c




 


  








 !"

The ability to exchange genes within a population is a nearly universal attribute of all living
things. Among prokaryotes, there is no known case where genetic exchange is an obligatory step (as it
often is in eukaryotes) in the completion of an organism¶s life cycle. Rather, genetic exchange in
prokaryotes seems to be an occasional process that occurs through three different mechanisms in various
prokaryotes. These three mechanisms are transformation, transduction, and conjugation.
In transformation, DNA is released from cells into the surrounding medium, and recipient cells are
then able to incorporate it into themselves from the medium. Transduction occurs when a phage viron
attaches to a bacterial cell and transfers some or all of its DNA into the bacteria. Conjugation is controlled
by plasmid-borne genes and occurs between cells that are in direct contact with one another. Usually only
the plasmid itself is transferred, although sometimes chromosomal genes can be transferred as well.
Although the existence of plasmids was inferred from genetic studies in the 1950s, it has only
been during recent decades, with the advent of more accurate means of detection, that the impact of
plasmids on the biology and ecology of prokaryotes has been fully appreciated. Plasmids are circular
molecules of double-stranded DNA and generally function as small chromosomes. They are self-
replicating and can encode for a variety of cellular functions. However, unlike chromosomes, they are
dispensable. The types of functions they encode only benefit the cell in a limited set of environments, and
none are known to encode for essential cellular functions. Many, but not all, bacteria may contain
anywhere from one to several dozen plasmids and
although they are capable of autonomous replication,
the number of plasmids remains fairly constant from
one generation to the next. These bits of DNA vary in
size from a few to several hundred Kb (kilobase) pairs
in length.
Many plasmids, called R factors, carry genes
that confer resistance to antibiotics on the host cell.
First discovered in 1955, R factors have spread rapidly
among pathogenic bacteria in recent years, profoundly
affecting medical science by causing many strains of
pathogenic bacteria to be highly resistant to antibiotics.
The number of inhibitory substances for R-mediated
resistance has grown to almost all antibiotics, many
other chemotherapeutic agents, and a variety of heavy
metals. The mechanisms of resistance conferred by
these genes tend to be different from those that are
chromosomally determined. Plasmid genes often
encode enzymes that chemically inactivate the drug or
eliminate it from the cell by active transport. In
contrast, chromosomal mutations usually modify the
cellular target of the drug, rendering the cell resistant to
the drug¶s action.

  
# !

$%c



&'







The first mechanism of bacterial genetic
exchange to be discovered was transformation. In
1928, a now-famous experiment demonstrated that
injecting mice with a non-pathogenic (not capable of
causing disease) strain of D
   
 ,
together with heat-killed cells of a pathogenic (disease-causing) strain killed mice, while injecting these
strains separately did not. This and subsequent experiments established that the surviving cells were
recombinant, meaning that they exhibited certain properties (including the ability to cause disease) that
were typical of the killed cells and others that were typical of the non-pathogenic culture. A genetic
exchange of the DNA dissolved in the external medium has occurred between the dead cells and the live
ones. At the time, it was thought that a particular substance, a ³transforming principle´, caused the
exchange to take place. Thus the word ³transformation´ came to be used to describe genetic exchange
among prokaryotes.
When cells are able to be transformed by DNA in their environments they are called ³competent´.
In a significant number of bacteria, entry into a competent state is encoded by chromosomal genes and
signaled by certain environmental conditions. Such bacteria are said to be capable of undergoing natural
transformation. Many other bacteria do not become competent under ordinary conditions but can be made
competent by exposing them to a variety of artificial treatments, such as exposure to high concentrations of
divalent cations. A "& 
  is missing two electrons as compared with the neutral atom. Example:
iron(II) or Fe2+ is the divalent cationic form of iron.
i    cells, which do not possess a natural system for transformation, are capable of being
artificially transformed. They become competent only after the cultured cells are exposed to calcium
chloride solution. These newly-competent cells are now receptive to an insertion of foreign DNA
contained in a plasmid.

Î
(&



? Investigate transformation as a mechanism of genetic exchange
? Create competent cells by chemically and thermally treating i   cells
? Insert a plasmid containing antibiotic-resistance genes into competent i  cells
? Screen the transformed cells to determine which have been genetically altered
? Calculate the efficiency of the transformation reaction

 



2 Luria agar plates (petri dishes)
2 Lurie agar plated with ampicillin
2 Microcentrifuge tubes
1 inoculating loop
2 Bacti-spreaders
4 Sterile graduated pipettes
1 Rubber pipette bulb
1 Capillary micropipette
Calcium Chloride
Plasmid pUC8
Water bath
Starter plate of i  

"



Before the experiment, be certain a 42° C water bath is available and that the calcium chloride is in an ice
bucket and kept cold throughout the experiment.

1. Obtain two microcentrifuge tubes and mark one tube ³+´, the other ³-³. The ³+´ tube will have
the plasmid added to it.
2. Using a sterile pipette, add 0.25 ml (250 µl) ice-cold calcium chloride to each tube.
3. Obtain a starter plate. Use a sterile inoculating loop to transfer a large colony of bacteria from the
starter plate to each tube of cold calcium chloride. Be sure not to transfer any agar to the tube.
4. To remove the bacteria from the transfer loop, place the loop into the calcium chloride and twirl
rapidly. Gently tapping the loop against the side of the tube may help dislodge the bacteria.
Dispose of the loop according to your instructor.
 5. Using the provided capillary micropipettes and plungers, add 10 µl of the plasmid pUC8 solution,
which carries the antibiotic resistance gene, to the ³+´ tube.
6. Gently tap the tube with your finger to mix the plasmid into the solution.
7. Incubate both tubes on ice for 15 minutes.
8. While the tubes are incubating, obtain two Luria agar plates and two Luria agar plates with
ampicillin. Label one Luria agar plate ³+´, the other ³-³. Do the same for the Luria agar plates
with ampicillin. Be sure to label all four plates with your group letter, and period number. Both
time and temperature are critical in the following heat-shock protocol. Be sure your water bath is
at 42º C, and do not exceed 90 seconds in the water bath.
9. The bacterial cells must be heat shocked to allow the plasmid to enter the cell. Remove the tubes
from ice and immediately place in a 42º C hot water bath for 60 to 90 seconds.
10. Remove the tubes from the 42º C water bath and immediately place on ice for two minutes.
11. Remove the tubes from the ice bath and add 0.25 ml (250 µl) of room temperature Luria broth to
each tube with a sterile disposable pipette. Gently tap the tube with your finger to mix the
solution. The tubes may now be kept at room temperature.
12. Add 0.1 ml (100 µl) of the ³+´ solution to the two ³+´ plates with another pipette. Add 0.1 ml
(100 µl) of the ³-³ solution to the two ³-³ plates with a different sterile disposable pipette.
13. Using a sterile Bacti-spreader, spread the cells over the entire surface of the Luria agar ³-³ plate.
Then, using the same Bacti-spreader, spread the liquid on the Luria agar with the ampicillin ³-³
plate.
14. Using a new Bacti-spreader, repeat the procedure for both of the ³+´ plates. Spread the liquid on
the Luria agar ³+´ plate first followed by the Luria agar with ampicillin ³+´ plate. Dispose of the
Bacti-spreaders according to your instructor.
15. Let the plates sit for five minutes to absorb the liquid. Place the plates in a 37º C incubator,
inverted, overnight.
16. The next day, remove the plates from the incubator. Count and record the number of colonies on
each plate. If the bacteria have grown over the entire surface so that individual colonies cannot be
distinguished, write ³lawn´. Record your results in a " 





".

c 
)

1. A cell must be competent for transformation to occur. Not all cells in the solution become
competent and therefore never receive the gene for antibiotic resistance. Transformation
efficiency is the number of resistant colonies per microgram of plasmid. Using the directions
below, calculate transformation efficiency.
a. Total mass of plasmid used:
(Total mass = volume x concentration)
b. Total volume of suspension:

c. Fraction of cell suspension put on plate:

(µL on plate/total volume)
d. Total mass of plasmid in fraction:
(Mass of plasmid x fraction on plate)
e. Number of colonies per µg of plasmid:
(# of colonies counted/mass of plasmid put on plate)
2. Based on your experimental results, did transformation occur? Why or why not?
3. Which of the following statements is/are not true about bacterial transformation?
a. Cells can only be transformed when they are in a competent state
b. Transformation may only be performed using plasmid DNA containing antibiotic-
resistance genes (R factors)
c. Transformed cells are capable of passing their newly acquired traits onto succeeding
generations
d. Transformation was first discovered in the bacterium D
  
 .
e. Cells must first be treated artificially in the laboratory before they are capable of
undergoing transformation.