Cylinder
time and is called the (wave or potential) damping coe¢cient. Figure 3.9-b shows the
hydrodynamic damping coe¢cient b of a vertical cylinder as a function of the frequency of
oscillation. In an actual viscous ‡uid, friction also causes damping, vortices and separation
phenomena. Generally, these viscous contributions to the damping are non-linear, but they
are usually small for most large ‡oating structures; they are neglected here for now.
The other part of the hydromechanical reaction force aÄ z is proportional to the vertical
acceleration of the cylinder in a linear system. This force is caused by accelerations that
are given to the water particles near to the cylinder. This part of the force does not dissipate
energy and manifests itself as a standing wave system near the cylinder. The coe¢cient
a has the dimension of a mass and is called the hydrodynamic mass or added mass.
Figure 3.9-a shows the hydrodynamic mass a of a vertical cylinder as a function of the
frequency of oscillation.
It appears from experiments that in many cases both the acceleration and the velocity
terms have a su¢ciently linear behavior at small amplitudes; they are linear for practical
purposes. The hydromechanical forces are the total reaction forces of the ‡uid on the
oscillating cylinder, caused by this motion in initially still water:
mÄ
z = Fh with: Fh = ¡aÄ
z ¡ bz_ ¡ cz (3.26)
and the equation of motion of the decaying cylinder in still water becomes:
(m + a) ¢ zÄ + b ¢ z_ + c ¢ z = 0 (3.27)
Wave Loads
Waves are now generated in the test basin for a new series of tests. The object is restrained
so that one now measures (in this vertical cylinder example) the vertical wave load on the
…xed cylinder. This is shown schematically in …gure 3.8-c.
The classic theory of deep water waves yields:

¡³ a g kz
wave potential : ©= e sin(!t ¡ kx)
!
wave elevation : ³ = ³ a cos(!t ¡ kx) (3.28)
so that the pressure, p, on the bottom of the cylinder (z = ¡T ) follows from the linearized
Bernoulli equation:
@©
p = ¡½ ¡ ½gz
@t
= ½g³ a ekz cos(!t ¡ kx) ¡ ½gz
= ½g³ a e¡kT cos(!t ¡ kx) + ½gT (3.29)
Assuming that the diameter of the cylinder is small relative to the wave length (kD t 0),
so that the pressure distribution on the bottom of the cylinder is essentially uniform, then
the pressure becomes:
p = ½g³ ae ¡kT cos(!t) + ½gT (3.30)
Then the vertical force on the bottom of the cylinder is:
© ª ¼
F = ½g³ ae ¡kT cos (!t) + ½gT ¢ D2 (3.31)
4
where D is the cylinder diameter and T is the draft.
The harmonic part of this force is the regular harmonic wave force, which will be considered
here. More or less in the same way as with the hydromechanical loads (on the oscillating
body in still water), this wave force can also be expressed as a spring coe¢cient c times a
reduced or e¤ective wave elevation ³ ¤:
¼
FF K = c ¢ ³ ¤ with: c = ½g D 2 (spring coe¤.)
4
³ ¤ = e¡kT ¢ ³ a cos (!t) (deep water) (3.32)
This wave force is called the Froude-Krilov force, which follows from an integration of
the pressures on the body in the undisturbed wave.
Actually however, a part of the waves will be di¤racted, requiring a correction of this
Froude-Krilov force. Using the relative motion principle described earlier in this chapter,
one …nds additional force components: one proportional to the vertical acceleration of the
water particles and one proportional to the vertical velocity of the water particles.
The total wave force can be written as:
¤ ¤
Fw = a³Ä + b³_ + c³ ¤ = Fa cos(!t + "F ³ ) (3.33)
¤ ¤
in which the terms aÄ³ and b³_ are considered to be corrections on the Froude-Krilov force
due to di¤raction of the waves by the presence of the cylinder in the ‡uid.
The ”reduced” wave elevation is given by:
³ ¤ = ³ a e¡kT cos(!t)
¤
³_ = ¡³ ae ¡kT ! sin(!t)
Ä³ ¤ = ¡³ ae ¡kT ! 2 cos(!t) (3.34)
40
Wave Force Amplitude Fa/ ζ a (kN/m)

30
W ave F orce Phas e εF ζ (deg)

without diffraction
with diffraction
20 -90
without diffraction
with diffraction
10
-180
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
W ave Frequency (rad/s) W ave Frequenc y (rad/s)
Figure 3.10: Vertical Wave Force on a Vertical Cylinder
The wave force amplitude, Fa, is proportional to the wave amplitude, ³ a , and the phase
shift " F³ is independent of the wave amplitude, ³ a; the system is linear.
Figure 3.10 shows the wave force amplitude and phase shift as a function of the wave
frequency. For low frequencies (long waves), the di¤raction part is very small and the wave
force tends to the Froude-Krilov force, c³ ¤. At higher frequencies there is a small in‡uence
of di¤raction on the wave force on this vertical cylinder. There, the wave force amplitude
remains almost similar to the Froude-Krilov force. Di¤raction becomes relatively important
after the total force has become small; an abrupt phase shift of ¡¼ occurs quite suddenly,
too.
Equation of Motion
The addition of the exciting wave loads from equation 3.33 to the right hand side of equation
3.25, gives the equation of motion for this heaving cylinder in waves:
¤ ¤
(m + a) zÄ + bz_ + cz = aÄ³ + b³_ + c³ ¤ (3.35)
The heave response to the regular wave excitation is given by:
z = za cos(!t + " z³ )
z_ = ¡za ! sin(!t + " z³ )
zÄ = ¡za !2 cos(!t + " z³ ) (3.36)
Some algebra results in the heave amplitude:
s
za ¡kT fc ¡ a!2g2 + fb!g2
=e (3.37)
³a fc ¡ (m + a) ! 2g2 + fb!g2
and the phase shift:
½ ¾
¡mb! 3
"z³ = arctan with : 0 · " z³ · 2¼ (3.38)
(c ¡ a!2) fc ¡ (m + a) !2g + fb!g2
The requirements of linearity is ful…lled: the heave amplitude za is proportional to the
wave amplitude ³ a and the phase shift "z³ is not dependent on the wave amplitude ³ a .
3.1.7 Frequency Characteristics

Generally, the amplitudes and phase shifts in the previous section are called:
¾
Fa
(!) and z³ aa (!) = amplitude characteristics
³a frequency characteristics
"F ³ (!) and "z³ (!) = phase characteristics
The response amplitude characteristics ³za (!) are also referred to as Response Amplitude
a
Operator (RAO).
2.0
1.5
Heave amplitude za /ζ a (-)
Heave Phas e εzζ (deg)

without diffraction without diffraction
with diffraction with diffraction
1.0 -90
0.5
-180
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency (rad/s ) Frequency (rad/s)
Figure 3.11: Heave Motions of a Vertical Cylinder
Figure 3.11 shows the frequency characteristics for heave together with the in‡uence of
di¤raction of the waves. The annotation ”without di¤raction” in these …gures means that
the wave load consists of the Froude-Krilov force, c³ ¤ , only. A phase shift of ¡¼ occurs at
the natural frequency. This phase shift is very abrupt here, because of the small damping
of this cylinder. A second phase shift appears at a higher frequency. This is caused by a
phase shift in the wave load.
Equation 3.37 and …gure 3.12 show that with respect to the motional behavior of this
cylinder three frequency areas can be distinguished:
1. the low frequency area (! 2 ¿ c=(m + a)), with motions dominated by the restoring
spring term,
2. the natural frequency area (c=(m + a) . !2 . c=a), with motions dominated by the
damping term and
3. the high frequency area(!2 À c=a), with motions dominated by the mass term.
Also, equation 3.37 shows that the vertical motion tends to the wave motion as the fre-
quency decreases to zero.
Figure 3.13 shows the speed dependent transfer functions of the roll motions in beam
waves and the pitch motions in head waves of a container ship. Notice the opposite e¤ect
of forward speed on these two angular motions, caused by a with forward speed strongly
increasing lift-damping of the roll motions.
Figure 3.12: Frequency Areas with Respect to Motional Behavior

15 1.50
RAO of roll RAO of pitch
V = 0 knots
Beam waves Head waves
1.25
V = 20 knots
V = 10 knots V = 10 knots
Non-dim. RAO of pitch (-)
10 1.00
Non-dim. RAO of roll (-)
V = 0 knots
0.75
V = 20 knots
5 0.50
0.25
Containership
Lpp = 175 metre Containership
Lpp = 175 metre
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
wave frequency (rad/s) wave frequency (rad/s)
Figure 3.13: RAO’s of Roll and Pitch of a Containership
Figure 3.14 shows the speed dependent transfer functions of the absolute and the relative
vertical bow motions of a container ship in head waves. Note the opposite characteristics
of these two motions in very short and in very long waves.
The resonance frequency of a motion does not necessarily coincides with the natural fre-
quency. A clear example of this is given by [Hooft, 1970], as shown in …gure 3.15, for a
semi-submersible platform with di¤erent dimensions of the under water geometry. This
geometry has been con…gured in such a way that the responses are minimal at the natural
frequency.
5 5
Containers hip Containership
Head waves Head waves V = 20 knots
RAO of v ertical abs olute bow motions (m/m)
RAO of vertic al relative bow motions (m/m)

4 4
V = 20 knots
V = 10 knots
3 3
V = 10 knots
V = 0 knots
2 2
V = 0 knots
RAO tends
to 1.0
1 1
RAO tends
to 1.0
RAO tends RAO tends
to 0.0 to 0.0
0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
wav e frequency (rad/s ) wave frequency (rad/s)
Figure 3.14: Absolute and Relative Vertical Motions at the Bow
Figure 3.15: Heave Responses of Semi-Submersible Platforms in Waves

3.2. BEHAVIOR IN IRREGULAR WAVES 47
3.2 Behavior in Irregular Waves

When information on the irregular waves is available, now the …rst order motions can be
determined.
The wave energy spectrum was de…ned by:
1 2
S³ (!) ¢ d! = ³ (!) (3.39)
2 a
Analogous to this, the energy spectrum of the heave response z(!; t) can be de…ned by:
1 2
Sz (!) ¢ d! = za (!)
2
¯ ¯2
¯ za ¯
= ¯ (!)¯ ¢ 1 ³ 2a (!)
¯³ ¯ 2
a
¯ ¯2
¯ za ¯
= ¯ (!)¯ ¢ S³ (!) ¢ d! (3.40)
¯³ ¯
a
Thus, the heave response spectrum of a motion can be found by using the transfer function
of the motion and the wave spectrum by:
¯ ¯2
¯ za ¯
Sz (!) = ¯ (!)¯¯ ¢ S³ (!)
¯ (3.41)
³a
The principle of this transformation of wave energy to response energy is shown in …gure
3.16 for the heave motions being considered here.
The irregular wave history, ³(t) - below in the left hand side of the …gure - is the sum of
a large number of regular wave components, each with its own frequency, amplitude and
a random phase shift. The value 12 ³ 2a (!)=¢! - associated with each wave component on
the !-axis - is plotted vertically on the left; this is the wave energy spectrum, S³ (!). This
part of the …gure can be found in chapter 2 as well, by the way.
Each regular wave component can be transferred to a regular heave component by a mul-
tiplication with the transfer function za =³ a(!). The result is given in the right hand side
of this …gure. The irregular heave history, z(t), is obtained by adding up the regular heave
components, just as was done for the waves on the left. Plotting the value 12 z 2a (!)=¢!
of each heave component on the !-axis on the right yields the heave response spectrum,
Sz (!).
The moments of the heave response spectrum are given by:
Z1
mnz = Sz (!) ¢ !n ¢ d! with: n = 0; 1; 2; ::: (3.42)
0
where n = 0 provides the area, n = 1 the …rst moment and n = 2 the moment of inertia of
the spectral curve.
The signi…cant heave amplitude can be calculated from the spectral density function of
the heave motions, just as was done for waves. This signi…cant heave amplitude, de…ned
as the mean value of the highest one-third part of the amplitudes, is:
p
z¹a1=3 = 2 ¢ RMS = 2 ¢ m0z (3.43)
Figure 3.16: Principle of Transfer of Waves into Responses
p
in which RM S (= m0z ) is the Root Mean Square value.
A mean period, T1z , can be found from the centroid of the spectrum or a period, T2z ,
equivalent to the average zero-crossing period, found from the spectral radius of gyration:
r
m0z m0z
T1z = 2¼ ¢ and T2z = 2¼ ¢ (3.44)
m1z m2z
Figure 3.17 shows an example of the striking in‡uence of the average wave period on a
response spectrum. This response is the heave motion of a 175 meter container ship, sailing
with a speed of 20 knots in head waves with a signi…cant wave height of 5.0 meters.
For the wave spectrum with an average period of 6.0 seconds, the transfer function has
very low values in the wave frequency range. The response spectrum becomes small; only
small motions result. As the average wave period gets larger (to the right in …gure 3.17),
the response increases dramatically.
A similar e¤ect will be obtained for a larger range of average wave periods if the transfer
function of the motion shifts to the low frequency region. A low natural frequency is
required to obtain this. This principle has been used when designing semi-submersibles,
which have a large volume under water and a very small spring term for heave (small water
plane area). However, such a shape does not make much of a wave when it oscillates; it has
little potential damping. This results in large (sometimes very large) RAO’s at the natural
3.2. BEHAVIOR IN IRREGULAR WAVES 49
Spectral density wave (m s)

6 6 6
2
Wave T 2 = 6.0 s T 2 = 8.0 s T2 = 10.0 s
spectrum
4 H1/3 = 5.00 m 4 4
2 2 2
0 0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Transfer function heave (m/m)
2.0 2.0 2.0

Transfer Containership
function L = 175 metre
1.5 Head waves 1.5 1.5
heave
V = 20 knots
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Spectral density he ave (m s)
9 9 9
2
Heave z a = 0 .70 m za = 1.92 m za = 2.4 0 m

1/ 3 1/ 3
sp ectrum 1/ 3
T z = 6.88 s T = 7.7 4 s T = 8.59 s

z2 z2
6 2 6 6
3 3 3
0 0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
wave frequency (rad/s) wave frequen cy (rad /s) wave frequency (rad/s)
Figure 3.17: E¤ect of Wave Period on Heave
frequency. As long as there is (almost) no wave energy at this frequency, the response
spectrum will remain small.
Figure 3.18 shows a wave spectrum with sketches of RAO’s for heave of three di¤erent
types of ‡oating structures at zero forward speed:
² The pontoon has a relatively large natural frequency and as a result of this signi…-
cant RAO values over a large part of the normal wave frequency range. Almost all
wave energy will be transferred into heave motions, which results in a large motion
spectrum. An extreme example is the wave buoy, which has (ideally) an RAO of
1.0 over the whole frequency range. Then the response spectrum becomes identical
to the wave spectrum, which is of course the aim of this measuring tool. It should
follow the water surface like a sea gull!
² The ship, with a lower natural frequency, transfers a smaller but still considerable
part of the wave energy into heave motions.
² The semi-submersible however, with a very low natural frequency (large mass and
small intersection with the water line), transfers only a very small part of the wave
energy; very low …rst order heave motions will appear; it remains essentially stable
in the waves.
One can conclude that the natural frequency is a very important phenomenon which dic-
tates (to a signi…cant extent) the behavior of the structure in waves. Whenever possible,
the natural frequency should be shifted out of the wave frequency region.
Figure 3.18: E¤ect of Natural Period on Heave Motions

Chapter 4
Maneuvering of Ships
The history of scienti…c research on maneuvering of ships started already in 1749 with the
classic work of Euler on equations of motion of a ship, but shipbuilding still remained for
almost two centuries fully based on a shipbuilder’s experience-based knowledge. In about
1920, some …rst attention on a more analytic approach appeared when single-plated rud-
ders were replaced by ‡ow-line-curved rudders. This development was based on research
on airfoils, carried out in the new aviation industry. More systematic work on maneuvering
has been started during World War II. Shortly after this War, [Davidson and Schi¤, 1946]
published a paper dealing with maneuvering problems on a (for that time) modern ap-
proach.
The …rst International Symposium on Ship Maneuverability was held in 1960 in Washington
in the U.S.A. There, among others, [Norrbin, 1960] gave his view on the ”state of the
art” of scienti…c work carried out on maneuverability of ships. Since then, an increasing
attention has been paid on research in this particular hydrodynamic …eld. Especially,
(inter)national organizations - such as the IMO (International Maritime Organization),
the ITTC (International Towing Tank Conference) and the SNAME (Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers) - became more active in the stimulation of research on
those aspects of ship maneuverability which are vital for safer shipping and cleaner oceans.
Results of this (and other) research are treated in this Chapter.
During the last four decades, research on ship maneuverability was also stimulated strongly
by the increasing ship size problems (crude oil carriers and container vessels), the related
shallow water problems when entering harbors, the increasing ship speed problems (nuclear
submarines and fast ferries), newly-developed experimental oscillatory techniques (planar
motion mechanisms) and - last but not least - the enormous developments in the computer
industry with related new possibilities for computer simulations.
In some parts of this Chapter on Maneuvering of Ships, very fruitful use has been made of
the following references:
² The ”Principles of Naval Architecture”, 1989, Chapter IX on Controllability by C.L.

Crane, H. Eda and A. Landsberg.
² Various Proceedings of the International Towing Tank Conference; particularly those

0
51
52 CHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS
of the 22nd ITTC (1999), which presents detailed procedures on conducting full scale
maneuvering trial tests.
² A paper on ”IMO’s Activities on Ship Maneuverability” in the Proceedings of the

International Conference on Marine Simulation and Ship Maneuverability (MARSIM)
in October 1993 at St. John’s in Canada by S.D. Srivastava.
For more detailed information on maneuvering of ships, reference is given to these publi-
cations.
4.1 Introduction
Controllability encompasses all aspects of regulating a ship’s trajectory, speed and orien-
tation at sea, as well as in restricted waters where positioning and station keeping are
of particular concern. Controllability includes starting, steering a steady course, turning,
slowing, stopping and backing. In the case of submarines, diving has to be added to these
controllability tasks too.
The study of the complex subject of controllability is usually divided into three distinct
areas of functions:
² Course keeping (or steering)

This aspect yields the maintenance of a steady mean course or heading. Interest
centers on the ease with which the ship can be held to the course.
² Maneuvering
This aspect yields the controlled change in direction of motion; turning or course
changing. Interest centers on the ease with which change can be accomplished and
the radius and distance required to accomplish the change.
² Speed changing
This aspect yields the controlled change in speed including stopping and backing.
Interest centers on the ease, rapidity and distance covered in accomplishing changes.
Performance varies with water depth, channel restrictions and hydrodynamic interference
from nearby vessels and obstacles. Course keeping and maneuvering characteristics are
particularly sensitive to the ship’s trim. For conventional ships, the two qualities of course
keeping and maneuvering may tend to work against each other; an easy turning ship may
be di¢cult to keep on course whereas a ship which maintains course well may be hard to
turn. Fortunately, a practical compromise is nearly always possible.
Since controllability is so important, it is an essential consideration in the design of any
‡oating structure. Controllability is, however, but one of many considerations facing of
naval architects and involves compromises with other important characteristics. Some
solutions are obtained through comparison with the characteristics of earlier successful
designs. In other cases, experimental techniques, theoretical analyses, and rational design
practices must all come into play to assure adequacy.
Three tasks are generally involved in producing a ship with good controllability:
4.2. REQUIREMENTS AND TOOLS 53
² Establishing realistic speci…cations and criteria for course keeping, maneuvering and
speed changing.
² Designing the hull, control surfaces, appendages, steering gear and control systems
to meet these requirements and predicting the resultant performance.
² Conducting full-scale trials to measure performance for comparison with required

criteria and predictions.
This chapter will deal more or less with each of these three tasks. Its goal is to give an
introduction to the basics of controllability analysis and some of its many facets. In a next
lecture, manners will be given that should lead to the use of rational design procedures to
assure adequate ship controllability.
4.2 Requirements and Tools

In this section, some basic information is given on maneuvering requirements, rudder types,
required rudder areas and rudder control systems.
4.2.1 General Requirements

Each sailing ship must have a certain amount of course stability; i.e. it must be able to
maintain a certain direction or course. During sailing, the drift angle (the angle between
the path of the center of gravity and the middle line plane of the ship) may not show large
‡uctuations. The phenomena ”course” and ”drift angle” have been de…ned in …gure 4.1.
The rudder angle, required to compensate for external disturbances by wind and waves,
may not be too large.
Figure 4.1: De…nition of Course and Drift Angle

The sailing ship must be able to change its course relatively fast, with small overshoots.
Also, the path overshoot (or path width) has to stay within certain limits. The ship must
be able to carry out turning maneuvers within limits, de…ned later. It must remain well-
maneuverable during accelerating and decelerating the ship and it must have an acceptable
stopping distance. Also, the ship must be able to maneuver at low speeds without assistance
of tugs.
For this, certain demands on design, performance and control of the rudder are required.
4.2.2 Rudder Types

The type of rudder and its location and placement relative to the propeller have signi…cant
in‡uence on rudder e¤ectiveness and ship controllability. Rudders should be located near
the stern and should be located in the propeller stream for good controllability.
Figure 4.2 shows the major rudder types available to the designer. Its performance char-
acteristics are of major importance to the controllability of the ship.
Figure 4.2: Various Rudder-Fin Arrangements
All-movable rudders are desirable for their ability to produce large turning forces for their
size. The required rudder moment is strongly in‡uenced by a careful choice of the balance
ratio; this is the rudder area forward of the rudder stock divided by the total rudder area.
Usually, this balance ratio varies between 0.25 for ships with a small block coe¢cient and
0.27 for ships with a large block coe¢cient.
Structural considerations, costs, the need for additional stabilizing side forces provided
by a horn and the considerations may require use of other types of rudders such as the
semi-suspended (or horn) rudder. The horn type is also favored for operations in ice.
4.2.3 Rudder Size

The rudder area should be determined and veri…ed during the initial ship arrangement
study. A good …rst step is to use the 1975-Rules value of Det Norske Veritas for a minimum
projected rudder area:
( µ ¶)
d ¢ Lpp B 2
Ar t 1:0 + 25:0 ¢ (4.1)
100 Lpp
in which:
Ar = projected rudder area

Lpp = length between perpendiculars
B = beam
d = draft
This formula 4.1 applies only to rudder arrangements in which the rudder is located directly
behind the propeller. For any other rudder arrangement Det Norske Veritas requires an
increase in the rudder area by - at least - 30 percent. A twin screw (or more) arrangement
should be combined with rudders located directly behind the propellers for maximum low-
speed maneuverability. A single rudder placed between two propellers may be inadequate,
because the rudder blade does not swing su¢ciently into the ‡ow of a propeller to generate
the needed turning moment.
4.2.4 Rudder Forces and Moments

A rudder behind a ship acts as an airfoil or a wing; it produces lift and drag in a proper
‡ow. A cross section of a rudder (or a lifting surface) is such that at a rudder angle (or
angle of attack of the ‡ow) a relative large force perpendicular to the ‡ow direction comes
into existence.
Figure 4.3 shows the components of the force produced by the rudder. The rudder pro…le
has been placed with an angle of attack ® in a homogeneous ‡ow with a constant velocity
V . Practically, V is de…ned as the velocity of the ‡uid far before the rudder. For small
angles of attack, ®, the total force P on the pro…le acts at about e t 0:25 ¢ c, provided
that the span width s is large with respect to the chord length c. This force P can be
decomposed in a lift force L perpendicular to the ‡ow and a drag force D in the direction
of the ‡ow. The total force P can be decomposed in a normal force N and a tangential
force T , too.
Rudder forces are made dimensionless by the stagnation pressure 12 ½V 2 and the projected
rudder area Ar :
L D
CL = 1 and CD = 1
2
½V 2Ar 2
½V 2 Ar
(4.2)
N T
CN = 1 and CT = 1 2
2
½V 2Ar 2
½V Ar
From the force components, as presented in …gure 4.3, follows:

Figure 4.3: Forces on a Rudder Section
p p
P = L2 + D 2 = N 2 + T 2
N = L cos ® + D sin ® and C N = C L cos ® + C D sin ®
T = D cos ® ¡ L sin ® and CT = CD cos ® ¡ CL sin ® (4.3)
For the rudder moment, it is important to know about which point it has been de…ned.
The moment Me about the front (or nose) of the rudder is:
Me
Me = N ¢ e and C Me = 1 2
(4.4)
2 ½V Ar ¢c
Thus the chord length c has been used for making the rudder moment dimensionless, so:
N ¢e e e C
CMe = 1 2
= CN ¢ or: = Me (4.5)
2 ½V Ar ¢c c c CN
An example of these characteristics has been given in …gure 4.4. The lift coe¢cient increases
almost linearly with the angle of attack until a maximum value is reached, whereupon the
wing is said to ”stall”. At small angles of attack, the center of the lift forces acts at about
e=c t 0:25. At higher angles of attack - before stalling of the wing - the ‡ow starts to
separate at the suction side of the wing and the center of the lift force shifts backwards,
for instance to about e=c t 0:40.
The moment Mrs about the rudder stock is:
Mrs = N ¢ (e ¡ a) (4.6)
A rudder moment is called positive here, when it is right turning. Sometimes, a de…nition
of the rudder moment about a point …xed at e = 0:25 ¢ c will be found in the literature.
Figure 4.4: Lift, Drag and Moment Characteristics of a Wing Section
The aspect ratio s=c of the rudder is an important parameter. The geometrical aspect
ratio is de…ned by the ratio of the mean span width ¹s and the mean chord length c¹:
s¹
AR = (4.7)
¹c
For an arbitrary rudder plan form can be written:
Ar s¹2
¹c = thus: AR = (4.8)
¹s Ar
Because of the …nite aspect ratio, three-dimensional e¤ects will appear at the upper and
lower side of the rudder; see …gure 4.5. A ‡uid ‡ow around the corners appears, of which
the e¤ect on the lift coe¢cient will increase with a decreasing aspect ratio.
Figure 4.5: Flow Around Corners of a Lifting Surface
At larger aspect ratios, the ‡ow becomes more two-dimensional over a larger part of the
rudder surface. The ‡ow around the corners can be avoided by walls or end-plates. A
rudder which almost joints the stern of the ship at the upper side of the rudder, has a
considerably increased e¤ective aspect ratio. Then, theoretically, the e¤ective aspect ratio
is twice the geometrical aspect ratio.
A ‡at plate has a relative large increase of the lift coe¢cient with the angle of attack, so a
high @CL=@® value. From the lifting surfaces theory, see [Abbott and von Doenho¤, 1958],
follows:
@CL
= 2¼ for a ‡at plate (with ® in radians)
@®
The great disadvantage of a ‡at plate as a rudder is the fast ‡ow separation; the ‡ow will
separate already at small angles of attack. A ‡at plate stalls already at a small angle of
attack. A wing section thickness, t, of 9 percent of the chord length, c, is often considered
as a practical minimum value, so t=c > 0:09:
The lift, drag and moment coe¢cients (CL , CD and C M ) of symmetrical NACA (National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) wing sections for 0:06 6 t 6 0:18 and an aspect ratio
AR = 6 - as given by [Abbott and von Doenho¤, 1958] - are given in the following table.
AR = 6 NACA 0006 NACA 0009 NACA 0012 NACA 0015 NACA 0018
® CL
-40 -0.30 -0.30
-20 -0.13 -0.15 -0.13
00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
40 0.32 0.32 0.30 0.30 0.30
80 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61
120 0.80 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.89
160 0.89 1.20 1.20 1.19 1.14
200 0.85 1.04 1.43 1.40 1.42
240 0.83 0.90 1.12 1.20 1.30
300 0.82 0.81 0.90 0.90 0.95
CL (max) 1.28 1.52 1.53 1.50
at ® = 18.00 22.20 22.50 22.50
® CM
-40 -0.075 -0.075
-20 -0.030 -0.040
00 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
40 0.080 0.080 0.075 0.075 0.075
80 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.150
120 0.200 0.225 0.225 0.225 0.220
160 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.185
200 0.270 0.330 0.360 0.360 0.360
240 0.260 0.345 0.360 0.360 0.375
300 0.245 0.341 0.355 0.335 0.340
CM (max) 0.420 0.380 0.380 0.375
at ® = 18.00 22.20 22.50 22.50
® CD
-40 0.018 0.018
-20 0.005 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.015
00 0.008 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.015
40 0.017 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.018
80 0.039 0.032 0.037 0.037 0.036
120 0.150 0.060 0.059 0.059 0.060
160 0.260 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098
200 0.320 0.270 0.140 0.140 0.141
240 0.395 0.390 0.320 0.279 0.240
280 0.400 0.380 0.400
For calculating the lift and drag coe¢cients from known data of a pro…le with another
aspect ratio, use can be made of the formulas of Lanchester and Prandtl:
CL2 (1) µ ¶
1 1
CD(2) = CD(1) + ¡
¼ AR(2) AR(1)
µ ¶
CL(1) 1 1
®(2) = ®(1) + ¡ (with ® in radians)
¼ AR(2) AR(1)
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
CL(2) ®(2) = CL(1) ®(1) (4.9)
This last relation has been visualized in …gure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: Aspect Ratio Transformation of Lift Coe¢cients
Starting from two-dimensional properties, so AR(1) = 1, the formulas of Lanchester and

Prandtl reduce to:
CL2(AR=1)
C D(2) = CD(ar=1) +
¼ ¢ AR(2)
CL
®(2) = ®(AR=1) + (AR=1)
¼ ¢ AR(2)
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
CL(2) ®(2) = CL(AR=1) ®(AR=1) (4.10)
The practical value of these formulas of Lanchester and Prandtl will be demonstrated in
…gure 4.7. The lift and drag coe¢cients for AR = 1 ¡ 7 have been transformed in this
…gure to those for AR = 5. All transformed coe¢cients …t within a small band.
4.2.5 Rudder Control

For surface ships, course-keeping, speed changing and maneuvering involve primarily forces,
moments and motions acting in all directions in the horizontal plane. For submarines, the
third dimension also comes into play. Hydrodynamic motion forces and interactions acting
on the vessel’s hull, rudder and other appendages are of …rst consideration and di¢culty.
However, it is important to recognize that the responses of a number of mechanical, elec-
tronic, environmental and, most importantly, human factors all in‡uence controllability.
Figure 4.7: Lift and Drag Coe¢cient Transformations
The following discussion of controllability - based on the concept of control loops - illus-
trates the role of these many factors.
Consider the closed-loop directional control system, shown in …gure 4.8. Starting at the left
of this …gure, there is a desired path or trajectory that the ship’s conning o¢cers wants to
follow either under conditions of steady steaming at sea or in maneuvering. In an idealistic
case, the desired path would be displayed for use by the helmsman (or alternatively by an
autopilot). Simultaneously, again for the idealistic case, the path actually being traversed
would also be shown on the display. If these two paths do not coincide, corrective action
is taken by the helmsman or autopilot by changing the helm in a direction that will tend
to correct the path error. This action activates the steering gear which changes the rudder
position which in turn exerts a control force on the ship. This control force acts to induce
on the hull an angle of attack, an angular velocity and other motions. These motions of
the hull introduce the major hydrodynamic forces and moments that e¤ect the change in
Figure 4.8: Closed-Loop Control System of Ship Controllability
heading and path.

In addition to control and hydrodynamic forces and moments, external disturbances such as
wind, current or waves may also be simultaneously acting on the ship. Ideally, the resultant
heading and actual path coordinates can be fed continuously back to the helmsman’s
display. This last step closes the control loop.
In the real case, all of the information concerning the actual instantaneous path is rarely
known. On most ships only the heading and sometimes the rate of turn are continuously
determinable, while the coordinates are available only occasionally. In spite of the short-
comings of the real case, the control loop still functions as shown in …gure 4.8, but with
less than complete information available to the conning o¢cer and helmsman or autopilot.
Relatively large-scale changes in position are determined or deduced in restricted water
conditions from visual observations, a radar display or from visual cross bearings. Modern
electronic navigation systems, such as Loran C and Global Positioning System (GPS) also
o¤er a means for determining large-scale changes in position.
Consideration of the control loop of …gure 4.8 shows that each of its elements plays a vital
role in the overall controllability of the ship. The last two elements of the loop - the ”ship”
and the ”steering gear and rudder” - are of the greatest concern to the naval architect
although the human factors present must be continually reviewed to develop a successful
design.
Whereas the directional control loop of …gure 4.8 functions to determine the path, a second
loop of interest - the speed control loop - functions to determine the speed along the path.
The only common link between the two loops is the conning o¢cer, who issues the orders
in both cases. In the case of the speed control loop, an operator or engineer receives the
orders of the conning o¢cer and manipulates the power output and direction of rotation
of the main propulsion machinery to maintain, accelerate, slow down, stop or reverse the
speed of the ship.. In the open sea where decisions can be made in a more leisure manner,
the conning o¢cer has ample time to issue the necessary orders to both control loops.
In restricted and congested waters, however, orders to both control loops may have to be
issued simultaneously. With development of automation, the integration of these loops and
the elimination of the intermediate roles of the helmsman on the bridge and the operator
in the engine room is becoming commonplace.
With today’s sophisticated drill rigs and track-keeping vessels, the automatic controller
has indeed become quite advanced. Heading and speed, plus transverse position error and
fore and aft position error are used to compute vector thrusts required of the various force
e¤orts (propellers, rudders, thrusters, etc.) and proper distribution of correction forces
4.3. MOTION STABILITY DEFINITIONS 63
and moments is automatically ordered.
4.3 Motion Stability De…nitions

The concept of path keeping is strongly related to the concept of course stability or stability
of direction. A body is said to be stable in any particular state of equilibrium in rest or
motion if, when momentarily disturbed by an external force or moment, it tends to turn,
after release from the disturbing force, to the state of equilibrium existing before the body
was disturbed. In the case of path keeping, the most obvious external disturbing force
would be a wave or a gust of wind. For optimum path keeping, it would be desirable for
the ship to resume its original path after passage of the disturbance, with no intervention
by the helmsman. Whether this will happen depends on the kind of motion stability
possessed.
The various kinds of motion stability associated with ships are classi…ed by the attributes
of their initial state of equilibrium that are retained in the …nal path of their centers of
gravity. For example, in each of the cases in the next …gures, a ship is initially assumed to
be travelling at a constant speed along a straight path.
Figure 4.9 shows the straight-line or dynamic stability; the …nal path after release
from a disturbance retains the straight-line attribute of the initial state of equilibrium, but
not its direction.
Figure 4.10 shows the directional or course stability; the …nal path after release from
a disturbance retains not only the straight-line attribute of the initial path, but also its
direction. In some cases the ship does not oscillate after the disturbance, but passes
smoothly to the …nal path.
Figure 4.11 shows the path or positional motion stability; the ship returns to the
original path, i.e. the …nal path not only has the same direction as the original path, but
also its same transverse position relative to the surface of the earth.
The foregoing kinds of stability form an ascending hierarchy. Achieving straight-line sta-
bility is the designer’s usual goal for most ships when steered by hand. The other cases
require various degrees of automatic control.
All these kinds of stability have meaning with control surfaces (rudders) …xed at zero, with
control surfaces free to swing, or with controls either manually or automatically operated.
The …rst two cases involve only the last two elements of the control loop of …gure 4.8,
whereas the last case involves all of the elements of the control loop. In normal marine
usage, the term stability implies controls-…xed stability; however, the term can also have
meaning the controls working.
The following examples indicate distinctions:
² A surface ship sailing a calm sea possesses positional motion stability in the vertical
plane (and therefore directional and straight line stability in this plane) with controls
…xed. This is an example of the kind of stability shown in …gure 4.11. In this
case, hydrostatic forces and moments introduce a unique kind of stability which in
the absence of these forces could only be introduced either by very sophisticated
automatic controls or by manual control. The fact that the ship’s operator and
designer can take for granted is that this remarkable kind of stability does not detract
from its intrinsic importance.
Figure 4.9: Straight-Line or Dynamic Stability
Figure 4.10: Directional or Course Stability
Figure 4.11: Path or Positional Motion Stability

4.4. MANEUVERABILITY ACTIVITIES OF IMO 65
² In the horizontal plane in the open sea with stern propulsion, a self-propelled ship
cannot possess either positional or directional stability with controls …xed, because
the changes in buoyancy that stabilize the vertical plane are non-existent in the
horizontal plane. However, a ship must possess both of these kinds of stability with
controls working either under manual or automatic guidance. Possible exceptions
include sailing vessels, some multi-hull ships, and foil or planing craft, but not other
surface e¤ect ships.
² The only kind of motion stability possible with self-propelled ships in the horizontal
plane with controls …xed, is straight-line stability. In fact, many ships do not possess
it. Often - whenever controls-…xed stability is mentioned - the intended meaning
is controls-…xed straight-line stability. This kind of stability is desirable, but not
mandatory.
With each of the kinds of controls-…xed stability, there is associated a numerical index
which by its sign designates whether the body is stable or unstable in that particular sense
and by its magnitude designates the degree of stability or instability. To show how these
indexes are determined, one must resort to the di¤erential equations of motion.
4.4 Maneuverability Activities of IMO

During the last three decades, the IMO (International Maritime Organization) has been
active in dealing with the following aspects on ship maneuverability, which are vital to
achieve its objectives of safer shipping and cleaner oceans:
1. Maneuvering information aboard ships in order to enhance the safety of navigation.
2. Impaired maneuverability of tankers to reduce the risk of marine pollution.
3. Maneuvering standards for ship designers to ensure that no ships have maneuvering
properties that may constitute a safety risk.
Many resolutions with respect to maneuverability of ships were initiated by the IMO
Sub-Committee on Ship Design and Equipment and by the IMO Marine Safety Com-
mittee, which were adopted by the IMO Assembly; for detailed information see a paper of
[Srivastava, 1993] and references given there. However, the IMO gives recommendations
and guidelines only; they can not make international laws, the …nal decision has to be
made by the individual Governments.
4.4.1 Maneuverability Information On-Board Ships

The value of readily available maneuvering information on the ship’s bridge can not be
overemphasized as it is of crucial importance to the master, navigating o¢cers and pilots
for discharging their duties e¢ciently and enhancing the safety of navigation.
Having regard to the variety of circumstances that a ship may encounter and the ship’s
characteristic maneuvering capabilities, the IMO Assembly adopted in 1968 in Resolution
A.160 on ”Recommendation on Data Concerning Maneuvering Capabilities and Stopping
Distances of Ships”. The Governments were urged to ensure that the master and the
o¢cers should have readily available on the bridge all necessary data in accordance with
this recommendation under various conditions of draft and speed.
This was the …rst attempt by the IMO to address and recommend the contents of the
manoeuvering information on board ships. As a result, essential maneuvering information
in some detail is now available on the bridge for use by the master, navigating o¢cers and
pilots. It contributes to safety of navigation under various circumstances in which the ship
operates.
4.4.2 Impaired Maneuverability of Tankers

The IMO Marine Safety Committee approved in 1983 a …rst text on ”Recommendation on
Emergency Towing Requirements for Tankers” which was adopted by the IMO Assembly
by Resolution A.535. This recommendation requires that tankers greater than 50,000 tons
deadweight should be …tted with emergency towing arrangements at the bow and stern.
About 10 years later, this tonnage number was decreased in the recommendations to 20,000
tons deadweight.
The provision of technologically advanced equipment and its ready availability in a pre-
rigged condition would ensure that the risk of marine pollution is minimized from a tanker
involved in an accident and resultant impaired maneuverability.
4.4.3 Estimation of Maneuverability in Ship Design

All ships should have maneuvering qualities which permit them to keep course, to turn, to
check turns, to operate at acceptable low speeds and to stop. All these should be performed
in a satisfactory manner. Since most maneuvering qualities are inherent in the design of
the hull and machinery, they should be consciously estimated during the design process.
In 1985, interim guidelines have been developed to de…ne the speci…c maneuvering charac-
teristics which quantify maneuverability and recommended estimation of these character-
istics during design both for the fully loaded and the test conditions in deep water. They
also outline full scale tests to con…rm the maneuvering performance in test conditions.
They are intended to estimate the maneuvering performance of all new ships greater than
100 meters in length. The guidelines are intended to apply to ships with rudders of con-
ventional design. Ships with unconventional steering arrangements should be included by
the use of an equivalent control setting.
4.4.4 Standards for Ship Maneuverability

There is a clear link between safety and maneuverability of ships. Maneuverability must
be considered during the design stage already; minimum standards of performance must
be included in the design process. All maneuvering performance criteria and measures
should be simple, relevant, comprehensible, measurable and practicable. The maneuvering
characteristics addressed in the (interim) maneuverability standards of IMO are typical
features of the performance quality and handling capacity of the ship, which are considered
to be of direct nautical interest. Moreover, they may all be reasonably well predicted at the
design stage and they can be measured or evaluated from accepted trial-type maneuvers.
The IMO Sub-Committee has re…ned values of criteria on abilities on (initial) turning, yaw
checking, course keeping and stopping. These (interim) standards were adopted by the IMO
Assembly in 1993 in Resolution A.751 on ”Interim Standards for Ship Maneuverability”

and Governments were invited to collect data obtained by application of these standards.
The following ”Interim Standards for Ship Manoeuvrability” are given by IMO:
1 Principles
1.1 The standards should be used with the aim of improving ship manoeuvring per-
formance and with the objective of avoiding building ships that do not comply
with the criteria.
1.2 The standards contained in this document are based on the understanding that
the manoeuvrability of ships can be evaluated from the characteristics of conven-
tional trial manoeuvres. The following two methods can be used to demonstrate
compliance with these standards:
1.2.1 Scale model tests and/or computer predictions using mathematical mod-
els can be performed to predict compliance at the design stage. In this
case full-scale trials should be conducted to validate these results. The ship
should then be considered to meet these standards regardless of full-scale
trial results, except where the Administration determines that the predic-
tion e¤orts were substandard and/or the ship performance is in substantial
disagreement with these standards;
1.2.2 The compliance with the standards can be demonstrated based on the
results of the full-scale trials conducted in accordance with the standards.
If a ship is found in substantial disagreement with the interim standards,
then the Administration may require remedial action.
1.3 The standards presented herein are considered interim for a period of 5 years
from the date of their adoption by the Assembly. The standards and method of
establishing compliance should be reviewed in the light of new information and
the results of experience with the present standards and ongoing research and
developments.
2 Application
2.1 The standards should be applied to ships of all rudder and propulsion types, of
100 m in length and over, and chemical tankers and gas carriers regardless of
the length, which are constructed on or after 1 July 1994.
2.2 In case ships referred to in paragraph 2.1 undergo repairs, alterations and modi…-
cations which in the opinion of the Administration may in‡uence their manoeu-
vrability characteristics the continued compliance with the standards should be
veri…ed.
2.3 Whenever other ships, originally not subject to the standards, undergo repairs,
alterations and modi…cations, which in the opinion of the Administration are of
such an extent that the ship may be considered to be a new ship, then that ship
should comply with these standards. Otherwise, if the repairs, alterations and
modi…cations in the opinion of the Administration may in‡uence the manoeu-
vrability characteristics, it should be demonstrated that these characteristics do
not lead to any deterioration of the manoeuvrability of the ship.
2.4 The standards should not be applied to the high speed craft as de…ned in the
relevant Code.
3 De…nitions
3.1 Geometry of the ship:

3.1.1 Length (L) is the length between the aft and forward perpendiculars;
3.1.2 Midship point is the point of the centre line of a ship midway between
the aft and forward perpendiculars;
3.1.3 Draught (Ta ) is the draught at the aft perpendicular;
3.1.4 Draught (Tf ) is the draught at the forward perpendicular;
3.1.5 Mean draught (Tm ) is de…ned as Tm = (T a + T f )=2.
3.2 Standard manoeuvres and associated terminology
Standard manoeuvres and associated terminology are as de…ned below:
3.2.1 The test speed (V ) used in the standards is a speed of at least 90 % of
the ship’s speed corresponding to 85 % of the maximum engine output.
3.2.2 Turning circle manoeuvre is the manoeuvre to be performed to both
starboard and port with 350 rudder angle or the maximum rudder angle
permissible at the test speed, following a steady approach with zero yaw
rate.
3.2.3 Advance is the distance travelled in the direction of the original course by
the midship point of a ship from the position at which the rudder order is
given to the position at which the heading has changed 900 from the original
course.
3.2.4 Tactical diameter is the distance travelled by the midship point of a ship
from the position at which the rudder order is given to the position at which
the heading has changed 1800 from the original course. It is measured in a
direction perpendicular to the original heading of the ship.
3.2.5 Zig-zag test is the manoeuvre where a known amount of helm is applied
alternately to either side when a known heading deviation from the original
heading is reached.
3.2.6 100/100 zig-zag is performed by turning the rudder alternatively by 100
to either side following a heading deviation of 100 from the original heading
in accordance with the following procedure:
3.2.6.1 after a steady approach with zero yaw rate, the rudder is put over
to 100 to starboard/port (…rst execute);
3.2.6.2 when the heading has changed to 100 o¤ the original heading, the
rudder is reversed to 100 to port/starboard (second execute);
3.2.6.3 after the rudder has been turned to port/starboard, the ship will
continue turning in the original direction with decreasing turning rate.
In response to the rudder, the ship should then turn to port/starboard.
When the ship has reached a heading of 100 to port/starboard of the
original course, the rudder is again reversed to 100 to starboard/port
(third execute).
3.2.7 The …rst overshoot angle is the additional heading deviation experienced
in the zig-zag test following the second execute.
3.2.8 The second overshoot is the additional heading deviation experienced in
the zig-zag test following the third execute.
3.2.9 200/200 zig-zag test is performed using the procedure given in 3.2.6 above
using 200 rudder angles and 200 change of heading, instead of 100 rudder
angles and 100 change of heading, respectively.
3.2.10 Full astern stopping test determines the track reach of a ship from the
time an order for full astern is given until the ship stops in the water.
3.2.11 Track reach is the distance along the path described by the midship
point of a ship measured from the position at which an order for full astern
is given to the position at which the ship stops in the water.
4 Standards
4.1 The standard manoeuvres should be performed without the use of any manoeu-
vring aids, which are not continuously and readily available in normal operation.
4.2 Conditions at which the standards apply
In order to evaluate the performance of a ship, manoeuvring trials should be
conducted to both port and starboard and at conditions speci…ed below:
4.2.1 deep, unrestricted water;
4.2.2 calm environment;
4.2.3 full load, even keel condition;
4.2.4 steady approach at the test speed.
4.3 Criteria
The manoeuvrability of a ship is considered satisfactory, if the following criteria
are complied with:
4.3.1 Turning ability
The advance should not exceed 4.5 ship lengths (L) and the tactical diam-
eter should not exceed 5 ship lengths in the turning circle manoeuvre;
4.3.2 Initial turning ability
With the application of 100 rudder angle to port/starboard, the ship should
not have travelled more than 2.5 ship lengths by the time the heading has
changed 100 from the original heading;
4.3.3 Yaw checking and course keeping abilities
4.3.3.1 The value of the …rst overshoot angle in the 100/100 zig-zag test
should not exceed:
- 100, if L=V is less than 10 seconds;
- 200, if L=V is 30 seconds or more; and
- (5 + L=V =2) degrees, if L=V is 10 seconds or more but less than 30
seconds,
where L and V are expressed in m and m/s, respectively;
4.3.3.2 The value of the second overshoot angle in the 100/100 zig-zag test
should not exceed the above criterion values for the …rst overshoot by
more than 150;
4.3.3.3 The value of the …rst overshoot angle in the 200/200 zig-zag test
should not exceed 250;
4.3.4 Stopping ability
The track reach in the full astern stopping test should not exceed 15 ship
lengths. However, this value may be modi…ed by the Administration where
ships of large displacement make this criterion impracticable.
5 Additional considerations
5.1 In case the standard trials are conducted at a condition di¤erent from those
speci…ed in 4.2.3 necessary corrections should be made in accordance with the
guidelines contained in the explanatory notes on the standards for ship manoeu-
vrability developed by the Organization.
5.2 Where standard manoeuvres indicate dynamic instability, alternative test may
be conducted to de…ne the degree of instability. Guidelines for alternative tests
such as a spiral test or pull-out manoeuvre are included in the explanatory notes
on the standards for ship manoeuvrability developed by the Organization.
4.4.5 Prediction Technology

Recognizing that it is not currently possible at the design stage to predict maneuvering
characteristics with su¢cient accuracy, the primary concern of the IMO Sub-Committee
was that a ship - even though predicted to be in compliance with the standards by em-
ploying the best prediction method available - might fail to do so on trials and then be
disquali…ed. The IMO Sub-Committee agreed that it would be permissible to demonstrate
compliance with the standards by predicting trial performance through model tests and/or
computer simulation. Moreover, when acceptable methods of prediction have demonstrated
compliance with the standards, the results of full scale trials would not disqualify a ship.
4.5 Full Scale Maneuvering Trials

There are no de…nitive international standards for conducting maneuvering trials with
ships. Many ship yards have developed their own procedures driven by their experience
and with consideration to the e¤orts made by the International Towing Tank Conference
(ITTC, Proceedings 1963 - 1975) and other organizations or institutes.
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME) has produced three guide-
lines: ”Code on Maneuvering and Special Trials and Tests” (1950), ”Code for Sea Trials”
(1973) and ”Guide for Sea Trials” (1989).
The Norwegian Standard Organization has produced ”Testing of New Ship, Norsk Stan-
dard” (1985).
The Japan Ship Research Association (JSRA) has produced a ”Sea Trial Code for Giant
Ships, JSRA” (1972) for maneuvering trial procedure and analysis of measurements.
IMO Resolution A.601 (1987) and IMO Resolution A.751 (1993), were adopted by the IMO
Assemblies to address ship maneuverability. The last one provides (interim) criteria for
turning, initial turning, stopping, course keeping and course changing ability, as well as
information for the execution of the maneuvering trials.
4.5. FULL SCALE MANEUVERING TRIALS 71
Accounting for the IMO (interim) standards, the 22nd International Towing Tank Con-
ference - held in Seoul (Korea) and Shanghai (China) in September1999 - has adopted
new guidelines for performing maneuvering trials. For an important part, the text in this
section on maneuvering trial tests has been taken from the Proceedings of that particular
Conference.
It is recommended (and nowadays almost usual) that all experimental data should be
acquired by a computer-based system, because almost all of the maneuvering trials require
time history data. The system should be able to collect, record and process real-time trial
data. A data sampling of 0.5 - 2.0 samples per second is advised.
Particulars of each intended test have to be denoted in the trial agenda. A trial report
should be made, which contains items on ship characteristics, loading condition, instru-
mentation, trial site, environmental conditions, trial program and trial results.
4.5.1 Loading Condition

Ship maneuverability can be signi…cantly a¤ected by the draft and trim condition. The
IMO (interim) standards are applied to the full load and even keel conditions. This full
load draft is chosen, based on the general understanding that the poorest maneuvering
performance (poor course keeping capability) of a ship occurs at this full load condition.
When it is impractical to conduct trials at full load because of the ship type (bulk carrier,
etc.), draft and trim must be as close as possible to the speci…ed trial condition and/or the
condition in which model tests have been carried out. This allow for predicting the full
load maneuvering performance, using a reliable correction method (based on model tests
or proven computer simulations) that ensures satisfactory extrapolation of trial results as
suggested by IMO Resolution A751. In case of any corrections, the procedure used must
be clearly referenced and documented.
4.5.2 Trial Site Criteria

Maneuvering of a ship is strongly a¤ected by interactions with the bottom, banks and
passing vessels. The trial site should therefore be located in waters of adequate depth with
as low a current and tidal in‡uence as possible. Maneuvering trials are generally conducted
at the same site as the speed/power trials. Therefore, the same trial depth criteria should
be used. IMO standards require that the water depth should exceed four times the mean
draft of the ship.
4.5.3 Environmental Conditions

Environmental conditions such as wind, waves and current should always be reported even
though they may be considered to have no in‡uence on the ship behavior. Maneuvering
trials should be performed in the calmest possible weather conditions.
IMO Resolution A.751 (1993) prescribed the maximum environmental condition for carry-
ing out the maneuvering trials as follows:
1. Wind
The trials should not be conducted with a true wind speed greater than Beaufort 5.
This means that the true wind speed should be less than about 19 knots.
2. Waves
The trials should be carried out in sea states less than 4. This means that the
signi…cant wave height should be less than about 1.90 meter, with most probable
peak periods of about 8.8 seconds.
3. Currents
No speci…c information on current limitations is given.
Wind, waves and currents can signi…cantly a¤ect the ship maneuverability. However, the
IMO Resolution A.751 suggests a method to account for environmental e¤ects during
turning tests only.
The e¤ect of the current velocity on the path of a ship during turning circles is shown in
…gure 4.12. This type of …gures can be used to obtain some information on current velocity
and direction.
Figure 4.12: E¤ect of Current on Path of Turning Circles
4.5.4 Selection of Tests

In selecting tests, consideration should be given to their purpose. Some are intended
to demonstrate performance of vital machinery and satisfactory regulatory requirements.
Some are essential to verify that the vessel has satisfactory basic course keeping and course
changing qualities and emergency maneuverability, while others are intended to obtain
maneuverability data to be used in establishing operating regulations.
The choice of a test is based on its purpose; it is based on the subject of interest:
1. Course Keeping Qualities

The suitable test method for this are the direct spiral test, the reverse spiral test, the
Z-maneuver test with small rudder angle, the modi…ed Z-maneuver test (also called:
zig-zag test) and the pull-out test.
2. Course Changing Qualities

The Z-maneuver test, the initial turning test and the (new) course keeping test can
considered to be suitable test methods for this.
3. Emergency Maneuver Qualities

The suitable test methods for this are the turning test with maximum rudder angle,
stopping test (crash stop astern and stopping inertia test), man-overboard test and
parallel course maneuver test.
Table 4.1 summarizes the di¤erent types of maneuvering tests recommended or required
by various organizations.
Type of Test IMO IMO ITTC SNAME Norsk Japan

A.601 A.751 1975 1989 Standard RR
1 Turning Test X X X X X X
2 Z-Maneuver Test (Kempf) X X X X X X
3 Modi…ed Z-Maneuver Test X
4 Direct Spiral Test (Dieudonné) X X X X
5 Reverse Spiral Test (Bech) X X X X
6 Pull-Out Test X X X
7 Stopping Test X X X X X X
8 Stopping Inertia Test X X X
9 New Course Keeping Test X X
10 Man-Overboard Test X
11 Parallel Course Maneuver Test X
12 Initial Turning Test X
13 Z-Maneuver Test at Low SpeedX X X
14 Accelerating Turning Test X X
15 X
Acceleration/Deceleration Test X
16 Thruster Test X X X X
17 Minimum Revolution Test X X X
18 Crash Ahead Test X X X X
Table 4.1. Recommended Maneuvering Tests by Various Organizations
The 1999-ITTC has described the purpose of each individual test and also gave (new)
procedures on how to conduct the tests. These (detailed) descriptions have been given in
the Sections below, where the general notations are de…ned by:
Ã = course angle
Ã_ = r = rate of turn
± = rudder angle
t = time
1. Turning Test
Purpose The purpose of the turning test is to determine the turning characteristics of
the ship. Basic information obtained from the turning test are advance, transfer, tactical
diameter, steady turning diameter, …nal ship speed and turning rate in the steady state;
see …gure 4.13. It is suggested to perform turning tests at di¤erent speeds and for di¤erent
rudder angles.
Figure 4.13: Drift-Corrected Turning Circle
Execution The turning test should be carried out as follows:
1. Establish steady ship speed to the conditions indicated in the trial agenda and adjust
the ship’s heading to a steady course prior to the point of required initial rudder
execution. At this time (COMEX, commence execution), no further adjustment to
the engine order is to be made until the conclusion (FINEX, …nish execution) of the
test. Start the data acquisition system.
2. Steer with the prescribed minimum rudder angle. Record the time at which the
rudder is moved to the angle denoted in the trial agenda. Once the rudder is set,
no further adjustment should be made, even if the rudder angle achieved deviates to
some degree from the rudder angle prescribed in the agenda.
3. The test is concluded when the change of heading reaches an angle between 5400
and 7200 (the larger the angle the better). At the conclusion of the test, steer the
ship on a straight course in readiness for the subsequent test. A suitable approach
distance should be chosen to establish the desired approach speed speci…ed in the
trial agenda.
4. The normal rudder angle to be used is 350 or maximum rudder right and left, sup-
plemented with 150 right and left rudder angles.
5. The approach for right and left turns should preferably be conducted at the same
headings.
2. Z-Maneuver Test
Purpose The Z-maneuver or zig-zag test (Kempf, 1944) is used to express course chang-
ing (yaw checking) and course keeping qualities. The essential information to be obtained
is the initial turning time, time to second execute, the time to check yaw and the an-
gle of overshoot. Values of the steering indices K (gain constant) and T (time constant)
associated with the linearized response model are also obtained.
Figure 4.14: Z-Maneuver or Zig-Zag Test
Execution The Z-maneuver test should be carried out as follows:
1. Establish steady ship speed at the conditions indicated in the trial agenda and adjust
the ship’s heading to a steady course prior to the point of required initial rudder
execution. At this time, no further adjustments to the engine order is to be made
until the conclusion of the test. Start the acquisition system.
2. Order ”100 right rudder”. Maintain rudder at the ordered angle. In the case of a
neutral angle, the rudder commands should be issued relative to the neutral angle.
3. When the change of heading nears to 100 to starboard, order ”stand by for 100 left
rudder”. Upon attainment of 100 to starboard heading, order ”execute”. Reverse
rudder at normal rate from 100 right to 100 left and thereafter maintain rudder at
100 left.
4. The ship will keep turning to starboard for a while until reaching the overshoot
angle. When the change of heading nears to 100 to port from the original approach
heading, order ”stand by for 100 right rudder”. Repeat step 3 above with left and
right reversed.
5. Upon attainment of approach heading, the test is terminated and the ship is reset to
a steady course.
6. Bring the ship to the same initial heading as in the previous run. Establish the next
steady ship speed indicated in the trial agenda. Repeat steps 2 to 6 above with term
”left” and ”right” reversed. (The initial procedure steps 2 to 6 starting with right
rudder is hereafter referred to as ”+100” and the reversed procedure starting with
left rudder ”-100 ”).
7. IMO requires Z-maneuver tests be performed at §100 and §200. For large full ships
it is recommended to also perform tests at §50 and §150 rudder angles.
The rudder commands during these Z-maneuver tests should be issued for a rudder angle
relative to the neutral angle. The neutral angle is the mean rudder angle at which the ship
keeps steady course at approach heading during an extended seaway.
The SC recommends that the procedure be extended to include four additional rudder
throws to determine the repeatability of the overshoot headings and angles. GPS should
be used to determine the ship’s track.
3. Modi…ed Z-Maneuver Test

Purpose The modi…ed Z-maneuver test is used to express course keeping qualities under
an actual operation.
Figure 4.15: Modi…ed Z-Maneuver Test

Execution The test procedure is the same as the Z-maneuver test, except that the rudder
angle is only 50 or 100 and the rudder changes when the change of heading becomes 10 .
4. Direct Spiral Test

Purpose The purpose of the direct spiral test (Dieudonné, 1953) is to determine whether
the ship is directional stable or not. Data de…ning the relationship between rudder angle
and steady turning rate are presented. Important parameters are width and height of the
loop for an unstable ship.
Figure 4.16: Direct Spiral Test
Execution The direct spiral test should be carried out as follows:
1. Set ship to steady speed and to steady course, then order ”100 right rudder”. Actuate
rudder at normal steering rate to 100 right. Maintain rudder at ordered angle.
2. When a steady rate of change of heading is achieved, record the rate of turn, rudder
angle and propeller revolution.
3. Order ”shift rudder to right 50” and repeat measurements as in step 2 above.
4. Order ”shift rudder to right 10” and repeat the step 2 measurements.
5. Order ”shift rudder to amidships”. Repeat the step 2 measurements. The ship will
normally maintain a steady rate of turn to starboard for a while. Record this residual
rate of turn.
6. Order ”10 left rudder” and repeat the step 2 measurements.
7. If the ship still keeps turning to starboard, order ”20 left ...”, ”30 left ...”. Incremen-
tally increase the rudder angle by 10 until the ship starts turning to port. At every
rudder angle, repeat the step 2 measurements.
8. When the ship starts to turn to port,wait until the rate of turn becomes steady and
record both the rate of turn and the rudder angle.
9. Order ”50 left rudder”. Repeat the step 2 measurements. Proceed to ”100 left rudder”
and repeat the step 2 measurements. If step 7 above has been attained only beyond
50 port, start the present step 1 at ”100 left rudder”.
10. Repeat step 4 to 5, or 3 to 5, whichever is relevant. (Left and right are reversed in
step 6.)
11. Order ”10 right rudder” and repeat the step 2 measurements.
12. If the ship still keeps turning to port, order ”20 right ...”, ”30 right ...”, incrementally
increase the rudder angle by 10 until the ship starts turning to starboard. Repeat
the step 2 measurements.
13. When the ship starts to turn to starboard,wait until the rate of turn becomes steady
and record both the rate of turn and the rudder angle. Terminate the test.
These direct spiral tests should preferably be conducted in a sea state below 2 or 3. Reliable
measurements can not be expected in a sea state beyond 4.
If a test has to be temporarily suspended, it should be resumed using the rudder angle
associated with the step preceding that at which the suspension took place.
5. Reversed Spiral Test

Purpose The purpose of the reversed spiral test (Bech, 1968) is to obtain for an unstable
ship the complete loop, when it is not determined by the direct spiral test.
Execution The reversed spiral test should be carried out as follows:
1. The ship shall proceed at the prescribed heading and speed. The yaw rate setting
is adjusted to a prede…ned value. The ship is steered around this value according to
the following scheme.
2. Rudder is turned to left 50 when the indicator passes through the 0 point from the
port to starboard side, and to 50 right in the converse case. If the time to steer left
50 proves to be shorter than the corresponding time for 50 right rudder, substitute 50
left with 40 left ,and 50 right with 60 right. Proceed in similar gradations until the
times of both steering become balanced.
3. When the second step is completed, a rough regular yawing motion is obtained upon
which the measurements at the de…ned setting are determined.
Increase yaw angular rate inevitably increases the di¤erence between left and right rudder
angle. In such cases, the procedure may be started using the angle set in the preceding
cycle.
6. Pull-Out Test
Purpose The pull-out test represents a simpler way to give the height of the loop for an
unstable ship than the direct spiral test and the reversed spiral test.
Figure 4.17: Results of a Pull-Out Test for a Stable and an Unstable Ship
Execution The pull-out test should be carried out as follows:

1. Establish steady speed and course conditions, then order ”right rudder” prescribed
in the trial agenda. Actuate the rudder at a normal rate to the prescribed rudder
angle. Maintain the rudder at the ordered angle.
2. When the ship’s turning rate has steadied, order ”rudder amidships”.
3. Maintain the rudder at the amidships position until the ship shows a steady residual
rate of turn.
4. Repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 using ”left rudder”.
Tests should preferably be conducted in a sea state below 2 or 3. Reliable measurements
can not be expected in a sea state beyond 4. The pull-out tests should be performed as a
continuation of the turning tests. The pull-out test must be performed using both left and
right rudder to show possible asymmetry.
7. Stopping Test
Purpose The stopping test is used to express the qualities for emergence maneuvers.
The obtainable information are stopping time and stopping distance of the ship from the
time at which an astern engine order is given until the ship is stopped dead in the water.
These tests include both crash stop astern and crash stop ahead.
Execution The stopping test should be carried out as follows:
1. Establish steady ahead ship speed at the condition noted in the trial agenda and
adjust the ship’s heading to a steady course. At a position roughly one ship length
before the point where the engine order is initiated, start the data acquisition system.
2. Order ”engine astern” at the prescribed position noted in the trial agenda (full, half,
slow).
3. With the rudder at amidships, the test will proceed until the ship is stopped dead in
the water.
At the end of the ahead stopping test, the test should be repeated with the ship initially
moving at an initial steady astern ship speed and using an ahead engine order to stop the
ship.
8. Stopping Inertia Test

Purpose The stopping inertia test is used to determine the running distance and time
for the ship from the time at which an order for engine stop is given until the ship achieves
a de…ned minimum speed. IMO Resolution A.601 (1987) requires that the stopping per-
formance information using maximum rudder angle be displayed in the wheelhouse.
Execution The stopping inertia test should be carried out as follows:
1. Establish a steady ship speed in accordance with the trial agenda and adjust the
ship’s heading to a steady course. At a position roughly one ship length before the
point where the engine order is initiated, start the acquisition system.
2. Order ”engine stop” and move the rudder to either amidships or 350 port or starboard.
3. The test will proceed until the ship achieves a de…ned minimum speed.
When the prescribed rudder angle is ”00” the stopping inertia is named ”free stop”. When
the prescribed rudder angle is ”350”, left or right, the stopping inertia is called ”IMO stop”.
9. New Course Keeping Test

Purpose The new course keeping test is used to provide information for changing a ship
course. The obtained data are presented in an operational diagram of ship heading versus
advance and transfer.
Figure 4.18: New Course Keeping Test
Execution The new course keeping test should be carried out as follows:
point where the rudder movement is initiated, start the acquisition system.
2. Move the rudder to 150 right and maintain that rudder angle.
3. When the change of heading reaches 100 starboard from the initial approach heading,
quickly move the rudder to 150 left.
4. When the rate of turn reaches 0 degree/second, return the rudder to amidships.. This
completes the test.
5. Repeat the test using an initial rudder angle of left 150 port. Repeat steps 2 and 3
with the term ”left” and ”right” reversed.
6. Repeat the test using initial rudder angles of 200 and 300 (total of 6 runs).
Move the rudder to the prescribed angle as accurate as possible. Ensure that speed and
heading are steady during the approach.
10. Man-Overboard Test
Purpose The man-overboard test is used to simulate the rescue of a man who has fallen
overboard. Rudder angle and ship trajectory are checked throughout this test.
Execution The man-overboard test should be carried out as follows:
2. Order 350 rudder angle, left or right.
3. When the ship has turned between 200 and 600 from the initial base course, order
350 opposite rudder and hold the rudder until the ship has turned 1200 to 1500 from
the initial course.
4. Gradually reduce the rudder angle until the ship’s heading is reversed 1800 from the
initial approach course.
11. Parallel Course Maneuver Test

Purpose Parallel course maneuver test provides the information for the emergency avoid-
ance of a passing ship when maximum rudder angle is used. The obtainable data are an
operational diagram of rudder angle and lateral displacement from the original base course.
Execution The parallel course maneuver test should be carried out as follows:
2. Order 350 rudder angle.
3. When the ship has turned 300, order 350 opposite rudder and steer the ship to regain
the original course.
The maneuver is repeated with the sequence of left and right commands reversed.
Additional tests are conducted where the ship will be turned after 600 and at 900 course
deviations have been achieved.
Further tests may be performed with the rudder angle modi…ed from 350 to 300 , 250 and
so on.
12. Initial Turning Test

Purpose The initial turning test is used to provide the information on the transient
change of heading after application of a moderate rudder rate.
Execution The initial turning test should be carried out as follows:
2. Order the rudder move in accordance to the values noted in the trial agenda. Once
the rudder angle is set, no further adjustment is made, even if the rudder angle
achieved deviates to some degree from the desired rudder angle.
3. When the ship has reached a steady turning rate, the test is completed and the ship
is made ready for the subsequent test.
The normal rudder angle to be ordered is 100 and 200 for both port and starboard turns.
It is desirable that the approach headings for port and starboard turns be the same.
13. Z-Maneuver Test at Low Speed

Purpose The Z-maneuver test at low speed is used to determine the minimum speed at
which the ship does not respond to the helm.
Execution The Z-maneuver test at low speed should be carried out as follows:
2. Stop the engine and let the propeller idle. Order the rudder to be moved to 350 right.
3. When the ship turns to 10 starboard heading, reverse the rudder angle to 350 left.
4. After the ship reverses turning direction and the approach heading reaches 10 port,
reverse the rudder angle to right 350 .
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the rudder is no longer active and the ship does not
respond to the rudder. At this point the test is complete.
14. Accelerating Turning Test

Purpose This test provides the turning characteristics of the ship accelerating from dead
in the water. Maximum engine output are applied simultaneously.
Execution The accelerating turning test should be carried out as follows:
1. Bring the ship dead in the water with the engine set to ”stop engine”. Start the
acquisition system.
2. Order the rudder angle prescribed in the trial agenda. Simultaneously order ”ahead”
at the prescribed engine order. Once the rudder is set, no further adjustment is made,
even if the rudder angle achieved deviates to some degree from the desired rudder
angle.
3. When the change of heading reaches an angle between 5400 and 7200, the test is
complete.
The normal rudder angle to be ordered is 350 or maximum rudder angle left and right. It
is desirable that the approach headings for left and right turns be the same.
15. Acceleration/Deceleration Test

Purpose These tests determine speed and reach along the projected approach path ver-
sus elapsed time for a series of acceleration/deceleration runs using various engine order
combinations.
Figure 4.19: Acceleration/Deceleration Test
Execution The acceleration/deceleration test should be carried out as follows:
point where the engine order is initiated, start the acquisition system.
2. Execute the prescribed engine order.
3. When the ship attains the steady terminal speed stated in the trial agenda, the test
is complete.
Use minimum rudder throughout the run to maintain heading. It is desirable to conduct
all of the acceleration/deceleration runs from the same initial base heading and general
location. The trial agenda details the combination of approach and execute engine orders
that should be used in this series of tests.
16. Thruster Test

Purpose The thruster test is used to determine the turning qualities using thruster(s)
with the ship dead in the water or running at a given speed.
Execution The thruster test should be carried out as follows:
1. With the ship dead in the water at the heading prescribed in the trial agenda and
the engine set to ”stop engine”, start the data acquisition.
2. Order the bow thruster(s) to full thrust.
3. When the thruster(s) operate over 10 minutes or the ship’s heading reaches 300, the
test is complete. The ship is brought back to a dead in the water condition at the
desired heading, in readiness for the subsequent test (reverse bow thruster).
The same procedure is applied using an initial forward speed designated in the trial agenda
(starting point being a stable prescribed speed). Approach headings for left and right turns
should be the same.
With the ship in trial ballast condition, it should be noted that reduced thrust may result
unless the thruster is not properly submerged. The thruster should be submerged so that
its axis is at a depth of at least 0.8 times the thruster diameter.
Bow thruster tests for dry cargo ships in the trial ballast condition are severely in‡uenced
by sea and wind and should be conducted only in protected areas or in the open sea when
the sea conditions are exceptionally smooth.
Refer to Guide for sea Trials, SNAME (1989) for other thruster tests using combinations
of rudder.
17. Minimum Revolution Test

Purpose The ability to proceed at steady slow speed is determined from the ship’s speed
associated with the lowest possible engine revolutions per minute.
Execution The minimum revolution test should be carried out as follows:
1. Establish a steady ship speed in accordance with the trial agenda (normally maxi-
mum speed in harbor) and adjust the ship’s heading to a steady course. At a position
roughly one ship length before the point where the rpm is changed, start the acqui-
sition system.
2. Main shaft revolution is gradually decreased until the minimum revolution necessary
to keep the engine running is found.
3. A con…rmation run at minimum revolution is carried out for about one minute.
18. Crash Ahead Test

Purpose The crash ahead test is used to express the qualities for emergency maneuvers
similar to the stopping test. An order for full ahead is given when the ship is moving
steadily astern. The obtainable information are stopping time and stopping distance of
the ship from the time at which an order for full ahead is given until the ship is stopped
dead in the water.
Execution The crash ahead test is a part of the stopping test, whose procedure is de-
scribed in a previous section on the stopping test.
4.5.5 Stability Characteristics

Dieudonné’s direct spiral maneuver identi…es the directional stability characteristics of a
ship. The numerical measures, obtained from this spiral maneuver, are the steady yawing
rates as a function of rudder angle. A plot of these values is indicative of the stability
characteristics of a ship. For example, if the plot is a single line going from starboard
rudder to port rudder and back again - as shown for Ship A in …gure 4.20 - the ship
possesses controls-…xed straight-line stability. If, however, the plot consists of two branches
joined together to form a ”hysteresis” loop - as shown for Ships B and C in …gure 4.20 -
the ship is unstable. The solid line curves show the steady turning rates. Arrows along
the curves show the sequence of results of the spiral tests. Dotted lines indicate the jump
in steady-turning rate during spiral tests of the dynamically unstable Ships B and C.
Figure 4.20: Steady Turning Rate Versus Rudder Angle
For unstable vessels, a hysteresis loop is identi…able, although a de…nite relationship is

indicated within the loop. This is because the test condition is no longer controls-…xed.
The results still provide the shape of the loop for evaluation of the degree of instability.
A properly calibrated rate-gyro and an accurate rudder angle indicator are required, al-
though in certain cases the test may be performed with automatic steering devices available
on board. If manual steering is used, the instantaneous rate of turn must be visually dis-
played for the helmsman, either on a recorder or on a rate-of-turn indicator. Using the
reverse spiral test technique, point on the curve of yaw rate versus rudder angle may be
taken in any order.
In addition, the height and width of the loop are numerical measures of the degree of
instability; the larger the loop, the more instable the ship. The slope of the yaw-rate curve
at zero rudder angle is a measure of the degree of stability or instability.
It may be noted here already that the linear theory, as will treated in the next section, is
unable to predict the characteristics of the hysteresis for unstable ships. For this purpose,
a non-linear theory is essential; this will be treated in another lecture.
Although not commonly in use, the pull-out tests provide an indication of a ship’s stability
on a straight course. The ship is …rst made to turn with some rate of turn in either direction.
The rudder is then returned to amidships (neutral position). If the ship is stable, the rate
of turn will decay to zero for turns to both port and starboard. If the ship is only moderate
unstable, the rate of turn will reduce to some residual rate. The pull-out tests should be
performed to both port and starboard to show possible asymmetry. Normally, pull-out
tests can easily be performed in connection with other tests being run.
One of the main reasons for speed reduction when sailing a (part of a) turning circle will
be caused by an inertia term and a drift angle, see …gure 4.21, which causes an additional
longitudinal resistance term.
Figure 4.21: E¤ect of Drift Angle on the Resistance of a Ship
Figure 4.22 gives an indication of the speed reduction of a ship as a function of the turning
diameter - ship length ratio and the block coe¢cient.
1 .0
Blo ck Coe fficient: 0.8 0
Spee d Ra tio (U / U 0 ) (-)
0.70
0 .8 0 .60
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Turning Diameter / Ship Length D / Lp p (- )
Figure 4.22: Speed Reduction as Function of Diameter, Ship Length and CB
Figure 4.23 gives an indication of the required rate of turn of a ship at low speeds, when
using special maneuvering tools like bow propellers and active rudders.
Figure 4.23: Rate of Turn at Low Speeds with Special Maneuvering Tools
4.6 Mathematical Maneuvering Models

Mathematical maneuvering models are used mainly when ship maneuvering is to be as-
sessed with he aid of ship maneuvering simulator, training of navigating o¢cers on a ma-
neuvering simulator or for the development of a ship auto-pilot dedicated to a certain ship
design. The model might be rather complicated, consisting of three non-linear, coupled
…rst order di¤erential equations in the horizontal plane, describing the angular velocity
and the forward velocity respectively.
When only directional stability and maneuverability is in concern, the only purpose of a
mathematical model is to describe yaw and sway as accurately as necessary only for this
purpose. Then, a simple but practical model is su¢cient.
The simplest example of such model is the linear …rst order model of Nomoto.
¯ ¯
¯ Ä _ ¯
¯T Ã + Ã = K ±r ¯ or jT r_ + r = K± r j (4.11)
where Ã is the course angle and r is the rate of turn.

To understand this uncoupled yaw equation better, one should write it in the following
form:
Ä + Ne Ã_ = Me ± r
Ie Ã (4.12)
with:
Ie Me
T = and K =
Ne Ne
in which:
Ie = total mass moment of inertia coe¢cient

Ne = hydrodynamic damping coe¢cient
Me = external moment coe¢cient
4.7. ESTIMATION OF NOMOTO’S K AND T INDICES 89
The indices e of the coe¢cients indicate here that this are ”e¤ective” coe¢cients, which
include coupling e¤ects between sway and yaw.
T and K are simpli…ed characteristic constants of ship; they are often called the ”K -T
Indices” or the ”Nomoto Steering Indices”. A large time constant T will be obtained in
case of a large moment of inertia Ie and a small damping Ne , like is the case for large crude
oil carriers. A large K is caused by a large rudder moment Me and a small damping Ne .
Figure 4.24 shows some of these e¤ects on the path of a ship during a turning test.
Figure 4.24: E¤ect of K and T on the Path during a Turning Test
Figure 4.24-a shows that a large K thus provides greater steady state turning ability and
a smaller T provides a quicker response to helms; quick response implied good course
changing ability. Poor turning and slow response or bad course stability is associated with
small K and large T , see …gure 4.24-b. Large full ships have a relative large K and a large
T.
4.7 Estimation of Nomoto’s K and T Indices

Nomoto’s …rst order indices K and T will be determined now from experimental results of
two di¤erent kinds of test trials:
- turning test data and
- zig-zag maneuver data.
Ä or Ã_ and ±r when analyzing maneu-
Generally, no linear relation will be found between Ã
vering test data, because of a non-linear behavior of the ship. This means that both K
and T will depend on the rudder angle ±.
4.7.1 Use of Turning Test Data

Nomoto’s K and T indices in equation:
Ä + Ã_ = K± r
TÃ (4.13)
will be determined here for a turning test with a rudder action as given in …gure 4.25.
Figure 4.25: Course and Rate of Turn during a Turning Test
Two time interval regions have to be considered here:
1. Time interval 0 5 t 5 t1, with a time-depending rudder angle ±r = ±a

t1 ¢t
Here, Nomoto’s …rst order equation 4.13 for yaw becomes:
Ä + Ã_ = K± a ¢ t
TÃ for: 0 5 t 5 t1 (4.14)
t1
with solution:
µ ¶
_Ã = K T ±a ¢ e¡ Tt ¡ 1 + t for: 0 5 t 5 t1 (4.15)
t1 T
2. Time interval t = t1, with a constant rudder angle ± = ±a

Here, Nomoto’s …rst order equation 4.13 for yaw becomes:
Ä + Ã_ = K± a
TÃ for: t = t1 (4.16)
with solution:
Ã_ = Ce ¢ e ¡ T + K± a
t
for: t = t1 (4.17)
For t = t1 both solutions should have the same value:

µ ¶
_Ã = KT ±a ¢ e¡ tT1 ¡ 1 + t1 = Ce ¢ e¡ tT1 + K ±a for: t = t1 (4.18)
t1 T
from which follows the so far unknown constant Ce :
K T ±a ³ ¡ tT1 ´
Ce = e ¡1 (4.19)
t1
This yields as solution for Ã_ (t) at interval t = t1:
Ã t1
!
K T ±a ¡ Tt eT t1
Ã_ (t) = ¢ e ¡ t + for: t = t1 (4.20)
t1 eT T
For a large t, this solution of the rate of turn reduces to:
Ã_ = K± a for: t ! 1 (4.21)
and the turning capacity index K in Nomoto’s …rst order equation 4.13 for yaw becomes:
¯ ¯
¯
¯ Ã_ (t ! 1) ¯¯
¯K = ¯ (4.22)
¯ ±a ¯
This relation can also be found directly by applying equation 4.13 to the …nal part of the
time history of a turning test, where the ship is sailing in a steady turning circle already.
There: ÃÄ = 0, where equation 4.13 reduces to: Ã_ = K ±, from which K can be found.
The time history of the course Ã (t) can be found from an integration of the rate of turn
Ã_ (t):
Zt
Ã (t) = Ã_ (t¤) dt¤
0
Zt1 Zt
= Ã_ (t ) dt +
¤ ¤
Ã_ (t¤) dt¤
0 t1
8 t 9
<Z 1 µ ¤
¶ Zt Ã t1
!
=
KT ±a ¡ tT
¤ t ¡ tT
¤ e T t1
= e ¡1+ dt¤ + e ¡ t¤ + dt¤ (4.23)
t1 : T e T T ;
0 t1
= ::: ::: :::
After some algebra, this integral provides for t = t1:

½ µ ¶ ´ t¾
t T 2 ³ ¡ tT1
Ã (t) = K± a ¢ t ¡ T + 1 + e ¡ 1 e¡ T for: t = t1 (4.24)
2 t1
An example of the time histories of the rudder angle ± (t), the course Ã (t) and the rate of
turn Ã_ (t) during a turning test is given in …gure 4.25.
Equation 4.24 can also be written as:
t
Ã (t) = a + bt + ce¡ T (4.25)
with:
µ ¶
t1
a = ¡K T ± a ¢ 1 +
2T
b = K± a
KT 2 ±a ³ tT1 ´
c = ¢ e ¡1
t1
For t ! 1, this equation reduces to its asymptotic function:
Ã (t) = a + bt for: t ! 1 (4.26)

This asymptotic function Ã (t) = a + bt intersects Ã (t) = 0 at time tT :
¡a
tT =
b ¡ ¢
t1
KT ± a ¢ 1 + 2T
=
K ±a
t1
= T+ (4.27)
2
Then, the time constant T in Nomoto’s …rst order equation 4.13 for yaw follows from:
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯T = tT ¡ t1 ¯ (4.28)
¯ 2¯
Thus, Nomoto’s …rst order indices K and T can be found very easy when applying the
equations 4.22 and 4.28 to the time history of a turning circle as given in …gure 4.25.
4.7.2 Use of Zig-Zag Maneuver Data

Now, Nomoto’s K and T indices in equation:
Ä + Ã_ = K (± c + ±r )
TÃ (4.29)
will be determined for a zig-zag maneuver. The correction angle ± c in here is a required
rudder angle to compensate for an asymmetry of the ship, when sailing a straight line.
At time t = 0, the ship has a rate of turn equal to Ã_ 0. An integration of equation 4.29
between the boundaries t = 0 and t = te , with Ã_ = Ã_ 0 at both boundaries, results in:
¯ Ã_ 0 Zt e
¯
T Ã_ ¯ _ + Ãj 0 e = K ±c te + K ± r dt
Ã
(4.30)
Ã0
0
or:
Zt e
Ãe = K ±c te + K ± r dt (4.31)
0
In a similar way, it can be found that:

Figure 4.26: Integration Boundaries for Analysing Zig-Zag Maneuvers
0
Zte
0 0
Ã e = K ±c te + K ± r dt (4.32)
0
00
Zte
00 00
Ã e = K ±c te + K ± r dt (4.33)
0
Rt e
The integral ±r dt can be determined by a numerical integration of the time history of the
0
rudder de‡ection angle. The unknowns K and ± c can be solved from equations 4.32 and
4.33. Generally, these values does not full…l equation 4.31, because the initial conditions
will play a role at the beginning of a zig-zag maneuver.
The time constant T can be determined from an integration of equation 4.29 over the
00
0
trajectory between t2 and te (alternatively between t4 and te or between t6 and te ), because
of a relatively large response, so:
¯Ã_ 0 Zte
_ ¯ Ãe te
T Ã ¯ + ÃjÃ2 = K± ctjt2 + K ± r dt (4.34)
Ã_ 2
t2
0
¯Ã_ 0 Zte
¯ 0 0
T Ã_ ¯ _ + ÃjÃe4 = K± ctjte4 + K ± r dt
Ã t
(4.35)
Ã4
t4
00
¯Ã_ 0 00
Zte
¯ 00
_
T Ã ¯ _ + Ãj ÃÃe6 te
= K± ctj + K
t6 ± r dt (4.36)
Ã6
t6
or:
³ ´ Zte
T Ã_ 2 ¡ Ã_ 0 = (Ã e ¡ Ã2 ) ¡ K ±c (te ¡ t2) ¡ K ±r dt (4.37)
t2
0
³ ´ ³ ´ ³ ´ Zte
T Ã_ 4 ¡ Ã_ 0
0 0
= Ã e ¡ Ã 4 ¡ K± c te ¡ t4 ¡ K ± r dt (4.38)
t4
00
³ ´ ³ ´ ³ ´ Zte
T Ã_ 6 ¡ Ã_ 0
00 00
= Ã e ¡ Ã 6 ¡ K ±c t e ¡ t 6 ¡ K ±r dt (4.39)
t6
Again, equation 4.37 will be a¤ected by initial conditions, so equations 4.38 and 4.39 can
be used to determine the turning capacity coe¢cient K .
A simple method for determining Nomoto’s manoeuvering indices K and T from full-scale
zigzag trial data is given by [Journée, 1970].
4.7.3 Experimental Data on K and T

The maneuvering indices K and T are made dimensionless with ship length L and initial
forward speed U0 by:
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯K 0 = L ¢ K ¯ and ¯ 0
T =
U0
¢ T ¯¯ (4.40)
¯ U0 ¯ ¯ L
Figure 4.27 shows a graphic presentation of K 0 and T 0 indices in relation to the size of
the ship for various types, as they have been published by Kensaku Nomoto on the First
Symposium on Ship Maneuverability in Washington in 1960. Nevertheless the spreading
of the data points, the …gure shows that K 0 does not depend very much on the ship size,
but that T 0 increases with the ship size.
5 5
4 4
3 3
K' (-)
T' (-)
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Displacement (ton x 1000) Displacement (ton x 1000)
Figure 4.27: Non-Dimensional Presentation of K and T Indices of Nomoto
Figure 4.28 shows the data points for K 0 and T 0 , obtained from various zig-zag trials,
with the upper and lower curves set at 1.25 and 0.75 times the mean. In the literature,
sometimes the overshoot angle is basis for analyzing results of zig-zag maneuvers. However,
Nomoto has pointed out that the overshoot angle is nearly proportional to K 0 =T 0 , with the
rudder angle ± r …xed. Figure 4.28 con…rms Nomoto’s suggestion that the parameters K 0
and T 0 provide a more useful basis for analyzing results of zig-zag maneuvers than does
the overshoot angle.
Figure 4.28: Relationship of Steering Quality Indices K 0 and T 0
Figure 4.29: Correlation of Zig-Zag Maneuver Performance Data
Figure 4.29 shows the relationship between the parameters K 0 and T 0 and the rudder area,
AR. Together with formula 4.1 of Det Norske Veritas, this relationship may be useful as
design tools in selecting a rudder area.
4.8 Speed Changing

Stopping, coasting, backing and accelerating are important ship maneuvers; the …rst three
particularly when near land, other vessels and …xed structures. However, the interactions
between hull and propeller(s) during these maneuvers are quite complex. Because of this
and the transient character of maneuvering, empirical calculations of the characteristics of
these maneuvers are sometimes used when adequate motion equation coe¢cients are not
available for simulation.
Stopping is decelerating the ship speed from any given ahead speed until the ship comes to
rest. When discussing stopping capabilities, at least two ahead speeds should be considered;
a crash stop from ”full-ahead sea-speed” and a stop from ”harbor speed”. Harbor speed
may be 12 knots for a slow ship, such as a tanker, or about 15 knots for a fast ship, such
as a container vessel. Although in practice ”emergency full astern” is almost never ordered
from ”full-ahead sea-speed”; it is a customary machinery acceptance trial and the results
are useful as a relative measure of stopping ability.
Coasting refers to decelerating without using backing power. Time and distance required
for a ship to decelerate to a slower speed is often of interest in ship handling. Decelerating
more generally means that engine power ahead is insu¢cient to maintain steady forward
speed. In that case, the unbalanced longitudinal force (i.e., thrust is less than resistance)
then causes the ship to decelerate until resistance again equals thrust, at some lower speed.
Rarely will a ship-handler coast a ship to near dead-in-the-water, because of the very long
time it takes. However, decelerating at the least sustainable ahead power at which the ship
will steer is very important to the ship handler. The distance required to thus decelerate is
critical to getting a ship’s speed down from the harbor approach velocity to a speed regime
at which tugs can be e¤ective in controlling the ship. In harbors where berthing may be
located near the harbor entrance, this …gures in harbor design, siting of terminals and in
the selection and use of tugs. In some places it has led to the use of braking ships.
Backing a ship is a maneuver of accelerating from rest to a given astern speed or distance.
A backing propeller, on the other hand is one in which the blades are turning with negative
angle of attack, producing astern thrust.
Accelerating means increasing ship speed from rest or from a particular ahead speed to
a higher ahead speed.
The principal performance indexes of these maneuvers re‡ect the time and distance from
the initiation to completion. To simplify analyses, we often assume that the ship travels on
a straight line during stopping. This is generally not true except in the case of some multi-
screw ships with opposite rotating propellers, in the absence of appreciable wind, current
and rudder angle and with controls-…xed straight-line stability. For the backing or stopping
of ships with single-screws or uni-rotating multi-screws, the rotation of the propeller tends
to swing the stern to port if the propellers are right-handed (positive rotation according
to sign convention) and to starboard if they are left-handed (negative rotation). Other
factors may cause the ship to veer in the opposite direction.
When a ship deviates from its straight path during a stopping or backing maneuver, the
distance traveled is measured along its curved track. But the projections of this distance
- termed head reach and side reach - are generally of greater importance as performance
indexes.
4.8. SPEED CHANGING 97
4.8.1 Stopping
Suppose a ship sailing in calm water at a straight path, with a speed U0. Its stopping
distance and stopping time can be obtained by stationary model tests. At a range of
forward speeds U, the remaining longitudinal force X (U; n) is measured at a range of
propeller rates n; see …gure 4.30. This force consists of resistance and thrust contributions.
Figure 4.30: Breaking Force as Function of Forward Speed and Propeller Rate
Newton’s second law provides the following equation of motion in the longitudinal direction:
d
f(m ¡ Xu_ ) ¢ Ug = ¡X(U; n) (4.41)
dt
In here, ¡Xu_ is the added mass in the longitudinal direction, which is assumed to constant
here.
Then:
ZU
du
t ¡ t0 = ¡ (m ¡ Xu_ ) (4.42)
X(U; n)
U0
ZU
Udu
s ¡ s 0 = ¡ (m ¡ Xu_ ) (4.43)
X(U; n)
U0
In here, t¡t0 is the time span required to reduce speed from U0 to U . The covered distance
during that time span is s ¡ s0.
From equation 4.41 can be found:
Zt
[m ¡ Xu_ ]t ¢ U ¡ [m ¡ Xu_ ] t0 ¢ U0 = ¡ X ¢ dt0
t0
From this follows for U = 0:

Zt
1
[m ¡ Xu_ ]t = X ¢ dt0
U0
t0
Figure 4.31: Virtual Mass as Function of Forward Speed and Propeller Rate
This added mass, ¡Xu_ , is depending on forward ship speed and propeller rate, as has been
shown in …gure 4.31.
Figure 4.32 shows an example of the measured and computed stopping distances at several
initial speeds of a tanker in full load and in ballast condition.
4.8.2 Coasting
Coasting with the propeller ”windmilling” consists of reducing the ahead power to that
level necessary to cause the propeller to rotate without producing any thrust. In that case,
the ship would be slowed solely by its hull resistance. When coasting with the propeller
stopped, the ship would be slowed by its hull resistance plus the resistance of the locked
propeller. In practice, the propeller’s rpm is likely to be slightly less than its zero-slip
value, so that it exerts some sternward thrust. With feedback engine control it may circle
between very slow ahead and astern.
4.8.3 Backing
Many operators feel that backing time should be established primarily on the basis of
maneuverability around docks. In the case of clearing a ship slip, the astern speed achieved
after the ship has traveled one ship length may be an adequate criterion for judging backing
speed. However, a poll of the operators did not suggest what the speed should be, but
4.8. SPEED CHANGING 99
20
T ANKER
Full Load, Meas ured
Full Load, Computed
Ballast, Measured
Ballast, Computed
15
Stopping D istance s / L (-)
10
Full load
Ballast
0
0 5 10 15 20
Initial Speed U0 (kn)
Figure 4.32: Measured and Computed Stopping Distances of a Tanker
rather indicated that experience and the particular hydrographic conditions would dictate
the desirable astern speed.
The astern speed, U, reached in di¤erential time at starting from rest may be obtained
by equating the product of the instantaneous accelerating force, X, times the distance
traveled, s, to the kinetic energy of the ship at speed U. Thus:
1
s¢X = (m ¡ Xu_ ) U 2 (4.44)
2
4.8.4 Accelerating
Acceleration ahead is important for naval ships that may have a change position rapidly
in a task force or accelerate suddenly for other tactical reasons. The acceleration may be
found from:
(m ¡ Xu_ ) ¢ u_ = T (U; n) ¢ f1 ¡ tg ¡ R (U) (4.45)

with the variables: thrust T , thrust deduction fraction t and resistance R.
Figure 4.33 shows an example of the acceleration force and the acceleration as functions of
the ship speed.
Figure 4.33-a shows typical relationships amongst R, T , X and speed for a steam turbine.
The thrust curves 1 and 2 in the …gure apply to the case where the initial speed is greater
than zero. In the case shown, because the thrust is greater than resistance at the initial
speed, there is no equilibrium and the ship accelerates. At ”execute”, the thrust is increased
rapidly to the amount desired. Then thrust curve 1 applies. Of course, the time to reach
total equilibrium at maximum speed will be quite long. This is because resistance will very
gradually approach the thrust curve as speed approaches maximum and there is gradually
diminishing unbalanced thrust remaining to cause acceleration.
Figure 4.33: Acceleration Force and Acceleration as Functions of Ship Speed
If the …nal desired speed after acceleration is less than the maximum speed, then much less
time and distance are needed. Then the maximum available thrust of curve 1 is utilized
until the desired speed is reached and the thrust is appropriately reduced to equal the
resistance at the desired speed, curve 2. This technique is useful in conducting maneuvering
trials to shorten the time needed to ”steady up” on the approach course.
Figure 4.33-b shows the relationship de…ned by equation 4.45 between u_ and the ship speed,
U, corresponding to the thrust curves 1 and 2. The relationship between time, velocity
and distance is as follows:
Z Z
dU 1 1
u_ = dt = ¢ dU t= ¢ dU s = U ¢ dt (4.46)
dt u_ u_
Bibliography
[Abbott and von Doenho¤, 1958] Abbott, I. A. and von Doenho¤, A. E. (1958). Theory
of Wing Sections, Including a Summary of Airfoil Data. Dover Publications Inc., New
York, USA.
[Davidson and Schi¤, 1946] Davidson, K. S. M. and Schi¤, L. (1946). Turning and Course-
Keeping Qualities. Transactions SNAME.
[Hooft, 1970] Hooft, J. P. (1970). Aspects of Semi-Submersible Platforms, MARIN publi-

cation 400. PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.
[Journée, 1970] Journée, J. M. J. (1970). A Simple Method for Determining the Ma-
neuvering Indices K and T from Zigzag Trial Data. Technical Report 267, Delft Uni-
versity of Technology, Ship Hydromechanics Laboratory, The Netherlands. (Internet:
http://dutw189.wbmt.tudelft.nl/~johan or http://www.shipmotions.nl).
[Kent, 1950] Kent, J. L. (1950). The Design of Seakindly Ships. North-East Coast Insti-
tution of Engineers and Shipowners, Newcastle upon Tyne, U,K.
[Norrbin, 1960] Norrbin, N. H. (1960). A Study of Course-Keeping and Maneuvering Per-

formance. Symposium on Ship Maneuverability, Washington.
[Srivastava, 1993] Srivastava, S. D. (1993). IMO’s Activities on Ship Manoeuvrability. In

MARSIM ’93, International Conference on Marine Simulation and Ship Manoeuvrabil-
ity, St. John’s, Canada.
[St. Denis and Pierson, 1953] St. Denis, M. and Pierson, W. J. (1953). On the Motion of
Ships in Confused Seas. Transactions SNAME, 61:1–53.
101

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INTRODUCTION IN

J.M.J. Journée and Jakob Pinkster

Delft University of Technology

2 Ocean Surface Waves 7

3 Behavior of Structures in Waves 31

4.4.1 Maneuverability Information On-Board Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Figure 1.1: Human Appreciations of Accelerations

Figure 1.2: Amidships Vertical Bending Moments During Slamming

Figure 1.3: The World’s First Towing Tanks

Ocean Surface Waves

2.1 Regular Waves

Figure 2.1: Harmonic Wave De…nitions

j³ = ³ a cos(kx ¡ !t)j (2.5)

2.1.1 Potential Theory

©w (x; z; t) = P (z) ¢ sin (kx ¡ !t) (2.6)

2.1.2 Water Particle Kinematics

An example of a velocity …eld is given in …gure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Velocity Field in a Deep Water Wave

sin2 (kx1 ¡ !t) + cos2 (kx1 ¡ !t) = 1 (2.16)

Figure 2.3: Trajectories of Water Particles in a Deep Water Wave

Three parts can be distinguished in this expression for the pressure:

2.1.4 Wave Energy

2.1.5 Numerical Exercises

2. The maximum ‡uid particle velocity in the tank.

3. The path of a ‡uid particle in the surface of the wave.

6. The phase velocity, c, of these waves.

1. ! = 3:14 rad/s, k = 1:0 m¡1 and ¸ = 6:25 m.

2. umax = vmax = 0:63 m/s.

3. Circular motion with a radius of 0:20 m.

4. Circular motion with a radius of 0:12 m.

5. pmax = 0:62 ¢ 104 N/m2 .

8. " = ¡2:5 rad = ¡144±.

2.2 Irregular Waves

2.2.1 Simple Statistical Analysis

Figure 2.4: Time History of a Seaway

Figure 2.5: Histogram of Wave Heights

Average Wave Period

Wave Height Statistics

A numerical example of this approach is given in the table below.

wave height wave height number frequency

(m) (m) n f(x)

Signi…cant Wave Height

2:0 ¢ 21 + 2:5 ¢ 14 + 3:0 ¢ 9 + 3:5 ¢ 5 + 4:0 ¢ 1

This means that the irregular waves can be written as:

see …gure 2.7.

2.2.3 Energy Density Spectrum

Figure 2.7: Wave Record Analysis

Figure 2.8: Registration and Sampling of a Wave

The wave amplitude, ³ an , can be expressed by a wave spectrum, S³ (! n):

Figure 2.9: De…nition of Spectral Density

Letting ¢! ! 0, the de…nition of the wave energy spectrum, S³ (!), becomes:

Wave Height and Period

m1³ = !1 ¢ m0³ with !1 is spectral centroid

2.2.4 Standard Wave Spectra

Bretschneider Wave Spectra

JONSWAP Wave Spectra

° = 3:3 (peakedness factor)

Wave Spectra Comparison

Wave Frequency (rad/s)