Greek Language: by Adam (Makis) G. Krassanakis

ADAM (MAKIS) G.
KRASSANAKIS
GREEK LANGUAGE
4TH EDITION: ADDED AND IMPROVED
- The Greek Language and

Greek Scripture (writing), as we
will see here, are among the old-
est and most cultivated and there-
fore the most perfect and easiest
in the world.
- The Greek Language and
Greek Scripture are the ones that
captured and recorded with math-
ematical precision human intellec-
tual expression during the first ex-
tremely important moments of the
creation of humanity: Homer, Aris-
totle, Plato, etc.
- Also, the Greek Language
and Greek Scripture were the
ones that first became international, something that happened during
the era of Alexander the Great and Jesus Christ.
A’ EDITION ATHENS 2010

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A.G. KRASANAKIS THE GREEK LANGUAGE & THE GREEK WRITING
THE GREEK LANGUAGE

By ADAM (MAKIS) G. KRASSANAKIS
Translation in English
by ART PERDIKIS
- The Greek Language and Greek Scripture (writing), as we will

see here, are among the oldest and most cultivated and therefore the
most perfect and easiest in the world.
- The Greek Language and Greek Scripture are the ones that
captured and recorded with mathematical precision human intellectual
expression during the first extremely important moments of the cre-
ation of humanity: Homer, Aristotle, Plato, etc.
_The Greek Language and Greek Scripture were the ones that
first became international, something that happened during the era of
Alexander the Great and Jesus Christ.
- The Greek language is today considered the mother of other
European languages, as well as many others.
In its modern form is the official language of Greece and Cyprus

and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. It is spo-
ken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy,
Albania, Turkey, and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora.
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TABLE OF CONTEXS
Περιεχόμενα
CHAPTER 1st ...................................................................... 6
THE WORDS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND THEIR PRODUCTION . 6
1. THE LANGUAGE AND THE WORDS ................................ 6
2. THE GENERATION (PRODUCTION) OF GREEK WORDS ..... 7
3. THE ELEMENTS OF WORDS .......................................... 8
4. PHTHONGS (= THE SOUNDS OF WORDS) & SYLLABLES 10
CHAPTER 2nd .................................................................. 12
PARTS OF SPEECH ........................................................... 12
1. SIGNIFICANCE AND TYPES OF PARTS OF SPEECH ......... 12
2. DECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH ................................. 12
CHAPTER 3rd ................................................................... 15
HISTORY OF GREEK LANGUAGE ......................................... 15
1. HISTORY OF GREEK LANGUAGE ................................. 15
2. PERIODS OF GREEK LANGUAGE ................................. 15
CHAPTER 4th ................................................................... 23
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ................................................... 23
GREEK AND OTHER LANGUAGES ....................................... 23
1. CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE GREEK
LANGUAGE .......................................................................... 23
2. THE WEALTH, THE EXPRESSIVE ABILITY AND THE
UNIVERSAL CONTRIBUTION OF GREEK LANGUAGE .................. 27
CHAPTER 5th .................................................................. 30
EDUCATIONAL ................................................................. 30
1. DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING THE GREEK LANGUAGE. .... 30
2. HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT NEW GREEK ....................... 31
CHAPTER 6th .................................................................. 46
THE VALUE, GLOBAL CONTRIBUTION AND THE REASONS WHY
THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND THE GREEK SYSTEM OF WRITING
SHOULD ONCE AGAIN BECOME INTERNATIONAL AND THE OFFICIAL
PROTOCOL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION ....................................... 46
1. OPINIONS FOR VOLUE OF GREEK LANGUAGE ............... 46
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2.ΤΗΕ GLOBAL CONTRIBUTION OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND

GREEK ALPHABET – THE GREEK LANGUAGE IS THE MATHER OF
MANY OTHERS LANGUAGES ETC ............................................ 47
3. ENGLISH SPEECHES WITH GREEK WORDS .................. 51
4. GREEK WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (DICTIONARY)
......................................................................................... 53
5. THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND THE GREEK WRITING
(ALPHABET) MUST BECOME ONCE AGAIN THE INTERNATIONAL
AND THE OFFICIAL PROTOCOL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION ........ 57
6. THE GREEK LANGUAGE BY A SINGLE VOTE LOST, FROM
ONCE AGAIN, BECOMING THE OFFICIAL INTERNATIONAL
LANGUAGE; SOMETHING THAT WAS WRONG .......................... 58
7. THE GREEK LANGUAGE HAS AN EXTREMELY PRECISE
EXPRESSION AND AN EASY AND UNLIMITED REPRODUCTIVE
CAPABILITY OF WORDS ........................................................ 59
8. THE GREEK LANGUAGE HAS CLARITY AND EXPRESSION 61
9. THE GREEK (LANGUAGE) IS THE MOST EUPHONIC AND
EASY TO PRONOUNCE LANGUAGE .......................................... 62
10. THE GREEK SCRIPT (GREEK WRITING) IS THE MOST EASY
AND MOST PERFECT IN THE WOLD ........................................ 63
A. THE PROBLEMS OF WRITING AND BY WHAT TECHNIQUE
WERE THEY OVERCOME ........................................................ 63
B. THE GREEK ALPHABET AND ITS WRITING TECHNIQUE .. 64
C. THE METHODOLOGY (TECHIC) OF THE GREEK WRITING
SYSTEM .............................................................................. 68
11. THE GREEK SCRIPT (GREEK WRITING) IS THE MOST EASY
AND MOST PERFECT IN THE WOLD ........................................ 72
Α. THE GREEK SCRIPT (ANCIENT AND NEW WRITING) IS THE
MOST PRECISE, NEARLY PERFECT SYSTEM IN THE WORLD. THE
ONLY WRITING SYSTEM THAT RECORDS THE WORDS AS AN
ELECTRONIC RECORDER DOES AND BEYOND! ......................... 72
Β. THE GREEK SYSTEM OF WRITING IS NOT ONLY THE MOST
PRECISE AND PERFECT, BUT ALSO THE EASIEST IN THE WORLD,
SINCE IT CAN BE LEARNED IN 30 MINUTES! ........................... 76
12. THE LATIN ALPHABET, THE HISTORICAL WRITING AND
THE PHONETICS .................................................................. 78
A. THE LATIN ALPHABET AND ITS RULS .......................... 79
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B. THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS - COMPARISON OF GREEK

WRITING WITH LATIN AND ALSO THAT WITH LATIN CHARACTERS:
EGLISH, GERMAN ETC .......................................................... 79
C. DIFERENCE AMONG GREEK AND WRITING WITH LATIN
CHARACTRERS (ENGLISH, GERMAN, HOLAND ETC WRITING) .... 82
D. THE PHONETICS AND THE INTERNATIONALSYSTEM OF
WRITING (ALPHABET & SPELLING) ........................................ 85
CHAPTER 7th ................................................................... 87
FALSIES (LIES) FOR GREEK LANGUAGE AND GREEK WRITING
............................................................................................. 87
1. THE INCORRECT CONCLUSIONS (ERRONEOUS VIEW) OF
THE DUTCHMAN ERASMUS THAT GREEK WRITING IS HISTORICAL,
THE ANCIENT GREEK LANGUAGE HAD MORE VOWELS, ETC. ..... 87
2. HISTORICAL WRITINGS IS THE SCRIPT WITH LATIN
ALPHABET (ENGLISH, FRENCH ETC… WRITINGS) AND NOT THE
GREEK ................................................................................ 92
3. THE LIE (FALSE) THAT GREEK WRITING IS HISTORICAL
AND THEREFORE DIFFICULT ................................................. 95
4. THE LIE (FALSIE) THAT THE GREEK ALPHABET AND GREEK
WRITING ARE DERIVED FROM THE PHOENICIAN ALPHABET AND
PHOENICIAN WRITING OR THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET AND
EGYPTIAN WRITING ............................................................. 97
5. THE LIE (FALSIE) FOR LONG - SHORT DURATION LETTERS
AND FOR ICONIC LETTERS .................................................. 107
6. THE FALSE OF INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE .............. 111
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................. 113
BOOKS OF ADAM (MAKIS) KRAS(S)ANAKIS ...................... 113
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CHAPTER 1st
THE WORDS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND
THEIR PRODUCTION
1. THE LANGUAGE AND THE WORDS
Language is said (called) the total of words that with concrete

rules of changes and combinations between them (with concrete syn-
tax rules and inclination rules) a population is using in order to under-
stand or to express. It is the tool of expression or the way with which
the persons understand between them (each other) and reveal the
feelings and the thought them.
Word is said (called) the smallest intellectual piece that is a sen-
tence element hence an element of speech. It is an organized sound-
ing mark (sign) which express a certain meaning of a sentence, ac-
cording to its certain elements (root, subject, ending etc) or a part of
speech (noun, adjective, pronoun etc. I.e.
Proposition (sentence): I am tailor = Εγώ είμαι ράπτης (Greek)
Words: I (= pronoun), am (verb), tailor (noun),
Εγώ (= noun), είμαι (= verb), ράπτης (= noun).
The meaning of words depends on their part of speech and their

type (gender, number, case or person) as well as on their kind of
simple derivation or composition. Their meaning, therefore, is regu-
lated by the relationship of their components (prefix, root or them,
ending or accent in case of the simple word and a’ + b’ components
in the case of compound (composite) words. I.e.:
Greek: γράφ-ω, γραφ-ή, συν-γραφ-έας, καλ-ός,ή,οί..
English: write, writ-ing, writ-er, good, good-s..
(Greek alphabet and his pronouncing

see at the end of this book.)
Note:
1) The meaning of a monosyllabic word or a words without con-
stituent elements concern on what position (place) they are put in a
sentence or on witch word is before them; namely if they are used as
conjunctions or as proverbs i.e.:
English: The love, of love & I love, you love, he love..
Greek: Η μάνα μου μου είπε. Πως θα πας & Είπε πως θα πάμε.
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Some times the meaning of a word it depends on his tone (which

syllable is toned or if it is with strong or soft tone), see in Greek: πότε
& ποτέ, η & ή, ε & έ…
2) In the syntax of speech the nouns’ meaning becomes also
more specialized by articles, adjectives and participles. i.e.:
Greek: Πήρα γράμμα & Πήρα το γράμμα. Μικρό γράμμα & μεγάλο
γράμμα.
English: I took letter & I took the letter. Small letter & large
letter
2. THE GENERATION (PRODUCTION) OF GREEK WORDS
The Greek words are formed (born) by the Greeks, time to time,
through:
a) Sound making
Sound made words are those made by the imitation of sounds in
the environment i.e.: β... > βοώ, βόμβος, βόμβα... μπαμ – μπουμ >
μπαλωθιά, μπαρούτι, μπουμπουνητό, μπόμπα... τρ... > τρίβω, τρίζω,
τρυπάνι... γαβ – γαβ > γαβγίζω.... (See in English: bomb, cry, …)
b) Derivation:
Derived wards are those who born from another, i.e.: κράτος >
κρατικός, (See in English: govern > government, love > lovely…)
c) Composition (synthesis):
Compounded words are those who born from two or more oth-
ers: δια + κράτος > δια- κρατικός, αστυ-φύλακας…
(See in English: police-man, land-lord, Englishman….)
d) Falsification
Falsified words are those who born from other with phthongic
alteration (which means addition, abstraction, transposition-removal
or alternation) of a sounding in an ancient word i.e.: χώρα (τόπου) &
(χ)ώρα > ώρα (χρόνου), κόνις >(σ)κόνη, πυρία > (σ)πύρ(τ)α,
σπόγγος > σφουγγάρι...
(See in English: live (pronunciation “laiv”)> living (pronunciation
“livink”), athlete > athleticism…)
e) Abusive derivation which means changing the:
a. Type (= the gender, the case and the number) of an ancient
word, i.e.: αι Αθήναι>η Αθήνα, αι Θήβαι > η θήβα, ο έμπορος, > η
έμπορος, ο σύζυγος > η σύζυγος.
b. The part of speech (an adjective turned into a noun, for in-
stance) of an ancient word, i.e.: κεραμική, μηχανική (Here the words
are adjectives) ... τέχνη > η κεραμική, η μηχανική (Here the words
are nouns), Same: παράγωγος > ο παραγωγός, παράγωγη > η
παραγωγή, ζεστή > η ζέστη,
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c. The typological ending (form) of an ancient word (let’s refer,

for instance, the abolition of the third kind of ancient accidence – con-
jugation): λύσ-ις > λύσ-η, οντότ-ης > οντότ-ητα, Ελλά-ς > Ελλ-άδα,
ρήτ-ωρ > ρήτ-ορας, κλητ-ήρ > κλητήρας….
3. THE ELEMENTS OF WORDS
Compound words are constituted (formed) by the two or more

words, by the first (a’) and the second (b’) component, namely by
their relative simple words. i.e.: συν-γράφω, παρ-ερμηνεύω, εξ-υπ-
ακούγεται.. (As in English: under-standing,..)
Simple words are constituted by the following elements: end-
ing (derivative and formative), subject (thema), root, epithema, pre-
fix and accent.
1. ENDING
The ending is called the changeable final part of an inclinable
word. The linguistic element of the inclinable word stating what part
of speech (noun, adjective, verb…) and what type (gender, number,
case or person) is the significant part of the word. I.e. καλ-ός, καλ-οί,
καλ-ή, καλ-ό, τέλ-ος, τελεί-α… (As in English: good & good-s, end >
end-ing, end-ed…).
Derivative endings are those by which we create words from
other words (from subjects of other words). For instance, the following
endings:
-ινός: χθες > χθεσ-ινός,ή,ό, κοντά > κοντινός, μακρά > μακρι-
νός, τώρα > τωρινός..
-(ά)ζω: σχόλια > σχολιάζω, αγκαλιά > αγκαλιάζω,..
,……………………………
Formative or declination endings are those by which we create
words from roots or alternate at end of an inclinable word in order to
achieve its formations (gender and case in nouns and adjectives,
tenses and persons in verbs). I.e.:
Case ending (in masculine nouns and adjectives):
φόρ-ος, ου,ο,ε γραφ-ικ-ός,ου,ο,ε, Κώστ-ας,α,α,α, Μανώλ-
ης,η,η,η…
φόροι,ων,ους,οι γραφ-ικ-οί,ών,ούς,οί, Κωστ-ήδες,ων,ες,ες...
Person endings (in present tense of verbs):
λύν-ω,εις,ει,ουμε,ετε,ουν
λύν-ομαι,εσαι,εται,ομαστε,εστε,ονται = passive voice
2. SUBJECT (“THEMA”) AND ROOT

Subject is called the starting and immutable (unchanged) part
of an inclinable word that states the main meaning. The initial
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phthongs (= sounds of words) of the word that remain unchanged in

inclination (case subject). I.e.: τακτ-ός, τακτ-ού, τακ-τοί,… or are
taken from the word to create another word (derivative subject):
τακτ-ικός, τακτ-οποιώ…
Double subjective are called those words which are presented
having two subjects in composition (synthesis) and derivation (pro-
duction). I.e.:
γη > γήπεδο, μεσό-γειος, γε-ωργία
καλ-ός,ή,ό > καλό-παιδο, καλλι-γραφία (καλή γραφή)
Nominative: πόλ-η, πολ-ίτης, γάλα > γαλουχώ
Genitive: πόλεως, πολεοδομία, γάλατος, γαλατάς
Root is called the initial subject by whom a series of words or
subjects are created (made). I.e.: πόλις or πόλ-η (root and initial sub-
ject πολ-) > πολ-ίτ-ης (the subject now is πολιτ-) > πολ-ιτικ-ός (the
subject now is πολιτικ-) and πολιτικάντ-ης, πολιτεύομαι > πολιτευτ-
ής…
The character is called the final phthong (sound of words,

Phong = 1 sound, diphthong = 2 sound) of the subject or of the root:
γραφ-ή (Character is φ), γραφικ-ός (Character is κ)…
Epithema is the part of an ending that is put in an ending for
certain meaning. I.e.: τακτ-ός > τακτ-(ικ)-ός
3. PREFIX
The prefix is called the total group of phthongs (sounds of words)
which is put before a subject in inclination, like the syllabic augment
“e-“ in verbs. For example: λύνω > έ-λυνα, έ-λυσα, φέρνω > έ-φερα..
4. ACCENT
The accent is called a louder pronunciation of a syllable in a word
(the accentuation of the voice in a syllable of a word). The accent is
for the expansion of the pronunciation (it is difficult to pronounce the
same all the syllable of a word) and in the Greek language has notional
importance. Accent combined with endings (Only in Greek) state what
part of speech and sometimes what type is a word. I.e.:
εξοχ-ή, μετοχ-ή, Ξάνθ-η… (= noun)
έξοχ-η, μέτοχ-η, ξανθ-ή.. (= adjectives)
άδικ-ο, άπορ-ο, άτυχ-ο, .. (= adjective)
& αδικ-ώ, απορ-ώ, ατυχ-ώ.... (= verb),
έξοχ-ος, κάθετ-ος, υπόγει-ος,.... (= adjective)
& εξόχ-ως, καθέτ-ως, υπογεί-ως... (= adverb),...
ξεκίνα, περπάτα, αγάπα… (= imperative)
ξeκινά, περπατά, αγαπά… (= indicative)
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Accent mark is called the marc (/) by which we indicate the

accent syllable (the name given the sign in written speech above the
vowel of the stressed accentuated syllable), e.g.: κα-λός, κά-λος,, ά-
δικος...
In oral speech (in all languages) one syllable of each word is

accented, except in words of one syllable, see in:
English: morning, pronounce “ mόrnιnk”,
In Greek: καλη-με-ρα, κα-κός, ά-τυ-χος....
In the Greek writing system we always put the accent mark on

the stressed vowel letter: κα-λός, νέ-ος..
Something that does not occur in writing with Latin characters,
see in English: morning (“ μόρνινκ”), America (“Αμέρικα”)...
4. PHTHONGS (= THE SOUNDS OF WORDS) & SYLLABLES
Syllable is called the smallest (least) piece in which a word can

be cut and pronounced in achieving a comfortable acoustic apprehen-
sion. I.e: α-έ-ρας, καλ-ός … (In English: mo-ther, En-glish…)
Phthong (Greek φθόγγος, pronunciation <<fthόnkοs>>) in the
Greek writing system is called one of the individual sounds (voices) of
the word syllables. Phthongs are called the vowels and consonants,
the individual sounds of the syllable in the words, as for example the
phtongs of the words:
Greek words: γρά-φω, Ι-τα-λί-α = γ/ρ/ά/φ/ω, Ι/τ/α/λ/ί/α..
Latin words: I-ta-li-a, La-ti-um = I-t/a/l/y, L/at/i/u/m...
The total of different phthongs of all languages, ancient or mod-

ern, is just twenty (20), the following:
Greek writing: α, ε, ο, ου, ι, μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ, τ, δ, θ, π, β, φ, κ,
γ, χ
Latin writing: a, e, o, u, i, m, n, l, r, s, z, t, th, dh, p, v, f, c,
gh, h
IMPORTANT NOTE:
1) Every vowel in a word, alone or combined with a consonant
before or alter it makes a syllable, i.e.: ο α-ε-τος, εν, εκ, κε-νός…
because the consonants are not possible to be pronounced by them-
selves (separately); they are always accompanied by a vowel. That is
why, in Greek, consonants are called «σύμφωνα = συν-φωνή» > Latin
“con-sonors” > English “consonants” (agreeing, harmonized,
according to) or (along with the sound). I.e.: εν, νέ-ος, τον, ε-γέ-λα-
σε..
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Consonant syllable is called the syllable in which there is one or

more consonant (a syllable containing vowel + consonant or conso-
nants), e.g.: εκ, εν,την, βους, κε-νός..
Vowel syllable is called the syllable in which there is not conso-
nant (a syllable containing a vowel only), e.g.: o α-έ-(ρας), η ω-(ραί)-
α..
2) The Greek word <<Συλλαβή>> = syllable (in English) is
constituted (formed) from the simple words συν-λαβή, from συν-
λαμβάνω > συλλαβή = arrest, apprehension.
3) The phthongs (= the vowels and consonants) are a conven-
tional distinction, since the smaller part of a word is the syllable and
the consonants are always pronounced with a vowel (that is where
the words “φωνήεντα = vowels” and “σύμφωνα = consonants” come
from).
4) It was the Greeks who first made the distinction between the
phthongs, the consonants and the vowels, in a conventional way, be-
cause they realized by going so:
a) Fewer symbols of writing are required since the different kinds
of phthongs are fewer (20 in number) than the different kinds of syl-
lables (over 600, depending on the language),
b) Writing becomes more simplified (easier) and etymological,
i.e. that we write what we say phonetically and the same time what
we mean as a part of the speech and at the form of the word (type:
gender, number, case, person..) by using the homophone letters.
5) Phthongs and syllables are not constituent (intellectual,
etymological) elements of words. Those that realize the linguistic ex-
pression are the ending, subject, root, prefix, accent in case of simple
inclinable words and first and second components in case of a com-
pound word, i.e.: γράφ-ω, συν-γράφ-ω, δια-γραφ-ή... Simply, in
many words, certain linguistic elements may be a mere phthong or
just one syllable. I.e.: το έν-α, η καλ-ή…In words without constituent
elements or declension (inclination) or their total group of phthongs
(sounds of words) is also their expressive element: δέκα, άλφα,
απέναντι..
(For more see the book “The Greek writing system”, A. Kras-
sanakis)
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CHAPTER 2nd
PARTS OF SPEECH
1. SIGNIFICANCE AND TYPES OF PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of speech are said the types of words of language from

the opinion of importance and syntax of (operation in the proposal).
The parts of speech of Greek language are ten, the following:
THE ARTICLE: ο, η, το (= the)

THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE, i.e.: αγάπη, Μαρία, Ευρώπη,
παιδί, γάλα… (= the love, Maria, Europe, child, milk…)
THE ADJECTIVE i.e.: καλ-ός,ή,ό, ωραί-ος,α,ο… (= good, beau-
tiful…).
THE PRONOUN i.e.: εγώ, εσύ, αυτός,ή,ό… (= I, you, he, she,
it, those…)
THE VERB i.e.: αγαπώ, ομιλώ, κλαίω… (= i love, i speak,…)
THE PARTICIPLE: γραμμένος,η,ο, μαγεμένος,η,ο…
THE ADVERB i.e: κάτω, πάνω, εκεί….( = down, under, there…)
THE PREPOSITION i.e: από, μετά, σε, επί… (= from, after,
in,…)
THE CONJUNCTIONS i.e: και, όταν, γιατί…, (= and, when,
why..)
THE INTERJECTION i.e: αμήν!, αχ! Ome perts of speech …. (=
αmen!, …)
DECLENSION – CONJUGATION PARTS OF SPEECH

By the ten parts of speech of Greek language, the six: the article,
the substantive, the surname, the pronoun, the action and the verb
are said declinable, because they are conjugated. That is to say each
one of them is presented in the speech with various forms, e.g.: καλ-
ός, καλ-ή, καλ-ό, κα-λ-ές, καλ-ών… μαγεμέν-ος, μαγεμέν-ου, άλλ-ος,
άλλ-οι…
The remainder four: the adverb, the intention, the contact and
the interjection, are said un-delineated, because in speech each one
of them is always presented with the same form, e.g.: εδώ, εκεί, αμάν,
και...
2. DECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH
a. What is inclination, types etc

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The inclination is said the special way with which take shape the
falls bending and the years and the persons of the verb. The way with
which are altered the declinable words in the speech. The inclination
becomes in one hand with endings (conclusions, suffices) that are
proportional with the part of speech, the gender, the number and the
declination cases or the person of other word and in other hand with
the locomotion of tone in certain cases or persons, as well as with the
addition of the e- in certain tense of verbs, see e.g.: καλ-ός, καλ-ού,
καλ-οί… τιμ-ώ, τιμ-άς, τιμ-ά, ετίμ-ησα,..
Types of (words) are said the forms that take the declinable
words at the syntax (in the speech), the cases of word (and their
genders) in the declination and persons in the verbs, consequently the
various forms that take the declinable words for individual intelligent
differences.
b. Cases of declination
Cases of declination are said the changes (types, forms) that

present or take the article, the noun or substantives, the adjectives,
the participle and the pronouns in the speech, from where these are
called also declined parts of speech: Μαρί-α, Μαρί-ας, Μαρί-ες = case
of noun, καλ-ός, καλ-ού, καλ-οί... = cases of adjective.
The cases of declination of Greek language are four: the nomi-
native, general, the accusative and the vocative, singular and plural
number.
1. The nominative reveals the subject of the proposal (= what
for is said the proposal), as well as his defendant (= what is said for
the subject). The case that him we handled, in order to we answer in
the question "what, who, a, + verb of proposal", see e.g.:
_Ο Γιάννης είναι καλός μαθητής. = Yannis (subject) is a good
student.
_Ο μαθητής πάει στο δωμάτιο. = The student (subject) is going
in to the room.
2. General reveals what in it belongs or is reported what for we
speak. The case that we handled, when we want to show the owner
of somebody, hence answers the question "name + which of you/us
etc), e.g.:
_ Το μήλο του Γιάννη = the apple of John
3. The accusative reveals the object, as well as all the other
syntactic terms (place, tense or time, sum etc), if they are declared
with a declinable word or with the syntactic total. Consequently it is
the case that we handled, in order to we answer in the questions:
"who + verb of the proposal" (for the object), "where/when/how/how
14
many/ because of the + verb of the proposal" (for the other terms -
determinations), see e.g.:
_ Γιώργο, η Μαρία κτύπησε τον Αντώνη την Δευτέρα = George,
Mary (subject) stroked Antonis (objective) in the Monday.
(When stroked; = Monday = the time).
_ Εγώ θα πάω με τα πόδια στο σχολείο = I will go with the legs
(how I will go; = with the legs = the way, the means) to the school
(where I will go; = to the school = the place).
_ Πάω/πήγα δέκα κιλά πατάτες = I go/it went ten kilos potatoes
(I go/it went how many = ten kilos = the quantity.)
The vocative reveals the one that we dedicate, invite or salute
a man/woman etc, as well as the one in which is addressed the pro-
posal (the answer in the question "in who, you speak"). The case that
we handled, when we call somebody or something, e.g.:
_ Εγώ, αγαπητή μου, είπα να φύγουμε αύριο = I, dear, I say him
we leave for tomorrow.
_Ναι, Μαρία, πήγα. = Yes, Marry, I went.
g. Numbers of declinations
The cases of declinations have two numbers, the singular and

the plural.
Singular number is said the cases that reveal that important of
them is in the number a thing or animal etc... or a total or part of
total:
_Ο Γιάννης, η Μαρία = Yannis, Maria.. = an individual,
_Η τάξη, το σχολείο, το Υπουργείο = the order/the school/the
Ministry = a total.
_ Το ένα τρίτο = The one-third of (1/3) order = 1 part from three
Plural number is said the cases that reveal that important of
them is in the number many or all the total that we speak. Regularly
the precise number of what we speak is declared with quantitative
determination. If we do not put such determination, then is meant the
"all," or it means that we speak for many (when we do not put article),
see eg: _ You bring books (= many). Bring books (= all concrete).
_Οι κουρείς των Αθηνών = the barbers of Athens (= all of Ath-
ens).
_ Οι δέκα κουρείς = the ten barbers that left (= ten)
FOR MORE (the inflection or declination or conjugation of

words etc ) see in the Greek book: “Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ” by
ΑΔΑΜ (ΜΑΚΗ) Γ. ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ
15
CHAPTER 3rd
HISTORY OF GREEK LANGUAGE
1. HISTORY OF GREEK LANGUAGE
The Greek Language is very old, the oldest in Europe and per-
haps in the whole World. Its existence is referred in the 7th Century
BC, as historical written monuments have shown (Dipylon inscription),
but its roots are hidden in the depths of centuries as the Homeric epics
and the Linear writings A and B have witnessed. It is merely not found
in each time possessing the same vocabulary, the same morphology,
etc., as we can see below.
2. PERIODS OF GREEK LANGUAGE
The language of every people does not follow similar manners of

speech from time to time. It presents similarities as well as differences
in inflection or in sentence construction of words, etc from place to
place as well.
Ancient Greek Modern (new Greek

Εμπρός εις την θάλασσα. = Μπροστά στην θάλασσα.
Σήμερον όλοι εορτάζουν. = Σήμερα όλοι γιορτάζουν.
Επέρασεν και η Αποκριά. = Πέρασε και η Αποκριά.
Όλοι κατέβησαν εις τον αιγιαλόν = Όλοι κατέβηκαν στον γιαλό
Μία χελιδών έαρ ού ποιεί. = Ένα χελιδόνι δεν φέρνει την
άνοιξη.
,.................
This is due to the fact that:

1) From time to time sciences and technology change or develop,
feeding with new words the vocabulary. Tools and activities were dif-
ferent fifty years ago new tools and new activities to day are called in
different names.
2) The language is differentiated continuously in order to be sim-
pler and more precis in expression.
Roughly, the Greek language is divided in three long periods:

The ancient (up to 300 A.D.), the Medieval (300 – 1453 A.D.) and the
16
modern (recent) period (1453 A.D. – today). Analytically in the fol-

lowing:
1) First period, archaic
It’s the period from very old times until the Persian wars (490
BC)
PELASGIAN TIMES = PRE MINOAN TIMES

(Pelasgian nation was the ancestry – descent of Greeks)
MINOAN TIMES, from 1500 BC until 1200 BC

(According to Thucydides (A, 3-6), Minoas was the first king that
turned away the barbarians from Greek sea and from Greek islands
and he was the cause to create after the Greece. According to Homer
and Herodotus Minoas was king of island Crete and of most Greek
islands three generations before Trojan war.)
An indication of what about was the kind of language in the
Minoan time's cab be found of language in decoding by M. Ventris and
J. Chadwick of the tablets written in the Linear writing B’, where one
is able to realize the little differentiation of the next period.
Words from Linear writing B’: pome (ποιμήν), patter (πατήρ),
meri (μέρη, μέλη), doelos (δούλος), jero (ιερό)....
MYCENAEAN TIMES from 1200 BC until 500 BC

From Trojan War until the Persian wars
This is the period of the ancient dialects: Ionic, Doric and Aeolic.
A precise indication of how the language of that time can be found in
the literary works of Homer, Residues, Tyrtaeus, Simonides, Aeschy-
lus, Sophocles, and other prose and rhyme writers.
Dipylon tablet, 8th – 7th century BC

ΗΟS NYN ORXESTΟΝ ΠΑΝΤΟΝ ΑΤΑLOTATA..........
From 1300 BC tile 750 BC (Dipylon inscription) the replacement
of the Linear Writing B’ with the Writing system of our day's places.
Attician inscription of 5th century BC.

ΕΔΟΧΣΕΝ Ε ΒΟΛΕΙ ΚΑΙ ΤΟ ΔΕΜΟΙ....
Spartian dialect: Αμές δ`ε γ' εσόμεθα πολλ~ω κάρρονες
Tyrtaios (685 - 667 BC):

Τεθνάμμενας γ`αρ καλόν ενί προμάχοισι πεσόντα
ανδρ' αγαθόν περί η πατρίδι μαρνάμενον
17
τ`ην δ' αυτού προλιπόντα κα`ι πίονας αγρούς

πτωχεύειν πάντων εστ' ανιηρότατον.... (Υποθήκη)
Homer (8/7ος century B.C.):

Μήνιν αειδε, Θε~α, Πηληιάδε?ω Αχιλλ~ηος..
If we check the forty words of the first Homeric poetical lines,

we can realise that to day eleven (11) words are similarly spoken:
θεά, ηρώων, αυτούς, και, το, τα, η, ο βουλή, πολλά, εξ, πρώτα... four-
teen (14) words obtained an small phthongic differentiation in their
endings (therefore inclination): ψυχάς > ψυχές. Αχιλλεύς > Αχιλλέας,
μήνις > μανία, διαστήτη > διάσταση, άλγεα – άλγη.... and the rest can
be found as base (theme) for other words.
2) Second period, the Classical
The period from the Persian wars to the end of 4th century BC
(490 – 300 BC), which is called Classical. Sparta and Athens was the
most powerfull towns but Athens was the center of the letters and
arts.
A precise indication for the condition of the language in that pe-
riod can be found in the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon,
Plato, Lysias, Aeschinis, Aristotle and other prose and rhyme writers
of that time.
<< άρχεται dε πόλεμος ενθέδε ήδη Αθηναίων και Πελοπονησίων

και των εκατέροις ξυμμάχων...>> (Thucydides “Plataica B 1 – 6)
In the 4th century BC, after the victories (and the splendour)
against Persians, common alphabet and writing are established for all
Greeks as well as a common name (the name “Hellenes”).
By the victories of Alexander the Great the Greek language of
that period become the international language of the era especially in
the Hellenized areas of the east (Syria, Persia, Egypt, etc).
3) Third period, the Alexandrine
The period from the times of Alexander’s successors (from the

Hellenistic times) to the times of the emperor Octavian Augustus (300
– 30 BC), which is called Alexandrine because the center of the Greek
language (of letters and arts) has been transferred in Alexandria,
Egypt.
18
A precise indication of the condition of the language in that pe-

riod can be found in the works of Theoctitos, Dhiodhotos os Sicily,
Apollonius of Rhodes, even in the works of the Apostles.
<<Και εκδύσαντες αυτόν περιέθηκαν χλαμύδα κοκκίνην>>
(Evangelist)
4) Fourth period, the Latin
The period from the times of the emperor Octavian Augustus to

the times of Justinian (30 BC – 527 AD). In the beginning of the 4th
century AD Constantinople becomes the center of the Greek language.
However the Greek language is not the official in the eastern Roman
Empire. Latin remains the official language until 527 AD. Many words
of the Greek language in that period are substituted by Roman (Latin)
words which in their majority are been maintained up to this, such as:
κάστρο, φρατζόλα, κελί, σπίτι, μπαρμπέρης...
5) The fifty period, the Byzantine
The period from the times Justinian’s times to the Capture of

Constantinople (528 – 1453 AD), which is called the Byzantine period,
because the center of the Greek language (of the Greek letters and
arts) has been the Byzantine (= the Constantinople).
6) Sixth period, the Turkish period
The period from the times of the Capture of Constantinople (from

Turkish) and later from Venetian to the Greek revolution (1453 – 1821
AD).
Many words of the conquerors have been maintained up to this
day
Turkish words: μπογιατζής (boyatzi), χασάπης (kasap), χούι,
χαράτσι...
Venetian words: μπουκάλα, φρατζόλα, μποτίλια...
7) Seventh period, the New Greek
From the Greek revolution of 1821 until nowadays. This is the

period of the New Greek, the pure (“Katharevussa”) and the popular
(“demotic”) Greek language.
a. Atticism
19
During the Roman Era, when the Greek language was still inter-
national (circa the end of the 1st Century AD), some Greek writers,
bookish mans, literary mans etc, appeared, who did not write in their
contemporary language, but in the Attic authors’ language of the Clas-
sical Era. They were urged in this activity not only by their trust to the
superiority (the high standards) of the Attic dialect but also by their
perception whey realized that the Greek Language of their times had
been invaded occupied by barbarisms (foreign words, idiom etc.) be-
cause of ignorance or degeneration, 50 it should not be immortalized.
This movement was called Atticism and the authors, who estimated
the Attic dialect as their ideal language, Atticists, As a right usage
criterion was estimated the localization of a word or a type in the texts
of the Attic writers of the 5th and the 4th Century BC, not the fact
that this word or this type were useless in the language of their times.
As a result of Atticism was the creation of bilingual which means

the usage of two different linguistic forms: The one (the old – fash-
ioned) mainly in the written speech and the other (the popular) mainly
in the oral speech. The bilingual occurred till 1976 when Demotic (the
popular) was established officially.
The most significant Atticists were Dionysius of Alicarnassus, Lu-
cian, Plutarch and Arian.
b. Katharevousa (= “Pure Language”)
Katharevousa (language) was the language that appeared for

first time in the years of the Turkish Occupation as a compromising
solution between the Byzantine Atticism and the spoken language.
Katharevousa, the “pure” language, sometimes was found to be
closer to the ancient Greek Language (then it was called αρχαΐζουσα
or άκρατος = strict pure language) and sometimes closer to the Mod-
ern Greek Language (then it was called simplified or simple pure lan-
guage).
The Katharevousians, like the Atticists, started from the percep-
tion that the spoken language of their times was barbaric and rude,
full of idioms and morphologically dissimilar (many foreign words,
many idioms, many different – Greek or foreign – endings, etc). Thus,
it was unable to express arts and sciences in a simple and clear way.
Because of this condition, their main aim was the complete
Hellenization of the vocabulary, a plan that was fulfilled finally in a
great extent. Some foreign words, which were transformed into
Greek, were the following.
From Italian: γαζέτα, σπετσαρία, ρετσέτα, μπαρμπέρης…
Into Greek: εφημερίδα, φαρμακείο, συνταγή, κουρέας
20
From Turkish: αμανάτι, μεϊντάνι, νταμάρι, πεχλιβάνης, τεμπεσίρι,

τζαμπάζης
Into Greek: ενέχυρο, αγορά, λατομείο, παλαιστής, κιμωλία, ζωέ-
μπορος.
c. Demotic
Demotic is the language all Greeks speak today. It is named so

because it is used by all demotes (c i t i z e n s ) , it is (p a n) demotic
(p u b l i c) in contrast to Katharevousa which was not public and
popular.
Linguistic matter
Linguistic Matter was “the existing quarrel until 1976 between

the oral language of the public and the official written language”. By
the appearance of Atticism during the Roman times, the bilinguality
of the Greek Language obtained the starting point for instance, while
others were used to say «η τάξη, της τάξης, οι τάξεις, ψάρι,
κυβέρνηση, κήρυκας, κρεοπώλης» others were used to say «η τάξις,
τση τάξης, ιχθύς, ελαιόλαδο, κυβέρνησις, τελάλης, χασάπης” and other
were used to say «η τάξις, της τάξεως, αι τάξεις, οψάριον, έλαιον,
γκουβέρνο» according to the descent and the education of everyone.
Because of this situation a justified movement started about the
“arrangement” of the language by the men of letters (journalists, au-
thors, poets). However, they could not find an agreement about how
this wish would become a reality. This difficulty brought a war of ar-
guments between the Katharevousians (who strove for the return of
the ancient Greek Language and especially that one of Attica in the
5th Century BC) and the Demoticists (who proffered the modern
Greek Language).
Katharevousians: L.Photiades, A.Grazi, N.Doukas, N.Theotokis,
P. Kodrikas, P. Soutsos, K.Kondos, and others.
Demoticists: Rigas Pheraeos, G.Kostandas, D.Philippides, I.
Vilaras, A. Christopoulos, D. Solomos, D. Vernadakis, I. Psicharis, M.
Triantaphilides, and others.
Adamantios Corais was standing between the two opinions.
Finally, politics inserted/ intervened! The conservatives, moved
by the ideal ancient Greek standards, demanded the return of the
ancient Greek Language in the Attic way, while the leftists reacted,
because they considered it a utopia or something very difficult to come
true. They preferred the Greek Language in the condition formed by
the time and the circumstances. The conservatives won in this conflict
and the respective education started to be applied in schools. Until the
establishment of the desirable language, the Greek were used to
21
speak the modern Greek language almost like to day and write the
schools official documents in a language closer to the ancient dialect
of Attica. For instance, while the Greeks were speaking «η Αθήνα, η
τάξη» their written way should be «αι Αθήναι, η τάξις». This style of
writing was called Katharevousa by the archaists because it demanded
Greek words only, so that to be a purely Greek language therefore
mentally clear.
However, the desirable return of the ancient Greek Language

was proved unattainable and that was an expected conclusion be-
cause:
1) On the one hand students in schools were taught the ancient
Attic dialect deficiently; on the other hand the local dialect (Cretan,
Vlachian…) or a language similar to the Greek-Demotic Language
nowadays was in daily usage at home and work.
2) The language is living organism that is developed, enriched,
improved continuously. Therefore, nothing can bring it backwards to
a previous day.
a) The changes in form and in the inclination of certain groups
of words did not occur accidentally but similarly to other change, for
practical reasons. I.e. (simplification) nouns ending in –is: τάξις,
πράξις… were transformed into nouns ending in –η in order to obtain
the same inclination with nouns ending in – η: πηγή, νίκη…
b) Many words were changed by time phonologically for eu-
phony or meaning differentiation. For instance: χώρα (geographical)
and χώρα > ώρα (time), γράφμα > γράμμα (more euphony),
συνμαθητής > συμμαθητής (more euphony)…
c) Many words meaning old times men’s professions became
words of two genders. i.e. o γιατρός > η γιατρός (masculine) or
γιατρίνα (feminine), ο έμπορος > ο, η έμπορος or o έμπορας (mas-
culine) and η εμπόρισσα (feminine)….
Αs a result, the oral or written speech in school was different

compared to the oral or written speech at home or at work. (For ex-
ample, in school compositions students were writing « α ι μ η τ έ ρ
α ι, ε ι ς τ α ς Α θ ή ν α ς» however, at home they were saying «ο ι
μ α ν ά δ ε ς, σ τ η ν Α θ ή ν α». Τhe consequences for many students
were the linguistic confusion or the school a- version.
Facing this problem, a conservative government under the lead-
ership of Constantine Karamanlis, despite of the fact that in older
times the conservatives fought the establishment of the Demotic lan-
guage, in 1976 established unconstrained (unforcedly) the Contem-
porary Greek or Demotic Language along with the linguistic standards
(vocabulary and inclination) referred in the book «Νέ ο ε λ λ η ν ι κ ή
22
Γ ρ α μ μ α τ ι κ ή» (Modern Greek Grammar Ο.Α.Ε.Δ Publication,

Athens 1976).
The “one accent” system was established in 1982 by the socialist
government under the leadership of Andreas Papandreou. Its estab-
lishment took place to make the Greek writing easier. Nevertheless,
in was also a demand of Computer users because 20 Computers of
that generation did not contain any plectrum for accents or signals.
The reason was the lack of signs in the Latin alphabet (the aspiration
marks, the accents and the solvent marks).
A significant role in the formation of the modern style of the
contemporary Greek Language haw been played the linguist M. Tri-
antaphillides (“Grammar of the Demotic Greek Language”) as well as
by many journalists and authors of our times.
23
CHAPTER 4th
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
GREEK AND OTHER LANGUAGES
1. CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE GREEK

LANGUAGE
The Greek language compared to another language presents

proportional similarities and differences. In a general view and in re-
lation to the other languages, it disposes of the following elements,
which make the Greek language separate and expressive in a high-
level potentiality:
(1) It possesses an infinite productive ability, unique in the
whole word (in all around the world), because its words are farmed
by combinations of metalinguistic elements like a root or a theme +
an ending, etc., not by a periphrasis that other languages (Chinese,
Japanese, English, etc.) follow. From a root or a theme a lot of words
can by formed. I.e.:
Simple words: γράφ-ω, γραφ-ή, γραφ-ικ-ός, γραφ-έας…
Compound words: δια-γράφω, συν-γραφέας > συγγραφέας….
(2) Its endings, typological and productive, are not accidental
but proportionate, with the part of speech and the type (gender, num-
ber, case, or person), therefore they have an order. For instance,
verbs, endings in –ω,εις,ει: αδικ-ώ, αδικ-είς, αδικ-εί.. and adjectives,
endings in – os,η,ό: καλ-ός, καλ-ή, καλ-ό, …
(3) It contains many words (a very rich vocabulary), the great-
est collection in comparison to other languages due on the one hand
to its long linguistic history and on the hand to its expressive manner,
in the Greek Language, every meaning is expressed by its own word.
In other languages, many words have many different meanings in a
way we meet in Greek as well. I.e. χ ρ υ σ ή = the adjective, χ ρ υ σ
ή = the disease, etc. Or, many meanings are given in a periphrastic
way, the same way we see in Greek, as well. I.e. παιδάκι – μικρό παιδί,
Ηλιούπολη = Ηλίου πόλη…
(4) Its words, simple and compound, are usually polysyllabic
(two syllables and more) thanks to the endings; as a result, they are
comprehensive as well as easy in pronunciation: καλημέρα, Γιώργος
Monosyllabic words are only certain types of the article and some
undeclinable words.
24
(5) Its words did not have combinations of phthongs difficult in

pronunciation.
The Greek words have been developed syllabically and all
phthongs contain a similar intensity in pronunciation unless there is
an accented syllable: κ α - λ ό ς, κ α – λ η – μ έ – ρ α.
They syllables of the Greek words are either a vowel alone or a
vowel and a consonant together: οι α-ε-τοί, εκ, το… two or three con-
sonants are together only whether the first or the third is semivowel
(μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ): έ-γρα-ψα, Στα-θης, ά-ρτος, ά-ρθρο.
In this case, the pronunciation is more simple and comfortable.
The combinations νρ, νλ, νμ, να, νζ, πμ, βμ, φμ, receive rejection or
assimilation: σ υ ν – ρ ά π τ ω > σ υ ρ ρ ά π τ ω, έ ν λ ο γ ο ς > έ λ
λ ο γ ο ς, γ ρ ά φ μ α > γ ρ ά μ μ α, σ ύ (ν) ζ υ γ ο ς.
(6) It has three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three
different articles (ο, η, το): ο π α τ έ ρ α ς, η μ ά ν α, τ ο π α ι δ ί.
(7) The verb, according to its ending, reveals its subject as a
person of speech (whether the subject is the speaker, the listener
(auditor) or a third person) as well as the voice (active or passive) :
λύ ν – ω, meaning λ, the speaker = subject , λ ύ ν – ε ι ς meaning
you, the listener = subject, λ ύ ν –ει meaning he, she, it = the third
= subject, λ ύ ν – ω = action and λ ύ ν - ο μ α ι = passion.
(8) Its words are, in their majority, declinable (The exclama-
tions, the prepositions, the conjunctions and the adverbs are not de-
clinable.) and each of the syntactical parts of a sentence (subject,
object, predicate) has a certain case to report (The subject in Nomi-
native, the object in Accusative…) so that they can remain distinct
when they are mixed up. I.e:
(Ε γ ώ) + α γ α π ώ + τ η ν Μ α ρ ί α + δ ύ ο χ ρ ό ν ι α
=Αγαπώ+εγώ+την Μαρία+δύο χρόνια
=Εγώ+την Μαρία+δύο χρόνια+αγαπώ
=Δύο χρόνια+αγαπώ+την Μαρία+εγώ.
(9) Ιts parts of speech are formed by certain endings, therefore
there is no need of any special syntax to show what part of speech is
a word in a sentence. This does not occur in a lot of other languages
such as English, Russian, etc. because there a name or a pronoun +
a word = a verb, as well as an article + a word = a noun: Nick loves,
I love, the love (Ο Νίκος αγαπάει, αγαπώ, η αγάπη).
(10) It possesses many syntactical formations (syntax ways):
Το τραίνο οδηγείται από τον Γιώργο (Passive Syntax)
= Ο Γιώργος οδηγεί το τραίνο (Active Syntax)
= Ο Γιώργος είναι οδηγός του τραίνου (Attributive Syntax).
(11) The accents of its words (combined with the endings) indi-
cate the parts of speech or the types of the words: λάβ – ει, γράφει,
έξοχ-η, συμμέτοχ-η, = λαβ-ή, γραφ-ή, εξοχ-ή, συμμετοχ-ή. Here, the
accented syllable of the words is not any syllable or the final syllable
25
or the penult syllable for the all the words, as it is met in other lan-
guages, but that syllable which is fixed by the meaning or by the part
of speech or by its type. For example, if the adjectives are accented
on the antepenult syllable, the nouns are accented on the final syllable
of the penult syllable:
συμμέτοχη, ανάγωγη, παράγωγη,- άξια, άγια = adjectives.
Συμμετοχή, αναγωγή, παραγωγή – αξία, αγία = nouns.
On the other hand, in the other languages:

(a) There is no strong productive ability because the words and
their types are formed mainly in a periphrastic way (as it can be seen
in English: I love, he loves, the love) and not by using the linguistic
elements root or subject + ending, etc.
(b) The words are not articulated with the mentalinguistic ele-
ments prefix + subject + ending, at least in the rich way and the good
arrangement of the Greek Language.
(c) The accent (in languages that present polysyllabic words) is
only the concretization and the expansion of pronunciation; this oc-
curs on some accidental syllable, on the final syllable (in French), on
the penult or the antepenult syllable (in English).
Despite its existence, the accent is not noted in the writing be-
cause there is nothing more to present as it happens in the Greek
Language. I.e. (English) morning (μόρνιγκ), fire (φάϊαρ), Μary (Mέρι).
Especially:
(1) The Chinese Language is the opposite of Greek Language.
There are no endings in Chinese, therefore no inclination and no pol-
ysyllabic words. The Chinese words are monosyllabic (the compound
words have two syllables): “tsim” = gold, “pe” = cup, “tsim pe” = the
golden cup.
In the Chinese Language every gender usually possesses its own
words. For example, her there is no “Anthony” and “Antonia”
(2) English Language does not possess inclination endings, by
almost any means (i.e.: good = καλός, ή, ό, καλοί, καλών, καλές,
καλώς) therefore there are only least inclinations and words with few
syllables: go, go ou, go up, go down. The English Language possesses
(solely) productive words: lov – ability, lov-able, lov-ableness, lov-
ably, love-less, love-ly, lov-er, lov-ing,
As it is in Greek Language, the genders here are also three, how-
ever the article is one or similar for the three genders, the article
“the”. The word gender is rarely distinguished through an ending
(some feminine words have the ending -ess). Usually in English every
gender
26
Contains its own special words, no common words that can

change the gender, like in Greek, by just adding the proportionate
ending.
The actor (o ηθοποιός) – the actress (η ηθοποιός)
The poet (o ποιητής) – the poetess (η ποιήτρια)
The boy (το αγόρι) - the girl (το κορίτσι)
In English Language, many words belong in many parts of

speech or types, like.
The article the + word = noun: the love = η αγάπη
Τhe article the + word with – s” = plural of noun: the loves = οι
αγάπες
The word of + word = genitive: of love = της αγάπης
Name or pronouns + word = verb: I love = αγαπώ, Mary loves
= η Μαρία αγαπά
Word + word = adjective + nun: love affair = Ερωτική σχέση,
love letter = ερωτικό γράμμα
The English word verb, without endings, does not reveal which
of the parts of speech (speaker, listener, or a third person) is its sub-
ject (= the person that acts or receives the stated act). In order to
reveal this we put before the verb some pronoun or other words. It is
the reason that these are not omitted in the English Language or cer-
tain terms are put together like, for instance, subject + verb:
I love = (εγώ) αγαπώ = verb, [a’ person, the speaker]
You love = (εσύ) αγαπάς = verb [b’ person = the listener]
He loves = (αυτός) αγαπά = c’ person, the person they are talk-
ing about
She loves = (αυτή) αγαπά = c’ person, the person they are talk-
ing about
Mary loves = (Η Μαρία) αγαπά = c’ person, a concrete person
The love = (η) αγάπη = noun in Nominative
Of the love = (της) αγάπης = noun in Genitive
(3) Latin Language is similar in many elements to Greek Lan-
guage. Its words are articulated in the Greek way, it possesses three
genders, endings and inclinations, however not according to the or-
ders the extension and the variety of the Greek Language: am – o,
am – as, am – at, magnus, - a, - um.
(4) The Italian Language is a very faithful follower of Latin Lan-
guage in many elements. It does not possess the neuter gender. So
as a consequence, the gender of its words sometimes is similar and
sometimes is not similar to the gender of the same words in Greek
and Latin language, see for example:
Latin Greek
il padre = ο πατέρας, same gender
27
la madre = η μητέρα, same gender

il bastone (masculine gender) = η μπαστούνα (female gender)
la carta (female gender) = ο χάρτης (masculine gender)
il libro (masculine gender) = το βιβλίο (neuter gender)
il ragazo = ο νεαρός & το αγόρι,
la ragaza = η νεαρά & το κορίτσι.
(For further information’s see the book: “Scientific Linguistics”
by A. Krassanakis.)
2. THE WEALTH, THE EXPRESSIVE ABILITY AND THE UNI-

VERSAL CONTRIBUTION OF GREEK LANGUAGE
The Greek Language is one of the richest and most expressive

languages of the world (mankind).
The Greek language presents a high expressive ability, because:

(a) Contains many syntax formations of speech [active and pas-
sive voice, declaration (opinion) and situation (condition) etc.]: O
Μανώλης κτυπά τον Νίκο = Ο Νίκος κτυπιέται από τον Μανώλη,
Γνωρίζω το θέμα = Είμαι γνώστης του θέματος.
(b) Disposes of a word for each meaning.
(c) Its words speak according to their contained elements (sub-
ject + root + ending, accent): γραφ – έας, γράφ – ω, γράφ – ικός, -
ή, -ό.
The Greek Language is very rich because:

1) It presents a productive ability; it is able to create a word for
any differentiation of a meaning very easily: γραφ-έας, γραφι-ικός,
γράμμα.
2) It has inherited the vocabulary of the ancient Greek Lan-
guage. The Contemporary or Demotic Greek Language is a young lan-
guage in age, since it was consecrated officially in 1976. However, as
a follower of the ancient Greek Language, it has inherited the whole
collection of the ancient Greek words as well as the syntax formations
of speech, adding its own creations in order to cover needs and defi-
ciencies, which have emerged in the meanwhile by either the impet-
uous rise of arts, sciences, athletism (therefore a need of naming var-
ious new goods and terms) or the substitution of foreign words (lin-
guistic loans) imposed by the Roman and the Turkish Occupation. As
a consequence, the contemporary or Demotic Greek language is much
richer than any other language, even the ancient Greek Language. It
is very wealthy of its large heritage, however there is an important
detail in the comparison with the ancient language. For the reasons
seen above, the Demotic Greek Language contains more linguistic
28
loans. The ancient Greek Language, as a language of a people very

progressive in its times, exported words and seldom imported (ex-
ported and rarely imported words).
The Greek Language contains word derived not only from all over
the New World but also from all over the Ancient World. The Greeks,
being present and writing down continuously since very old times,
registered and saved a vast quantity of words of the Antiquity. They
use words (linguistic leans) of peoples who are lost (Pelasgians, Car-
ians, Phoenicians) as well as words of peoples who once did not know
writing (Slavs, Russians and others). Thus, the Greek Language is a
universal linguistic treasury.
The contribution of Greek Language to other languages is not
merely great, but vast; because it offered plenty of words to them
thanks to its high productive ability. The word structure of the Greek
language is composed by concrete linguistic elements: root or subject
+ ending (simple and productive) + accent, as seen above. Thus, for
every meaning, concrete or abstract, visible or invisible, there is
possibility of creating a separate word through a combination of these
linguistic elements; a result that is multiplied by a synthesis as well
as by a transfer of the accent from syllable to syllable.
See for example:
Simple words: γραφ – ή, γραφ – ικός, - ή, - ό γραφ – είον, γραφ
έας,, γράφ – μα ] γράμμα, γραμμ – ατικός, -ή, γραμμ – άριο, γραμμ
– ατέας, γραμμ – ή, γραμμ – ικός, -ή, - ό.
Compound words: ά – γραφ – ος, - η, - ο, συ (ν) – γγραφ – έας,
από – γραφ – έας, δια – γράφω, ανα – γράφω, παρ – άγω ] παρ –
άγωγος, -η, -ο, παραγωγ – ός, -ή
Accent production: παράγωγος – παραγωγός, παράγωγη – παρα-
γωγή…
The above phenomenon is not met in other languages except

Latin in a lower, however, degree.
This is mainly the reason that foreign people have recourse to
the Greek or the Latin Language for word loans or make words with
Greek linguistic elements like, for instance: telephone – τηλέφωνο,
(τηλε + φων-ή), prototype – πρωτοτυπία (πρώτος + τύπος).
It is Noted that:
(1) The Greek language is the language in which the greatest
religious of the world the religion of the Olympian Gods and the reli-
gion of the New Testament (the Christian religion) have been rec-
orded.
(2) In the times of Alexander the Great and Christ the Greek
language was the international language.
29
Most of the apostles: Paul, John, Luke, etc. as well as other He-
brews had obtained Greek education and the knowledge of the Greek
Language and writing; the Gospels were written in Greek.
The Greek writing helped most of the ancient writing systems to
be decoded. Because of the time that the Greek Language was inter-
national, many tablets then had been written in two languages; I.e.
Rosetta's pillar written in Egyptian and in Greek, the Rabad’s inscrip-
tion of Alep in Greek, in Syrian an in Arabic, the Aran’s inscription of
Aouran in Greek an in Arabic.
(3) The Greeks, discovering first the alphabetic writing system
and obtaining the possibility to shore their experiences in a comfort-
able and correct way, became first in arts and sciences: Homer, Hes-
iod, Plato, Heraclitus, Aristotle, Euripides, Aescylus, Democritos. As a
result, the Greek Language became the expressive language of the
human mind in the first great moments of its creation as well as the
matrix of the other languages. Since the foreigners imitate the Greek
writing and translate ancient Greek scientific words into their lan-
guages, the consequence is the transfer of Greek words in their lan-
guages, like in English: Xριστός (Christ), Ολυμπία (Olympia),
αλφάβητο (alphabet), Γεωργία (Georgia), Ιστορία (History),
Γεωγραφία (Geography). The international Greek words are countless.
30
CHAPTER 5th
EDUCATIONAL
1. DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING THE GREEK LANGUAGE.
For many foreigners the Greek language is very difficult to learn.

It is said that learning lasts over twenty – five years (“ATHENS NEWS”,
July 1997, “Learn Greek in twenty-five years”) because of the Greek
Language:
(a) Contains a lot of endings, inclined and productive (words in
– μενος, -ικός, - ινός…) therefore difficult inclinations and production,
therefore time as well as mind are demanded to learn this language.
(b) Contains a lot of long words (polysyllable); plenty of time
periods are necessary to learn the pronunciation of each word.
(c) Contains three articles (English one, the “the”) and three
genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) instead of two (masculine and
feminine) which are normal; therefore, they say, it is difficult to know
when somebody tells i.e. «το κλαδί» and when “o κλάδος».
(d) Presents a difficult dictation in writing; they say that they
have to memorize these words written with –o and those words writ-
ten with –ω, these words with –ε and those words with –αι, these
words with – η and those words with – ι or – υ, etc.
However, these above are somehow wrong because:

1. Although it is true that the Greek Language contains many
endings, inclined and productive, meaning difficult inclination and pro-
duction, however, the other languages face a similar difficulty in syn-
tax: The difficulty in learning how words should be put in a sentence
in order to derive the wishing meaning, since a word without an end-
ing represents a general meaning which can become specific any com-
bined with other words like in English. I.e.:
I love (pronoun + word = verb)= Greek αγαπώ,
the love (article + word = noun) = Greek αγάπη,
As well as: go on, go up, go down.
2. Although it is true that the Greek Language contains many
words, in numerous words, however in a wonderful surprise they were
not created by accident, but by certain endings (masculine, feminine,
neuter) and concrete subjects (i.e. γραφ - > γράφ – ω, γραφ – ή,
γραφ – έας, γραφ – ικός). Therefore, it is easy to learn them as well
31
as to find their part of speech and meaning etymologically, analyzing

them into their components. For – example: Νίκ – ος, Μάν – ος, Κόκκιν
– ος _ masculine noun, Νίκ – η, Ανοιξ – η, εξοχ – ή = feminine noun,
νικ – ώ, γράφ – ω, = verbs in active voice, νικ – ημένος, γραφ-μένος
}γραμμένος = participles in passive voice, δραμ –ατ-ικός = adjectives,
“he who contains a drama”, dramatic. Τhe above linguistic character-
istics are not valid in other languages (except little in Latin), because
the vocabulary of the other language has been created by word loans
(for example, in the English vocabulary there are words from the
Greek Language, the Latin Language, etc.) or indeclinable words of
general meaning which are specified conceptionally depending on
their position in a sentence (For example, in the Chinese Language a
word can have up to a hundred meanings).
3. The Greek words, indeed, have the articles and proportionate
gender endings (o Νίκ – ος and η Νίκ – η, το παιδ –ί, and η μητ – έρα
and ο πατ – έρας) which are not presented in the words of other lan-
guages (The English language contains relatively a few endings an one
article, “the”, for all three genders. The Chinese Language disposes
neither articles nor endings but, simply, certain words for every gen-
der). However, articles and endings are not put at the words acci-
dentally but according to their meanings’ part of speech and gender,
therefore something easy to be found out. I.e. o Νίκ – ος (masculine
article and masculine ending if we mean a masculine), η Νίκ – η (fem-
inine article and feminine ending if we mean a feminine), το παιδ – ί
(neuter article and neuter ending if we mean a neuter). In other
languages, instead of saying, for example, “Αντώνης και Αντωνία»,
we say «ο ΄Αντον και η Αντοn» changing only the article or we say
“the man Αντον and the woman Aντοn”. (About cases in the Greek
Language of putting masculine, feminine or neuter article – ending,
see the intimate chapters).
4. The Greek writing – dictation is not succeeded by memorizing
which word is written i.e. with «ω» or « ο», which word with «ι» or
«η», etc. but by following respective rules such as:
the verbs are written with « ω »,
the words having cases with « ο » or « η » (plural – οι), etc.
For instance, σήκω, φοιτώ, καλώ, καλεί, καλείς……, and σύκο,

φυτό, καλό, καλή, καλής…
(For more information, see “The Greek Writing System” by A.
Krassanakis).
2. HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT NEW GREEK
In order to speak the Greek language correctly we have to ob-

tain an adequate knowledge of:
32
1) Its vocabulary (Reading many texts of Greek authors enriches

the vocabulary. A good lexicon is helpful for the unknown words.
2) Its parts of speech (See in other chapters of the present
book).
3) Its formation (the endings and the inclination of the declinable
words (See in other Chapters of the present book)
4) Its syntax and especially the parts of speech very well: how
to familiar persons, how to speak officially, and so on. (See the books
“The Greek Writing System” and “Literature Lessons” by A.Krasana-
kis).
5) The similarities and the differences between the Modern and
the Ancient Greek Language as well as in every local dialect; which
words belong to the Ancient Greek Language and which words to the
Modern Greek Language; which endings belong to the Ancient Lan-
guage and which endings to the Modern Greek language, etc.
(For more information see below.)
a) The Vocabulary of the Contemporary Greek Language
The Modern Greek Language (Demotic) saves or restores (re-

establishes) all the ancient words of all dialects of the Greek people,
whenever and wherever they have been made, although some these
ancient words must be stated their new shape (ending, subject, and
inclination) and according to the their meaning.
Ancient Greek: Αθήναι, τάξις, αψίς, αυλός, παις – παιδίον, πόλις,
πατήρ, λέω..
Modern Greek: Αθήνα, τάξη, αψίδα, αυλός, παιδί, πόλη, πατέρας,
λέγω….
See: Αγαθός = “ο καλός” (= good) in ancient Greek and “ο

ανόητος, ο απονήρευτος” (= foolish or artless, unsophisticated, guile-
less) in modern, New Greek,
b) The Differences between the Ancient and the Modern

Greek Language
1. Many words of the Ancient Greek Language are not used to-
day: αφικνούμαι (but άφιξη is used), ελαύνω (but έλευση,
προσέλευση, etc are used), ιχθύς, (but ιχθυοπωλείο is used); in their
place other word have been established. I.e. ψάλλω (instead of άδω),
το ψάρι (instead of ο ιχθύς).
2. Some words of the Ancient Greek Language are used today
having another (metaphorical) meaning. I.e. στέργω (= “I love” in
Ancient Greek and “I consent” in Modern Greek), άλογο (= “middles”
in Ancient Greek and “horse” in Modern Greek).
33
3. The Modern Greek language possesses:

a. A similar syntax structure to the syntax structure of the An-
cient Greek Language (In the modern Greek a sentence is also con-
structed by terms (specific syntax combinations: subject, predicate,
object) of which the cases are depended on the term or the part of
speech they refer]; however the syntax today is more simple after the
abolition of the dual, the dative case, the optative mood and the in-
finitive.
b. Similar phthongs to the phthongs of the ancient Greek Lan-
guage, α,β,ο,ου,ι,μ,ν,λ,ρ,σ,ζ,π,β,φ,τ,δ,θ,κ,γ,χ however, the
phthongical compositions of many words today have been changed
for easy speaking reasons (for a more simple and easier pronuncia-
tion) or for reasons of meaning differentiation. I.e. χώρα, (place) and
(x)ώρα > ώρα (time), γρά(φ)μα > γράμμα, (ε)κδύω > γδύνω, κόνις>
(σ)κόνη, πυρεία > (σ)πύρ(τ)α, έλαιον > λάδι, παιδί(ον), φορείο (ν),
λύσι(ς) > λύση.
c. A similar syntax construction of the words to the syntax con-
struction of the ancient Greek Language (the words of the Modern
Greek Language are constituted by the elements: subject + ending +
accent, which depend on the part of speech and the type of the word.
For instance, καλ – ός and - κάλ – ος, εξ – έχω > έξοχ – η and έ –
ξοχ – ή) ; however, some endings in the ancient Greek Language have
been abolished and some endings have been counterfeited for the
simplification of the language. E x a m p l e s:
By abstracting the – s in feminine nouns: πράξ–ι(ς) > πράξ–η,
λύσ– ι(ς) > λύσ–η...
By abstracting the –(o)ν in neuter nouns: παιδί(ον), φορείο(ν),
κουρείο(ν)…
By adding the endings –οτητα and – αδα instead of the endings
in Ancient Greek –οτης and – ας: οντότης > οντότητα, μητρότης >
μητρότητα, πεδιάς > πεδιάδα, Ελλάς > Ελλάδα…
d. A similar inclination way to the inclination way of the ancient
Greek Language which is the inclination of words by adding and ab-
stracting specific endings; however, the modern Greek language has
different typological endings in many words: μητρότης > μητρότητα,
αγελάς > αγελάδα, πράξις > πράξη. In inclination the declined words,
the vowel of the their endings usually remains the same except in the
Genitive of the Plural Number: καλ–ή,ής,ή & καλ – ές,ών,ές…
Ancient Greek: η τράπεζα, τραπέζης, ο λοχίας, του λοχίου,…
Modern Greek: η τράπεζα, τράπεζας, ο λοχίας, του λοχία,…
4. The Modern Greek Language has:
(a) One cases less: there is no dative case: «τω νεανία, τοις
νεανίαις, τω τιμημένω νεκρώ, τοις τιμημένοις νεκροίς».
34
(b) Abolished the dual in the declinable nouns: τω οφθαλμώ (the

two eyes), τω πόδε, (the two feet), τω χείρε, (the two hands), τω
Διοσκούρε (Castor and Pollux).
(c) One mood less: there is no optative mood: «λύοιμο, λύοις,
λύσοιμι, λύσοις».
(d) Abolished the infinitive ending in –ειν (it is substituted by
derivatives ending in –(η)μα): «το καπνίζειν, ομιλείν, απαγορεύεται,
το καπνίζειν / ομιλείν > το κάπνισμα / μίλημα».
(e) Abolished the reduplication: (re) θωρακισμένος >
θωρακισμένος, λέλυκα, ελελύκειν = έχω λύσει, είχα λύσει.
(f) Abolished the participles ending in – εις, - σας, - ων : λύθεις,
λύσας, λύων except the participles ending in ων which are spoken as
nouns or adjectives (they are me also ending in – οντας, ουσα):ο
ενάγων (or ενάγοντας), η ενάγουσα, ο παρών, η παρούσα, ο επιλαχών,
ο διευθύνων (or διευθύνοντας) σύμβουλος, η άρχουσα τάξη, η
τρέχουσα τιμή, το επείγον έγγραφο.
(g) The abolished the final – ν at the end of the words, except
the final – ν at the end of the articles and the personal pronouns (τον,
την, των) as well as the particles of mood (δεν, μην).
(h) Made οι the feminine article αι of the plural number: οι
γυναίκες, (instead of αι γυναίκαι).
(i) Substituted the reference pronouns: όστις, ήτις, ό,τι, ώσπερ,
υπέρ, όπερ, with the «που» or with the: ο οποίος, η οποία, το οποίον:
_ Για πρώτη φορά έβλεπε τον άνθρωπο τον άνθρωπο με τον ο-
ποίο μιλούσε
C) The contemporary form of the Greek Words
The Modern Greek language does not present similar endings to

the endings of the ancient Greek language because, for simplicity rea-
sons, many declined words of the ancient Greek language were dif-
ferentiated according to other words. I.e. τάξις > τάξη, πράξις > πράξη
became like νίκη, τιμή.
In the declinated nouns, the ancient “third inclination” was
changed into a mainly “first inclination” as following:
(a) by changing the declinated ending
Ancient Form Modern Form

ο ρήτωρ, του ρήτορος.. ο ρήτορας, του ρήτορα…
ο κλητήρ του κλητήρος ο κλητήρας του κλητήρα
ο Έλλην του Έλληνος ο Έλληνας του Έλληνα
ο γνώμων του γνώμονος ο γνώμονας του γνώμονα
ο τάπης του τάπητος ο τάπητας του τάπητα
ο κόραξ του κόρακος ο κόρακας του κόρακα
ο γραφεύς του γραφέως ο γραφέας του γραφέα
35
ο ανδριάς, του ανδριάντος, ο ανδριάντας, του ανδριάντα

ο πατήρ του πατρός ο πατέρας του πατέρα
η μήτηρ της μητρός η μητέρα της μητέρας
η φλόξ της φλογός η φλόγα της φλόγας
η μητρότης της μητρότητος η μητρότητα της μητρότητας
η οντότης της οντότητος η οντότητα της οντότητας
η λύσις της λύσεως η λύση της λύσης
η τάξ ις της τάξεως η τάξη της τάξης
η ακτίς της ακτίνος η ακτίνα της ακτίνας
η αψίς της αψίδος η αψίδα της αψίδας
η πεδιάς της πεδιάδος η πεδιάδα της πεδιάδας
η Ελλάς της Ελλάδος η Ελλάδα της Ελλάδας
η μονάς της μονάδος η μονάδα της μονάδας
(b) By changing the gender

ο βούς του βοός το βόδι του βοδιού
ο κώνωψ του κώνωπος το κουνούπι του κουνουπιού
ο λέων του λέοντος το λιοντάρι του λιονταριού
(c) Ây changing the number

αι Αθήναι των Αθηνών η Αθήνα της Αθήνας
αι Θήβαι των Θηβών η Θήβα της Θήβας
Ancient inclination of a declianated noun

Singular Plural
Nominative η τάξ – ις αι τάξ - εις
Genitive της τάξ – εως των τάξ - εων
Dative την τάξ – η ταις τάξ - εσι
Accusative την τάξ – η τας τάξ - εις
Vocative ω τάξ – ι ω τάξ – εις
Modern inclination of declinated noun

Singular Plural
Nominative η τάξ – η οι τάξ - εις
Genitive της τάξ – ης των τάξ - εων
Accusative την τάξ – η τις τάξ - εις
Vocative τάξ- η τάξ - εις
Ancient inclination of a verb:

Uncontracted: τιμ –άω, -άεις, -άει, - άομεν, - άετε, - άουσι (ν)
Contracted: τιμ – ώ, - άς, - ά, - ώμεν, - άτε, - ώσιν
δίδ – ωμι, – ως, -οσι, – ομεν, – οτε, –όασι
Modern (new) inclination of a verb:

τιμ – ώ, - άς, - ά, - ούμε, - άτε , - ούν
36
δίν – ω, - εις, - ει – ουμε, - ετε, - ουν

(The uncontracted types of the verb have been abolished)
d) Duplication and Bilingualism
Bilinguality is called the mixed language the usage of words that

some of which are, for instance, Greek and some are Latin or Turkish.
I.e. ο χασάπης, ο μπογιατζής και ο τελάλης θα έλθουν εδώ, για να –
instead of: Ο κρεοπώλης, ο ελαιοχρωματιστής και ο κήρυκας θα
έλθουν εδώ, για να – The bilinguality is not allowed in a normal speech
for reasons of meaning and aesthetics.
There is duplication whenever a word is spoken in two or more
forms with two or more different en dings of the same case (Ελλάς
and Ελλάδα) for declinated nouns or the same person of verbs (λες
and λέγεις). The duplication is due to a mixing of ancient and modern
types as well as a mixing of types of the common Greek language with
types of some local dialect. The duplication bilimguality therefore is
not allowed in a normal speech. In order to avoid the duplication is
necessary to learn which are the endings (productive and declinable)
of the Modern Greek Language and which are the endings of the con-
temporary as well as the local language.
e) The Endings of the Modern Greek Language
I. Endings of Verbs
1. Radical
-ω : λύω – λύνω, πλένω πνίγω, γράφω,…
-έω-ω, αω –ω, οω-ω > – ω : καλέω – ω, δράω – ώ, δηλόω – ώ
(νω)
-σσω / ττω : πλήττω, φράσσω, πράττω
-υω : μηνύω, ιδρύω
2. Productive
These verbs show what their subject is or becomes or has or
provides or does the statement of the original word.
(a) Endings:- ώ, - ώνω
{Verbs derived from nouns}
κτύπος > κτυπάω – ώ, τιμή > τιμάω – ώ, αγάπη > αγαπάω,…
σημείο > σημειώνω, σημειώνομαι, θεμέλιο – θεμελιώνω, ύψος >
υψώνω, θυμός > θυμώνω, κλειδί – κλειδώνω, σφήνα – σφηνώνω,
πλάκα –πλακώνω
{Verbs derived from adjectives}

χαμηλός > χαμηλώνω, ψηλός > ψηλώνω, τυφλός > τυφλώνω
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(b) Ending: - εύω

σημάδι > σημαδεύω, σκοπός > σκοπεύω, γύρος > γυρεύω, ό-
νειρο > ονειρεύομαι, δούλος > δουλεύω

στενός – στενεύω, δύσκολος > δυσκολεύω
(c) Endings: - ίζω, - άζω, - ιάζω

ελπίδα > ελπίζω, μέρος > μερίζω, αφρός > αφρίζω, σκούπα /
σκουπίδι – σκουπίζω, αρχή > αρχίζω, καλημέρα > καλημερίζω, σαρά-
ντα > σαρανταρίζω, κλαψούρης (κλαίω, έκλαψα) – κλαψουρίζω,
πόρτα – εκπορτίζω
δόξα – δοξάζω, γειτονιά – γειτνιάζω, πλαγιά > πλαγιάζω…
{Verbs derived from adjectives or adverbs}

συχνός, συχνά > συχνάζω, αντίκρυ – αντικρίζω,
όμοιος < ομοιάζω, άδειος > αδειάζω
(d) Endings: - αίνω, - υνω

ρύπος > ρυπαίνω, ανάσα > ανασαίνω.

πράος – πραΰνω, φαιδρός – φαιδρύνω, λαμπρός > λαμπρύνω,
οξύς > οξύνω, βραδύνω, δι –ευθύνω, βαθύνω…
μακρύς > μακρύνω ή μακραίνω, βαρύς > βαρύνω or βαραίνω,
φαρδύς > φαρδαίνω or φαρδύνω…..
ακριβός – ακριβαίνω, ζεστός > ζεσταίνω, θερμός > θερμαίνω…
II. Endings of Nouns
A. Neuter
1. Radical endings, it meanings names:

-ι: μαλλί, σπαθί, τυρί, ψωμί…
-ας: τέρας, κέρας > κέρατο, πέρας, κρέας…
-ος: μέρος, θέρος, βέλος, τέλος, κράνος…
-ως: φάος –φως, καθεστώς (Contracted)
2. Endings derived from verbs, showing:
a) The result or the consequence (product) of the action:
-(μ) μα (From verbs endings in – ω) : γράφω > γράμμα, κλάμα
,
38
-τάμα
-εμα (- εύω): κλαδεύω > κλάδεμα, κουρεύω > κούρεμα, γιά-
τρεμα….
-ωμα (- ώνω): φορτώνω > φόρτωμα, ισιώνω > ίσιωμα, σημεί-
ωμα…
-ημα (- ώ): κινώ > κίνημα, μιλώ > μίλημα, πατώ > πάτημα…
-ημα (-αίνω): μαθαίνω > μάθημα, παθαίνω > πάθημα…
-υμα (- ύω): μηνύω > μήνυμα, λύω > λύμα, καταλύω > κατά-
λυμα…
-σιμο (- ψιμο – ξιμο): στρώνω > στρώσιμο, χάσιμο, ψήσιμο,
τρέχω > τρέξιμο, σκάψιμο…
-ητό: βογγώ >βογκητό, παραμιλητό, ξεφωνητό, ροχαλητό, αγκο-
μαχητό..
-ίδι: στολίζω > στολίδι, σκουπίζω > σκουπίδι,…
b) The institution or the bench of the action (service)
-τήριο, - τρο: εκπαιδεύω > εκπαιδευτής - εκπαιδευτήριο, γυμνα-
στήριο, δικαστήριο, θεάομαι / θεατής } θέατρο, κάνιστρο, άγκιστρο
c) The tool of the action
-τήρι : κλαδεύω } κλαδευτήρι, ξυπνητήρι, ψαλτήρι, σκαλιστήρι…
3. Endings of nouns derived from other nouns – showing:

(a) Τhe institution or the bench of the action (service) :
-είο (accented ending) = simple institutions: κουρέας > κουρείο,
ιατρείο, γραφείο, Δασαρχείο…
-ειο (Unaccented ending) = benevolent institutions: Ζάππας –
Ζάππειο, Αβερώφειο
-άδικο: ράφτης – ραφτάδικο (instead of : ραφείο ), γαλατάδικο,
ψαράδικο…
-ιο: εστιάτορας – εστιατόριο, φύλακας – φυλάκιο…
-αριό : πλύστρα – πλυσταριό , σκουπιδαριό, καμπαναριό…
(b) The multitude (collective):
-λό (γ) ι : άρχοντας – αρχοντολόι, συγγενολόι..
(c) The tiny or the caressing designation (diminutive):
-ούδι : άγγελος > αγγελούδι
-ούλι : σάκος – σακούλι, κρυφτό – κρυφτούλι
-άκι, α(ρ)άκι, -(ουδ)άκι : αρνί – αρνάκι, ψαράκι, φυλλαράκι, αγ-
γελ(ουδ)άκι…
-άρι (ον) : κριός – κριάρι, πάγκος – παγκάρι, γραμμάριο..
-άκι (ον) : δρόμος – δρομάκι, παιδί – παιδάκι..
-ίδιο : κράτος – κρατίδιο, σφαίρα – σφαιρίδιο…
(d) The section
-ι(ον): αέρας – αέριο, όρος – όριο, κλάδος – κλαδί, σκάλα –
σκαλί, σκαμνί..
B. Masculine
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1. Endings derived from verbs:

a) The acting person.
They are analyzed into “he, she, it who, which + verb in the third
person of the Present”
-της: ψάλω > ψάλτης, ράβω > ράφτης, κόφτης, ναύτης…
-της: κρίνω > κριτής, ανακριτής, υποκινητής…
-ευτής: πρα(γ)ματεύω > πραματευτής, χορευτής…
-ητής: μαθαίνω > μαθητής, ποιώ > ποιητής, τηλεφωνάω –τηλε-
φωνητής, απαιτητής, καταπατητής, εκδικητής…
-ήτης (- ώ): κυβερνώ > κυβερνήτης, πλανήτης…
-ωτής (- ώνω): διορθώνω > διορθωτής, θεμελιωτής, λυτρωτής…
-ιστής (- ίζω, - ω): θερίζω > θεριστής, δικαστής, τραγουδιστής…
-υ (ν) της : διευθύνω > διευθυντής, ιδρύω > ιδρυτής ,μηνυτής…
-ντής : λιπαίνω > λιπαντής, υφαίνω > υφαντής…
-έας, - ιάς: κουρεύω > κουρέας, ιππέας, γραμματέας, διανομέας
γραφέας (γραφιάς), σκαφέας - σκαφτιάς…
-ήρας: καλώ > κλητήρας , κρατώ > κρατήρας…
-(ά)τορας : συμβουλεύω > συμβουλάτορας, εισπράττω – εισπρά-
κτορας, διδάκτορας…
b) The medium or the tool of the action
They are analyzed into “he, she, it who, which + verb in the
Present”
-ος: τρέχω > τροχός, τρέφω > τροφός, πέμπω > πομπός..
-τήρας, - τήρα: κλαδεύω > κλαδευτήρι or κλαδευτήρας, κινητή-
ρας, καταβρεχτήρας…
c) The place of the action;
It is analyzed into “there where + verb in the Present”
-τήριο: εκπαιδεύω – εκπαιδευτήριο, γυμναστήριο, δικαστήριο,…
d) The result of the action
They are analyzed into “it which + verb in the Aorist (= past
tense) or the Perfect Tense”
-ος: λέγω > λόγος, φέρω > φόρος, τρέμω > τρόμος, κατέχω >
κάτοχος…
-μός: πνίγω > πνιγμός, κραδαίνω > κραδασμός, χάνω > χαμός,
διωγμός, παλμός…
-ωμός (- ώνω): λυτρώνω – λυτρωμός
2. Endings derived from nouns, showing:
a. Ideology or Behavior
-ισμός : Χριστιανός > Χριστιανισμός, Έλληνας > Ελληνισμός, άν-
θρωπος > ανθρωπισμός, εγώ – εγωισμός, αθλητισμός…
b. The follower of an Ideology or Behavior
-ιστής : Βούδας > βουδιστής, ελληνιστής, ανθρωπιστής, εγωι-
στής…
c. The caressing diminutive characterization
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-άκης : κόσμος > κοσμάκης, Γιώργος > Γιωργάκης…

-άκος : δρόμος > δρομάκος, γεροντάκος…
-ούλης : παππούς > παππούλης, αδελφούλης, Θάνος > Θανού-
λης
-ισκος : σατράπης > σατραπίσκος, θαλαμίσκος, κολπίσκος..
d. Content (concentrated)
-(ι)ώνας : άχερα > αχερώνας, ελαιώνας, περιστερώνας, καλα-
μιώνας
-ιάς : πεύκο > πευκιάς, πλατανιάς…
e. The vacationer or the operator
-άς: ψάρια – ψαράς, γάλα – γαλατάς, σίδερα – σιδεράς…
-άριος : αποθήκη – αποθηκάριος , βιβλιοθήκη – βιβλιοθηκάριος…
-τζής : κουλούρια – κουλουρτζής, παλιατζής, ταξιτζής…
-ίας : εισόδημα – εισοδηματίας , κτήματος – κτηματίας…
-(ι) άρης : λύρα > λυράρης , βάρκα > βαρκάρης , σκουπιδιάρης..
C. Masculine & féminine
a. Magna, large:
- αρα, - αρού: φέτα > φετάρα, κοιλιά > κοιλάρα, χορεύτρια,
χορευταρού…
- αρος, - αράς : παιδί > παίδαρος, παιδαράς, κοιλαρά, χορευτα-
ράς
b. Native:
-ος , - ίδα: Γαλλία > Γάλλος , Γαλλίδα, Ιταλία > Ιταλός, Ιταλίδα,..
-ίτης, -ίτισσα: Αράχοβα > Αραχωβίτης, Πολίτης, Πολίτης, Ανατο-
λίτης..
- αϊτης, - ίτισσα : Μοριάς > Μοραΐτης, Μοραϊτισσα, Χρυσαϊτης…
- ιάτης,,σσα : Μάνη > Μανιάτης, Μανιάτισσα,…
-(ι)ώτης,σσα: Ηπειρώτης, Σουλιώτης, Γιαννιώτης, Γιαννιώτισσα
-ι(α)νός,ή,ανός,α: Ζακυνθινός,ή, Αφρικανός,ή, Αμερικάνος,α…
-ιός, ιά,ιος,ια :Θεσσαλονικιός, -ιά, Αιγύπτιος, Λημνιός, Μυτιλη-
νιός,
- ιά- αίος, - αία : Αθήνα > Αθηναίος,α, Θηβαίος, Κερκυραίος,a..
- έζος,α : Βιέννη > Βιεννέζος, Κινέζος, Κινέζα, Μαλτέζος, Δανέζα
c. Surnames:
- ίδης,η (Pontus) : μέλισσα > Μελισσίδης, Κωνσταντινίδης , Κρο-
νίδης
-άκης,η (Crete) :Κυριάκος > Κυριακάκης, Κυριακάκη, Κασάπης
> Κασαπάκης…
-άκος,ου, -όγκονας,α (Sparta – Mani): Πέτρος > Πετράκος, Δη-
μακάκου, Δημαρόγκονας….
-όπουλος,ου (Peloponnese – Morias): Μανώλης > Μανωλόπου-
λος, Δημόπουλος, Δημοπούλου…
d. Being in relationship:
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-ώτης, - ώτισσα: θίασος > θιασώτης, στρατός > στρατιώτης, πα-

τρίς > πατριώτης, πατριώτισσα …
-ίτης, - ίτισσσα : τέχνη > τεχνίτης,, μεσίτης, τραπεζίτης, πολί-
της,…
D. Feminine
1. Endings derived from verbs, showing:

a) The action or the situation
From the Present of the Active Voice:
- η: γράφω > γραφή, τέμνω > τομή, νέμω > νομή, μετέχω >
μετοχή, εξέχω > εξοχή…
- α : φέρω > φορά, φόρα, ανασαίνω – ανάσα, παστρεύω, - πά-
στρα
- εία (- εύω): λατρεύω > λατρεία, πορεύομαι – πορεία, θεραπεία,
βασιλεία, δουλεία
- ειά (- εύω): δουλεύω > δουλειά, γιατρεύω > γιατρειά
- εια (- ώ): βοηθώ > βοήθεια, προσπαθώ > προσπάθεια, ωφέ-
λεια
- ία (- ώ): (ο)μιλώ > ομιλία – μιλιά, βαθμολογώ- βαθμολογία…
From the Aorist (paste tense) of the Active Voice:
-ση, ξη, ψη: λάμψη (λάμπω), βράση, φύλαξη, τάξη, σκέψη
-ωση (- ώνω): βεβαιώνω > βεβαίωση, δικαίωση, δήλωση
-ηση (- ώ): κυβερνάω > κυβέρνηση, γέννηση, κίνηση
-ιση (- ίζω): διαφημίζω > διαφήμιση
-υση (- ύω): λύ (ν) ω > λύση, φύω > φύση, μήνυση, ίδρυση
-οιση: αθρόω > άθροιση
b) The tool of action
-ίδα : γράφω – γραφίδα, λαμβάνω – λαβίδα..
-άλα : κρεμώ – κρεμάλα, φουσκώνω – φουσκάλα..
2. Endings derived from adjectives, showing the quality or the

peculiarity:
-ία (accented, from adjectives ending in – ος) : κακός > κακία,
φίλος >φιλία, σοφός > σοφία
-α, -η (with alteration of accent) : αλμυρά – αλμύρα, γλυκά –
γλύκα, ζεστή – ζέστη, θερμή – θέρμη…
-αδα : σκληρός > σκληράδα, νοστιμάδα, αγριάδα, μονός > μο-
νάδα…
-ίλα : πικρός – πικρίλα, άσπρος – ασπρίλα, ξινός – ξινίλα…
-οσύνη : δίκαιος > δικαιοσύνη, καλοσύνη, αγιοσύνη…
-ότητα : αθώος > αθωότητα, ορθότητα, βεβαιότητα…
-ύτητα : γλυκύς > γλυκύτητα, οξύς – οξύτητα, βαρύς – βαρύ-
τητα, ταχύς – ταχύτητα..
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& Endings derived from nouns:

-ότητα : εχθρός > εχθρότητα, μητρότητα, ποσότητα,…
3. Endings derived from other nouns, showing:

(a) The feminine of a masculine noun (or a masculine name):
-αινα : Γιώργης – Γιώργαινα, Τζαβέλας – Τζαβέλαινα, δράκος –
δράκαινα, λέων – λέαινα, λύκος – λύκαινα…
(b) The caressing diminutive characterization:
-ίτσα : Ελένη – Ελενίτσα, γάτα – γατίτσα, κλωστίτσα,,,
-ούδα,-ούλα: πλέξη – πλεξούδα, βρύση – βρυσούλα, μητερούλα,
κορούλα…
(c) Content (Concentrated)
-ουριά : κλέφτης > κλεφτουριά, λάσπη > λασπουριά, κουμπου-
ριά…
-ιά : πλατάνια > πλατανιά, καλαμιά, αμμουδιά…
-ωνιά : χειμώνας > χειμωνιά, γειτονιά, συννεφιά, καλοκαιριά…
(d) Plant
-ιά : αμύγδαλο - αμυγδαλιά, κεράσια – κερασιά, αχλαδιά
III. Endings of Adjectives
1. Endings derived from Roots,

(In various meanings: character, color)
-ος,η,ο : καλός, σωστός, άσπρος, μαύρος…
2. Endings derived from nouns
They are analyzed in preposition + nouns: πέτρινος = από πέτρα,
εμπύρετος = με πυρετό, μηνιαίος = κατά μήνα, or in the phrase « που
είναι από / σαν + noun: ξύλινος = που είναι από ξύλο); showing:
a. Original material or source
-ένιος: ασήμι > ασημένιος, σταρένιος, μπακιρένιος, μολυβένιος…
-ινος : μαλλί > μάλλινος, ξύλο > ξύλινος, πέτρα > πέτρινος…
-ίσιος,α,ο: αρνί > αρνίσιος, φιδίσιος, βαρελίσιος, βουνίσιος, πα-
λικαρίσιος…
b. Color
-ής, - ιά, ί : μέλι > μελής, σταχτής, ασημής, βυσσινής
-ινός, η, ο : πράσο (πράσο) > πράσινος, κίτρο (κίτριον) > κίτρι-
νος..
c. Content
-άτος : αφρός > αφράτος, μελάτος, κρασάτος, δροσάτος..
d. Repletion (abundance)
-εινός : σκότος > σκοτεινός, φωτεινός, ορεινός, υγιεινός…
-ηρός : τόλμη > τολμηρός, λυπηρός, οδυνηρός, νοσηρός, μοχθη-
ρός…
-ιερός : δροσιά > δροσερός, φθονερός, σκιερός, φλογερός
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-ώβδης,η,ες: ευωδιά > ευώδης, μυώδης, θορυβώδης, κτηνώ-

δης…
-ηλός : απάτη > απατηλός, υψηλός, σφριγηλός,…
e. Dimension, weight, and size (width, length)
-ύς, ιά, ύ : φάρδος > φαρδύς, βαρύς, πλατύς, μακρύς,..
f. Appearance or condition
-ίστικος : αγόρι > αγορίστικος, κορίτσι > κοριτσίστικος…
-ωπός : χαρά > χαρωπός, σκυθρωπός…
-ωτός : αγκάθι > αγκαθωτός, μετάξι > μεταξωτός…
-(ι) άρης : πείσμα > πεισματάρης, κόκαλο > κοκαλιάρης…
-λέος : δίψα > διψαλέος, πειναλέος
-ηλός, - ωλός : σιωπή > σιωπηλός, απατηλός, αμαρτωλός, φει-
δωλός…
-ερός : βροχή > βροχερός, φλόγα > φλογερός, δροσερός…
-ιος,α,ο: τιμή > τίμιος, λόγιος, άθλιος, αιώνιος, μαραθώνιος,
πλούσιος
-είος : άντρας > αντρείος, γυναίκα > γυναικείος…
g. Time or period
-άτικος : Μάιος > Μαγιάτικος, κυριακάτικος, χειμωνιάτικος…
-ιαίος, - ήσιος : μήνας > μηνιαίος, ημερήσιος, ετήσιος…
-ινός : φθινόπωρο > φθινοπωρινός, θερινός , καλοκαιρινός,…
h. Place or country
-ικός : Γαλλία, Γάλλος > γαλλικός, θεσσαλικός, κρητικός, χωρι-
κός…
-ικος : Σούλι, Σουλιώτης > σουλιώτικος, ρουμελιώτικος…
-αιος,α : Θήβα > Θηβαίος , Κερκυραίος,α…
-ιακός : ήλιος > ηλιακός, σελήνη > σεληνιακός…
-κός,ή, ό : καρδιά > καρδιακός, οικογενειακός, ή….
-ικος : γέρος > γέρικος, κλέφτικος, γύφτικος…
3. Endings derived from verbs
They are analyzed in “he, she, who, it which + verb in the third
person; showing:
a) He who provides or contains what the verb states:
-τός (a’ conjugation): γράφω > γραφτός, σφικτός, σβηστός,
ακουστός, σβηστός, ανοιχτός
-ητός (β’ conjugation): ξυπνώ > ξυπνητός, κρατώ > ακράτητος,
αγαπητός, ποθητός
-ωτός (from verb in –ώνω): καμαρώνω > καμαρωτός, αυλακω-
τός, απλωτός
-ητικός, -ιστικός, -ετικός: ενοχλώ > ενοχλητικός, δροσίζω – δρο-
σιστικός, παραπονιέμαι > παραπονετικός, ενεργώ > ενεργητικός…
-ερός : θλιβω > θλιβερός, λάμπω > λαμπερός…
-κός : καρτερώ > καρτερικός, πειθαρχώ > πειθαρχικός…
-(η) τήριος : κινώ > κινητήριος, σώζω > σωτήριος….
-νος : σέβομαι > σεβνός > σεμνός, τέρπω > τερπνός….
44
b) What must be done stated the verb:

-ετέος: αφαιρώ > αφαιρετέος, διαιρετέος, μειώνω – μειωτέος,
προσθετέος,..
c) He who is able to become what a the verb states:
-σιμος : κατοικώ > κατοικήσιμος, φα(γ)ώνομαι > φαγώσιμος…
4. Endings derived from other adjective:
a. Caressing diminutive:
-ούλης : άσπρος > ασπρούλης, κοντός > κοντούλης..
-ούτσικος : ζεστός > ζεστούτσικος , μικρούτσικος , καλούτσι-
κος,..
b. Appearance:
-ωπός : άγριος > αγριωπός , κοκκινωπός , πρασινωπός…
-ιδερός : μαύρος > μαυριδερός , ασπριδερός…
-ουλός : βαθύς > βαθουλός , παχουλός , μακρουλός…
5. Endings derived from adverbs.
They are analyzed in “he, she, who, it which is + adverb; show-
ing place or time:
-ινός, - ινή, - ινό: χθες > χθεσινός, κοντά > κοντινός, μακρινός,
σημερινός, φετινός, πύρινος
-ιανός: παρακάτω > παρακατιανός , αύριο > αυριανός
IV. Endings of Adverbs
The adverbs are derived from some adjectives, pronouns, parti-

ciples and adverbs having the endings:
-ως, - α: καλός > καλώς , καλά , διαρκής > διαρκώς , επόμενος
> επομένως…
-ού: άλλος > αλλού , αυτός > αυτού
-θέ: εδώ > εδώθε , εκεί > εκείθε , ολούθε , αλλούθε
Normally the adverbs are derived:

1) From the nominative case of the Singular Number of mascu-
line adjectives and participles by abstracting the article and removing
the accent one syllable downwards if they accented on the antepenult
(the adverbs are written with -ω <omega> to be distinguished): ο
καλός (adjective) > καλώς (adverb), ο βόρειος (adjective) > βορείως
(adverb) , ο επόμενος (participle) > επομένως (adverb). Similarly:
υπογείως, κακώς, αεροπορικώς, ομολογουμένως, προηγουμένως,
δικαιολογημένα / -ως, ηθελημένα.
2) From the nominative case of the Plural Number of neuter ad-
jectives by removing only the article: τα καλά (adjective) > καλά (ad-
verb). Similarly: βόρεια, ετήσια, καλύτερα, βορειότερα, άριστα.
45
3) From the substitution of the ending – ως in adjectives ending

in – ης: ο δυστυχής (δύστυχος), - η, - ο + adjective) > δυστυχώς (
= adverb) Similarly: ευτυχώς , διαρκώς , διακαώς , συνεχώς , σαφώς.
4) From prepositions or from other adverbs: εν > εντός , εν +
αντί > έναντι, εκ > εκτός, εξ > έξω , επί + άνω > απάνω, κατά>κάτω
, ανά +μετά +εξ > αναμεταξύ , χωρίς > χώρια, εν ώρα > (ε) νωρίς
, επί + έτος > εφέτος – φέτος , αντί + άκρη > αντίκρυ, όλη νύκτα
> οληνυκτίς , απόβραδο > αποβραδίς , κοντολογίς
5) From the indirect cases (of the ancient Greek Language) : του
χρόνου, τα (η) + ώρα > τώρα , τη ημέρα > τήμερα + σήμερα , εξ
ίσου > εξίσου, επί ίσης > επίσης…
46
CHAPTER 6th
THE VALUE, GLOBAL CONTRIBUTION
AND THE REASONS WHY THE GREEK LAN-
GUAGE AND THE GREEK SYSTEM OF WRIT-
ING SHOULD ONCE AGAIN BECOME INTERNA-
TIONAL AND THE OFFICIAL PROTOCOL OF
THE EUROPEAN UNION
1. OPINIONS FOR VOLUE OF GREEK LANGUAGE
The Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero said that if the

gods spoke, they would use the Greek Language.
The German writer and philosophe Johann Wolfgang Goethe,
said that he had heard the Gospel in various languages; however,
when he heard it in Greek it seemed as if the Moon had appeared in
the sky.
The French Academician and Poet Claude Fauriel (1772-1844)
said that the Greek language assembles the wealth and homogeneity
of the German language, the clarity of French, the beauty of Spanish
and the musicality of Italian.
The French Academician and Poet Claude Fauriel (1772-1844)
said that the Greek Language assembles the wealth and homogeneity
of the German language, the clarity of French, the beauty of Spanish
and the musicality of Italian.
The famous blind American writer Ellen Keller compared the pre-
ciseness and perfection of expression of the human thought in the
Greek Language with the most perfect of the musical instruments, the
violin.
The French writer and academic Margarite Yourceyar said: I
loved this Greek language for its robust plasticity, where each of its
words certifies its direct and different contact with the truths, and
47
because whatever has been said worthy by man, for the most part
has been said in this language.
The Greek poet and academic Brettakos said: When I die and I‘m
gone to the Heavens, I will speak to the angels in Greek, because they
do not know any other language, other than the language of music.
The German poet, historian and philosopher Schiller said: Cursed
Greek, you have discovered everything: philosophy, geometry, phys-
ics, astronomy….. You have left nothing for us.
“We are all Greeks. Our laws, our literature, our religion, our arts, have
their root in Greece (Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1792 – 1822)
In addition to the above, the Greek Language, alphabet and
grammar, as we will further see, are nearly perfect and the easiest of
all others. Hence, for all of the above, the Greek Language and the
Greek system of writing should enjoy world-wide respectability, at-
tention and protection and once again become international and the
official protocol of the European Union.
And for all of the above, the Greek language and Greek writings
should enjoy world-wide respectability, attention and protection.
2.ΤΗΕ GLOBAL CONTRIBUTION OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND

GREEK ALPHABET – THE GREEK LANGUAGE IS THE MATHER OF
MANY OTHERS LANGUAGES ETC
1. The GREEK language and the GREEK writing (written word)

are not only amongst the oldest in the world and Europe, as it is evi-
dent from the inscriptions on monuments, but it is also the language
that captured and recorded with mathematical precision the human
intellectual expression during the first hugely important moments of
mankind’s creation.
2. The Greek alphabet is of fundamental importance to the
world-wide art of writing and culture, not only because it captured and
precisely recorded the most cultivated and philosophical thought of
the ancient world, which today guides us, as linguist Charles Higounet
very rightly observes and remarks, but also and not only because it is
the base of the modern GREEK art of writing, but also because of a
whole list of other writings, such as writings with LATIN characters
(English, Italian, French, German, etc.), the Slavic writings (Bulgar-
ian, Russian, etc.), as we will see below, consequently the largest per-
centage of current writings.
3. The Greek language is of fundamental importance to the lan-
guages and cultures of the world, not only because it captured and
48
recorded the most cultivated and philosophical thought of the ancient

world, but also because it is the base and support not only of the
modern Greek language, but also of a whole list of others, such as
Latin and the so-called Latin -based languages (Italian, English,
French, etc.). There is no language today that does not contain GREEK
words or derivatives of Greek words, and that is why it is considered
the “mother of all languages”.
While the people of the world in trans the ancient Greek writings
(scientific, literary, philosophy, epics, poetry, etc.), they imported in
their own languages apart from the Greek intellectuality and thought
many Greek words as well. Innumerable is the GREEK vocabulary that
is found in the international arena of languages and dialects. For ex-
ample, it is estimated that the international English language (i.e.,
English used globally) contains today in excess of 50,000 words of
Greek origin, for example, Europe, alphabet, grammatical, grammar,
syllable, diphthongs, angel, Bible, bibliography, dialogue, ethnic, fan-
tasy, geography, history, idol, kilometer, philosophy…almost all med-
ical terminology……etc.
4. The GREEK language and the GREEK writings are responsible
for the birth and development of science and the arts. The GREEKs
were the first to discover and implement the simple but perfect system
of writing, as we will see below, consequently having the capability to
not only easily record their experiences, but also by studying them at
a later time, they progressed and became first in the letters, arts and
sciences: Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, Thucydides, Herakleitos, Demo-
kritos, Plato, Aristotle, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides,
and….and…and…
The first texts of Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy, Law, Medi-
cine, History, Linguistics, etc., were written in the Greek language and
alphabet. The first theatrical works (plays), as well as the Byzantine
literary works have been written in the Greek language.
5. The Greek language and Greek writings were spread inter-
nationally first during the period of Alexander The Great and the Hel-
lenistic period that followed. They were also used extensively during
the Roman and Byzantine empires, while many Roman men, the aris-
tocracy and well to do citizenry came to Athens to study and learn
Greek and the Greek culture.
6. The Greek language and alphabet are those that the most
known ancient religions were written and then spread throughout the
world. That is to say, that of the Olympian gods and Christianity (Old
Testament). Most Apostles: Paul, John, Lukas, etc….Just as, many He-
brews had gotten a GREEK education, knew the GREEK language and
alphabet and for that reason they wrote the Gospels directly in GREEK
for the purpose of making them known throughout the world.
49
Also, the Old Testament became known throughout the world

after its translation from Hebrew into GREEK.
7. The Greek language and Greek scriptures are those that
helped in the decipherment of many of the ancient writings. This hap-
pened, because during the period of Alexander The Great and the Hel-
lenistic period that followed, the Greek language and alphabet were
international and many signs, name plates, columns, tombs, etc.,
were inscripted bilingually, i.e., the column of Rosette in GREEK and
Egyptian, the epigram ‘Rampad’ in Alep in GREEK, Syriac and Arabic,
the epigram ‘Arran’ in Aouran in GREEK and Arabic, etc.
The Greek language and the Greek system of writing, as evi-

denced by scientific sources, a watershed event not only in the history
of Western civilization with the Greek’s invention of the alphabet and
their system of writing, but also constitute the means of precise ex-
pression by the creative human mind and spirit during mankind’s ini-
tial great moments in the development of civilization and simultane-
ously comprise the foundation, base and support for all other Euro-
pean languages.
Specifically, the Greek language is of fundamental importance to
the languages and cultures of the world, not only because it captured
and recorded the most cultivated and philosophical thought of the an-
cient world, but also because it is the base and support not only of the
modern Greek language, but also of a whole list of others, such as
Latin and the so-called Latin-based languages (Italian, English,
French, etc.). There is no language today that does not contain Greek
words or derivatives of Greek words, and that is why it is considered
the “mother of all languages”. While the people of the world in
translating the ancient Greek writings (arts & science, literary, philos-
ophy, epics, poetry, etc.), they imported into their own languages
apart from the Greek intellectuality and thought many Greek words
as well. Innumerable is the Greek vocabulary that is found in the in-
ternational arena of languages and dialects. For example, it is esti-
mated that the international English language (i.e., English used glob-
ally) contains today in excess of 50,000 words of Greek origin, for
example:
Greek: Ευρώπη, αλφάβητο, γραμματική, συλλαβή, δίφθογγοι,
Άγγελος, Βίβλος, βιβλιογραφία, διάλογος, Εθνικός, Φαντασία, Γεωγρα-
φία, Ιστορία, είδωλο, Χιλιόμετρο, φιλοσοφία…
English: Europe, alphabet, grammatical, grammar, syllable,
diphthongs, angel, Bible, bibliography, dialogue, ethnic, fantasy, ge-
ography, history, idol, kilometer, philosophy…
Also, the Greek alphabet is of fundamental importance to the
worldwide art of writing and culture, not only because it captured and
precisely recorded the most cultivated and philosophical thought of
50
the ancient world, which today guides us, as linguist Charles Higounet
very rightly observes and remarks, but also and not only because it is
the base of the modern Greek art of writing, but also because of a
whole list of other writings, such as writings with Latin characters
(English, Italian, French, German, etc.), the Slavic writings (Bulgar-
ian, Russian, etc.), as we will see below, consequently the largest per-
centage of current writings.
The Greek language and the Greek scriptures are responsible
for the birth and development of science and the arts. The Greeks
were the first to discover and implement the simple but perfect system
of writing, as we will see below, consequently having the capability to
not only easily record their experiences, but also by studying them at
a later time, they progressed and became first in the letters, arts and
sciences: Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, Thucydides, Heraclitus,
Democritus, Plato, Aristotle, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aris-
tophanes, and….and…and…
The first texts of Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy, Law, Medi-
cine, History, Linguistics, etc., were written in the Greek language and
alphabet. The first theatrical works (plays), as well as the Byzantine
literary works have been written in the Greek language.
The Greek language and Greek writing system were spread in-
ternationally first during the period of Alexander The Great and the
Hellenistic period that followed. They were also used extensively dur-
ing the Roman and Byzantine empires, while many Roman men, the
aristocracy and well to do citizenry came to Athens to study and learn
Greek and the Greek culture.
The Greek language and the Greek alphabet are those that the
most known ancient religions were written and then spread through-
out the world. That is to say, that of the Olympian gods and Christi-
anity (New Testament). Most Apostles: Paul, John, Lukas, etc….Just
as, many Hebrews had gotten a Greek education, knew the Greek
language and alphabet and for that reason they wrote the Gospels
directly in Greek for the purpose of making them known throughout
the world.
Also, the New Testament became known throughout the world
after its translation from Hebrew into Greek.
The Greek language and Greek scriptures are those that helped
in the decipherment of many of the ancient writings. This happened,
because during the period of Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic
period that followed, the Greek language and Greek alphabet were
international and many signs, name plates, columns, tombs, etc.,
were in scripted bilingually, i.e., the column of Rosette in Greek and
Egyptian, the epigram ‘Rampad’ in Alep in Greek, Syriac and Arabic,
the epigram ‘Arran’ in Aouran in Greek and Arabic, etc.
51
3. ENGLISH SPEECHES WITH GREEK WORDS
The former Prime Minister of Greece and professor Xenophon

Zolotas had given two speeches in Washington D.C. (on September
26, 1957 and on October 2, 1959), which remain memorable and
characterized by the international press as a “linguistic feat - linguistic
epic! ”. The reason for this was not only due to the content of these
speeches but also due to the language in which they were given. It is
assumed that the language for public speeches is English. In sub-
stance however, with the exception of a few conjunctions, articles and
prepositions the language is Greek. The attendees that constituted the
membership at the conference of the international monetary bank for
reconstruction and growth did not have any problem understanding
the uniqueness and magnificence of the text of the speeches given by
the Greek professor.
The Speech of September 26, 1957
Kyrie,
I eulogize the archons of the Pan ethnic NUMISMATIC Thesaurus
and the Ecumenical TRAPEZA for the orthodoxy of their axioms meth-
ods and policies, although there is an episode of cacophony of the
Trapeza with Hellas. With enthusiasm we dialogue and synagonize at
the synods of our DIDYMUS Organizations in which polymorphous eco-
nomic ideas and dogmas are ANALYSED and synthesized. Our critical
problems such as the numismatic plethora generate some agony and
melancholy. This phenomenon is characteristic of our epoch. But, to
my thesis we have the dynamism to program therapeutic practices as
a prophylaxis from chaos and catastrophe. In parallel a panethnic un-
hypocritical economic synergy and harmonization in a democratic cli-
mate is basic. I apologize for my eccentric monologue. I emphasize
my eucharistiria to you Kyrie, to the eugenic and generous American
Ethnos and to the organizations and protagonists of the Amphictyony
and the gastronomic symposia.
IN GREEK
Κύριοι,
Ευλογώ τους άρχοντες του Διεθνούς Νομισματικού Ταμείου και την Οι-
κουμενική Τράπεζα για την ορθοδοξία των αξιωμάτων, μεθόδων και
πολιτικών, παρά το γεγονός ότι υπάρχει ένα επεισόδιο κακοφωνίας της
Τράπεζας με την Ελλάδα. Με ενθουσιασμό διαλεγόμαστε και συναγω-
νιζόμαστε στις συνόδους των διδύμων Οργανισμών των οποίων τις
52
πολύμορφες οικονομικές ιδέες και δόγματα αναλύουμε και συνθέ-

τουμε. Τα κρίσιμα προβλήματά μας όπως η νομισματική πληθώρα πα-
ράγουν κάποια αγωνία και μελαγχολία. Αυτό το φαινόμενο είναι χαρα-
κτηριστικό της εποχής μας. Αλλά, η θέση μου είναι ότι έχουμε τον δυ-
ναμισμό να προγραμματίσουμε θεραπευτικές πρακτικές σαν μέτρο προ-
φύλαξης από το χάος και την καταστροφή. Παράλληλα μια παγκόσμια
ανυπόκριτως οικονομική συνέργεια και εναρμόνιση σε ένα δημοκρα-
τικό κλίμα είναι βασική. Απολογούμαι για τον εκκεντρικό μου μονό-
λογο. Εκφράζω με έμφαση την ευχαριστία μου σε εσένα Κύριε, στο
ευγενικό και γενναιόδωρο Αμερικανικό Έθνος και στους οργανισμούς
και πρωταγωνιστές της Αμφυκτιωνίας και του γαστρονομικού Συμπο-
σίου.»
The Speech of October 2, 1959
Kyrie,
It is Zeus' anathema on our epoch and the heresy of our eco-
nomic method and policies that we should agonize the Skylla of nu-
mismatic plethora and the Charybdis of economic anaemia. It is not
my idiosyncrasy to be ironic or sarcastic but my diagnosis would be
that politicians are rather cryptoplethorists. Although they emphati-
cally stigmatize numismatic plethora, they energize it through their
tactics and practices. Our policies should be based more on economic
and less on political criteria. Our gnomon has to be a metron between
economic strategic and philanthropic scopes. In an epoch character-
ized by monopolies, oligopolies, monopolistic antagonism and poly-
morphous inelasticities, our policies have to be more orthological, but
this should not be metamorphosed into plethorophobia, which is en-
demic among academic economists. Numismatic symmetry should not
antagonize economic acme. A greater harmonization between the
practices of the economic and nomismatic archons is basic. Parallel to
this we have to synchronize and harmonize more and more our eco-
nomic and nomismatic policies panethnically. These scopes are more
practicable now, when the prognostics of the political end economic
barometer are halcyonic. The history of our didymous organization on
this sphere has been didactic and their gnostic practices will always
be a tonic to the polyonymous and idiomorphous ethnical economies.
The geneses of the programmed organization will dynamize these pol-
icies. Therefore, I sympathize, although not without criticism one or
two themes with the apostles and the hierarchy of our organs in their
zeal to program orthodox economic and nomismatic policies. I apolo-
gize for having tyrannized you with my Hellenic phraseology.
In my epilogue I emphasize my eulogy to the philoxenous ay-
tochtons of this cosmopolitan metropolis and my encomium to you
Kyrie, the stenographers.
53
IN GREEK
Κύριοι,
Είναι "Διός ανάθεμα" στην εποχή μας και αίρεση της οικονομικής
μας μεθόδου και της οικονομικής μας πολιτικής το ότι θα φέρναμε σε
αγωνία την Σκύλλα του νομισματικού πληθωρισμού και τη Χάρυβδη
της οικονομικής μας αναιμίας. Δεν είναι στην ιδιοσυγκρασία μου να
είμαι ειρωνικός ή σαρκαστικός αλλά η διάγνωσή μου θα ήταν ότι οι
πολιτικοί είναι μάλλον κρυπτοπληθωριστές. Αν και με έμφαση στιγμα-
τίζουν τον νομισματικό πληθωρισμό, τον ενεργοποιούν μέσω της τα-
κτικής τους και των πρακτικών τους. Η πολιτική μας θα έπρεπε να βα-
σίζεται περισσότερο σε οικονομικά και λιγότερο σε πολιτικά κριτήρια.
Γνώμων μας πρέπει να είναι ένα μέτρο μεταξύ οικονομικής στρατηγικής
και φιλανθρωπικής σκοπιάς. Σε μια εποχή που χαρακτηρίζεται από μο-
νοπώλια, ολιγοπώλια, μονοπωλιακό ανταγωνισμό και πολύμορφες α-
νελαστικότητες, οι πολιτικές μας πρέπει να είναι πιο ορθολογιστικές,
αλλά αυτό δεν θα έπρεπε να μεταμορφώνεται σε πληθωροφοβία, η ο-
ποία είναι ενδημική στους ακαδημαϊκούς οικονομολόγους. Η νομισμα-
τική συμμετρία δεν θα έπρεπε να ανταγωνίζεται την οικονομική ακμή.
Μια μεγαλύτερη εναρμόνιση μεταξύ των πρακτικών των οικονομικών
και νομισματικών αρχόντων είναι βασική. Παράλληλα με αυτό, πρέπει
να εκσυγχρονίσουμε και να εναρμονίσουμε όλο και περισσότερο τις
οικονομικές και νομισματικές μας πρακτικές πανεθνικώς. Αυτές οι θε-
ωρήσεις είναι πιο εφαρμόσιμες τώρα, όταν τα προγνωστικά του πολι-
τικού και οικονομικού βαρομέτρου είναι αλκυονίδων ημερών αίθρια. Η
ιστορία της δίδυμης οργάνωσης σε αυτήν την σφαίρα είναι διδακτική
και οι γνωστικές τους εφαρμογές θα είναι πάντα ένα τονωτικό στις πο-
λυώνυμες και ιδιόμορφες εθνικές οικονομίες. Η γένεση μιας προγραμ-
ματισμένης οργάνωσης θα ενισχύσει αυτές τις πολιτικές. Γι' αυτόν το
λόγο αντιμετωπίζω με συμπάθεια, αλλά όχι χωρίς κριτική διάθεση, ένα
ή δύο θέματα με τους αποστόλους της ιεραρχίας των οργάνων μας
στον ζήλο τους να προγραμματίσουν ορθόδοξες οικονομικές και νομι-
σματικές πολιτικές. Απολογούμαι που σας τυράννησα με την ελληνική
μου φρασεολογία.
Στον επίλογό μου δίνω έμφαση στην ευλογία μου, προς τους φι-
λόξενους αυτόχθονες αυτής της κοσμοπολίτικης μητρόπολης καθώς
και το εγκώμιό μου προς εσάς, κύριοι στενογράφοι
4. GREEK WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (DICTION-

ARY)
A. abyss, academy, acme = ακμή, δόξα, acrobat, acropolis, ae-

gis, aerial, aerodrome, aeronautics, aeroplane, aesthetic, air, all, al-
legory, allergy, alphabet, amalgam, ambrosia, amethyst, amnesia,
54
amphibian, amphitheatre, amphora, anachronism, anaemia, ana-

gram, analogy, analysis, anarchism, anathema, anatomy, angel,
anomalous, antagonism, anorexia, anthology, anticyclone, aorta, ap-
athetic, aphorism, apocalypse, apologise, apoplexy, apostasy, apos-
tle, apostrophe, apothecary, archaeology, archbishop, archdeacon,
archipelago, architect, arctic, aristocratic, arithmetic, aroma, arsenic,
asbestos, ascetic, asphyxia, asthma, astrology, astronaut, astronomy,
asylum, atheism, athlete, atmosphere, atom, atrophy, aura, austere
authentic, autobiography, autocrat, automatic, autograph, autono-
mous, autopsy, axiom.
B. bacterium, baptism, barbarian, baritone, barometer, basic,
basil, bathos, basis, Bible, bibliography, bigamy, biochemistry, biog-
raphy, biology, biplane, blasphemy, botany.
C. call = καλώ, calando, callus, calyx, canon, captain, card, car-
tography, castor, cataclysm, catacombs, catalogue, catalyst, catapult,
cataract, catarrh, catastrophe, catechism, category, cathedral, cath-
ode, catholic, caustic, cell, cemetery, cenotaph, centre, ceramic, cha-
meleon, chaos, character, chart, chasm, chimera, chiropractor, choir,
chiropodist, chord choreography, chorus, Christ, chromatic, chromo-
some, chronic, chronicle, chronological, chronometer, chrysalis, chry-
santhemum, cinema, cirrhosis, claustrophobia, cleric, climacteric, cli-
mate, climax, clinic, code, colossal. Comedy, comic, comma, cosmos,
cosmetic, cosmonaut, cost, crisis, criterion, criticism, crypt, crystal,
cybernetics, cycle, cyclone, cyclopaedia, cyclotron, cylinder, cymbal,
cynic, cyst.
D. deacon = διάκων, decade, Decalogue, delta, demagogic, de-
mocracy, demography, demon, demotic, dermatology, diabetes, dia-
bolic, diadem diaeresis (διαλυτικά), diagnosis, diagonal, diagram, di-
alect, dialogue, diameter, diamond, diaphanous, diaphragm, diatribe,
dichotomy, dictator, didactic, diet, dilemma, dinosaur, dioxide, dio-
rama, diphtheria, diphthong, diploma, diplomat, disaster, disc, dol-
phin, dose, double, draconian, dragon, drama, drastic, dynamic, dy-
namite, dynasty, dyspepsia, disharmony…
E. eccentric, ecclesiastic, echo, eclectic, eclipse, ecology, eco-
nomic, ecstasy, ecumenical, ecumenical, eczema, egoism, elastic,
electric, elegiac, elephant, elliptic, emblem, embryo, emetic, empha-
sis, empiric, emporium, encyclopaedia, endemic, energy, enigma, en-
throne, enthusiasm, entomology, enzyme, ephemeral, epidemic, epi-
gram, epilepsy, epilogue, epiphany, episode, epistle, epistyle, epi-
taph, epithet, epitome, epoch, erotic, esoteric, ether, ethic, ethnic,
ethos, etymology, eucalyptus, Eucharist, eugenics, eulogize, eunuch,
euphemism, euphony, euphoria, Eurasia, eureka, evangelic, exodus,
exorcize, exotic……
F.fable=φαύλος-μύθος, fanatic, fantasy, father, fre-
netic=φρενήρης…..
55
G. galaxy, gastronomy, general, genesis, genus, genitive =

γενική, George, geo, geography, geometry, geocentric, geophysics,
geopolitics, geology, geometry, gerontology, gigantic, glycerine, gyro,
government, grammatical, gramophone, graphic, gymnasium, Grego-
rian, gynaecology…..
H. hagiology, halcyon = αλκυών, harmony = αρμονία, heca-
tomb, hectare, hedonism, hegemony, helicopter, heliotrope, helium,
helot, hemisphere, haemorrhage=αιμορραγία, haemorrhoids, hepati-
tis, heretic, hermaphrodite, hermetic, hermit, hero, heroin, Hesperus,
heterodox, heterogeneous, heterosexual, hexagon, hexameter, hier-
archy, hieroglyph, hilarious, hippopotamus, hippodrome, history, hol-
ocaust, holograph, homeopathy, homogeneous, homonym, homo-
phone, hour = ώρα, (χώρα), horizon, hymen, hyperbole, hypnosis,
hypocrisy, hypotenuse, hysteria, homosexual, horde, horizon, hor-
mone, hour, hydrostatics, hydrophobia, hyena, hygiene, hymn, hy-
pertrophy, hypochondria, hypodermic, hypothesis.
I. iamb, icon, iconoclast, idea, ideogram, ideology, idiot, idiolect,
idiom, idiosyncrasy, idyllic, ironic, isobar, isosceles, isotope, isthmus.
K. kaleidoscope, kilo, kilocycle, kilogram, kilometre, kilolitre, ki-
netic, kleptomania…...
l. labyrinth, laconic, laic, lachrymal = δάκρυσμα, larynx, lava,
lesbian, lethargy, leukaemia, lexical, lithography, logarithm, logic, lo-
gistics, lynx, lyre, lyric …..
M. macrobiotic, macrocosm, magic, magnet, mania, mathemat-
ics, mechanic, medal, megacycle, megalith, megalomania, mega-
phone, megaton, meiosis, melancholia, melodic, melodrama, menin-
gitis, menopause, metabolism, metallic, metallurgy, metamorphosis,
metaphor, metaphysics, meteor, meteorite, meteorology, meter, me-
tre, metric, metronome, metropolis, miasma, microbe, microbiology,
microelectronics, micrometer, micron, micro organism, microphone,
microscope, mimeograph, mimetic, monarch, monastery, monogamy,
monogram, monolith, monologue, monomania, monoplane, monop-
oly, monosyllable, monotheism, monotone, morphology, museum,
music, myopia, myriad, mysterious, mystic, myth…..
N. narcissism, narcotic, nautical, nautilus, necromancy, necrop-
olis, nectar, nemesis, Neolithic, neologism, neon, news, nerve, neo-
plasm, nephritis, neuralgia, neurasthenia, nominative = ïíïìáóôéêÞ,
nostalgia, nymph.
O. oasis, ocean, octagon, octane, octave, octogenarian, octopus,
ode (ωδή), odyssey, oesophagus, Oedipus complex, orgy, oligarchy,
Olympiad, Olympic, onomatopoeia, ontology, ophthalmic, optic (opti-
mist, option), orchestra, orchid, organ, organic, organism, organize,
orgasm, orphan, orthodox, orthographic, orthopaedic, osteopath,
ouzo, oxide, oxygen. …..
56
P. pachyderm, pagan=παγανιστής-ειδωλολάτρης, Paleolithic,

paleontology, palm, panacea, panchromatic, pancreas, pandemic,
pandemonium, panegyric=πανηγυρική ομιλία, panic, panoply, pano-
rama, pantechnicon, pantheism, pantheon, panther, parab-
ola=παραβολή, paradigm, paradox, paragon=παράγων-υπόδειγμα,
paragraph, parallel, paralysis, paranoia, paraphrase, paraplegia, par-
asite, paratyphoid, parenthesis, pariah=παρίας, parody, paroxysm,
patter, pathetic, pathology, pathos, patriarch, patriot, patronymic,
pedagogue, pederasty, pediatrics, pedometer=βηματομετρητής, pen-
tagon, pentameter, Pentateuch, pentathlon, Pentecost, Pepsis, peri-
helion=περιήλιο, perimeter, period, peripatetic, periphrasis, periph-
ery, periscope, peristyle, peritonitis, petal=πέταλο άνθους, phalanx,
phallus=φαλλός, phantasm, pharmacology, pharmacy, pharynx,
phase, phenomenon, philanthropy, philately, philharmonic, philology,
philosophy, philter, phlebitis, phlegm, phobia, phoenix, phone, pho-
neme=φώνημα, phonetic, phonograph, phonology, phosphorous,
photo, photoelectric, photogenic, photograph, photolithography, pho-
tometer, phrase, phrenology, phthisis, physics, physiognomy, physi-
ology, physiotherapy, planet, plasma, plasma, plastic, plec-
trum=πλήκτρο, pleonasm, plethora, plural, πλήθος, πληθυντικός, plu-
tocracy, plutonium, pneumatic, pneumonia, pole=πόλος, polemic,
policy, police, politics, polyandry, polygamy, polyglot, polygon, poly-
morphous, polyphony, polypus, polysyllable, polytechnic, polytheism,
porn, practice, pragmatism, presbyter, prism, problem, prognosis,
programmer, prologue, prophecy, prophylactic, prosce-
nium=προσκήνιο, proselyte, prosody, protagonist, protocol, proton,
protoplasm, protozoa, prototype, psalm, pseudonym, psyche, psyche-
delic, psychic, psychoanalysis, psychology, psychopath, psychosis,
psychotherapy, pterodactyl, pylon=πυλώνας, pyramid, pyre=πυρά,
pyrites, pyrotechnics=πυροτέχνημα, python…..
Q = k: qoppa – Kappa …
R. radio, Reyna, rhyme, rhythm…..
S. sandal, sarcasm, sarcophagus, sardonic, satyr, scene, skep-
tic, schematic, schism, schizophrenia, scholar, scholastic, school, sco-
ria, scorpion, Scylla, seismic, semantic, semaphore=σηματοφόρος,
septicemia=σηψαιμία, serial, sir, solecism=σολοικισμός, sophism,
spasm, sphinx, stadium, stalactite, stalagmite, star, static, statistics,
stereophonic, stereoscopic, sternum, stigma, stoic, stomach, strat-
egy, stratagem, stratosphere, streptococcus, streptomycin, strophe,
sycophant, syllogism, syllable, symbol, symmetry, sympathetic, sym-
phony, symposium, symptom, synagogue, synchronize, syncope, syn-
drome, synod, synonym, synopsis, syntax, synthesis, syphilis, sy-
ringe, system…..
T. tactic, talent, tantalize = Τάνταλος, tartar, tautology, taxi-
dermy, technique, technocracy, technology, telegram, telegraph,
57
telemetry, teleology, telepathy, telephone, telephoto, telescope, the-

atre, theism, theme, theocracy, theology, theorem, theoretic, theory,
theosophy, therapeutic, therapy, thermo, thermal, thermion, ther-
mometer, thermos, thesaurus, thesis, tone, topography, Trapeze,
tragedy, tragicomedy, tremor, trigonometry, trilogy, tripod, trireme =
τριήρη, triple, trophy, tropic, typhoon, typo, typical, typography, tyr-
anny…..
U. unanimous, anonymous, Uranus, uranium……
V = W = B(β): basic, barbarian..
X. xenophobe, xylophone, xenia, xenon …..
y. hypo - hyper , super = υπό - υπέρ…..
Z. Zeus = Ζευς, zephyr, zeugma, zodiac, zone, zoology…..
5. THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND THE GREEK WRITING (AL-

PHABET) MUST BECOME ONCE AGAIN THE INTERNATIONAL
AND THE OFFICIAL PROTOCOL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
The Greek language with Greek writing, as is known, was the

language spoken internationally from the period of alexander the
great (336 -321 b.c.) and the Hellenistic years that followed through
the fall of Constantinople (1453 a.d.), i.e., 1,800+ years.
The Greek language was being spoken and written by very many
people (emporium, sciences etc) of antiquity: Romans, Hebrews,
Phoenicians, Indians, Afghans, Persians, Egyptians…..
During the period of the ottoman occupation of Greece the Greek
language ceased progressively to be the international language and
replaced by the French, English and German.
However, these languages did not enjoy international ac-
ceptance and support, because they are very difficult to learn.
As such, certain scholars proposed the reintroduction of ancient
Greek or Latin as the official international language.
However, this idea was rejected because both of these languages
are not being spoken and consequently, they do not serve the require-
ments of an emerging world, an argument which is false as we will
see further below.
Consequently, other scholars claimed that this problem would be
resolved by the so-called artificial languages that had begun to ap-
pear: Esperanto, interlingua, and others.
However, these artificial languages were proven to be inade-
quate in meeting the communications requirements of the scientific
community.
Consequently, scholars and others of the scientific community
are asking once again the reintroduction of the Greek language, mod-
ern Greek, as the international protocol.
58
(See more below).
6. THE GREEK LANGUAGE BY A SINGLE VOTE LOST, FROM

ONCE AGAIN, BECOMING THE OFFICIAL INTERNATIONAL LAN-
GUAGE; SOMETHING THAT WAS WRONG
Because in the middle of the past (20th) century the interdepend-

ence of nations in the sectors of economy, arts & science created the
need for international diplomacy and communication with a single
common language, and because the most widespread up to then lan-
guages, such as English, French, German, Chinese, and others are
very difficult to learn, certain scholars proposed the reintroduction of
Ancient Greek or Latin as the official international language.
However, this idea was rejected because both of these languages
are not being spoken and consequently they do not serve the require-
ments of an emerging world, while others claimed that this problem
would be resolved by the so-called artificial languages that had begun
to appear.
This rejection however, was a big mistake, because:
1) The Greek language other than its worldwide contribution, it
is also the easiest and the only language capable of the most compre-
hensive transmission of meaning, nearly perfect, as we will see below.
2) The ancient Greek language even though is not been spoken
today, nevertheless its continuity exists through modern Greek, which
of course, is as rich and beautiful as the ancient Greek, and perhaps
a bit beyond. And we are saying this, because the modern Greek lan-
guage has vastly increased its vocabulary through the creation and
addition of new words, and also through simplification by the Greek
literary scholars of some of the difficult parts of the ancient Greek
grammar, such as (suffixes, noun and adjective cases, elimination of
orthographic symbols, etc.), and thus the modern Greek language is
simpler and more precise than the ancient Greek.
3) The artificial languages, as we will see below, have been
proven to be for simplistic communication and nothing more.
It is also noted, that:

1) According to the assumptions of those supporting the artificial
language ‘Esperanto’ (see, encyclopedia “SCIENCE & LIFE”, and oth-
ers), in 1900 the official international English language was being spo-
ken by roughly 10% of the world population. In 1950 11%, while to-
day decreased to 8.5%. According to some, this reduction is due to
the English language and writing being too difficult to learn.
2) It is said that, in a meeting that took place in New York City
at the end of the 20th century by renowned economists and arts &
science scholars in order to decide which will become for them the
59
official international language, the Greek language lost by a single

vote, cast by the Polish (however of Jewish ancestry) doctor Lazarus
Loyntbich Zamenchof (L.L. Zamenchof, 1859 - 1917) or with his phil-
ological pseudonym " Doctor Esperanto ", and thus the name of the
artificial language Esperanto that he created.
3) The artificial languages were created by selected words that
are common in many languages (the Esperanto language is basically
based on the vocabulary of languages of Latin origin: English, French,
German) and it is assumed with inventive rules of writing and spelling,
syntax and conjugation, to facilitate ease of learning. However, these
languages are only for simplistic communication, because for a com-
prehensive transmission of meaning the requirement is a natural lan-
guage. In addition, the artificial languages are incapable of doing what
a natural language appears to be able to do, and because there are
very many of them or that they only address specific individuals.
7. THE GREEK LANGUAGE HAS AN EXTREMELY PRECISE

EXPRESSION AND AN EASY AND UNLIMITED REPRODUCTIVE
CAPABILITY OF WORDS
Observing the words of the Greek language we see that some

are common, simple (single) words while others are compound, i.e.:
γράφω, δια-γράφω, εξ-υπ-ακούγεται… and, all to be constituted or
made-up (except the: articles, conjunctions and prepositions)
from specific component elements, known as: root, prefix, subject,
accent (tone), suffix (derivative), and suffix (vocative-case
sensitive), whereby each one of them produces a proportional mean-
ing in the word, i.e.: γράφ-ω (= verb, present tense, 1st person),
έ-γραφ-ες, (= verb, past tense, 2nd person) , δια-γραφ-ή (com-
pound verb, compound noun, compound adjective)… εξ-έχ-ω,
εξ-οχ-ή, έξ-οχ-η..
Stem (subject) is a group of two-character letters (GK.
phthongs) which is common in many simple words, as e.g.: the stem
subject “γραφ-“ in the words: γραφ-ω, γραφ-ή…The stem subject re-
lates to the sounds of nature and it is either a self-produced sound of
some being or processed sound (something like the marble and the
statue), i.e., κρα-κρα… > κράζ-ω, τρ… > τρίζω, τρίβω, τριβή… vow..
or bouu… > boul, βους…
Derivative and vocative suffixes are called the specific two-
character letters (GK. phthongs) with which we produce the parts of
speech (= the nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.) and also conjugate (we
form the singular or plural, as well as the nominative case, possessive
case, etc), the combination of the two-character letters (GK.
phthongs) with which we reveal or imply the part of speech or the
60
signified type, that is to say what we want to express, e.g.: Stem

subject γραφ- and words: γράφ-ω, γραφ-έας, γραφ-είς, γραφ-ή,
γραφ-ές, γραφ-είο, γραφ-ικ-ός,ή,ο, γραφ-ομεν-ος,η,ο….
Consequently the Greek words have affinity, causal relation and

expression, while simultaneously the Greek language has unlimited
possibilities to generate new words.
Contrarily, in the other languages basically there are no consti-

tuted component elements of words, but a fixed quantity of words
whereby the structure of these words (in reality, syntax by apposition)
produces the expression (the oral speech).
Observing for example, the vocabulary of the Chinese language
(note, somewhere between the Greek and Chinese languages are the
other languages) we see that there are all and all 328 simple and
indeclinable monosyllable words (similar to the Greek indeclinable
words (conjunctions): με, σε, επί, συν, δια, μετά…), from which with
simple composition and a gradual rise-and-decline of the voice in the
oral speech crop up the remainder, e.g.: see, the below Chinese
words: “πε” = κύπελλο, cup“τσιμ” = χρυσός,η,ο, golden «τσιμ πε» =
χρυσό κύπελλο, gold cup, «τσάου» = μέρα, day, «νι τσάου» =
καλημέρα, good day, «σιαμ-σουέ» = το άρωμα (το αρωματόνερο),
aroma, «σεν» = ο Θεός,God, «σί-λά» = η Ελλάδα, Greece, «τσούν-
κούο» = η Κίνα, China, «μέϊ-κό» = η Αμερική, America…
Observing also the various current European languages (English,

French, Spanish, etc.) we basically see that all of them also do not
have any linguistic productive code of communication, but that they
resemble the Chinese language, that is to say they express with the
‘at opposition syntax’ of words, e.g.: in English: I go, go on,… I love,
you love, the love, of love… = ελληνικά πάω, προχωρώ, αγαπώ,
αγάπη…
Hence, we do not have only 328 words, but much more from
which some are generated with suffixes, e.g.: in English: Lovely, love-
less, lovelies…. and others are Greek or Latin etc, e.g.: Ευρώπη (Eu-
rope), τιτάνας (titan), πρόβλημα (problem)…
And because in the other languages, more or less, the words do

not have constituted component elements, the words are usually com-
posed of a few syllables and without significant productive capability,
while in contrast the Greek language in relation to the others has an
extremely easy and unlimited productive capability for words.
These are the reason for which:

61
a) The Greek language has the richer vocabulary than all other,
b) The other languages are usually borrowing (take) words from
other languages (usually from
Greek and Latin) or create words with Greek and Latin con-
stituted component elements of
words, e.g.: τηλέφωνο - telephone (tele + phone),
πρωτοτυπία > prototype (proto +
type), photo types….
8. THE GREEK LANGUAGE HAS CLARITY AND EXPRESSION
Because the words of the Greek language are constituted by

concrete and specific component elements (root or subject + suffix,
etc.) and at the same time each one of them expresses with logical
correctness something concrete for the signified type (the prefix - e -
expresses action in the past, the suffixes express the part of speech
or the signified type, that is to say if the signified type is active or
passive, noun or adjective, masculine or feminine, etc., that is why:
A) The Greek words are expressive and absolutely explicit in
their meaning and easy to comprehend. Their meaning becomes clear
by simply analyzing their constituted compound elements, i.e.: λύν-
ω, έ-λυσ-α, γράφ-ω, γραφέ-ας, γραπτ-ός, γραφ-ική..,
For example, the word “verb” in the Greek language in addition
to other things with the suffix reveals:
a) Which precisely is the subject of this part of speech or sen-
tence (that is to say if the subject is the speaker or the listener or a
third person): αγαπώ, it means, I = the speaker = subject, αγαπάς
it means, you = the listener = subject, αγαπά, it means, he, she, it
= the third person = subject…,
b) Voice (whether we are active or passive): I love (Yannis…) =
active voice & I am loved (by Yannis.) = passive voice.
c) Tense (the present, the past and the future) active or passive:
λύν-ω = active now & έλυσ-α = active past tense…. This is something
which in order to be said in other languages it must be said together
with other words, for example: αγαπώ, ας,α = I love, you love, he-
she-it loves… αγαπιέμαι = I am loved by John.
B) In the Greek language there is the capability to form many

rhetorical and syntactical types of speech for the purpose of correctly
expressing or accentuating (emphasizing) the meaning of the speech,
for example: The train is driven by George. = subjunctive syntaxes,
Ο Γιώργος οδηγεί το τραίνο. = indicative syntaxes, Ο Γιώργος είναι
οδηγός του τραίνου. = imperative syntaxes.
George not only went, but he also hit Aris = George other than
he went, he also hit Aris. Instead of simply: George went and hit Aris.
62
In the Chinese language (somewhere between the Greek and

Chinese languages are the other languages), because the words do
not have constituted compound elements (suffixes, etc.), they have
many meanings or they belong to several parts of speech (they are
something like the stems (subjects): γραφ-, καλ-, αγαπ-.. in Greek)
and their meaning is arranged:
a) From the intensity of the tone, e.g.: in Chinese: "κιό (very
accentuated) = water & “kio"? (less accentuated) = I ask, something
similar to the Greek indeclinable words: η & ή (In the indeclinable
polysyllabic words the meaning is determined proportionally from
which syllable is accented, while in the Greek language: seldom &
never…)
b) From the position that the word in question is in the sentence
(or from what another word it has before or after). e.g.: in the English
word love, where this word (or any other), if it is said with a pronoun
it becomes a verb: i love = αγαπώ, if it is said with the article “the” it
becomes noun: the love = η αγάπη… if it is said with the word “of” it
becomes a noun in the possessive case: of love = the love of, etc.
Hence, that which we reveal with the suffixes, inflection and de-
clension in the Greek language, it is done in the other languages by
placing before or after the word in question one other word.
This is also the reason that:

a) In the Greek language if we even utter a single word, we
become absolutely comprehensible or explicitly clear, for example:
αγαπ-ώ, αγάπ-η, αγαπ-άς, αγαπ-ά...
b) In the other languages, in order to become comprehensible
or absolutely and explicitly clear, we must speak with complete sen-
tences of the syntactical type: Υ + Ρ + Α or Κ , where Υ = subject, Ρ
= verb, Α = object, Κ = predicate: I love you. He loves me. Mary loves
books. Love is a good thing.
9. THE GREEK (LANGUAGE) IS THE MOST EUPHONIC AND

EASY TO PRONOUNCE LANGUAGE
Comparing the vocabulary, the words of the Greek language with

those of other languages we see that Greek words are easier to pro-
nounce and at the same time more beautiful and appealing to the
sense of hearing, and that is because:
1) The Greek words are created with constituted compound ele-
ments (= the root or the subject + tone (accent) + suffix, etc.) and
do not have difficult clusters (that is to say difficult in tone μπ(b),
ντ(d), γκ(g), νμ, νρ, νλ…), since the Greek language through the
63
passage of time has removed or altered them, i.e.: In the Greek

words, μπογιατζής > βογιατζής, γκαρίζω > γκάιδαρος > γάιδαρος,
Μπενετία (Benetia > Venetia) > Βενετία ή Ενετία, συν-μαθητής >
συμμαθητής, συν-λέγω > συλλέγω, συν-ράπτω > συρράπτω, τιμάω >
τιμώ, τιμάεις – τιμάς, Αθηνάα > Αθηνά…
In the verbal speech: in Greek, Φέρε τη(ν) μάνα σου και λίγ(α)
απ(ό) όλα και θα σ(ε) αγαπώ.
Consequently, the Greek vocabulary (words), the Greek oral
speech is a creation that resulted as the timber and the furniture or
the Stone and the marble.
Contrarily, in the other languages the words are usually with few
syllables and few vowels, something similar that occurs with words in
the Greek Language, i.e.: in English: good, max, two, I love, you
love…
2) The Greek words are not accented in an accidental or specific
syllable from the last syllable (suffix) of words, as it happens with
words of other languages resulting in being heard monotonously, but
where the part of speech or the type of word determines and harmo-
nizes and thus the tone in Greek helps us with the comprehension of
the word while producing beautiful audibility in the verbal speech,
e.g., in the Greek polysyllabic words the adjectives are accented in
the antepenultimate syllable, the verbs in the penultimate syllable
and the nouns in the final syllable: in Greek, έξοχος,η,ο, άδικος,η,ο,
κάθετος,η,ο, έ-ξοχη, εξο-χή, ε-ξέ-χω, ε-ξέ-χει,… κά-λος, κα-λός, ….
The French language usually accentuates the words in the final
syllable, e.g.: pieta... and the English language in the antepenultimate
syllable (or in penultimate syllable, if there is no antepenultimate),
e.g.: love, Anderlecht, America…This is the reason for which there is
no accentual symbol in the other languages.
10. THE GREEK SCRIPT (GREEK WRITING) IS THE MOST

EASY AND MOST PERFECT IN THE WOLD
(The only writing system that records the words as an

electronic recorder does and beyond!)
A. THE PROBLEMS OF WRITING AND BY WHAT TECH-

NIQUE WERE THEY OVERCOME
Because in all languages there are too many different words, as

well as too many different syllables (the different words are countless
and the different syllables are over 500-700 in each language), so it
is impossible to have writing which has as many symbols or letters as
64
there are words or syllables of a language, because no one would

remember so many symbols... Similarly, because in all languages
there are too many, countless, homophonic words, so it is not possible
that there should be writing, at least reliable, that only has as many
letters as the different phonemes of the words, because with this writ-
ing there will always be misunderstandings, , since and e.g. The greek
word phthongically pronounced "tichi" means: walls (of the city,
τείχη), walls (of a house, τοίχοι), fortune (fate, τύχη), τύχει (verb)...:
similarly phthongically: "kali" = orthographically: good (adjective plu-
ral καλοί) & good (singular adjective καλή) & calls (καλεί verb)… “lira”
= lyre (musical instrument) and lira (currency)….
Prior to this, people devised various tricks to achieve the record-
ing of the spoken word. The reason why the ancients called writing
"(grammatical) art", the first of these tricks that was achieved was
ideographic writing (Chinese writing, Egyptian hieroglyphic writing,
etc.), with which the meaning of the spoken word is recorded using
various ideograms for the concepts expressed by the spoken word.
Then the etymological writing was invented in which a part or the
whole pronunciation of a word is recorded with phthongic letters and
at the same time various symbols or letters are additionally used that
define what part of the reason is the written word in question.
In many ancient writings words were written, as many words in
English writing are today. In English writing e.g. The word pronounced
"tu" is written tp when it means to, two when it means two and too
when it means also
B. THE GREEK ALPHABET AND ITS WRITING TECHNIQUE
The trick invented by the ancient Greeks, in order to be able to

record words, was the invention of as many letters as there are vowels
and consonants in words, i.e. The letters: a(a), b(b), c (c)... And on
the other hand some homophonic letters, namely: ω(o) & o(o), h(h)
& y(y) & i(i) ... With which, based on rules, on the one hand it is
indicated by on the one hand the faithful pronunciation of the words
and on the other the etymology (= the part of speech or the type
etc.), writing e.g. The verbs with -ω,ει and the nouns with -o,η, ι: so
that there are no misunderstandings with the homonymous words,
e.g.: καλώ (i call) and καλό (= good), καλεί (she calls) and καλή (=
good)…..... In particular in Greek writing it has been arranged to write
the last vowel of verbs with the letters -ω, ει and of declensions with
-o, η, ι , so that the homophones can be distinguished similarly, in
Greek writing it has been arranged to write the first names with a
capital letter and the common names with a small letter, to distinguish
the homophonic words, e.g.: νίκη & Nίκη, αγαθή και Aγαθή….
65
THE GREEK ALPHABET

Let- Greek Pronun- Example pronunciation
ter name ciation
Αα άλφα alpha as in that, not as in: was,
an, and
Ββ βήτα vita, not as in vote, not as in: but,
beta bul
Γγ γάμα ghama, as in y: yet, yataghan,
not Not as G in: games, gone…
gamma
Δδ δέλτα dhelta, as in th-ere, th-ese..
not delta not as in th-ing or in dog
Εε έψιλον epsilon as ten, pen..
Ζζ ζήτα zhita, As S in: rise, not as Z in zet
not zeta
Ηη ήτα ita letters η = i = y, as in ink
Θθ θήτα thita as in th-ing, not as in: th-
at, th-ese
Ιι ιώτα iota Letters i = υ = η
Except in αι = ε, σφαίρα =
sfera
Κκ κάπα kapa k
Λλ λάμδα Lamdha, l
not
lamba
Μμ μι mi, m
Νν νι ni n
Ξξ ξι xi x = ks
Οο όμικρον omicron as in: hot, not… not as in:
come, one,
Ππ πι pi p
Ρρ ρο rho r
Σσ σίγμα sighma s
&ς
Ττ ταυ Taf t
Υυ ύψιλον ipsilon, Lettesr υ = η = ι.
not upsi- Except in: αυ, ευ, ου =
lon av/af, ev/ef, U(u)
66
Φφ φι fi As f, ph in: fatal, philoso-

phy
Χχ χι chi As in: who, chronos..
Ψψ ψι psi as in lips
Ωω ωμέγα omegha, Letters o = ω
not
omega
In the Greek writing system, ancient and modern:

1) The first sound character of the Greek alphabetic words ά-
λφα, β-ήτα... reveals which letter this sound character represents,
i.e.: α-λφα (“a-lfa”) = the sound (phthong) [a] = [a], as in word A-
meric-a, not as i.g. in w-a-s.
This is something that does not occur in writing with Latin char-
acters in (English, French... ). See for example the letter A (a) of the
English alphabet. It is pronounced here as e+i and in the words:
America, and, tape….., as a, e, ai..
2) In Greek writer
there are the homophone
letters, e.g.: O & Ω, Η & Υ
& Ι = Ei = Oi …. This is
something that does not
exist in any other lan-
guage.
The Greek letters:
O(o) = Ω(ω), Ι(ι) =Υ(υ) =
Η(η) = ΕΙ(ει) = ΟΙ(οι) =
ΥΙ(υι), E(ε) = AI(αι) are
sound-alike (homophone
letters) and are used in
Greek writing according to
specific orthographic rules
(i.e., part of speech, gen-
der - masculine or femi-
nine-, singular or plural
case, conjugation – nomi-
native, possessive or ob-
jective case of the words)
in order to reveal the etymology, that is to say the derivation and
precise meaning of the written words or to distinguish and differenti-
ate the sound alike (homophone) words. e.g.: καλός & καλώς, καλή &
καλεί & καλοί...
67
3) In Greek all letters represent only one sound character

(phthong) and it is the same throughout the process of writing. Even
if a word is spelled orthographically incorrect, it still is pronounced
correctly, i.e:
Greek: «Αύριο θα πάμε εκδρομή στην Αθήνα».
Here the letter A(a) is always pronounced as [α] and not [ε] or
[o]..., as it happens in English).
Greek incorrect spelling: <<ίνε καλί γινέκα”
Correct spelling: Είναι καλή γυναίκα.)>>.
This is something that does not occur in the English, French,
German and others in their spelling and pronunciation process. See
for example the English word: go where the letter O(o) is pronounced
as “ou”, and similarly the English word “idea”, pronounced «αϊntία»,
where we have 4 letters and 6 sound characters (phthongs).
4) In Greek there are letters for all sound characters (phthongs).
That is for all the consonants and for all vowels, (see the letters of the
Greek spelling system instead of the alphabet).
This is something that does not occur in English or French, Ger-
man, etc. spelling process. In English, for example, writing the
phthongs (sounds of words) <<th-is>> and <<th-ing>> they are
written with the same letters, the letters TH(th), but in Greek spelling
there are two distinctly different letters, the letters Θ(θ) and Δ(δ, i.e.:
Θεός, Δίας… The same occurs and with the letters Γ(γ), etc.
5) Some homophone sound characters (phthongs) consist of a
single letter, while others consist of more than one, i.e.: O & Ω, Y &
H & I, AI & ai… These homophone letters are used to distinguish and
differentiate the type of word, as for examples: λίρα & λύρα, καλό &
καλώ.. For more information see the homophone letters.
In this situation, in English spelling some homophone words
have useless (not pronounced) letters to differentiate from each other,
as for examples: to & t(w)o & to(o), rit(e) & (w)rit(e) & ri(g)t(h. Sim-
ilarly:sent & cent & scent, pare & pair & pear, boy & buoy, no & know,
sail & sale, grown & groan, war & wore, side & sighed, made & maid,
night & knight, soared & surd, hole & whole, morning & mourning .....
6) In Greek writing all spelling of words is done through the
sound characters (phthongs). All the letters in the Greek spelling of
words are pronounced the same throughout the written content of
words, except the letter Y(υ) in:AΥ(αυ), ΕΥ(ευ), ΥΙ(υι), OY(oy)… i.e.:
Greek spelling: Σήμερα είναι Κυριακή και εμείς δεν έχουμε σχο-
λείο. (Here the letter a is always pronounced as a, the letter e as e…
etc).
Pronunciation: Simera ine kiriaki ke emis then ehume sxolio.
Meaning: Today is Sunday and we don’t have school.
This is something that does not occur in English or French, Ger-
man... written word. For example, in the English words: go, come,
68
one, more, to... where the letter O(o) is pronounced sometimes “o”
and sometimes “u” or “a” or “ou”,...
7) In English the sound letter (phthong) U(u) is written with the
two digit letter OY(oυ) = U(u).
8) The letter H(h) is pronounced "h, ch, wh" as in "Bach, home,
who”… Similarly "ch" in "chair, Christ”
9) The Greek letters: B(β), Γ(γ), Δ(δ) are different from the Latin
Β(b), D(d), G(g) = MP(mp) NT(nt) NC(nc). The Latin letters B(b),
D(d), G(g) are abbreviations of the Greek MP(μπ), NT(ντ), ΓK(γκ). In
Latin spelling, we place the letters MP(mp), NT(nt), NK(nk/nc) in the
compound words and the letters B(b), D(d), G(g) in the simple words:
com-plex > complex & Babylon, con-tact & dactyl, in-correctly, Boo-
boo = μπουμπού, Goal = γκολ, double = νταμπλ.
10) The Greek letter sigma Σ(s,σ) has two distinct shapes. When
written at the end of a word, it is written like this:Σ(ς). If it occurs
anywhere else within a word, it is written like this: Σ(σ). στύλος =
ΣΤΥΛΟΣ, pronounced “stilos”. Whe
11) The Greek letter Y(υ) is pronounced sometimes as i as in
"in" and sometimes as v or f (for more on this see below).
12) In Greek spelling each sound character (phthong) is written
with a specific corresponding letter. When we read a written word,
each letter is pronounced separately and clearly, that is, all letters are
pronounced as they appear in the Greek alphabet: άλφα, βήτα,
γάμα…, i.e.: καλό = k(apa) + a(lfa) + l(andha) + ό.
In the Greek word Πατέρας:

We have the phthongs and letters Π,α,τ,ε,ρ,α,ς.
Put the sounds together syllable by syllable:
Π and α = Πα - sounds pa + τ and ε = τε - sounds te + ρ and
α and ς = ρας - sounds ras
All together it is "pateras", which means "Father".
In the Greek word Ουρανός:

We have the phthongs and letters ου,ρ,α,ν,ο,ς.
Put the sounds together syllable by syllable:
ου = two-character sound-letter = u as input, Lou,
ρ and a = ρα - sounds ra
ν and ο and ς = νος - sounds nos
Altogether it is "(o)uranos", which means "sky"
C. THE METHODOLOGY (TECHIC) OF THE GREEK WRITING

SYSTEM
1. In Greek spelling, ancient and modern, there are letters for

all the different sound characters (phthongs), and each different
69
sounding character (phthong) is written with a specific letter, as for

example the consonant phthong [m] with the letter M(μ), the vowel
phthong [a] with the letter A(α) and so on.. (See Letters & phthongs)
You hear the consonant phthong [m] and write the letter M(μ).
similarly, you see the letter M (μ) and you write the consonant
phthong [m].
You hear or pronounce the word “μάνα” (= mother), which con-
sists of the phthongs (sounds, homophones) “μ-α-ν-α” (= m,a,n,a),
and then you write the letters “μάνα” (= m,a,n,a). You see the letters
of the word «μάνα» and pronounce the phthongs (sounds, homo-
phones) “μ/ά/ν/α (m/a/n/a)”.
In other words, the word «μάνα» is written this way, because

the consonant (phthong) [μ] has been grammatically defined to be
written with the letter Μ(μ), the phthong [α] with the letter A(α)....etc.
Consequently, the word “μάνα” is being read this way, because the
designated letter M (μ) produces the phthong [μ] etc.
Phonetic (Greek pronounce) in English “ai em tailor” = English

writing: “I am tailor” = translation in Greek words: Εγώ είμαι ράφτης.
2. In the Greek spelling methodology we always denote the ac-

cented syllable by using the accentuation symbol (΄): μη-τέ-ρα. We
place the accent symbol (‘) on top of the vowel letter in the stressed
syllable. For example in the syllable «μά-» of the word μάνα (=
mama, mother). For additional information, see the topic on the «ac-
cent symbol».
3. In the Greek spelling methodology there are the homophone

(same sound) letters: o & ω = (o), ε & αι = [ ε], η & υ & ι & ει & οι &
υι = [ι]... and each word is written with one of these homophones
letters according to its etymology (= according to its part of speech
and type of word: gender, number, case... and derivation or compo-
sition) in order to reveal the meaning of the word and also to distin-
guish the homophone (same sound) words, i.e.: καλώ & καλό, κουτί
& κουτή & κουτοί, φύλο & φύλλο,...
The orthographic rules are as follows:
The suffix (last syllable) of verbs is written with –ω: σήκω, καλώ,
φοιτώ, λέγω...
The suffix of adverbs is written with –ω(ς): καλώς, κακώς...
παρακάτω, άνω, κάτω…
The suffix (last syllable) of nouns and adjectives feminine gender
is written with –η: Καλή, κακή,
Νίκη, νίκη...
70
The suffix of nouns and adjectives masculine gender with –οs:

Καλός, κακός, Νίκος...
The suffix of nouns and adjectives neuter gender with –ο,ι: σύκο,
κακό, ελαφρό... τυρί, φιλί...
Phonetic (oral speech): “kalό, sίko, άporo, άdhiko.....

& spelling the Greek words:
καλ-ό, σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,...(the suffix of the neuter gender
is written with the –ο )
& καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,...(the suffix of the verbs is
written with the letter -ω)
In Greek writing, if you see a written word with the letter –ω (as
a suffix, last syllable), it signifies that this word is a verb: καλ-ώ, -
είς.., with the letter -o it signifies that this word is a neuter noun or
adjective: καλ-ό, σύκο.., with the letter -η it signifies that this word
is a feminine noun or adjective: καλ-ή, καλ-ής..... etc.
In examining the letters in words we notice that many of them

are homophones (similar voice, same sound letters) caused by either
phonological variation or their changes or inflection through the pas-
sage of time (because of the homophonic suffixes): καλ(έ)-ω > καλώ,
καλ(έ)-εις > καλείς, καλ(έ)-ει > καλεί... (= verb, ρήμα) & καλός,
καλή, καλό (= adjective, επίθετο ) & καλός > καλοί (plural)...
Moreover, in further examining these same sounding letters in
words, we notice that these words don’t belong to the same part of
speech or gender or type of words.
In addition, the Greek spelling orthography has for some
phthongs more than one letter (see, o & ω, η & υ & ι...), so that by
spelling a word in a specific part of speech or type (gender, case,
tense, etc.) with some homophone letters we can distinguish and dif-
ferentiate between the same sounding words and it also helps us in
determining the etymology and meaning of the word in question. For
instance:
Phonetically: “καλός, καλί, καλίς, καλό..”
= In Greek spelling (Orthography):
καλώ, καλείς, καλεί... (With –ω, if it is a verb)
καλό, καλή, καλής, ... (With – ο,η, if it is adjective- neuter or
feminine gender)
καλώς (With –ως, if it is adverb) & καλός (with –ος if it is adjec-
tive - masculine)
καλή (With –η, if it is singular) & καλοί (with –οι, if it is plural)
71
Similarly: “ίλι” = ύλη & ίλη & ήλοι & είλη, “ίδι” = είδη & ήδη &
Ίδη, «λίπι» = λύπη & λείπει & λίπη, «φίλο» = φίλο & φύλο & φύλλο,
«λίρα»= λίρα & λύρα, «κουτί» = κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή...
The above examples show us that whenever there are no hom-
ophone letters, we are not able to know the precise meaning of what
we write. Hence, because of the same sounding words we are not able
to distinguish the part of speech, whether a word is a noun or verb,
masculine or feminine, plural or singular. etc.
Rules in Greek Grammar/Orthography:

A. Compound words are written according to their component
parts (in the simple words), in order to reveal their composition: σύν-
θεση, παρά-μετρος,.... As in English: under-stand...
B. Derivative words are written according to their root or to their
original word, in order to reveal the root or the original word: Κρήτ-
η... (Root word) > κρητ-ικός, κρητ-ική... (derivative words, with the
letter –η-) & κρίση, κριτ-ής... (root words) > κριτ-ικός, κριτ-ική... (de-
rivative words, with the letter –ι-)... As in English: stand > standing,
love > lovely...
G. Derivatives & compound words are written according to their
phonetic variations (phthong variations), in order to reveal the correct
pronunciation and the original words:
ν + μ, ν, λ, ρ = μμ,νν,λλ,ρρ: συν-μαθητής > συμμαθητής, παν-
λαϊκός > παλλαϊκός), συν-ράπτω > συρράπτω...
π,β,φ + μ = μμ: βλέπμα > βλέμμα (βλέπω-μα) , οπή > όπμα –
όμμα ή μάτι, γράφμα (γράφω-μα > – γράμμα, ....
ν + κ,γ,χ = γκ,γγ,γχ: συν-γενής > συγγενής, συν-καιρός > σύ-
γκαιρος, συν-χαίρω > συγχαίρω,...
,........................................ (For more see below.)
4. Declinable words are written according to their part of speech

and type of word (= type = gender, singular or plural, nominative or
possessive or objective case, tense) to indicate:
Masculine gender with –o,η: καλός, σοφός, Νίκος, Μανώλης...
Neuter gender with –o, ι: καλό, σύκο, σοφό... τυρί, φιλί...
The verb with –ω, ει: καλώ, καλεί, καλείς, φοιτώ, αδικώ...
Masculine plural: καλ-οί, κακ-οί
Singular feminine with –η: καλή, καλής, νίκη, τιμή, ...
,............................. (For more see below.)
Consequently, Greek spelling is phonetic as well as simultane-

ously etymological. It is writing spelling exactly what we say (pro-
nounce) with the vowels and consonants (phthongs: o, a, t....) and
simultaneously what we mean etymologically, part of speech, type (=
gender, singular or plural, case or tense and derivation or composition
72
of the word, using accordingly and proportionally) the same sound

letters O(ο) & Ω(ω) = [ο], Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι) = [ε], Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(ι)...
(For more see “homophone letters”).
phonetics: “kalό, sίko, άporo, άdhiko...
& spelling with the Greek characters:
καλ-ό, σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,..., if we mean the neuter gender
(the neuter gender is written with the suffix letter –ο )
καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,..., if we mean verbs (verbs are
written with the suffix letter -ω).
11. THE GREEK SCRIPT (GREEK WRITING) IS THE MOST

EASY AND MOST PERFECT IN THE WOLD
Α. THE GREEK SCRIPT (ANCIENT AND NEW WRITING) IS

THE MOST PRECISE, NEARLY PERFECT SYSTEM IN THE WORLD.
THE ONLY WRITING SYSTEM THAT RECORDS THE WORDS AS
AN ELECTRONIC RECORDER DOES AND BEYOND!
Innovations, inventions of the Greeks in writing
Writing may be an ancient human invention, but those that more

importantly went a step beyond in perfecting it are the Greeks with
the invention of a system and methodology of writing that records the
oral speech not only as the recorder does, which may also be accom-
plished through other systems and methodologies of writing, but they
went beyond, etymologically, in order to avoid any misapprehension
with the sound-alike words. Specifically, in the Greek system of writ-
ing are the following letters and special symbols, which do not exist
in any other system of writing, which also, depict the speech not only
phonetically, but also etymologically:
1) The capital letters: A, B, Γ … and small letters: α, β, γ…
The small letters: α, β, γ… are not for simplification,
(“επισεσυρμένη γραφή”) as it is called in Greek, but were devised in
order to point out to the reader that the word that begins with such
letter does not signify a principal noun, but a common noun, i.e.: νίκη
& Νίκη, κριτικός & Κρητικός, αγαθή & Αγαθή…
The capital letters: Α, Β, Γ… are not the regular letters of the
Greek alphabet, as it is said, but sound-alike with the small letters,
which were devised in order to point out to the reader the sentences
of a topic (in writing the first letter of each sentence) and also to
differentiate between the principal and common nouns, i.e.: νίκη &
Νίκη, κόκκινος & κ. Κόκκινος…
2) The orthographic symbols (= the apostrophe, the accen-
tual mark and the solvents)
73
The orthographic symbols are not for the purpose to indicate old
prosody (the musicality of the ancient Greek language), as it is said,
but the specific accented pronunciations during a speech, that is to
say, the accented and languid syllables, as well as pronunciation with
contraction, vowel fusion, etc., e.g.: σ’ όλα & σόλα, μία & μια, θεϊκός
& θείος, έξοχη (adjective) & εξοχή (noun), σόλα (παπουτσιού) & σ’ όλα
(έκθλιψη) = σε όλα, μία (two syllables) & μια (one syllable with vowel
fusion), θεϊκός (ασυναίρετα, το εϊ = δυο φθόγγοι) & θείος
(συνηρημένα, το ει = ένας φθόγγος)). Alike: ποίος & ποιος, πότε &
ποτέ, σ’ όλα = σε όλα & σόλα, λίγα από όλα & λίγ’ απ όλα…
3) The sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(Ω), Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι), Η(η)
& Υ(υ) & Ι(Ι)…
The letters Η(η), Ω(ω), Υ(υ)… are not letters that depict ancient
diphthongs which today coincide with Ι, Ο, as it is falsely claimed by
some, but letters that resulted from distortion of scheme (form) of -
I (I), O (o) -, for the purpose of creating the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο)
& Ω(ω), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(ι) & ΟΙ(οι)… with which, based upon rules,
the etymology becomes clear (conjugation, type, gender, singular,
plural, etc.), hence the precise meaning of words (writing for example
the female gender with –η, the neutral gender with – I, etc.), and
thus we are helped in the comprehension of words and in the differ-
entiation of the sound-alike words, e.g.: κουτί & κουτή & κουτοί, λύρα
& λίρα.
Simpler yet, with the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(ω), Η(η) &
Υ(υ) & Ι(ι)… we indicate in the suffix the part of conjugation or the
part of speech (grammatical type) that the word reveals, writing for
example: with –ο,η,ι - the singular case of the nouns and adjectives:
καλό, καλή, νίκη, τιμή, σύκο, φιλί,…, with –ω,ει- the present tense of
the verbs: καλώ, γελώ, τρέχω, σήκω, καλεί,…. (similarly the remain-
der parts of speech, numbers, etc.), and the subject or the root or the
original word of a derivative, e.g.: κρίνω, κριτής > κριτικός (with –ι)
& Κρήτη > Κρητικός (with -η)…συν-μαθητής > συμμαθητής (with two
-μμ) & έμεινα (with one -μ)… , so that the reader is helped in the
comprehension of words and the differentiation or distinction of the
sound-alike words.
As we see from the above examples with the help of the sound-
alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(Ω), Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(Ι)… ,
but also the orthographic symbols we are quickly able to distinguish
the sound-alike words or we understand whether we are talking about
a verb or a noun or adjective, etc., or the genders male, or neuter, or
principal, or common name etc. Consequently the letters -Ω, -Η, -Υ-
are not leftover ancient diphthongs, as it is claimed by some, but
sound-alike letters, for the afore mentioned reasons.
74
Therefore:
1) The Greeks, with the invention of capital and small letters, as
well as orthographic symbols and sound-alike letters, if we pay close
attention, we will see that they write (spell) particularly easily not only
as the electronic recorder does, but also beyond that. With the re-
corder there can be misapprehension because of the sound-alike
words, while with the Greek alphabet’s writing misapprehension is im-
possible, because with the Greek spelling we record not only
what we say with the two-character letters (phthongs) but
also what we mean etymologically (part of speech, type, verb,
noun, etc.), with the help of the sound-alike, the capital and small
letters. For example: Αγαθή & αγαθή & αγαθοί, σε όλα & σόλα & σ’
όλα, ποία & ποια & πια, κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή, κλίση & κλήση &
κλείσει& κλίσει….
2) Because the Greek system of writing records the words as
such, precisely as heard and simultaneously depending on their ety-
mology at the moment when we write, going back to the ancient
Greek written texts we can see how exactly the Greek words were in
each period of evolution of the Greek language. That is something that
can not be done in any other language’s writings, because the other
language writings record the words historically (writings with Latin
characters: English, French, and others), others ideographically (Chi-
nese, Japanese, and others) and others consonantly (Arabic, Persian,
and others).
3) If the Greeks had discovered in spelling only the letters of
vowels, as it is claimed by some, it would not be significant (it would
only be something simpler), since instead of them in writings that do
not have vowels there are indicative symbols that are added, if it is
required on or under the consonants that would have vowels for clar-
ification. The significant thing in the history of writing is also the in-
vention of the sound-alike letters (ο & ω, η & ι & ι…) and the invention
of orthographic symbols (accentual mark, apostrophe, solvents) and
also the invention of defined rules of spelling (orthographic). Clearly,
the rules by which in writing the orthographic symbols and the sound-
alike letters in words (= to write for example the female gender with
–η, the neuter with –ι,ο, the verbs with –ω,ει…) it is very important,
because, if these were created by chance, then Greek writing would
be very difficult and time-consuming to learn it.
4) In all the languages of the world there are sound-alike words,
accented and languid syllables, pronunciation with contraction, vowel
fusion, etc. However in the writings of other populations (Indian, etc.)
these are not indicated, since there are neither orthographic symbols
(accentual mark, apostrophe, etc.) nor sound-alike letters (=: Ω (ω)
& Ο (ο), Η( η) & Υ(υ) & Ι (ι)…) nor capital and small letters, with which
these would be indicated. In Latin and the current writings with Latin
75
characters (English, French, etc.) there are only the capital and small
letters. Consequently all of the other language writings are, more or
less, inferior in precision and expression to the Greek language.
5) Other the diphthongs: οϋ, αϊ, εϊ, οϊ, υϊ = two letters
(phthongs), and else the two-character letters: ου, αι, ει, οι, υι = one
letter. In writing the diphthongs are distinguished from the two-char-
acter letters by the solvents and accentual mark: άι = αϊ, αί = ε.
6) In observing the Greek writing, ancient and modern, we see
that the letters are simple and constant in scheme, hence easy to
script (draw) and distinct in their reading; and, the words are written
with as many different letters as there are different two-character let-
ters in the words, consonants and vowels, which provides the capa-
bility of writing any word or any sound, e.g.: ε, α, αέρας, εε, εαα… this
capability does not exist in other languages. For example, the letters
in the Egyptian language are images of beings and as such there is a
need for some form of figurative talent for drawing. In the cuneiform
and linear writing the letters have complex schemes which requires a
lot of time for familiarization and learning, and also some figurative
talent for drawing. In the Indian and Arabic language alphabets the
letters are attached to each other, while also they do not have a con-
stant scheme, thus it requires some figurative talent and a lot of time
of familiarization and learning.
7) From the sound-alike letters Ο(ο) & Ω(ω), Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι), Η(η)
& Υ(υ) & Ι(ι) & ΟΙ(οι)…. that have been devised in the Greek alphabet
and writing for the reasons afore mentioned, Ω(ω), Η(η) – it is the
invention of the Ions and for this reason, obviously, these letters are
called Ionic by the other Greeks according to historian Herodotus.
8) Nevertheless, In the Greek alphabet system of writing there
is still a need for some small improvements, such as: The two-char-
acter letter – OY - (ou) to be written with a single character and be
simplified; to reduce the orthographic rules, but with research and
study and not at random, in order that writing-spelling become even
easier. Not, for example: οδεύω, κλαδεύω, παύω…, but οδέβω,
κλαδέβω, πάβω… Similarly: βράδι (instead βράδυ), μπράντι (instead
μπράντυ), (to be written with – ι – just as the other neuter nouns in -
ι: τυρί, ψωμί, παιδί...
GREEK WRITING WRITES NOT ONLY LIKE MAGNETO-

GRAPH, BUT MORE!
The Greek writing is the only system in the world in which you
can write exactly what you enunciate (utter) phonetically (in phthongs
= sounds of words) and what at the same time you mean etymologi-
cally (in part of speech, gender, number, case or person and in deri-
vation and compound of the words), using the alphabet letters: A(α),
76
Β(β),..., and proportional (with rules) the homophone letters ο & ω, ε

& αι, η & υ & ι.:
Phonetic (in phthongs, in oral speech): “fili, filo, calo”…
& In Greek writing: φυλή (with –η, if we mean feminine) & φιλί
(with –ι, if we mean neutral), φύλο (with one λ, if we mean of tree) &
φύλλο (with tow λλ, if we mean of people), καλό (with –ο, if we mean
adjective) & καλώ (with –ω, if we mean verb)….
Important note:
1) With microphone make mistake, but with Greek writing sys-
tem no, see e.g.:
Micro phonic: lira, kalos, kali…
Greek writing: λύρα & λίρα, καλός & καλώς, καλή & καλεί & κα-
λοί…
2) The only thing that cannot be produced (written) with the
Greek writing is the whistling and the color of the voice. That is some-
thing that cannot be conveyed in the oral speech from one person to
another.
3) Since phthongs are invariable sound elements and the Greek
writing transfers on to paper exactly what we utter (tell) phonetically
and at the same time what we mean etymologically the moment we
are writing, it is easy looking back at the ancient writings, to notice
how the Greek words were phonetically at each period of the Greek
language as well as to observe the language at itself.
Some others writing systems are phonetic (Italic, Russian etc), but
not etymologically
Β. THE GREEK SYSTEM OF WRITING IS NOT ONLY THE

MOST PRECISE AND PERFECT, BUT ALSO THE EASIEST IN THE
WORLD, SINCE IT CAN BE LEARNED IN 30 MINUTES!
The Greek system of writing, apart from being the most precise
and perfect in the world, as we have seen above, it is the easiest,
since the time required to learn it corresponds to the time required in
order to learn:
a) The alphabet, that is to say the equivalence to the 20 two-
character letters (Gk. phthongs): α ε ο u ι κ γ χ τ δ θ π β φ μ ν λ ρ σ
ζ with their corresponding letters, e.g.: Α(α) = [α], ΑΙ(αι) = Ε(ε) =
[ε], Ο(ο) = Ω(ω) = [ο], ΟΥ(ου) = [u]... which does not need more
than 10 - 20 minutes
b) The rules which are used in the writing of words that require
the sound-alike letters: ω & ο, ε & αι, μμ & μ...., as those, of: The
verbs with -ω, ει: καλ-ώ είς, εί, σήκ-ω…The feminine gender with -η:
καλή,ής, νίκη, τιμή... The neuter gender with ο/ι: καλ-ό, κακό,
77
φυτό... τυρί, ψωμί…., which does not require more than 20 - 30

minutes..
Unless it is learning required for small children or foreigners, who
do not know the language, thereby the difficulty is attributed to having
to learn the language and not the system of writing, or for teaching
optical or empirical of the grammatical type, e.g.: "καλή μάνα" with
-η, while "καλοί άνθρωποι" with -οι, "καλό πράγμα" with -ο,
while "καλώ τον Άρη" with -ω, "καλός άνθρωπος" with -ο, while
"καλώς τον Άρη" with -ω,....
Hence time-consuming learning which is only then is achieved,

when the student understands that the writing is dependent upon
which part of speech, type and derivation or composition the word is
and not with what is stated in the school’s grammar: καλ-ή, with -η,
if it is the feminine gender, as all other: νίκη, τιμή.... , καλ-εί, with
ει, if it is a verb, as all other: θέλει, λέγει… καλ-ό, with -ο, if it is an
adjective , as all other: κακό, σοφό,… καλ-ώ, with -ω, if it is a verb
, as all other: λέγω, τιμώ....
Most important observations:

1) The Greek system of writing (spelling) is the easiest in the
world, however only if it is taught properly, that is to say teaching the
student the alphabet and the defined rules, otherwise it appears like
a labyrinth or Chinese writing. And this, because many people, as soon
as they see that in the Greek system of writing there are many letters,
which even though are different in scheme (shape), they are pro-
nounced the same, immediately they feel lost (swamped) with the
thought that it is not possible that they can remember which word is
written with what letter and which with another letter etc., and thus
abandon their effort to learn it. However, this is a superficial and con-
sequently erroneous evaluation. Certainly the Greek alphabet (writ-
ing) has several sound-alike letters: ο & ω, ε & αι, υ & η & ι... and
thus it appears difficult and time-consuming to learn it. How can I
remember, one would say, which word is written for example with -
ω – and which with – o --, which word with – αι – and which with – ε
– etc. Moreover, this is for the uninitiated, for those who see superfi-
cially the Greek spelling system, since these sound-alike letters are
not inserted in the words incidentally or historically, as it is with the
orthography of words in writings with Latin characters, but with a few
specifically defined rules, as the following: The verbs with -ω,ει,:
σήκω, φοιτώ, καλώ, καλεί, καλείς,.... , The neuter nouns with –ο,ι:
σύκο, φυτό, καλό, φύλο,… φύλλο, φιλί, ..., the feminine nouns with –
η: καλή, καλής,.. etc. Therefore, if we remember these rules Greek
spelling becomes very easy.
78
2) In the past Greek spelling was much more difficult, because

you had to also remember the orthographic rules for special symbols
and accentual marks or to memorize one-by-one the correct spelling
(with the proportional special symbols and accentual marks). Today,
with the modifications applied by the popular academic linguists,
Greek spelling became extremely easy.
3) In Greek and Latin writing, because the letters have one sin-
gle pronunciation, and even though incorrectly you might write the
words, again you correctly pronounce the word and will be understood
by another person, for example whether you write “αφτι ίνε κακί
σίντροφι” or “αυτύ ήναι κακή σύντροφει” or “αυτοί είναι κακοί
σύντροφοι” etc., you are pronouncing the word correctly and the
meaning also comes out and is understood correctly.
The only circumstance in which the meaning is lost is if we utter
a single word, which also happens to be a sound-alike word (this is
something seen in dictionaries, inscriptions and signs), because then
even though the pronunciation of the word is correct, the meaning is
lost because it is a sound-alike word, e.g.: “αφτί” = αφτί ή αυτί &
αυτοί & αυτή. Contrarily, in current day spelling with Latin characters,
because of historical spelling, if we do not write orthographically cor-
rect the words (according to their established spelling), the meaning
is unintelligible, because each written word is like an image that is
attributable to a specific accent and meaning, therefore if you diminish
the image, it appears unrecognizable. For example, in English the
words: to & too & two, while their letters do not depict their correct
pronunciation, if we remove or change any of their letters, then these
words loose their meaning.
This is also the reason that:

a) In the Greek language if we even utter a single word, we
become absolutely comprehensible or explicitly clear, for example:
αγαπ-ώ, αγάπ-η, αγαπ-άς, αγαπ-ά...
b) In the other languages, in order to become comprehensible
or absolutely and explicitly clear, we must speak with complete sen-
tences of the syntactical type: Υ + Ρ + Α or Κ, where Υ = subject, Ρ =
verb, Α = object, Κ = predicate: I love you. He loves me. Mary loves
books. The love is good thing.
C. Comparing Greek writing (alphabet and spelling) with the rest
of Europe
12. THE LATIN ALPHABET, THE HISTORICAL WRITING

AND THE PHONETICS
79
A. THE LATIN ALPHABET AND ITS RULS
1. The Latin alphabet consisting of the following 26 letters (pre-

sented in majuscule or capital and minuscule pairs):
A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n,
O o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z
2. In Latin spelling the words are recorded roughly as in Greek,
however, with less orthography. That is to say, that in Latin words are
also spelled as if they had vocal sound-alike letters and at the same
time they have the etymology of the letters: e & ae, i & y, m & mm….,
i.e.: Γραικία (Graikia) > Graecia, Φοινίκια (Foinikia) > Phoenicia,
Γραμματική - Grammatica…
LATIN ALPHABET IN ENGLISH
Simply, in Latin spelling there are no orthographic special char-

acters, such as (accentual mark, apostrophe, etc.) and the sound-
alike letters: Ω, Η, ΕΙ, ΥΙ… that is because the Latinos copied the
Greek alphabet before they could foresee them – and that is the rea-
son for which Latin is easy to spell, however inferior in capability and
precision than Greek. In this alphabet there are no letters for the
sound-alike δ, γ, θ, characters, because these characters were not
being used much in the Latin language.
3. The current languages with Latin characters, such as today’s
international language ‘English’, are etymological (historical) and con-
sequently:
a) They are difficult to learn,
b) They cannot credibly record the oral speech,
c) in order to indicate the precise pronunciation of a word they
use the so-called “PHONETICS SYMBOLS”.
B. THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS - COMPARISON OF GREEK

WRITING WITH LATIN AND ALSO THAT WITH LATIN CHARAC-
TERS: EGLISH, GERMAN ETC
80
Observing the current writings with Latin characters (English,

French, etc…) we see that some words are written as having vocal
sound-alike Latin characters, and the remainder as follows:
1) The words that derive from Greek and Latin are written as if
they are optical images, irrelevant if they may be pronounced some-
what differently. i.e.:
Greek: πρόβλημα, τιτάν(ας), Γεωργία, Ευρώπη, ιδέα, τυπώ(νω),
Ολυμπία, φιλοσοφία, τηλέφωνο......
& English: problem (“πρόμπλεμ»), titan(«ταϊταν»), Europe
(«γιούροπ»), idea («αϊντία»), type («τάϊπ»), Olympia, philosophy, tel-
ephone...
Greek: ακ(τ)ίς, Γεωργιανός, Συριανός, Λατίνος...
& French: action (“axis”), Georgien (“[zeorzan]”), Syrien
(“[sirian]”), Latin (“[latan]”)…
Latin cluba (κλούμπα -κλούβα), cupa (κούπα), America, pluς
(πλους), imperial («ιμπέριαλ»), lina («λίνα»), douo > double
(«ντουπλέ»)….
& English club («κλάμπ»), cup («κάπ»), America, plus
(«πλας»), imperial («ιμπίριαλ»), line («λάϊν»), double ("ντάμπλ")….
2) A word that sounds like another word adds an additional letter
(accidental or according to the thought of whoever established it
graphically) and which, even though it is written as such, it is not
pronounced as such, i.e., the English word John (pronounced “tzon”),
which adds the letter h, because in Hebrew there is the vocal sound
– h--: Ioannis = Iochanan.
French: grave (in the singular) &graves (in plural). Here - es is
not pronounced, but is added for the differentiation of the plural case
rom the vocal sound of the singular case. English: to & t(w)o & to(o),
rit(e) & (w)rit(e) & ri(g)t(h).. Here: w, o, w, e, g, h - are not pro-
nounced, but were added for the differentiation of the sound-alike
words.
Similarly: sent & cent & scent, pare & pair & pear, boy &
buoy, no & know, sail & sale, grown & groan, fought & fort, war &
wore, side & sighed, made & maid, night & knight, soared & surd,
hole & whole, morning & mourning .....
3) Derivative words are written in the subject topic similarly with
their original, that is to say, they maintain their historical spelling,
irrelevantly if at times the pronunciation of the derivative word
changes because of vocal sound causes (contraction, etc.), e.g., in
English the original word volcano (pronounced (“volkeinoun”, a = ei)
and the derivative volcanic (pronounced “volcanic”, a = a). Similarly:
athlete (“άθλιτ”) > athletic (“αθλέτικ”), busy (“μπάζι») > business
(“μπίζνες»), day (“ντέι”) > Sanday (“σάντι”), live («λάϊβ») >living
("λίβινκ")…
81
It is noted that:
1) The writing (spelling) of a word as described above remains
in the same tense even if its pronunciation changes or if the word has
two or more different pronunciations, e.g., in French & English while
some say, e.g: "de lanton, mpati, son koner, oyat… ", and others say
" di lonton mponti, sin koneri, choyat or goyat. " , hence, they are all
spelled exactly the same, that is to say: London, body, Sean Coneri,
what.
2) In writing and spelling a word can be pronounced one way in
a given language and differently in another, e.g., the words: BEAUTE
= in English pronounced “mpioyti” and in French “mpote”.
3) With the Greek or Latin orthography there are also spelled the
words of other languages (arabic, Jewish, etc.) by way of Greek or
Latin, i.e: Greek: algebra, Emmanouil, Daniel…. = English: Algebra,
Emmanuel, Daniel….
4) For all of the above reasons writing using the Latin characters:
(1) There is disharmony between spelling and pronunciation.
Another words - we pronounce something else than what we write or
we see something but pronounce something else. This is the phenom-
enon whereby for the same letter we have five, six, etc. pronuncia-
tions and even to depict syllables and not just one as in Greek and
Latin. For example in English, the English words go, one, on, come,
to…, where the letter O is pronounced sometimes OOY, other times
OYA, A, OY… Similarly with the words: was (goyoz), America
(amerika), hand (chent), table (teimpl)…. the letter a = ei = a = e =
ouo. Similarly with the words: titan (taitan), prize (praiz), girl (gkerl),
pig (pigk), ability (ampiliti)… the letter i = ai = I = e… etc.
In many English words the letters have the same pronunciation
as their corresponding Latin, e.g.: Athens (athens), Italy (itali), and
in most others the same letters (characters) are impossible to pre-
cisely tell how they are pronounced or it is known and understood only
if one knows the pronunciation of the entire word.
(2) “Spelling" is the creation for each word of a specific "optical
image", which for those who know about writing it constitutes one’s
"imagination of an image" in the spelling of each word. This imagined
picture is appended in the mind of the writer to the acoustic picture,
that is to say, the pronouncement of a given word, as well as to its
meaning.
(3) The time required to learn the spelling of words is as much
as it is needed by the student to learn one-by-one the spelling of all
words, consequently very difficult and time-consuming. Naturally to
spell the words as such in another written language, as done, e.g. in
English (where most of the words are written as optical images from
Latin and Greek) it is much more difficult than to write the words with
the Greek vocal sound-alike letters: Ω & Ο, Η & Υ & Ι … whereby,
82
based on defined rules one has to only remember few rules and not
one-by-one the spelling of each word.
(4) There is no capability for recording, but also for indicating
any pronunciation of a word. In order to indicate the correct pronun-
ciation of words with Latin characters in the various dictionaries – in
parallel, are utilized the so called phonetic symbols. That is to say,
here we have a type of writing as auxiliary to another writing!!
These are also the reason that many writers, such as (Saussure,
and others) seek the abolishment in writing with Latin characters and
the establishment of some other alphabet, which would have as many
letters as there are vocal sound-alikes. This is however erroneous,
because in this type of spelling it is not possible to distinguish the
sound-alike words
The singular and best solution to this issue is the establishment
of Greek writing (spelling) internationally.
C. DIFERENCE AMONG GREEK AND WRITING WITH LATIN

CHARACTRERS (ENGLISH, GERMAN, HOLAND ETC WRITING)
1. Greek writing is made with system, something that not occur

in writing with Latin characters (English, French...), because here we
have historical writing, as we see later. In Greek writing system in one
hand we have the phthongs (sound) of words) and in other hand we
have Letters (one or more for each phthong) and rules for use the
homophones letters. The Greek letters: O(o) = Ω(ω), Ι(ι) =Υ(υ) =
Η(η) = ΕΙ(ει) = ΟΙ(οι) = ΥΙ(υι), E(ε) = AI(αι) are homophone
letters and used in Greek writing according to rules (according to part
of speech, the gender, the number and the case of the words) in order
to facilitate (suggest) the etymology of the written words or to distin-
guishing homophone words. e.g.: καλός & καλώς, καλή & καλεί &
καλοί... (More see «Chapter 2nd Spelling of leggers»)
2. The Latin writing (the writing of ancient Rome) is base on
Greek ( it is like Greek) see for example:
Greek: μαθηματικά, συλλαβή, Γραικία, Φοινίκη…
Latin: mathematica, Syllaba, Graecia, Phoenicia.
In Latin writing, as in Greek writing, there are uppercase and
lowercase letters Α (a), Β (b), ..., as well as the Greek unanimous
(same sound) letters Ι (ι) = Υ (υ) = ΕΙ (ει) = ΟΙ (οι), Ε (ε) = ΑΙ (αι) ,
M = MM(μμ)... only where they are written a little differently, they are
written I(i) = Y(y) = EE(ee) = OE(oe), M(m) – MM(mm) : Φοινιξ,
Γραικία, Πύλος… > Phoinix, Graecia, pylos… There are not only the
unanimous letters Ω (ω) = Ο (ο) and Η (η) = Ι (ι), because these was
made in Greece after the emigration of Greek alphabet in Italy.
83
In Latin writing there are not the diaresis marc (:), because there
the two-digit letters are written differently, that is ΑΕ(ae) and not
ΑΙ(αι), ΟΕ(oe) and not ΟΙ(οι) ....
3. The writing with Latin alphabet (English, French… writing) is
historical writing. In this writing:
A) The words that come from the Greek language - Greek writing
are written exactly as they are there (photographic, historical), re-
gardless of whether they can be pronounced somewhat differently
there, e.g.:
Greek/ελληνική: πρόβλημα, τιτάν(ας), Γεωργία, Ευρώπη, ιδέα,
τυπώ(νω), Ολυμπία, φιλοσοφία, τηλέφωνο...... & English/αγγλική:
problem (“πρόμπλεμ»), titan(«ταϊταν»), Europe («γιούροπ»), idea
(«αϊντία»), type («τάϊπ»), Olympia, philosophy, telephone,...
Greek/ελληνική: ακτίς, Γεωργιανός, Συριανός, Λατίνος... &
Frence/Γαλλική: action («αξόν»), Georgien («ζεορζάν»), Syrien («σι-
ριάν»), Latin («λατάν»)...
Latin/λατινική: cluba (κλούμπα -κλούβα), cupa (κούπα), Amer-
ica, pluς (πλους), imperial («ιμπέριαλ»), lina («λίνα»), douo > double
(«ντουπλέ»)….& αγγλική: club («κλάμπ»), cup («κάπ»), America, plus
With the Greek or Latin spelling also writes the words of other
languages (Arabic, Hebrew ....) that passed into these scripts through
Greek language-writing: Greek/ελληνική: άλγεβρα, Εμμανουήλ, Δα-
νιήλ.... = English/Αγγλικά: Algebra, Emmanuel, Daniel...
B) The words that do not come from the Greek language - Greek
writing are written as they are phonographically with the Latin alpha-
bet, cf. in English: not, lot, in, of … and if we have a case of similarity
with another word we add to this worB a letter of the alphabet (ran-
dom or according to the thought of the one who established it graph-
ically) and which, although written, is not pronounced, πρβ π .χ. the
English word the words), rit(e) & (w)rit(e) & ri(g)t(h), to & too & two.
Similarly: sent & cent & scent, pare & pair & pear, boy & buoy, no &
know, sail & sale, grown & groan, fought & fort, war & wore, side &
sighed, made & maid, night & knight, soared & surd, hole & whole,
morning & mourning ..... (More see «Chapter 5nd: Iistorical
scipts»)
4. In Greek writing system, ancient and modern:
1) The first phthong of model words ά-λφα, β-ήτα... show us
which phthong their letter represent, i.e.: λ-άμδα (“lamdha”) = the
phthong [λ] = [l].
Something that not occur in writing with Latin characters (Eng-
lish, French... ), due to the fact that the scripts with the Latin alphabet
are historical. See for example the letter A(a) of English alphabet. It
pronounced here as e+i and in the words: America, and, tape….., as
a, e, ai..
84
2) All letters represent only one phthong (one sound of words)

and the same in the general written speech. Even if we write a word
orthographically wrongly, we pronounce it correct, see:
Greek: «Αύριο θα πάμε εκδρομή στην Αθήνα».
(Here the letter A(a) is always pronounced as [α] and
not [ε] or [o]..., as it happens in English)
Greek wrong: <<ίνε καλί γινέκα”
(Correct: Είναι καλή γυναίκα.)>>.
Something that does not occur in English or French, German...
written speech. See for example the English word: go where the letter
O(o) is pronounced as “ou”,... See and the English word “idea”, pro-
nounce «αϊntία», where we have 4 letters and 6 phthongs
3) There are letters for all phthongs (sounds of words). For all
consonant and for all vowels, see “letter of Greek writing system”, not
in “alphabet”.
written speech. In English, for example, writing the phthongs (sounds
of words) <<th-is>> and <<th-ing>> are written with the same let-
ter, the letter TH(th), but in Greek scipt there are two different letters,
the letters Θ(θ) and Δ(δ): Θεός, Δίας.. Same happen and with the
letter Γ(γ) etc
4) There are homophone letters, e.g.: O(ο) = Ω(ω), Ε(ε) =
ΑΙ(αι), Ι(ι) = Υ(υ) = Η(η) = ΟΙ(οι)= ΕΙ(ει) …. Something does not exist
in any other writing.
Some phthongs have not a letter, but more, see for example:
O(o) = Ω(ω), Ι(ι) = Η(η) = Y(υ) = ΥΙ(υι) = ΕΙ(ει) = ΟΙ(οι), AI(αι) &
AI(αι. We need-use these letters to distinguish homophones (same
sounds) words, see for examples: λίρα & λύρα, καλό & καλώ.. For
more see homophones letter.
In this case in English writing some homophone words have use-
less (not pronounced) letters to distinguish each other, see for exam-
ples: to & t(w)o & to(o), rit(e) & (w)rit(e) & ri(g)t(h. Same: sent &
cent & scent, pare & pair & pear, boy & buoy, no & know, sail &
sale, grown & groan, fought & fort, war & wore, side & sighed, made
& maid, night & knight, soared & surd, hole & whole, morning &
mourning .....
5) We write-read by phthongs-letters. All letters in Greek writing
pronounced the same in all written speech, except the letter Y(υ) in
groups AΥ(αυ), ΕΥ(ευ), ΥΙ(υι), OY(oy)… (For more see lately), i.e.:
Greek writing: Σήμερα είναι Κυριακή και εμείς δεν έχουμε σχο-
λείο. (Here the letter a is always pronounced as a, the letter e as e…
etc).
Pronunciation: Simera ine kiriaki ke emis then ehume sxolio.
Mean: To day is Sunday and we don’t have school.
85

written speech. See for example the English words: go, come, one,
more, to... where the letter O(o) is pronounced sometimes “o and
sometimes “u” or “a” or “ou”,...
6) The phthong (sound of words) U(u) is written with the two
digit letter OY(oυ) = U(u). For more see “digital letters”.
7) The letter X(x) pronounced "h, ch, wh" as in "Bach, home,
who”… It is like "ch" in "chair, Christ”
8) The letters: B(β), Γ(γ), Δ(δ) are different from Latin Β(b),
D(d), G(g) = MP(mp) NT(nt) NC(nc). The Latin letters B(b), D(d),
G(g) are abbreviation = Greek MP(μπ), NT(ντ), ΓK(γκ). In Latin writ-
ing, we put the letters MP(mp), NT(nt), NK(nk/nc) in the compound
words and the letters B(b), D(d), G(g) in the simple words: con-plex
> complex & Babylon, con-tact & dactyl, in-correct... Booboo =
μπουμπού, Goal = γκολ, double = νταμπλ.
D. THE PHONETICS AND THE INTERNATIONALSYSTEM OF

WRITING (ALPHABET & SPELLING)
Because the scripts in the Latin alphabet (English, French, Ger-

man, etc.) are historical, so there the words are written as they were
originally written and not as they are pronounced today, with the con-
sequence that there is a discrepancy (differentiation) between spelling
and pronunciation of the letters of a word (e.g. the word Europe, while
pronounced in English "yourop" is spelled Europe), the so-called pho-
netic symbols were invented to indicate in these scripts the correct
pronunciation of the words.
However, these symbols are too many (about 40, and that is
attributed to lack of comprehending as yet the value of orthographic
special characters (solvents, accentual mark and apostrophe), hence
they are difficult to learn and thus the easier and simpler solution is
the utilization of the Greek alphabet, for the following reasons:
A) With only the 20 letters of the Greek alphabet: α, ε, ο, ι, ου
= u, τ, δ, θ, π, β, φ, κ, γ, χ, μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ - We indicate precisely
the pronunciation (sound-alike characters) of the words, e.g.: “καλό,
ψιλί = good, psili”. This is also the reason that many non-Greek (for-
eign) dictionaries indicate the pronunciation of English and other
words with Greek characters and the orthographic special characters
(accentual mark, solvents, etc.) and not with phonetics, writing for
example corrosive (pronounced: korooyzib”…), body (mponti), dog
(ntogk)…
B) With the capital and small letters: Α(α), Β(β), Γ(γ)…, as well
as with the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(ω), Η(η) & Ι(ι) & Υ(υ)…,
based upon rules (writing for example, the female gender with –η, the
86
neutral gender with –ο,ι, the verbs with – ω,ει.,etc.), we indicate and
record also the precise pronunciation and etymology (conjugation,
type, etc.) of the words, thus we are helped in the understanding and
differentiation of the sound-alike characters, e.g.: καλό & καλώ,
αγαθή & Αγαθή & αγαθοί, ψιλή & ψιλοί & ψηλοί & ψηλή…
Thus, for example the pronunciation of the English sound-alike
word “wrait” (= write, right, rite) in Greek each one would be spelled
either with a different sound-alike character, e.g. “ράϊτ, ράητ, ράϋτ”
or with a different accentual mark for each occasion and not with the
addition of an accidental letter or historical, that is to say (w) rite & ri
(gh) t & rite…. as in English.
C) With the orthographic special characters (accentual mark,
apostrophe, etc.) we indicate the accented and unaccented syllables,
the pronunciation without exceptions, vowel fusion, etc., e.g.: “σ’ όλα
& σε όλα & σόλα, κάλος & καλός & καλώς, καλώ, μία & μια, θείος &
θεϊκός”…
Consequently the Greek system of writing is the one and only
that deserves to become international and the official protocol of the
European Union.
Of course, because the Greek alphabet and spelling are very
easy and precise, its globalization will not only quickly decrease world
illiteracy, but will also advance the “Letters, Arts and Sciences”
and thus the world culture.
87
CHAPTER 7th
FALSIES (LIES) FOR GREEK LANGUAGE
AND GREEK WRITING
1. THE INCORRECT CONCLUSIONS (ERRONEOUS VIEW)
OF THE DUTCHMAN ERASMUS THAT GREEK WRITING IS HIS-
TORICAL, THE ANCIENT GREEK LANGUAGE HAD MORE VOW-
ELS, ETC.
According to a medieval point of view expressed by Dutch phi-

lologist Desiderius Erasmus (1457 – 1536 A.D.) in the <<Dialogus
de recta Latini Graecique serminis pronunciatione>>, which, unfortu-
nately, remains even nowadays the official thesis of foreign scholars
about the Greek Grammar, the Greek script and the current writings
with Latin characters (English, French etc) are historical. That means
that:
1) The New Greek write in the way their forefathers were once
used to write speak. They write in the ancient way (the ancient pro-
nounce), but their pronunciation is different (the pronounce of today).
2) The ancient Greek language is different (variant) compared
to the modern one because the ancient Greek contained the phthongs
(sound, voice of words) ω, η, υ, which have survived in the modern
Greek script traditionally and historically!
Beginning the Erasmus from the thought that the ancient Greeks
it was not possible they begin the writing with a lot of points (letters
of alphabet) for same sound (phthong) of the word, e.g. the letters Y
and I for the sound [ι], the letters O and Ω for the sound [o] etc led
from now on error conclusion:
(I) The writing of new Greeks (and the writings with the Latin
characters, because imitate the writing of ancient Greeks) is historical,
because it maintains from the habit the letters Ω, Η, Υ… E.g.: τιμώ,
καλώ … while they ceased to represent sounds of Greek language,
because they coincided with the accent of O, I,
(II) The ancient Greek language was different from news, be-
cause:
a) ancient contained also the sounds of words that was written
with letters Ω, Η, Υ, where the letter Η pronounced as long [ε], that
is to say until two extended [εε], The letter Ω pronounced as long [ο],
that is to say until two extended [oo ] and Y as [u ]. For the himself
88
the clusters: AI EI YI OY AY EY IY, HY…. pronounced as shows their

digits, that is to say: AI = [ a-i ], EI = [ e-i ], YI = [ o-i ], OY = [ o-
i], AY = [ au ], EY = [ eu ], HY = [ eeu ]…..
b) the doubly similar letters mm, nn, ss,... pronounced and the
two and not only the one where pronounce today,
c) the letters d, b, g pronounced as "nt, mp, nk/g" and no until
today.
Pronunciation of ancient Greek words, according to the Erasmus:

γεωργία (agriculture) = "geoorgja" and no "gheorghίa", Ευρώπη (Eu-
rope) = euroopee" and no" evro'pi ", αυστηρός (strict) = "austeeros"
and no "afstιrόs", είναι (is) = "eϊnaϊ" and no "ίne", ηύρα = "eura" and
no "ίvra"…
It is marked that:
1. The above-mentioned opinion of Erasmus caused then the
reaction in very a lot of scholars, Greeks and foreigners, as in Κλέωνα
Ραγκαβή (Kl. Ragavi) in the German (Vavaro) philologist I. Ρόυχλιν (I.
Reuhlin), 1445 -1522 p.Cr. (by where were named the opponents of
Erasmus "ροϋχλικοί'" or ιωτακιστές, because pronounced the letters
H, Y, EI, OI, YI as letter I and no thus, as proposed the Erasmus)
saying that such something neither in the Byzantine delivery neither
in the ancient writers is reported. However they did not convince also
the wrong above-mentioned opinion for the Greek system of writing
introduced in the Greek and foreigner Universities.
2. Above-mentioned Erasmus opinion (aspect), even if it is an
error, was imported in the schools of west the 16th century and is in
effect up to today.
The above opinion of Erasmus is wrong, because:

A) The historical script is the script with the Latin characters
(English, Dutch, France etc) and not the Greek. In these scripts we
write many words like in Greek or Latin and not according to a writing
system, for examples:
Greek: πρόβλημα, τιτάν(ας), Γεωργία, Ευρώπη, ιδέα, τυπώ(νω),
φωτοτυπία, νέο, Ολυμπιακός, φιλοσοφία, τηλέφωνο......
& English: problem (“πρόμπλεμ»), titan(«ταϊταν»), George
(«τζόρτζια»), Europe («γιούροπ»), idea («αϊντία»), type («τάϊπ»),
prototype , new, Olympia philosophy, telephone,...
Latin: cluba (κλούμπα -κλούβα), cupa (κούπα), America, pluς
(πλους), imperial («ιμπέριαλ»), lina («λίνα»), douo > double («ντου-
πλέ»), catae («κάτε - γάτες»)..
& English: club («κλάμπ»), cup («κάπ»), America, plus («πλας»),
imperial («ιμπίριαλ»), line («λάϊν»), double ("ντάμπλ"), gates (γκέϊτς)
89
B) In ancient Greek language there are the same phthongs (=

sounds of words) as in modern. Simple in Greek script, old and mod-
ern, there are homophone (same sound, same voice) letters, the let-
ters: o & ω = (o), ε & αι = [ ε], η & υ & ι & ει & οι & υι = [ι]..., and
each word is written with one of these homophones letters according
to its etymology (= according to its part of speech, form of word:
gender, number, case... and derivation or composition) on the one
hand in order to establish (help) its meaning and on the other to dis-
tinguish the homophone (same sounds) words, i.e.: καλώ & καλό,
κουτί & κουτή & κουτοί, φύλο & φύλλο,...
Rules:
The verbs are writing with –ω: σήκω, καλώ, φοιτώ, λέγω...
The adverbs with –ω(ς): καλώς, κακώς... παρακάτω, άνω, κάτω…
The females with –η: Καλή, κακή, Νίκη, νίκη...
The males with –ο: Καλός, κακός, Νίκος...
The neutrals with –ο,ι: σύκο, κακό, ελαφρό... τυρί, φιλί...
,..............
Phonetic (oral speech): “kalό, sίko, άporo, άdhiko.....

& Script with the Greek script:
καλ-ό, σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,...
(the neutrals are writing at ending with letter –ο )
& καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,...
(the verbs are writing at ending with letter -ω)
In Greek script, if you see a written word with the letter –ω (at
the ending), it is mean that this word is verb: καλ-ώ,είς... With the
letter -o = neuter: καλ-ό, σύκο.., with the letter -η = masculine: καλ-
ή, καλ-ής.....
In examining the words we notice that many of them are homo-

phones (similar voice, same sound words) which was caused by either
phonological variation or their mutations in time and on inflection (be-
cause of homophonic endings): καλ(έ)-ω > καλώ, καλ(έ)-εις > καλείς,
καλ(έ)-ει > καλεί... (= verb, ρήμα) & καλός, καλή, καλό (= adjective,
επίθετο ) & καλός > καλοί (plural)...
Moreover in examining these same sound words, we notice that
they do not belong to the same kind of speech or gender or form of
the words.
In addition, the Greek script have for some phthongs more let-
ters than one (see o & ω, η & υ & ι...), so that by writing some parts
of speech or types (gender, case etc) of the words with some homo-
phone letters on the one hand and with the rest on the other hand for
suggestion. In that way we distinguish between the same sound words
90
and find help in the analysis and discovering the meaning of a word.
For instance:
Phonetically: “καλός, καλί, καλίς, καλό…..”
= In Greek script (Orthographically):
καλώ, καλείς, καλεί... (With –ω, if it is verb)
καλό, καλή, καλής, ... (With – ο,η, if it is adjective)
καλώς (With –ως, if it is adverb) & καλός (with –ος if it is adjec-
tive)
καλή (With –η, if it is singular) & καλοί (with –οι, if it is plural)
Same: “ίλι” = ύλη & ίλη & ήλοι & είλη, “ίδι” = είδη & ήδη & Ίδη,
«λίπι» = λύπη & λείπει & λίπη, «φίλο» = φίλο & φύλο & φύλλο,
«λίρα»= λίρα & λύρα, «κουτί» = κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή...
The examples above show us that whenever there are no the
homophone letters, we are not able to know what we write. Because
of the same sound words we are not able to distinguish whether a
words is noun or verb, male or female, plural or singular....
3) If the new (modern) Greek script were historical, then:
a) The Greek words are always written with the same letters (as
it happen in English writing), however such something does not hap-
pen, see:
Ancient (αρχαία): τιμάω, φάος, κόνις, πυρία, Ελλάς, ανθέει,
δένδρον…
= modern (νέα): τιμώ, φως, σκόνη, σπύρτα, Ελλάς, ανθεί, δέ-
ντρο…
b) In a lot of written words would exist dimension between ac-
cent and writing, as it happens in the English for example historical
writing. That is to say they would be presented the phenomenon for
the same letter we have very a lot of or different accents or with a
letter we depict different sounds of the words, however such some-
thing it does not happen, see eg that in the words: καλή, σοφή, ώρα,
θεός, συν, σφαίρα, θείος… (= good (woman), wise man, hour, god,
plus, ball, uncle…) the letters o,ω pronounce always [o], the letter ε,αι
always ε….
On the contrary, see eg in English: ιδέα > idea (= accent
"αίntία"), Ευρώπη > Europe (accent "ghjou'rop"), go (“nko-u”), doc
(“ntok”), come (“kam”), one (“oua'n”)…... where, and as we see here,
the letters they are always one and alone accent, but many, depend-
ing on the word (see eg that the letter o pronounce when oou, when
o, when a, when oua' ...).
Naturally in the Greek writing the tow digits letters: oυ, ει, υι, αι
they have always also these the this accent in all the written speech:
καλοί, σφαίρα, καλεί, υιός, ποίοι… (= good, does ball, call, son…) and
various from diphthongs (= two phtongs, two sounds of words): οϋ,
εϊ, οϊ, υϊ, αϊ: προϋπόθεση, θεϊκός, δυϊκός, Μάϊος, ευνοϊκός…
91
We remind that:
a) In the Greek script the homophones letters (= these with
which we suggest with rules the etymology of words) are other of one
only digit: o and ω, η and ι... and other of two digits: ει and οι,υι…
And this for technical (comprehension, etymological) reasons, as we
saw in the book "Τhe Greek system of writing", A. Krasana'ki.
b) The diphthongs are distinguished by the two digits letters with
the “διαλυτικά» (diaresis, resolvents marks) and the accentual mark:
παϊδάκια, δυϊκός, ολόϊδιος, θεϊκός, Μάιος.. (τα: αϊ, εϊ, οϊ.. = diphthong,
two sounds of the word) & παιδάκια, θείος… (τα: αι, ει.. = two digits
letters), orthographic points that do not exist in the Latin writing so
that the linguists of this writing tangle the diphthongs with the two
digits letters and say error things (as that: αι, oι, υι… pronounced
before as α-ι, ο-ι, ου-ι…, ..), something that parrot, impermissible,
and the current Greek linguists.
4) If in the ancient Greek the letter ω pronounced as oo, the
letter η as εε…, then:
a) The words eg: πλοίαρχοι, ανθρώπιναι, παράγωγη.. it would
not be supposed they had an accentual mark there that has, but a
syllable below, after it is not possible is stressed word above from pro
parali'gousa (= the second syllable from final syllable). Then this short
and long y that pronounced? .
b) Why exist the: εε, αα, ιι… in the words: νέες & νήες,
ευυπόληπτος, πλέετε, Αθηνά & Αθηνάα, μνάα, Αβραάμ, Ααρών,
περιίσταμαι, διίσταμαι, διισχυρίσθη, διισχυρίσατο, έπλεε, ποιέεις,
πειέει, ποίεε, ποιέετε, Ετεοκλέες,.., προορίζω, πρόοδος, προοίμιο.....;
See and that charm of these and unanimous o & ω, η & υ.... we
have help in the etymology of words in writing:: πρώτος & προ-ορίζω
(with the two oo, we understand that we have complex word), δια,
διάφορος & διίσταμαι (with the two ιι we understand that we have
complex word),
5) If the letters H and I and EI… in the ancient season they
differed in the accent or if e.g. two digits letter EI pronounced as εϊ,…
as says the Erasmus, then:
a) Why ancient they said ορθογραφία (= correct - spelling) and
no ορθοφθογγία (= correct sounding)
b) Why the letters Η, Ω before the 5th/4th century before Christ
doesn’t exist in the signs of Attica, Crete etc minus only in these with
the Ionic alphabet? There they did not exist, because they had some-
how different orthographic system.
c) The Plato ("Kraty'los") in one hand it wouldn't search it finds
why does happen this and in other hand it would not say what it says,
that is to say that letter H him we put instead I, when the thing is
something long, the letter I him puts instead the H when the thing is
92
something small'…. as well as that letter E in the word ΠΟΣΕΙΔΩΝ (=

Neptune) has entered perhaps for decency, hence is not read etc.:
«Τω δε αυ ιώτα προς τα λεπτά πάντα, α δη μάλιστα δια πάντων
ιοι αν. Δια ταύτα το <<ιέναι>> και το <<ιεσθαι>> δια του ιώτα απο-
μιμείται….. Το δε αυ άλφα τω <<μεγάλω>> απέδωκε και τω <<μή-
κει>> το ήτα, ότι μεγάλα τα γράμματα. Εις δε το <<γογγύλον >>
του ου δεόμενος σημείου τούτο πλείστον αυτω εις το όνομα ανε-
κέρασεν. (Κρατύλος 426 - 427 ),
«Ποσειδώνας, το δε ε έγκειται ίσως ευπρεπείας ένεκα» (Κρατύ-
λος 402 e)
(For more see in Greek book:
«ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΙΚΗ» ΑΔΑΜ (ΜΑΚΗ) Γ. ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ
2. HISTORICAL WRITINGS IS THE SCRIPT WITH LATIN

ALPHABET (ENGLISH, FRENCH ETC… WRITINGS) AND NOT
THE GREEK
It is not true that Greek writing is historical. Historical writings

are other such as e.g. those who write in the Latin alphabet (English,
French, etc.) and before that some thought that the same applies to
the Greek script, while it is not so, because:
A) The words in the Greek script, ancient and modern, are al-
ways written exactly as they are pronounced phonologically at the
time they are written and at the same time according to their etymol-
ogy, i.e. according to the part of speech, gender, number etc that they
have, after it has been arranged e.g. the verbs to be written with the
letters -ω, ει: καλώ, καλείς, καλεί… the neutrals with the letter -ο:
καλό, κακό…. . the females with the letter -η: καλή, καλής, τιμή….….
and this, in order to help the reader both in the understanding of the
written words and in the distinction of the similar ones, as we saw
before.
In fact, if the pronunciation of a word changes, in Greek writing
its spelling also changes, e.g. τιμάω – τιμώ, λέω > λέγω, λέεις > λέγεις
ή λες, παιδίον > παιδί, κόνις > σκόνη, πράξις > πράξη, μία και μια,
δυο και δυό…
And the spelling change is done again according to rules with the
similar letters Ω (ω) = Ο (ο), ΑΙ (αι) = Ε (ε), Ι (ι) = Η (η) = Υ (υ) =
ΕΙ (ει) = ΟΙ (οι) = ΥΙ (υι), to indicate again their correct etymology.
For example, the ancient words ΤΑΞΙΣ, ΠΡΑΞΙΣ.. is…. they lost the -ς
and before that they are now written not with Ι(ι), but with -Η(η):
ΤΑΞΗ, ΠΡΑΞΗ… like the other females in -η: νίκη, τιμή…
B) The words in the scripts with Latin characters (English,
French, ...) are written as follows:
93
1) The words that come from the Greek language - Greek writing
are written exactly as they are there (photographic, historical), re-
gardless of whether they can be pronounced somewhat differently
there, e.g.:
Greek/ελληνική: πρόβλημα, τιτάν(ας), Γεωργία, Ευρώπη, ιδέα,
τυπώ(νω), Ολυμπία, φιλοσοφία, τηλέφωνο...... & English/αγγλική:
problem (“πρόμπλεμ»), titan(«ταϊταν»), Europe («γιούροπ»), idea
(«αϊντία»), type («τάϊπ»), Olympia, philosophy, telephone,...
Greek/ελληνική: ακτίς, Γεωργιανός, Συριανός, Λατίνος... &
Frence/Γαλλική: action («αξόν»), Georgien («ζεορζάν»), Syrien («σι-
ριάν»), Latin («λατάν»)...
Latin/λατινική: cluba (κλούμπα -κλούβα), cupa (κούπα), Amer-
ica, pluς (πλους), imperial («ιμπέριαλ»), lina («λίνα»), douo > double
(«ντουπλέ»)….& αγγλική: club («κλάμπ»), cup («κάπ»), America, plus
With the Greek or Latin spelling also writes the words of other
languages (Arabic, Hebrew ....) that passed into these scripts through
Greek language-writing:
Greek/ελληνική: άλγεβρα, Εμμανουήλ, Δανιήλ.... = Eng-
lish/Αγγλικά: Algebra, Emmanuel, Daniel...
2) The words that do not come from the Greek language - Greek
writing are written as they are phonographically with the Latin alpha-
bet, cf. in English: not, lot, in, of … and if we have a case of similarity
with another word we add to this word a letter of the alphabet (ran-
dom or according to the thought of the one who established it graph-
ically) and which, although written, is not pronounced, πρβ π .χ. the
English word the words), rit(e) & (w)rit(e) & ri(g)t(h), to & too & two.
Similarly: sent & cent & scent, pare & pair & pear, boy & buoy, no &
know, sail & sale, grown & groan, fought & fort, war & wore, side &
sighed, made & maid, night & knight, soared & surd, hole & whole,
morning & mourning .....
3) Derived words are written on the subject similar to their orig-
inals, ie they retain their historical spelling, regardless of whether
sometimes the pronunciation of the derived word changes due to pho-
netic passion (synergy, etc.), cf. in English the original word volcano
(pronunciation "volkeinoun", a = ei) and the derivative volcanic (pro-
nunciation "volcanic", a = a). Similarly: athlete (“άθλιτ”) > athletic
(“αθλέτικ”), busy (“μπάζι») > business (“μπίζνες»), day (“ντέι”) >
Sanday (“σάντι”), live («λάϊβ») > living ("λίβινκ")…
It is noted that:
1) Writing a word in the above way remains in time even if its
pronunciation changes or if the word is said with two or more accents.
See e.g. in English that while others say e.g.: "dhe ladon, bati, son
conner, watt ..." ("δε λαντον, μπάτι, σον κόνερ, ουάτ...") and others
94
"di london bodi, sin koneri, hwat or watt .." ("δι λόντον μπόντι, σιν
κόνερι, χουάτ ή γουάτ..)", however both men and women do not write
same, ie: the London, body, Sean Coneri, what ..
2) The spelling of a word in the above way is pronounced differ-
ently in one language and differently in another, although they have
the same alphabet (Latin), cf. e.g. the words: BEAUTE = English pro-
nunciation "beauty" («μπιούτι») and French "bote".(«μποτέ»).
3) In order to indicate the correct pronunciation of words in Latin
characters in dictionaries, the so-called phonetic symbols are used in
parallel. That is, here we have a writing as an aid to another writing
!!
For all of the above reasons writing using the Latin char-
acters:
(1) There is disharmony between spelling and pronunciation. An-
other words - we pronounce something else than what we write or we
see something but pronounce something else. This is the phenomenon
whereby for the same letter we have five, six, etc. pronunciations and
even to depict syllables and not just one as in Greek and Latin. For
example in English, the English words go, one, on, come, to…, where
the letter O is pronounced sometimes OOY, other times OYA, A, OY…
Similarly with the words: was (goyoz), America (amerika), hand
(chent), table (teimpl)…. the letter a = ei = a = e = ouo. Similarly
with the words: titan (taitan), prize (praiz), girl (gkerl), pig (pigk),
ability (ampiliti)… the letter i = ai = I = e… etc.
In many English words the letters have the same pronunciation
as their corresponding Latin, e.g.: Athens (athens), Italy (itali), and
in most others the same letters (characters) are impossible to pre-
cisely tell how they are pronounced or it is known and understood only
if one knows the pronunciation of the entire word.
(2) “Spelling" is the creation for each word of a specific "optical
image", which for those who know about writing it constitutes one’s
"imagination of an image" in the spelling of each word. This imagined
picture is appended in the mind of the writer to the acoustic picture,
that is to say, the pronouncement of a given word, as well as to its
meaning.
(3) The time required to learn the spelling of words is as much
as it is needed by the student to learn one-by-one the spelling of all
words, consequently very difficult and time-consuming. Naturally to
spell the words as such in another written language, as done, e.g. in
English (where most of the words are written as optical images from
Latin and Greek) it is much more difficult than to write the words with
the Greek vocal sound-alike letters: Ω & Ο, Η & Υ & Ι … whereby,
based on defined rules one has to only remember few rules and not
one-by-one the spelling of each word.
95
(4) There is no capability for recording, but also for indicating

any pronunciation of a word. In order to indicate the correct pronun-
ciation of words with Latin characters in the various dictionaries – in
parallel, are utilized the so called phonetic symbols. That is to say,
here we have a type of writing as auxiliary to another writing!!
These are also the reason that many writers, such as (Saussure,
and others) seek the abolishment in writing with Latin characters and
the establishment of some other alphabet, which would have as many
letters as there are vocal sound-alikes. This is however erroneous,
because in this type of spelling it is not possible to distinguish the
sound-alike words
The singular and best solution to this issue is the estab-
lishment of Greek writing (spelling) internationally.
3. THE LIE (FALSE) THAT GREEK WRITING IS HISTORICAL

AND THEREFORE DIFFICULT
During the Middle Ages there were told many lies and false ar-
guments made against the Greek language to prevent it from to be-
coming once again international and its place be taken by some other
language.
1. It is false that the current Greek language is different from
the ancient, because ancient Greek had more vocal sound characters
(thongs) from modern Greek, those that are written with the letters
ω, υ, υ as well as that the current Greek alphabet is historical, because
it maintains these letters from tradition, even if they coincide with the
letters ο, ι.
The truth is that the letters ω = ο, ι = η = υ = οι = ει = υι, αι =
ε are vocal sound-alike letters, something as the capital letters: α, β,
γ… and small letters: α, β, γ…, that are helpful in our writing in de-
picting, based upon grammatical rules, the etymology (= the root or
the original word, the part of speech and type) of the word(s}, so that
we may be helped in understanding or in the differentiation of the
vocal sound-alike characters, i.e., that:
The principal nouns are written with capital letter and the com-
mon nouns with small, for example: αγαθή & Aγαθή, νίκη & Nίκη, κ.
Μέγας & μέγας, κ. Καλός & καλός…
Verbs are written with the letters –ω,ει and the conjugated case
nouns with – ο,η,ι. Specifically the feminine gender with -η, the neuter
gender with - -ι/υ and the masculine gender with – ο,οι: καλώ, καλείς,
καλεί.…. Καλός, καλώς, καλοί, καλή. Αγαθή & αγαθοί, βράδυ, φιλί &
φυλή….
96
2. It is false that the Greek language is not being spoken (dead

language), since there is the modern Greek language, which ιn many
ways it is much better from ancient Greek.
Simply previously, because of the oppression by the ottoman
occupation, it had been neglected and somewhat distorted.
Today the modern Greek language has recovered all of the good
ancient Greek linguistic elements, and some have indeed been vastly
simplified and improved. In addition, it has also created new, modern
linguistic elements, so that it completely covers all the current needs.
Also according to certain writers, the Greek alphabet and the

Greek spelling should be replaced with the Latin alphabet and Latin
spelling, because in Greek spelling there are duplicate letters that are
phonetically similar, i.e.: ο & ω, ε & αι….which makes it very difficult
to remember which word is spelled, e.g. with –o- and which with –ω-
, which with –e- and which with –ai-.
Also according to certain writers, the various training and learn-
ing issues (dyslexia, illiteracy, etc.) are due to the difficulty in learning
what is required by the current alphabets (= Greek and those with
Latin characters: English, French, Dutch, and others), because of the
etymology or historical spelling and thus they propose their elimina-
tion (abolishment), and replacement with a new alphabet which
should have only so many letters as there are vocal sounds.
For the Greek alphabet, they say, that there are the sound-alike
letters: o and ω, ε & αι….which make it difficult to remember which
word is spelled, e.g. with –o- and which with –ω- , which with –e- and
which with -ai-…
For Latin-based alphabets, they say, that words while pro-
nounced the same are spelled differently, e.g., the English word pro-
nounced “aintia” is spelled idea, while this spelling displays the pro-
nunciation “intea” which thus results in not pointing out the correct
pronunciation and requires the student to memorize the spelling for
each word, consequently that is something which is very difficult, etc.
However the above-mentioned options contain the fol-
lowing errors:
1) If we only spell the words according to the vocal sounds, that
is to say without the sound-alike characters ω, η, υ…, we will not be
able to distinguish the sound-alike words in the dictionaries, signs,
etc., and in the not syntactically perfect documents, e.g: «κλίσι» =
κλήση & κλίση, «αφτί» = αυτοί & αυτή & αυτί..
2) Greek spelling is not historical (see also the book “Untruths
about the Greek language and spelling”, A. Krasanakis), but only the
spelling in languages with Latin characters (English, French, Dutch,
and others), hence these are difficult to learn and should be abolished,
e.g., Greek: idea, Europe, titan… = English: idea, Europe, titan…
97
In Greek writing, words are spelled with particularly great ease,

that is, precisely as they are pronounced and at the same time de-
pending upon their etymology and using defined rules to determine
the sound-alike letters: ο & ω, η & ι & υ…so that we may be helped in
their understanding (finding the etymology) and the differentiation
(distinction) of the sound-alike characters, e.g: καλώ & καλό, καλοί
& καλεί & καλοί…
4. THE LIE (FALSIE) THAT THE GREEK ALPHABET AND

GREEK WRITING ARE DERIVED FROM THE PHOENICIAN AL-
PHABET AND PHOENICIAN WRITING OR THE EGYPTIAN AL-
PHABET AND EGYPTIAN WRITING
A. THE EGYPTIN ALPHABET AND ITS MECHANISM OF WRITING
EGYPTIAN AL-
PHABET
These Egyptians let-
ters are from ideograms
(have schema of ani-
mals, things etc), but
have phonetic pronunci-
ation. The above hiero-
glyphics are phonetic
writing, not ideographic.
Mechanisms of Phoenician and Egyptian (hieroglyphics) writing

system are same, but entirely different from Greek. In Phoenician and
Egypt writing system (script):
1) We write from right to left (in Greek from left to right)
2) There are letters only for the consonants: p, v, f…., for long
vowels (the case of two: aa, oo, ii…) and for groups: x, b, d, g = ks,
mp, nt, γκ.
Long vowels are the case of two aa, uu, ii… after from a conso-
nant, e.g.: Abr-aa-m, Dan-ii-l, m-uu-mer, Ααρών, διίσταμαι, πλέετε…
Sort vowels are the case of 5 vowels: α, ε, ο, ι, ου. In script there
is small signs for each vowel, that putted on or down of consonant
that have vowel, but usually omitted.
98
B. THE PHOENICIAN ALPHABET AND ITS MECHANISM OF WRIT-

ING
In Phoenician alphabet there are 22 letters.

The Phoenician and Egyptian letters: Beth, Gimel, Daleth = two
sounds of consonants, like Latin letters: mp/b, nk/g, nt/d and differ-
ent from Greek letters B, Γ, Δ = V, GH (like you), DH (like those, not
as thing) = one sound of consonants.
The Phoenician and Egyptian letters aleph, ayin, yod = two
sounds: αα, oo/ουου, ii, as in words: Abr-aa-m, Dan-ii-l, m-uu-mer,
Αα-ρών, δ-ιίσταμαι… and different from Greek a, o, u, i.
Long and sort vowels there are not in Greek script. The Greek let-
ters α, ο, ου, ι = one sound
The Phoenician and the Egypt script had letters only for the con-
sonants (= b, d, g, p, v, f, t, th, c, h, m, n, l, r, s, z), for long vowels
(aleph = aa, ayin = uu, yod = ii) and for groups: X = ks, d = nt, b =
mp, g = gk. Here there are not letters for the simple vowel: α, ε, ο,
ι, ου and for the homophone letters: ω & o, η & υ & ι & οι & ει & υι, ε
& αι...
PHOENICIAN ALPHABET
The Greek script in one hand has letters for all phthongs (for all
sound of words, for all consonants and for all vowels) and in other
hand has (there are) homophone vowels letters: O & , H & Y & I… by
which we suggest (using them by grammatical rules) the etymology
(part of speech, gender, number etc) of words or distinguishing the
homophone words, e.g.: λίρα & λύρα, καλό & καλώ...
καλό (with –o = good, adjective) & καλώ (= I cal, verb)
99
SAMPLES OF PHOENICIAN SCRIPTS (INSCRIPTIONS,

WRITINGS)
C. THE LIE ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF THE GREEK ALPHABET

AND GREEK WRITING FROM EGYPT OR PHOENICIA
A. The ancient Greek author Plato says that hear in Egypt a myth
(legend) and this myth say that the Egyptian discover the letters.
Plato says exactly: «Επειδή φωνήν απειρον κατενόησεν είτε τις Θεός
είτε και Θειος άνθρωπος, ως λόγος εν Αιγύπτω Θευ τινά τούτον
100
γενέσθαι λέγων, ος πρώτος τα φωνήεντα εν τω απείρω κατενόησεν

ουχ εν όντα αλλά πλείω, και πάλιν έτερα φωνής μεν ου, φθόγγου δε
μετέχοντα τινός, αριθμόν τινά τούτων είναι, τρίτον δε είδος γραμμάτων
διεστήσατο τα νυν λεγόμενα άφωνα ημιν, το μετά τούτο διήρει τ`α τε
αφθογγα και άφωνα μέχρι ενός εκάστου, και τα φωνήεντα και τα
μέσα..... ως ουσαν γραμματικήν τέχνη επεφθέγξατο προσειπών.
(Πλάτωνα, Φίληβος 18 c)
Due to it’s (after the text of Plato) to day some people say that
the Greeks took his alphabet from Egyptians, something is not correct,
because:
a) The above myth says that the Egyptians discover the Egyptian
letters, not the Greek. The Greek letters are another story, a
story with same linguistic theme.
b) The icons of Greek letters, the amount of Greek letters and the
mechanism of Greek writing system are entirely different from
Egyptian, as we see later.
c) The amount of Egyptian letters and the mechanism of Egyptian
writing system are entirely same with Phoenician, Hebrew, Ar-
abic … writing systems. The different is only at the icons of the
letters.
B. Ancient Greek author Herodotus says that according to his

opinion (“opinion” not inquiry with evidences) the Greeks took the
alphabet from the Phoenicians. He say exactly: «Οι δε Γεφυραιοι, των ήσαν
οι φονέες οι Ιππάρχου, ως μεν αυτοί λέγουσι, εγεγόνεσαν εξ Ερετρίης την αρχήν, ως δε εγώ
αναπυνθανόμενος ευρίσκω, ήσαν Φοίνικες των συν Κάδμω απικομένων Φοινίκων … Οι δε
Φοίνικες ούτοι, οι συν Κάδμω απικόμενοι, των ήσαν οι Γεφυραιοι, άλλα τε πολλά οικίσαντες
ταύτην την χώρην εσήγαγον διδασκαλία ες τους Έλληνες και δη τα γράμματα ……………>>
(Ηρόδοτος, Tερψιχόρη 57 - 59)
In English:
The Gephyraei, to whom the two men who killed Hipparchus be-
longed, came, by their own account, originally from Eretria; but i sup-
pose, I have myself looked into the matter and find that they were
really Phoenicians, descendants of those who came with Cadmus to
what is now Boeotia where they were allotted the district of Tanagra
to make their homes in. After the expulsion of the Cadmeans by the
Argiva, the Gephyraei were expelled by the Boeotians and took refuge
in Athens, where they were received into the community on certain
stated terms, which excluded them from a few privileges not worth
mentioning here…….
The Phoenicians who came with Cadmus - amongst whom
were the Gephyraei - introduced into Greece, after their set-
tlement in the country, a number of accomplishments, of which
the most important was writing, an art till then, as i think,
101
unknown to the Greeks. At first they used the same characters

as all the other Phoenicians, but as time went on, and they
changed their language, they also changed the shape of their
letters. At that period most of the Greeks in the neighbourhood
were Ionians; they were taught these letters by the Phoenici-
ans and adopted them, with a few alterations, for their own
use, continuing to refer to them as the Phoenician characters
- as was only right, as the Phoenicians had introduced them.
The Ionians also call paper 'skins' - a survival from antiquity
when paper was hard to get, and they did actually use goat
and sheepskins to write on.
Indeed, even today many foreign peoples use this material. In
the temple of Ismenian Apollo at Theba in Boeotia I have myself seen
cauldrons with inwritingions cut on them in Cadmean characters -
most of them not very different from the Ionian. There were three of
these cauldrons; one was inscribed: 'Amphityron dedicated me from the spoils
of the Teleboae' and would date from about the time of Laius, son of
Labdacus, grandson of Polydorus and great-grandson of Cad-
mus……(For more see the book of Herodotus E’)
Due to it’s someone’s having said that the letters of Greek al-
phabet are made up by Phoenicians and the ancient Phoenicia was in
oversight of Asia, across from Cyprus.
These alls are wrong, mistake, because:
1) The Phoenician and Egyptian writing systems are entirely dif-
ferent from the Greek.The Greek writing in one hand has letters for
all phthongs (sound of words), for all consonants and for all vowels
and in other hand has (there are) homophone vowels letters: O & , H
& Y & I… by which we suggest (using them by grammatical rules) the
etymology (part of speech, gender, number etc) of words or distin-
guishing the homophone words, e.g.: λίρα & λύρα, καλό & καλώ...
καλό (with –o = good, adjective) & καλώ (= I cal, verb)
The Phoenician and the Egypt writing had letters only for the
consonants (= b, d, g, p, v, f, t, th, c, h, m, n, l, r, s, z) and for long
vowels (aleph = aa, ayin = uu, yod = ii). Thereat the Phoenician and
Egyptian alphabet does not have letters for the simple vowel: α, ε, ο,
ι, ου and for the homophone letters: ω & o, η & υ & ι & οι & ει & υι, ε
& αι...
The Phoenician and Egyptian letters aleph, ayin, yont = two
sounds: αα, ουου, ii, as in words: Αβραάμ (Abraham), Ισαάκ (Isaac),
διίσταμαι…
The Phoenician and Egyptian consonant letters: beth, gimel, da-
leth = two sounds: mp, nk, nt,
102
Long and sort vowels there are not in Greek writing. The Greek
letters alpha, ου, Iota (άλφα, ου, ιώτα) = one sound α, ου/u, ι. The
letters βήτα, γάμα, δέλτα = one sound: β, γ, δ.
The Phoenician and Egyptian alphabets had letters for conso-
nants sounds as the Greek alphabet, but it did not mean anything,
because in one hand and according to ancient writers Dosiades, Plato
etc consonant letters are founded and in senior writings (ancient
Egyptian writing, ancient Cretan writing, Cuneiform writing etc) and
in other hand the letters of Phoenician and Egyptian alphabets had
shame (are pictures) of animals, men etc (Aleph= the picture; beth =
house etc) and the letters of Greek alphabet are pictures of pronunci-
ations organs (lips, mouth, tongue etc) each sound: α, β, γ..
2) According to the ancient Greek writer Plutarch (see the book
«Κακοήθειες Ηροδότου»), Gephyraiei, Cadmus (= the founder of
Thebes) and his ascendants (Oedipus, Eteoclees etc) was Greeks and
the legends of Herodotus are lies of rage, which he said because:
a) The people of Theba went by the part of Persians and non by
part of the Greeks in Persian – Greek war.
b) Gephyraei (or the democratic brothers Armodius and Aris-
togeiton = the killers of tyrannous Ipparchus etc) was by the part of
democratic people in Athens and Herodotus was by the part of tyran-
nous Ipparchus.
<<Τους δε Θηβαίους πρώτον μεν φησι «μετά των Ελλήνων ε-
όντας μάχεσθαι υπ’ ανάγκης εχόμενους»… αποσχισθέντες οι Θηβαίοι
χείρας τε προέτειναν και ήσον των βαρβάρων, λέγοντες τον αληθέστα-
τον των λόγων, ως μήδισαν και γη και ύδωρ έδοσαν βασιλεί, υπό δ’
ανάγκης εχόμενοι εις Θερμοπύλας… Ειτ΄ ου δηλ`ος εστιν ιδιαν τινά
προς Θηβαίους έχων οργήν και δυσμένειαν, υφ’ ης ου μόνο διέβαλε
ψευδώς και αδίκως την πόλιν, αλλ ουδέ του πιθανού της διαβολής
εφρόντισεν, ουδ όπως αυτός εαυτω τα αναντια λέγων παρ’ ολίγους
ανθρώπους ου φανειται συνειδώς;>> (865, β)
Ειτ΄ ου δηλ`ος εστιν ιδιαν τινά προς Θηβαίους έχων οργήν και
δυσμένειαν, υφ’ ης ου μόνο διέβαλε ψευδώς και αδίκως την πόλιν, αλλ
ουδέ του πιθανού της διαβολής εφρόντισεν, ουδ όπως αυτός εαυτω
τα αναντια λέγων παρ’ ολίγους ανθρώπους ου φανειται συνειδώς;>>
(Plutarch, Kakoithies by Herodotus 865, β)
3) According to the Aristotle the killers of tyrannous Ipparchus
was not Phoenicians (not the Gephyraei), but Greeks, the democratic
brothers Armodius and Aristogeiton, and for that the Athenians made
celebrates on his honor: <<…..διατίθησι δ' αγώνα τον επιτάφιον, και τοις
τελευτηκόσιν εν τω πολέμω και Αρμόδιω και Αριστογείτονι εναγίσματα ποιε…>>
(Αθηναίων Πολιτεία, Κεφ. ΚΑ' "Οι εννέα άρχοντες).
4) According to Andokithes, killers of tyrannous Ipparchus were
not Phoenicians (not the Gephyraei), but Greeks, the democratic
103
brothers Armodius and Aristogeiton, and for that the Athenians made
celebrates on his honor, see:
Εδοξε τη βουλη καί τω δημω.....
Εάν τις δημοκρατίαν καταλύη τήν Αθήνησιν.....
Εάν δέ τις κτείνων τινά τούτων αποθάνη ή επιχειρών, ευ ποιήσω
αυτόν τε καί τούς παιδας τούς εκείνου καθ άπερ Αρμόδιον τε καί Αρι-
στογείτονα καί τούς απογόνους αυτών... (Ανδοκίδης, "Περί των
μυστηρίων" 96 - 98)
5) According to the ancient Greek writers Euripides, Aeschylus
etc on one hand the Cadmus (= the founder of Thebes) and his as-
cendants (Eteoclees, Polinicis, Oedipus etc) was not Phoenicians,
but Greeks, they spoken Greek etc and on the other hand the ancient
land of Phoenicia (where was Master Aginor, from where came from
Cadmus and established the town of Thebes, from where came the
prince Europe etc) was a island on Europe, in western part of Greece
and of Italy, in the Turrinian sea and not a land in Asia
<<… Κάδμος ηνίκ’ ήλθε γην

τήνδ’ εκλιπών Φοίνισαν εναλία χθόνα…..>> (Ευριπίδη, Φοίνισ-
σαι 1- 10)
Τύριον οιδμα λιπουσ' εβαν ακροθίνια Λοξία

Φοινίσσας από νάσου Φοίβω δούλα μελάθρων,
ιν' υπό δειράσι νιφοβόλοις Παρνασσου κατενάσθη,
Ιόνιον κατά πόντον ελάτα πλεύσασα
περιρρύτω υπέρ ακαρπίστων πεδίων Σικελίας
Ζεφύρου πνοαις ιππεύσαντος, εν ουρανω κάλλιστον κελάδημα.
πόλεος εκπροκριθεισ' εμας καλλιστεύματα Λοξία
Καδμείων εμολον γαν κλεινων Αγηνοριδαν ομογενεις επί
Λάϊου
πεφθεισ' ενθάδε πύργους.... (Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι 210-220)
«Θήβας πυρώσας τάσδε Πολυνείκης Θεοις

ασπίδας εθηκε; μηδέποτ', ω τέκνον, κλέος
τοιόνδε σοι γένοιθ' υφ' Ελλήνων λαβειν».. (Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισ-
σαι 580)
«ξέναι γυναίκες, είπατ΄, εκ ποίας πάτρας

Ελληνικοισι δώμασιν πελάζετε;» (Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι 278 279)
«Κάδμος εμολε τάνδε γαν Τύριος,

ω τετρασκελής μόσχος αδάματον πέσημα... (Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι
640-670)
« Ω γης Ελλάδος στρατηλάτες

104
Δαναω άριστης, οιπερ ηλθατ΄ ενθάδε,

Κάδμου τε λαός, μήτε Πολυνείκους χάριν.. (Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι
1220 -12230)
« σφυρών σιδηρα κέντρα διαπείρας μέσον΄

όθεν νιν Ελλάς ωνόμαζεν Οιδίπους (Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι 26-
29)
«Ω Ζευ τε κα`ι Γη και Πολιουχοι θεοί,

Αρα τ' Εριν`υς πατρός η μεγασθενής,
μή μοι πόλιν γε πρυμνόθεν πανώλεθρον
εκθαμνίσητε δηάλωτον, Ελλάδος
φθόγγον χέουσαν, και δόμους εφεστίους,
ελευθέραν δε γην τε και Κάδμου πόλιν
ζεύλησι δουλίησι μήποτε σχεθείν»... (Αισχύλος, Επτά επί Θήβας
69-80)
6) As nowadays we write some Greek words with Greek and

Latin characters the same was in ancient times in Theba with the
Phoenician and Greek Characters
7) According to Dosiades (ancient writer) the letters are made up from
Cretans: "Δοσιάδης δε εν Κρήτη φησίν ευρεθήναι αυτά (τα γράμματα)
… (Διόδωρος, Ε. Μπέκερ, "Ελλ. Ανέκδοτα" ΙΙ 783,14). Something that
perhaps is correct if we speak generally for the inventor of letters and
not especially for the inventor of to day Greek alphabet.
8) According to Diodoros Siceliotis, Phoenicians are not inven-
tors of letters, but Pelasgians (ancestors of Greeks). Simple Phoenici-
ans transformer (change schema of) the letters: «…φασίν τους Φοίνικας ουκ
εξ αρχής ευρείν, αλλά τους τύπους των γραμμάτων μεταθείναι μόνον…». (Διόδωρος, Σικελιώτης,
βίβλος 5, 74 ). Something that perhaps is correct if we speak generally for
the inventor of letters and not especially for the inventor of to day
Greek alphabet. Diodoros Siceliotis say exactly (in new Greek):
<<Στους Έλληνες λέγεται ότι πρώτος ανακάλυψε τους ρυθμούς και το
τραγούδι ο Λίνος και όταν ο Κάδμος έφερε από τη Φοινίκη τα λεγόμενα γράμ-
ματα, πρώτος αυτός μετέφερε στην ελληνική γλώσσα, όρισε την ονομασία του
καθενός και χάραξε το σχήμα τους. Γενικώς όλα μαζί τα γράμματα ονομάστηκαν
φοινικικά, επειδή μεταφέρθηκαν στους Έλληνες από τους Φοίνικες, ειδικά όμως,
επειδή πρώτοι οι Πελασγοί χρησιμοποίησαν τους φερόμενους χαρακτήρες προ-
σαγορεύτηκαν Πελασγικά……. Ο Λίνος, λοιπόν, λένε πως συνέταξε με Πελασ-
γικά γράμματα αφήγημα με τις πράξεις του πρώτου Διόνυσου και τους λοιπούς
μύθους και το άφησε στα απομνημονεύματά του. Με τον ίδιο τρόπο χρησιμο-
ποίησαν τα Πελασγικά γράμματα ο Ορφέας και ο Προναπίδης, που ήταν δάσκα-
λος του Ομήρου και εμπνευσμένος τραγουδοποιός. Το ίδιο και ο Θυμοίτης….
(Διόδωρος Σικελιώτης, βίβλος 3, 67)
Οι Ηλιάδες ( = οι αρχαίοι κάτοικοι της Ρόδου) αναδείχθηκαν ανώτεροι από
όλους στη μόρφωση και κυρίως στην αστρονομική. Εισηγήθηκαν πολλά σχετικά
105
με τη ναυτιλία και όρισαν τον χωρισμό της ημέρας σε ώρες….. Ο (Ρόδιος) Ακτίς
βάζοντας πλώρη για την Αίγυπτο ίδρυσε εκεί τη λεγόμενη Ηλιούπολη, δίνοντας
το όνομα του πατέρα του (Ήλιου). Από αυτόν έμαθαν αργότερα οι Αιγύπτιοι τα
θεωρήματα της αστρονομίας. Όταν, όμως, έγινε ο κατακλυσμός στην Ελλάδα,
από τις βροχοπτώσεις χάθηκαν οι περισσότεροι άνθρωποι. Μαζί με εκείνα συ-
νέβηκε να καταστραφούν και τα γραπτά μνημεία και γι αυτή την αιτία, οι Αιγύ-
πτιοι, βρίσκοντας την ευκαιρία, ιδιοποιήθηκαν όλα τα περί αστρονομίας και ε-
πειδή, λόγω της άγνοιάς τους, οι Έλληνες δεν μπορούσαν πλέον να επικαλε-
σθούν τις γραπτές μαρτυρίες, ενισχύθηκε η άποψη ότι πρώτοι οι Αιγύπτιοι ανα-
κάλυψαν τα άστρα. Με τον ίδιο τρόπο, μολονότι οι Αθηναίοι ίδρυσαν πόλη στην
Αίγυπτο, που την ονόμαζαν Σαίνς, το γεγονός ξεχάστηκε λόγω του κατακλυ-
σμού. Γι αυτές, λοιπόν, τις αιτίες πολλές γενιές αργότερα ο Κάδμος του Αγήνορα
θεωρήθηκε ότι πρώτος αυτός έφερε τα γράμματα από τη Φοινίκη στην Ελλάδα
και από τον καιρό του Κάδμου και στο εξής πίστευαν για τους Έλληνες πως
έκαναν πάντα συμπληρωματικές ανακαλύψεις στην επιστήμη των γραμμάτων,
καθώς ένα είδος καθολικής άγνοιας κατείχε τους Έλληνες……. (Διόδωρος Σι-
κελιώτης, βίβλος 5, 57)
Στις Μούσες, δόθηκε από τον πατέρα τους, η ανακάλυψη των γραμμάτων
και η σύνθεση των επών, η λεγόμενη ποιητική. Σε εκείνους που λένε πως οι
Σύριοι είναι οι εφευρέτες των γραμμάτων, πως οι Φοίνικες τα έμαθαν από εκεί-
νους και τα παρέδωσαν στους Έλληνες και πως αυτοί οι Φοίνικες ήταν εκείνοι
που έπλευσαν με τον Κάδμο στην Ευρώπη και πως γι αυτό οι Έλληνες ονομά-
ζουν τα γράμματα φοινικικά, απαντούν πως οι Φοίνικες δεν ήταν οι αρχικοί ε-
φευρέτες και πως το μόνο που έκαναν ήταν να αλλάξουν τη μορφή των γραμ-
μάτων και, καθώς η πλειοψηφία των ανθρώπων τα χρησιμοποίησε αυτό το είδος
των γραμμάτων, γι αυτό τους δόθηκε η παραπάνω ονομασία…… >> (Διόδωρος
Σικελιώτης. βίβλος 5, 57)
PHOENICIAN ALPHABET AND PHOENICIAN SCRIPT ARE

ENTIRLY DIFFERENT FROM GREEKS
Some say that the letters of the Greek alphabet have come from
the Phoenician and Egyptian hieroglyphics and as the adjacent table
shows, but this table has been created with great forgery, because:
1) Observing the Egyptian hieroglyphs of this painting we see
with the naked eye that the hieroglyphic letters are irrelevant to the
shape and the Egyptian and Greek letters.
2) In the Phoenician alphabet - Phoenician writing there are no
letters for vowels, but points (dots and dashes) that go below or above
the consonants, so here the Greek letters of the vowels are badly re-
lated to the Phoenician and Egyptian signs. The Phoenician signs are
distorted and enlarged to look like letters, but they are not. The Phoe-
nician letters alef and agin are indeed letters, but unprofitable (un-
pronounced) and completely unrelated to the Greek letters alpha and
yota. They are inserted just before the Arctic vowels, because they do
106
not have a consonant, so that the corresponding sign of the vowel can
be inserted above or below them.
3) The standard words-letters of the Phoenician alphabet: beth,
gimel, daleth .... represent two consonants, b = b, d ντ, g = γκ, z =
τζ, j = τσ, something like the Greek κς (ξ), πς (ψ), and therefore
irrelevant to the Greek β, δ, γ, ζ…. , after they are represented by a
phthong. The dissonant b = β, d ντ, g = γκ, z = τζ, j = exist only in
the Latin writing system.
4) The letters in
the hierarchical Egyp-
tian alphabet have a
shape and a name
(standard word as fol-
lows: A = eagle - al-
pha, B = foot = beta,
D = hand, F = snake,
serpent, m = owl, L =
lion…, while in Phoeni-
cian: alef = ox head,
beth = house, gimel =
camel, daleth = door
he = unknown, bab =
nail,… .., so this table
incorrectly associates
Egyptian with Phoeni-
cian and then with
Greek.
5) The Greek
script has 58 letters
(24 small + 24 upper-
case, plus those of ΟΥ
(ου) = u, plus those of
FALSE COMPARE TABLE two-digit letters: ΕΙ
(ει) = ΥΙ (ει) = ΟΙ (οι)
= ι, ΑΙ ( ai) = e and of these common to the Phoenician alphabet-
writing system are only: D are written in Phoenician with BD, G with
a dot in the middle or with V, TH, J)
The Greek writing has many kinds of letters (small, capital,
homophones etc) and the Phoenician only one kind.
6) In ancient Greece each town had different alphabet and here
we see only one kind of letters. In ancient attic alphabet there is the
letters M, L, Λ.. = in Cretan Σ, Λ, Γ…
7) The Phoenician letters are from ideograms (have schema of
animals, things etc), but have phonetic pronunciation. The Greek let-
ters are not from ideograms. In Greek writing the letters have two or
107
more schemas (icon), capital: A, E, Λ, Δ, Μ…, small: α, ε, λ, δ, β…

Homophone: O(o) & Ω(ω), Υ(υ) & Ι(ι) & Η(η) & ΟΙ(οι)… for technical
reasons (distinguish homophone words, e.g.: Νίκη & νίκη, λύρα &
λίρα, καλή & καλοί… Something that there is not in Phoenician writing.
The scheme of Greek letters is from the mouth organs (lips,
teeth etc) to suggest his pronunciation, e.g.: Λ(λ) = tongue up and
internal, Β(β) = close lips and full with air…
The Phoenician and Egyptian alphabets had letters for conso-
nants sounds as the Greek alphabet, but it did not mean anything,
because in one hand consonant letters are founded and in senior writ-
ings (ancient Cretan writing, Cuneiform writing etc) and in other hand
the letters of Phoenician and Egyptian alphabets had shame (are pic-
tures) of animals, men etc (Aleph= the picture; beth = house etc) and
the letters of Greek alphabet are pictures of pronunciations organs
(lips, mouth, tongue etc) each sound: α, β, γ..
If someone looks at Phoenician inwritingions, he will see that the
Phoenicians letters have more one schemes, some of these are from
Greek. That’s all.
5. THE LIE (FALSIE) FOR LONG - SHORT DURATION LET-

TERS AND FOR ICONIC LETTERS
According to the Plato (See the book: "KRATYLOS") the Greek

writing is phthogical (“φθογγική” = by each sound of the word) and
at the same time iconic ( “εικονική” = by expression of picture). The
letters Ω, H, Y are parallax of the letters I, 0 for reasons of better
expression. The unanimous letters of alphabet O & Ω, H & I & ΕΙ…
there are in order to they attend in the writing apart from the sound
and the icon (picture) of that we write, in order that the reader has
apart from his sound and ocular picture of the things. We put in writing
of a word the letter I instead the letters Y, I, when the meaning from
word that we write is something thin, small and for penetration. We
put the letter H instead the I, Y when this is something long, with
length. We put the letter O instead Ω when this is something round
(circular, global) etc
According to the Alexandrines grammatical (secretaries - writers in biblio-
theca of Alexandria Egypt), see the books «Grammatical Art " by Dion. Thraca,
"Connection of names” by Dion. Alicarnaseus etc., the unanimous letters O & Ω,
Η & I & Y… there are in the writing, because old did not exist only five vowels (=
the sounds: α, ε, ι, o, oυ) , but seven (= the sounds: α, ε, ι, ω, υ, η, ο), where the
letter ε, o were shortly duration («βραχύφωνα», short-term, of one quantity), the
letter ω, η were long duration («μακρά», of long quantity), and the letter α, ι, υ
were some times long and some time sort ( “δίχρονα”, of two quantities).
Consequently, here we have two different opinions, with regard
to which kind of writing is the Greek writing (or the value of the letters
108
O & Ω, Η & I Υ…), therefore is placed the question for who finally has
right?
The answer is “ No one!”
And this, because the letters O & Ω Η & Ι … are homophones
(unanimous, same pitch, same phthong), now and always (from their
invention), that exists in the Greek writing no for the reasons that we
saw saying more before the Erasmus, the Plato etc., but for techni-
cians, for comprehensions (intellectual, understanding) reasons. To
suggest, by rules, on the one hand the faith sound composition of
words (we record dance floor phonetically the oral speech) and on the
other hand the etymology of words (we suggest ocular in the reader
the which part of speech, type of also production or composition it is
the each word that we write), hence as help and in their comprehen-
sion by the reader and in the discrimination (distinguish, district ion)
homophones words.
That is to say is the Greek writing of sounding (phonetic) and
simultaneously etymological, after it records from the one sound and
from the other what we mean etymological. Something that is also
proved with experiment and with irrefutably documents and argu-
ments.
See (compare) that:

1) With the letters. –ω, ει we write all the verbs: καλώ, καλεί,
λέγω, λέγει… (= I call, it calls, I say…), with letters –o,ι we write all
neutral: καλό, ψωμί, τυρί… (= good, bread,…), with letter –η we write
all female that expire in sound -ι: καλή, σοφή…, with the letters –oι
we write all plurals of males that expire in sound –ι: καλοί, σοφοί…...
See (compare) the same sound letters ω & ο, η & ι & υ… we
distinguish the homophones (same sound) words or we understand
for which part of speech or type we speak: καλώ (with –ω = verb)
and καλό (with –o = surname, adjective). Similarly: κουτή & κουτοί &
κουτί' (= the box), λύρα & λίρα… Compare and that when to us they
say a word in order to him we write, eg the word "αγαθι', we ask you
speak (you mean) for female noun (if thus, then we write with chapter
A, as all the main names, and with letter –η, as all the female: Aγαθ-
ή, Miss Αγαθή) or speak for singular female simple surname (if thus,
then we write only with –η as all female: αγαθή, αγαθή και καλή
γυναίκα) or speak for plural of male surname (if thus, then we write
with –oι, as all the plurals of males: αγαθοί ).
See and: με ταξί & μεταξύ, καλό & καλώ, καλοί & καλή, καλώς &
καλός, οι αδελφοί Κατσιμπόκοι" & " η αδελφή Κατσιμπόκη", "Της τι-
μημένης νεκρής" & "Τοις τιμημένοις νεκροίς", «οι παραγωγοί της Κρή-
της» & «η παραγωγή της Κρήτης», κριτικός & κριτικός, Είναι κριτικός
& Είναι κρητικός… where, as we see, with the unanimous letters o &
ω, η & ι & υ & ει.. we suggest in the reader for which part of speech
109
or type is our each written word or with them we distinguish homo-

phones (same sound) words.
2) If they are absent from the written speech or if we only wrote
by sounding (without the letters o & ω, η & ι …), the reader it doesn't
have help in one hand in the etymology (comprehension) the words
and in other hand in the discrimination same sound words. That is to
say it might not distinguish when the words that we write speak for
male (arsenic) and when for female, when for singular and when for
plural, when for verb and when for noun substantive etc, eg: "καλι" =
καλό & καλώ (= good and calls), "φιλί" = φιλί (kiss) and φυλή (race),
"lι'pι" = λύπη (sorrow) and λίπη (greases) and λείπει (absent).
IMPORTANT NOTE:
1) Because (whereas) the Alexandrines writers did not know the
reason for which the constructors of Greek alphabet (the discovery of
Greek alphabet became between 14/13 century b.C, finally linear writ-
ing, and 9/8 century before Christ ) putted in the writing the letters
Ω, Η, Υ, that while it is with different form pronounced similarly with
the letters O, I and because in the others ancient writings (Egyptian,
Phoenician, Arabic, Aramaic etc) there are long and short vowel for
this reason and the Alexandrines believed (thong) that in the ancient
Greek writing the homophone letters I & H , O & Ω….. was for long
and short vowels.
2) Those who said Plato for the unanimous letters Ω and Ο, Η
and Ι & Υ… have a scientific base, only that they are in effect as for
why they have the form that has the letters and no as for why we
have more the one unanimous letters for certain sounds of word, that
is to say O and Ω, Η and Υ or Ι… The inventor of Greek alphabet
instead he puts accidental letters (symbols), as made the other alpha-
bets (see Hebrew, cuneiform etc), put what has, that is to say devised
makes the form of letters according to what says the Plato (the letter
O = round, letter I = small etc), in order that in the writing is at-
tributed also other meanings, what says the Plato. Wise men ancient
Greek grammatical. (More for the opinions of Plato, as well as why
have the letters the forms that have, see: "ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΙΚΗ,
Τhe Greek system of writing", ΑΔΑΜ (ΜΑΚΗΣ) Γ, ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗΣ)
OBSERVATION:
1. Because at the production, composition and transport of word
in other language (or in dialect) the sound E as well as the cluster of
EE, convert (change) in I, that is written orthographically with H in-
stead I (this in one hand for indication of sound passion and in other
hand if we speak for bending or verb, noun or abject etc), eg: .: έθος
> ηθική (latin ethiki), Ετεοκλέες (Αντιγόνη) > Ετεοκλής,, χρέματα >
110
χρήματα, πλέον > πλήθος, Μνεσίθεος > Μνησίθεος..., for this reason
and believed from the Erasmus and his partisans that the letter H
pronounced before as extended (long) e, that is to say as EE.
2. Because the sound U is not reported in the Greek alphabet (it
is not reported because is written with two digits, that is to say OY,
therefore is reported the digits him O + Y = OY) and in Latin the sound
this is written with the letter U(u) that resembles with the Greek letter
Y(υ), for this and believed from the Erasmus and his partisans that
the letter Y(υ) pronounced before as u or o-u. However that it resem-
bles he is not same.
3. Because the letter Ω(ω) enters instead the letter (o) in the
synaeresis of: oo, αο: νόος – νως ή νους, τιμαόμενος > τιμώμενος,
....., for indication of this passion, for this and believed from the Eras-
mus and his partisans that this before pronounced as extended (long)
O, that is to say as OO. .
4. Because the two NN (nn), KK (kk)... in certain words they
emanate from composition (e.g.: εκ-κλησις > εκκλησία), for this and
believed from the Erasmus and his partisans that also the two digits
similar double: MM(mm) LL(ll).... pronounced before. However this is
error, because:
a) Two similar consonants (mm, nn..) in a word (if they even
emanate from composition, e.g.: συν-νομος, εν-ράπτω…) it can pro-
nounced and the two only if the word is cut in two and pronounced
until two, with two tons (accent), e.g.: παρέκ-κλήσιο… Something that
does not become in the Greek language minus only in idioms accents
of Italian: prattico ("pra't-tj'ko"), statj'co ("sta't-tj'ko"), phonetic
("fo'n-netj'k)...
b) The doubly similar letters mm nn... enter compatible (techni-
cally, with orthographic rules) in the sounds passion of assimilation
(afomiosis, αφομοίωσης), for reminder of this passion, e.g.: : π,β,φ
+ μ = μμ, ν + ν,λ,ρ,μ = νν,λλ,ρρ,μμ: συ(ν)-μαθητής > συμμαθητής,
συν-ράπτω > συρράπτω, παν-λαϊκός > παλλαϊκός, εν-νομος >
έννομος,.. οπή - ό(π)μα > όμμα > μάτι, κόβω -κό(β)μα > κόμμα,
γράφω - γρά(φ)μα > γράμμα...
c) The consonants pronounced never with other consonant or
alone them, but always with a vowel, where also their name = σύν-
φωνα ("con-voice, sonar"). Consonant with conform (with other con-
sonant) pronounced together only if does exist vowel and the one from
the two consonant is semivowel or not voiceless – the reason that we
do not see in the words combinations as βφ, τχ, τβ, βχ….
5. Because the letters δ, β, γ do not exist in the Latin alphabet
(does not exist, because sound that represents suggest with letter th,
v, y and with somehow strange way, see e.g. in English: jot & yata-
gan, then & thin…) and because the clusters nt, mp, g/nk many words
change in sounds: d b g, e.g.: γκαρίζω - γ(κ)άϊδαρος > γάιδαρος,
111
μπογιατζής > Βογιάτζης, Graecia – γραικός, συγγραφέας >

συγ(γ)ραφέας…. for this and believed from the Erasmus and his par-
tisans that the letters δ, β, γ before pronounced as ντ(d) μπ (b) γγ(g).
6. Because the two digits letters: αι, υι, οι, ου they resemble
with the diphthongs αϊ, υϊ, οϊ, οϋ and because certain ancient Greek
words that contain diphthongs have changed today accent because
sound of words affections (passion) and however are written again
with the same precisely letters, e.g.: γάία – γαία, ομόϊος > όμοιος,
θέϊος > θείος…, for this and the Erasmus with his partisans they be-
lieved that the Greek writing is historical. Naturally these words can
be written again with similar letters, however now without dialytica or
with placement of accentual mark in different letter, e.g. Ομόϊος >
όμοιος…. Always in the Greek writing, in the words that changes their
accent, changes or the letters their or orthographic marks (the new
accent she appears - it is indicated with the abstraction of dialytica or
with the placement of accentual mark, old the circumflex, in the sec-
ond vowel etc), see e.g.: γάϊα > γαία, θέίος > θείος.. You do not oc-
cupy - it was careful these the Erasmus, because so much the dialytica
what the different accentual marks they do not exist in their Latin
writing.
6. THE FALSE OF INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE
According to certain European linguistics of 18/19th century AD

(Italian F. Sasseti, German F. Bopp, English W. Jones and others)
three thousand years ago all the peoples from India to Germany was
a nation and had a common language. From this language, so-called
<<Maternal Indo- German or Indo-European Language>, other lan-
guages like Greek, Latin etc have been derived! It is concluded, be-
cause these languages have some common words.
The above opinions are wrong, because:

1) All language has common words, because in each language
there are in one hand foreign words and “Linguistics loans” and in
other hand sounding made words.
The sound made words are those made by the imitation of
sounds in the environment (cry of animals, sound of air etc), i.e.:
vuuu or bu… > bull, buffalo, βους > βόδι, same: bomb, cry, …
In all word, all athletes, doctors, operatives, workmen… use
common words, same names, i.e.: Ολυμπία > Olympia, Λονδίνο >
London, Χρηστός > Christ….
2) If such language – nation had existed, she will had left indi-
cation, script or architect monuments (inscription, epigraphs etc)
112
3) The ancient writer Thucydides (A, 3 – 19) say that all peoples
until 80 years after Trojan war (the times of last cathodes of Doriens)
was living with nomad and emigration vita, because until these times
there is not secure (army), agriculture etc. Cretan king Minos was the
first that makes a naval army and lows and stopped the emigration of
Greeks in Aegean see etc. The ancient writer Herodotus (A 54 - 95)
says that until Trojan War there are not Greeks and barbarians, but
all people was barbarian, but some nomads. In these times for first
time the Greek nation delivered from barbarian nation etc.
4) All language change day by day. See the New Greek language
that is different to ancient.
5) Each language is made from his people in the time and from
its lingual ability.
(For more see in Greek book:

«ΜΑΘΗΜΑΤΑ ΓΛΩΣΣΟΛΟΓΙΑΣ»: ΑΔΑΜ (ΜΑΚΗ) ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗΣ )
«Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ»: ΑΔΑΜ (ΜΑΚΗ) Γ. ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ )
113
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The present book is an original study about the Greek language
and not a copy of other works except that section concerning the in-
clination of the words which is according to the Grammar by M. Tri-
antaphillidis and the instructions by the Greek Ministry of Education
.
BOOKS OF ADAM (MAKIS) KRAS(S)ANAKIS
Ο συγγραφέας Αδαμάντιος (Μάκης) Γ. Κρασανάκης έχει γράψει
πάρα πολλές μελέτες και άρθρα, που έχουν δημοσιευτεί στις Κρητικές
και Αθηναϊκές εφημερίδες, καθώς και πάρα πολλά άλλα βιβλία, όπως
τα εξής:
1. Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ
2. Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΙΚΗ (ΤΟ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟ ΣΥΣΤΗΜΑ ΓΡΑΦΗΣ)
3. Η ΝΑΥΤΙΚΗ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟΥ ΕΘΝΟΥΣ
4. Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ
5. Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΛΟΓΟΤΕΧΝΙΑ ΚΑΙ ΡΗΤΟΡΙΚΗ
6. Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΠΟΙΗΣΗ: ΜΑΝΤΙΝΑΔΑ, ΚΑΝΤΑΔΑ, ΡΙΜΑ, ΡΙΖΙΤΙΚΟ, ΑΜΑΝΕΣ ΚΛΠ
7. Ο ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟΣ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΣΜΟΣ
8. Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ ΚΑΙ Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΦΗ (ΠΑΓΚΟΣΜΙΑ ΠΡΟΦΟΡΑ ΚΑΙ
ΓΙΑΤΙ ΠΡΕΠΕΙ ΝΑ ΓΙΝΟΥΝ ΚΑΙ ΠΑΛΙ ΔΙΕΘΝΕΙΣ)
9. ΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΟΝΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΟΛΟΓΙΑ
10. ΣΥΝΤΑΚΤΙΚΟ ΣΥΓΧΡΟΝΗΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ
11. Η ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΜΥΘΟΛΟΓΙΑ ΚΑΙ Η ΘΡΗΣΚΕΙΑ ΤΩΝ ΟΛΥΜΠΙΩΝ ΘΕΩΝ
12. ΟΙΝΟΛΟΓΙΑ ΚΑΙ ΠΟΤΟΠΟΙΙΑ (ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ, ΕΙΔΗ ΠΟΤΩΝ ΚΛΠ)
13. Η ΑΘΗΝΑ (ΟΝΟΜΑΣΙΑ, ΙΔΡΥΣΗ, ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ, ΠΡΟΣΦΟΡΑ ΚΛΠ)
14. Η ΘΗΒΑ (ΟΝΟΜΑΣΙΑ, ΙΔΡΥΣΗ ΚΛΠ)
15. Η ΜΑΚΕΔΟΝΙΑ (ΟΝΟΜΑΣΙΑ, ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ, ΚΑΤΑΓΩΓΗ ΚΛΠ ΤΩΝ ΜΑΚΕΔΟΝΩΝ )
16. Η ΣΠΑΡΤΗ (ΟΝΟΜΑΣΙΑ, ΙΔΡΥΣΗ, ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ, ΠΡΟΣΦΟΡΑ ΚΛΠ)
17. Η KΡΗΤΙΚΗ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ (ΟΝΟΜΑΣΙΑ, ΚΑΤΑΓΩΓΗ, ΠΡΟΣΦΟΡΑ ΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΩΝ)
18. Ο ΚΡΗΤΑΓΕΝΗΣ ΔΙΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΤΟ ΑΝΤΡΟ ΤΟΥ ΣΤΗΝ ΚΡΗΤΗ
19. ΟΙ KΡΗΤΙΚΕΣ ΠΑΡΑΔΟΣΙΑΚΕΣ ΦΟΡΕΣΙΕΣ
20. OI AΡΧΑΙΕΣ ΠΟΛΕΙΣ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΤΑ ΝΟΜΙΣΜΑΤΑ ΤΟΥΣ
21. Η ΜΙΝΩΙΚΗ ΕΝΔΥΜΑΣΙΑ ΚΑΙ Η ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ ΤΗΣ ΕΝΔΥΜΑΣΙΑΣ
22. Ο ΝΟΜΟΣ ΛΑΣΙΘΙΟΥ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ (ΙΔΡΥΣΗ, ΟΝΟΜΑΣΙΑ, ΔΗΜΟΙ ΚΛΠ)
23. ΤΟ ΠΕΡΙΦΗΜΟ ΟΡΟΠΕΔΙΟ ΛΑΣΙΘΙΟΥ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ
24. ΑΓΙΟΣ ΓΕΩΡΓΙΟΣ ΟΡΟΠΕΔΙΟΥ ΛΑΣΙΘΙΟΥ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ
25. ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ ΝΟΜΙΣΜΑΤΩΝ & ΤΑ ΝΟΜΙΣΜΑΤΑ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΕΠΙΝΟΗΣΗ
26. ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ ΧΟΡΟΥ- & ΚΡΗΤΙΚΟΙ ΧΟΡΟΙ-ΧΟΡΟΙ
27. ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ MΟΥΣΙΚΩΝ ΟΡΓΑΝΩΝ (ΕΙΔΗ, ΕΦΕΥΡΕΤΗΣ ΚΛΠ),
28. ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ ΓΕΩΡΓΙΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΚΤΗΝΟΤΡΟΦΙΑΣ
29. Η ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ ΤΗΣ ΓΡΑΦΗΣ (ΕΙΔΗ ΚΛΠ)
30. ΠΕΡΙ ΘΥΣΙΩΝ, ΑΝΘΡΩΠΟΘΥΣΙΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΚΡΕΑΤΟΦΑΓΙΑΣ
114
31. ΠΕΡΙ ΑΣΤΡΟΝΟΜΙΑΣ, ΑΣΤΡΟΛΟΓΙΑΣ, ΜΑΓΕΙΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΜΑΝΤΕΙΑΣ

32. ΨΕΥΔΗ ΠΟΥ ΛΕΓΟΝΤΑΙ ΓΙΑ ΤΗΝ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ ΚΑΙ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΦΗ
33. ΜΑΘΗΣΙΑΚΑ ΠΡΟΒΛΗΜΑΤΑ: (ΔΥΣΛΕΞΙΑ, ΑΝΑΛΦΑΒΗΤΙΣΜΟΣ κ.α.).
34. ΘΡΗΣΚΕΙΑ: ΤΙ ΕΝΑΙ ΘΕΟΣ, ΨΥΧΗ, ΑΔΗΣ ΚΑΙ Η ΥΠΑΡΞΗ ΤΟΥΣ Ή ΟΧΙ
35. Η ΚΙΘΑΡΑ, Η ΛΥΡΑ ΚΑΙ Ο ΑΥΛΟΣΜΕ ΤΗ ΜΟΥΣΙΚΗ ΕΠΙΝΟΗΘΗΚΑΝ ΑΠΟ ΚΡΗΤΕΣ
36. Ο ΕΦΕΥΡΕΤΗΣ ΙΣΤΙΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΜΥΛΟΥ (ΥΔΡΑΛΕΤΗ, ΑΝΕΜΟΜΥΛΟΥ κ.α.).
37. Η ΘΕΩΡΙΑ ΤΗΣ ΕΞΕΛΙΞΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΓΙΑΤΙ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΠΡΑΓΜΑΤΙ ΛΑΘΟΣ

Greek Language: by Adam (Makis) G. Krassanakis

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ADAM (MAKIS) G.

4TH EDITION: ADDED AND IMPROVED

- The Greek Language and

A’ EDITION ATHENS 2010

THE GREEK LANGUAGE

- The Greek Language and Greek Scripture (writing), as we will

In its modern form is the official language of Greece and Cyprus

2.ΤΗΕ GLOBAL CONTRIBUTION OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND

B. THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS - COMPARISON OF GREEK

1. THE LANGUAGE AND THE WORDS

Language is said (called) the total of words that with concrete

The meaning of words depends on their part of speech and their

(Greek alphabet and his pronouncing

Some times the meaning of a word it depends on his tone (which

2. THE GENERATION (PRODUCTION) OF GREEK WORDS

c. The typological ending (form) of an ancient word (let’s refer,

3. THE ELEMENTS OF WORDS

Compound words are constituted (formed) by the two or more

2. SUBJECT (“THEMA”) AND ROOT

phthongs (= sounds of words) of the word that remain unchanged in

The character is called the final phthong (sound of words,

Accent mark is called the marc (/) by which we indicate the

In oral speech (in all languages) one syllable of each word is

In the Greek writing system we always put the accent mark on

4. PHTHONGS (= THE SOUNDS OF WORDS) & SYLLABLES

Syllable is called the smallest (least) piece in which a word can

The total of different phthongs of all languages, ancient or mod-

Consonant syllable is called the syllable in which there is one or

Parts of speech are said the types of words of language from

THE ARTICLE: ο, η, το (= the)

DECLENSION – CONJUGATION PARTS OF SPEECH

2. DECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH

a. What is inclination, types etc

Cases of declination are said the changes (types, forms) that

The cases of declinations have two numbers, the singular and

FOR MORE (the inflection or declination or conjugation of

1. HISTORY OF GREEK LANGUAGE

2. PERIODS OF GREEK LANGUAGE

The language of every people does not follow similar manners of

Ancient Greek Modern (new Greek

This is due to the fact that:

Roughly, the Greek language is divided in three long periods:

modern (recent) period (1453 A.D. – today). Analytically in the fol-

1) First period, archaic

PELASGIAN TIMES = PRE MINOAN TIMES

MINOAN TIMES, from 1500 BC until 1200 BC

MYCENAEAN TIMES from 1200 BC until 500 BC

Dipylon tablet, 8th – 7th century BC

Attician inscription of 5th century BC.

Spartian dialect: Αμές δ`ε γ' εσόμεθα πολλ~ω κάρρονες

Tyrtaios (685 - 667 BC):

τ`ην δ' αυτού προλιπόντα κα`ι πίονας αγρούς

Homer (8/7ος century B.C.):

If we check the forty words of the first Homeric poetical lines,

2) Second period, the Classical

<< άρχεται dε πόλεμος ενθέδε ήδη Αθηναίων και Πελοπονησίων

3) Third period, the Alexandrine

The period from the times of Alexander’s successors (from the

A precise indication of the condition of the language in that pe-