RDBMS Notes

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RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM
UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION:-
DATA :- Data is a collection of facts, which is in unorganized but they can

be organized into useful form.
Data is of two types :-
1.Raw Data :- It is a Data which are collected from different sources
and has no meaning.
` 2. Derived Data :- It is a data that are extracted from Raw Data and
used for getting useful information.
Derived Data is called as INPUTDATA.
INPUT DATA is processed to get the OUTPUT data.
The OUTPUT DATA is called as INFORMATION.
The database today may contain either data or information.
The term data and information are closely related.
DATA
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT DATA
Proccessing of data is called Data Proccessing.

Proccessing of Data in an electronic device i.e computer is called
“Electronic Data Proccessing”
Meta data: Data that describe the properties or characteristics of other

data. Some of these properties include data definition,data or characteristics
of other Data,Data Structures,Rules or constraints.
Ex:- Datatype : integer,Character,float…
Size :- 9,10,…(size of the field)
Constraint :- Primary Key
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DataBase : A Database is a collection of interrelated data.

 A DataBase is a logically coherent collection of Data with some inherent
meaning.
 A Database is designed, built and populated with data for a specific
purpose.
 A Database can be of any size and of varying complexity
DATABASE MANAGEMNT SYSTEM (DBMS) :- DBMS is a collection of

programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. The dbms is Hence
a general-purpose s/w system that facilitates the process of defining, constructing
and manipulating databases for various applications.
TRADITIONAL FILE PROCESSING:-

File:- File is collection of records
Record: - Record is collection of field’s data.
Fields: - Field is a characteristic of a particular data item. or Data.
ex:- Filename :- student
Fields:- studno, studname, sub1,sub2,sub3……
Record: - 123, abc, 76, 98, 90…
File processing systems are still widely used today, especially for backing up
database systems.
To be useful for business applications, computers must be able to store,
manipulate, and retrieve large files of data. Computer file processing systems were
developed for this purpose.
As business applications became a more complex, it become evident that
traditional file processing systems had a number of short comings and limitations.
As a result, these systems have been replaced by database processing systems
File processing systems are still widely used today, especially for backing up
database systems.
File Organization: - Maintenance of the records in a file is called File
Organization.
Evolution of DBMS:-DBMS were first introduced during the 1960s and have
continued to evolve during subsequent decades.
1960s:- Traditional file systems and first database management systems were
introduced.
1970s:- Hierarchical and Network data base models also known as first generation
DBMS
1980s:- Relational model also known as second generation DBMS.In Relational
model, all data are represented in the form of tables. A relatively simple fourth-
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generation language called SQL (for Structured Query Language) is used for data
retrieval.
1990s:- Object-Oriented and Object-Relational data model
DBMS were developed to overcome the limitations of file processing systems.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE PROCESSING SYSTEMS:-

1. data Redundancy
2. Sharing of data is Poor
3. inconsistent data
4. enforcement of standards are poor
5. data dependency
6. inflexibility
Users of DBMS:-
Users are of two types
1) The people whose jobs involve the day to day use of a large database.
2) The people who work to maintain the database system environment.
1. DataBase Administrators: - The DBA is responsible for authorizing access to
the database, for coordinating and monitoring its use, and for acquiring software
and hardware resources as needed.
2. Database Designers: - Database designers are responsible for identifying the
data to be stored in the database and for choosing appropriate structures to
represent and store this data.
3. End users: - End Users are the persons, whose jobs require access to the
database for quering, updating, and generating reports.
4. System Analysts and Application Programmers: - Systems analysts determine
the requirements of end users, and develop specifications for canned transactions
that meet these requirements.
DATA MODELS: - The structure of a database is the concept of a data model, a

collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships, data
semantics and consistency constraints.
1. Network data Model
2. Hierarchical data model
3. Relation data model
Network data model: - data in the network model are represented by collection of
records and relationships among data are represented ny links. The links can be
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viewed as pointers. The records in the database are organised as collections of

arbitrary graphs.
Hierarchical Data Model :-

The hierarchical model is similar to the network model in the sence that data and
relationships among data are represented by records and links respectively. It
differs from the network model in that the records are organised as collection of
trees rather than arbitrary graphs.
Relational Model:- The relational model represents data and relationships among
data by a collection of tables.each of which has a columns with unique names.The
following relational database showing Customers and Accounts they have.
From the above CUSTOMER and ACCOUNT relations, we can make a

conclusion that customer details are maintained in CUSTOMER database and their
deposit details are maintained in ACCOUNT database.
FILE ORIENTATED SYSTEM (OR) FILE ORGANISATION

Way of storing data or records in a file is called File Organisation. There
are 4 types of File Organisation:
i) Serial File Organisation
ii) Sequential File Organisation
iii) Index Sequential File Organisation
iv) Random (or) Direct File Organisation
i) Serial File Organisation: Here the records are stored one after another and
accessed in the same manner. In order to get particular records, all the
previous records must be read to access the required records. There is no
logical order in this method File Organisation.
a) It is a simple and easy to understand.
b) It is the cost effective method.
c) It needs only one key record to locate.
d) There is full utilization of storage space.
e) This method is very slow as the entire file must be processed.
Ex:
10 7 6 12 25
th
To reach the 12 number record, we should surpass first three
records.
f) In this method updation i.e. addition, deletion of records is not a simple
task.
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ii) Sequential File Organisation: Here records are kept either in ascending or
descending order. Here if we want a particular record, we have to read on the
record before acquiring or reaching the desired record. Ordering can be done
on the basis of one key field.
Ex: If we take the employee first in an office, the ordering can be done in
the ascending order of employee number. The records in the files are
stored on a magnetic tape.
a) Working with sequential file is simple.
b) Record can be accessed easily on the basis of key field (primary key).
c) Cost is minimized as only transaction files are resorted.
d) Making changes in the existing records is some what difficult job.
e) For addition or deletion of records is some file should be sorted.
ii) File sequential File Organisation: This File Organisation enables the user
to access file randomly. The index table is created on the disk at the same
time that the data is recorded on the disk. This Index table stores each
records key field and the address of the disk of that record.
Ex: INDEXTABLE STUDINFO

Key fields Index Indexno Stno sname %
no. 12 20 A 67
20 12 19 30 B 98
30 19 24 25 C 88
25 24 42 15 E 90
15 42
Reading a record in 2 ways

a) Read sequentially from beginning until you find your record.
b) Looking the index find the address and go directly to that record. Just like a
Book’s index which has different topics and their corresponding page
number.
c) Immediate access to record is possible.
d) Several files can be updated simultaneously.
e) Addition and deletion of record is more complex.
f) Data security is less.
iv) Random File Organisation: In this organization user can access any report in
the file. In this approach computer can directly locate the record without
searching or reading the previous records. In this organisation record is given a
particular number which is called as key number to reach directly for a
particular record. This key number is calculated using a “HASH” technique.
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a) Immediate updating of various files is possible in lesser time.

b) Addition and deletion of records is very simple.
c) These files can be opened on the devices like Magnetic Disk.
Advantages of DBMS
i) Data Redundancy
ii) Data control
iii) Data manipulation
iv) Excessive programming effort
v) Concurrent access and crash recovery
vi) Data integrity and security
vii) Data independence
i) Data Redundancy: It means data reputation. Redundancy increased the

overhead cost of maintance and storage. This system can eliminate the
Data Redundancy since all application share a common polo of data.
ii) Data control: In file system there was no centralised control at the data
element level. There is a big confusion in the terms homonyms and
synonyms. But in data base system we have centralised data control and
helps to eliminate the confusion caused by homonyms and synonyms.
Ex: The words “Account” have a different meanings in the bank
organization i.e., a person can have an account in the bank and he also
have an account in the home loan department and so on. To come out
from this confusion data base will have complete information about him
and his accounts.
iii) Data Manipulation efforts: In index sequential file allowed application
to access a particular record by a key, this was adequate incase of only
wanted a single record. Suppose if we want a set of related records, it is
difficult to obtain from a file a system because file systems are unable to
provide strong connection b/w data in different files. But database
systems were specially developed to make the inter relating of data in
different files much easier.
iv) Excessive programming effort: As in database systems programs and
data are independent of each other. SO, maintance of programming
efforts for management information application were very easy. So
access to a pod of data and by supporting powerful data manipulation
languages.
v) Concurrent access and crash recovery: Concurrent access means each
and every user can access the data t the same time.
Ex: If a take bank which has different ATM centers at different
locations in a particular city, then we see that each and every member of
card holder can operate the ATM machine at different locations. In this
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type of transaction each and every user feels that data can be accessed
by only user at a time DBMS protect users from the effect of system
failure or crash recovery by creating a backup file to your original data.
vi) Data integrity and security: Database system can enforce integrity
constrains (primary key) on the data. It checks and has security that data
is visible to different classes of users by database administrators.
vii) Data independence: the main advantage of DBMS is that programs
will not be depending on the data. It uses a easy techniques to store and
retrive data efficiently from external storage devices.
Dis-Advantage of DBMS
i) Higher cost: The database system also involves higher data processing
cost. There is always increased hardware and software investment. So, a
lot an investment is needed for maintaining data bases.
ii) Lack of training: There is again lack of training people in the database
system. Database experts may be maintaining at higher cost.
iii) Data insecurity: The database must be properly maintained by the
authorized people. If they are not properly maintained there are chances
for opening, adding deleting the data. Thus, there is always a chance for
data insecurity.
iv) Data integration: Different department maintained data in different
files. It is difficult to ensure togetherness among the same data in all
departments. It is optimised for certain kind of organizational levels.
Components of Data Base Management system

A complete database system in an organization consists of four
components:
i) Hardware
ii) Software
iii) Data
iv) People or users
i) Hardware: The Hardware is the set of physical devices in which a

database resides. It consists of one or more computers, disk drives,
terminals, connecting cables and other auxiliaries and connecting
hardware.
The computers used for processing the data in the database
maybe mainframe mini computer of personal computer. The success of
database systems has been heavily depend on new hardware technology.
A very large amount of main memory and disk storage is required to
maintain and control the huge quantity of data stored in a database.
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ii) Software: A database system includes tow types of software.

a) General purpose database management software called the database
management system.
b) Application software that uses DBMS facilities to manipulate the
database to achieve a specific business function. DBMS provide must
of the following service.
 Centralized data definition and data control.
 Data security and integrity mechanisms.
 Concurrent data access for multiple users.
 User oriented data query, manipulation and report capabilities.
iii) Data: No database system can exist without data, data can be collected
and entered into the database in the from of tables.
iv) Users or people: People are of 2 types:

a) Users: People who need information from the database to carry out their
primary business responsibities.
Ex: Executive, Managers, staff
b) Practitioners: People are responsible for designing and maintenance of
database system and its associated application software for the benefits of
the users.
Ex: Database administrators, programmers, database and system designers,
information system manager etc.
The procedures people use to accomplish their goals in the system
constitute and important of this component.
Relationship of the four system components

Practitioner in consultation with user’s identity data needs and design
database structures to accommodate these needs. The database structures are
then specified certain procedures. Application program prepared by
practitioner and users to be run on the computers i.e. hardware. Data will be
accessed from the database by the users.
 The entered data are maintained on hardware media such as Disk and
Tapes.
 Application program may also generate billing statement and other
documents used by the customers of the business.
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APPLICATION PROGRAM
PRACTITIONER
APPLICATION PROGRAM
APPLICATION PROGRAM
USERS
DBMS
Client/Server Platform
 Client: The client is the front end computer that interfaces with the user.
 Server: The server is the back and machine and handles those parts of
the job which are common to making clients. Such as Database access
an update.
Database servers
A program running on server hardware to provide database services to
client machine.
Client server platform
A local area network consisting of client computers which receive services
from server computer.
Data sharing
The most significant difference b/w of file based system and a database
system is that data are shared.
There are 3 types of Data sharing:
i) Sharing Data b/w functional units

ii) Data sharing b/w different levels of users
iii) Sharing data b/w different location.
i) Sharing Data b/w functional units: The term data sharing suggest that
people in different functional units use a common pool of data. Without
data sharing each group benefits only from its own data.
The effect of combining data into a database is synergistic i.e.
combined data are more valuable than the same of the data in separate
files. The concept of combing data for common use is known as data
integration.
ii) Sharing data b/w different levels of users: There are three different
levels of users.
a) Operation or electronic data processing
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b) Middle management or management information system

c) Executives or decision support system.
a) Operation or electronic data processing (EDP): EDP was first applied to

the lower operational levels of the organisation to automake the paperwork.
This basis features are:
 Focus on data, storage, processing and flows at the operational level.
 Efficient transaction processing
 Summary reposts for management
b) Middle management or management information system (MIS):
The MIS approach elevated the focus on information system activities.

Characteristics are:
 Information focus, aimed at the middle management
 An integration of ETP jobs by business functions.
 Support for personal decision making styles of individuals managers.
Executive DSS
Middle manager MIS
Operations
EDP
iii) Data sharing b/w different locations: As the companies grow they tend to
open branch officers with there own data needs. Once communication
technology improved a serious study of distributed database system
being.
A distributed database system is made of several database
systems running at local sites connected by connection lines. For a
distributed database system to function effectively. Adequate
communication technology must be available and the DBMS in the
system must be able to communicate while interfering with the
communication facilities. The data resides at those places where
frequent access takes place. This approach improves cost effectiveness.
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Database Administration or Database management control:

Databases require control and protection this responsibility is assign to the
database administrator.
In small organisation on person carries out all the responsibilities but I large
organisation’s where the DBA responsibilities are divided among several people,
managed by a chief administrator.
Functions of DBA
i) Database Design
ii) User training
iii) Database Security and Integrity
iv) Database System performance
i) Database Design: in this level there are 2 types of database designs.

 Conceptual data base
 Physical data base.
In conceptual database design identification of data, relationship’s that

exist b/w them of the value constrain that apply.
To carry out there design’s DBA must include personnel who are
expert in design concepts. DBA occupies a strategic position in the definition
and enforcement of companies standard’s database design decisions are dept
in data dictionary.
ii) User training/Information center’s: the DBA is responsibility for
educating user’s in the structure of the database and its access through
DBMS this will be done by training session’s through user’s manual and
company’s information center’s.
Information center is an area where users are provided with facilities to
do there own computing software package’s should be provided as well
as training and simple programming services
iii) Data security integrity: The concept of combining and organisation
data into one place and accessing by all has both advantages and
disadvantages.
Data can be misused or damaged by users who d not have
original responsibility and authority over the data. DBA provides
procedure and control’s to prevents the abuse of data i.e. retrieve only
access it means that users can check the data and second method is
access to the data base is ultimately controlled by a password
mechanism. DBA is responsible for assigning password
iv) Data base system performance: In data system, data will be accessed
simultaneously by many users at a time in that case respond may be
slow by a server i.e. physical problem. DBA has a responsibility to
include skilled persons who can diagnose and solve the problems.
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Problems are mainly involving in hardware, physical arrangement of

data and disk.
Risk and Cost of Data Base

The database systems have five different drawbacks:
i) Organisational conflicts
ii) Development profit failure
iii) System failure
iv) Overhead cost
v) Need for sophisticated personnel
i) Organisational conflicts: Getting data in a common database may not be

politically fisable in some organisations certain groups may not willing to
control over there data to the extended needed to the integrate data the risk
involved in data sharing i.e. one group may damaged another groups data
such people problems could prevent the effectual implementation of a
database system.
ii) Development project failure: For variety of reasons the project to develop
a database system may fail sometimes management was not fully satisfied
with the data base system a project too large in scope may be almost
impossible to complete in a reasonable time in this case a better approach
may have been to divide the data base project into several projects to
develop several databases or a single data base in several stages finally
during the course of a project, key personnel may unexpectedly leave the
company if replacement personnel cannot be found, then the project might
no be successfully completed.
iii) System failure: When the computer goes down, all users directly involve
in accessing the database must wail until the system is functions again if the
system or application software fails , their may be permanent damage to the
database it is very important, therefore to carefully evaluate all software
that will have a direct effect on the database to be certained that it is as free
of errors as possible a distributed database system also reduces the risk of
hardware failure in a centralised database system since the distributed
systems runs an several computers.
iv) Overhead cost: The database approach may require investments in both
hardware and software. The hardware to run a large DBMS must be
efficient and will generally require more main memory (RAM) and disk
storage in addition, the DBMS itself is a quite expensive these overhead
cost may not always bring corresponding benefit a database system with a
large amount if data sharing require more powerful backup and recovery
procedures.
v) Need for sophisticated personal: The database administration function
requires skilled personnel who are capable of coordinating the need’s of
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different user group designing database, establishing data recovery

procedures etc., this combination of skills constitutes a personnel overhead
in the adoption and use of database are the database administration
functions has been established the cost of the DBA group is an ongoing
expense if no person having the required skills can be found, the DBA
functions may not be properly performed this results in the failure of a
database implementation.
Database Development
Database development depends on 2 types of approaches:
i) Function oriented approach
ii) Data oriented approach
i) Function oriented approach: This approach mainly depends on the

function of an individual department. Basing this approach we have
method called system development life cycle. This procedure typically
consists of steps such as, feasibility study, requirements definition, system
design, programming and testing, review and maintenance.
ii) Data oriented approach: This approach focuses on the analysis of data
used by the functional areas (department). It has 2 advantages.
a) Data elements are a considerably more stable part of a system than the
function, of functional areas.
b) The proper structuring of a database schema requires sophisticated analysis
of classes of data item and their inter-relation.
DATA DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
Depend on this approach one method called Database development

life cycle (DDLC) is development. DDLC means a process for designing,
implementing and marinating a database system.
These methods consist of 6 stages:
i) Preliminary Planning
ii) Feasibility study
iii) Requirements definition
iv) Conceptual design
v) Implementation
vi) Database evaluation and maintenance
i) Preliminary Planning: This mans planning for a database that occurs

during the strategic database planning process. This information used to
establish relationship between current applications and to identify uses
of application information. It also helps to identify future system
requirements and to access the economic benefits of a database system.
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ii) Feasibility study: This stage involves preparing a report on the

following issue.
 Technological Feasibility: It means determination of hardware and
software available for database system.
 Operation feasibility: It means determination of availability of
expertise persons needed for the database system.
 Economic feasibility: It means cost benefit study of proposed
database system. The results of each feasibility examination were
favorable and the steering committee gave approval to move with
requirement definition.
iii) Requirement Definition: It involves determination of management and
functional area information requirements.
iv) Conceptual Design: This stage creates the conceptual schema for the
database. Specifications are developed to the point where
implementation can begin. During this stage detailed models of database
are created and integrated into a conceptual data model. This stage is
key component of DDLC.
v) Implementation: During database implementation. A DBMS is
selected and acquired than the detailed conceptual model is converted to
the implementation model of the DBMS. In this the steps required to
change a conceptual design to a functional design is termed as database
implementation.
vi) Database evaluation and maintenance: Evaluation involves
interviewing users to determine if any data needs are not suited changes
are madder as needed. The system is maintained through the
introduction of enhancements and the addition of new programmers and
data elements as business needs change and expand.
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UNIT-2
Principles of conceptual Database Design
Reality: Reality involves a very large number of details.
Model: A model is a representation of reality that retains only selected details.

Database incorporates a model of reality. DBMS manages the database so that
each user can record, access, and manipulate the data constitutes models of reality.
Models are powerful tools for eliminating irrelevant details and understanding the
reality of individual users.
Map: Association elements in reality to elements in the models. If this mapping is

done properly then the model can be used to solve the problem.
Conceptual data models: A model representing real work entities as objects

rather than records. The principal elements of conceptual rather than record. The
principal elements of conceptual data model are objects and relationships.
Objects: Objects represent things that are important to users.

Ex: People, automobiles, trees, dish washers…. Conceptual objects would be
companies, skills, organization, transactions etc.
An object is a particular thing (an individual person a specific band…) or a set of

things (all people, all automobiles, and all banks)
Object set to refer to a set of things of the same kind and object instance to refer to
a single member (or element) of an object set.
Ex: Employee (Emp no, empname, dept, sal)
Here, Employee is defined as objects.
Empno, Empname, Dept, Sal are object instance.
Objects set are either lexical or abstract

Lexical objects sets can print while the instance in abstract object sets cannot.
Example for lexical objects is: Empno, Empname, Dept, Sal etc all these values
are printed.
Example for abstract is PERSON, which cannot be printed. This abstract instance
would be represented by an internal number. This number is called as
“SURROGATE KEY” meaning that it represents and uniquely identifies the
abstract object instance.
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E.R-Model: E.R.Model is also known as entity relation ship model. It is a detailed

logical representation of the data for an organisation or for a business area. The
E.R.Model is expressed in entities, the relationships among those entities and the
attributes (or properties) of both the entities and their relationships. An E.R.Model
us expressed as an entity relationships diagram (or E-R diagram) which is a
graphical representation of an E.R-Model.
Basic Symbols:
Strong Entity: Weak Entity:
Relationship: Attribute:
Multi valued
Attribute:
Derived Attribute:
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E.R.Model Structure
Attribute Attribute Attribute Attribute
ENTITY 1 ENTITY 2
REL
Entity is represented b y rectangle, symbol, while relationships between

entities are represented by the diamond symbol connected bylines to the related
entities.
Entities: An entity is a person, place, and object. Event or concept in the user
environment about which the organisation wishes to maintain data some example
are:
 Person: Employee, student, patient……
 Place: City, State, Country…….
 Object: Machine, Building, Automobile…..
Entity Type: An entity type is a collection entity that share common properties or
characteristics. We use capital letters for names for entity.
 Strong Entity: A strong entity type is one that exists independent of other
entity types. Instance of a strong entity type always have a unique identifier
(Primary Key)
Ex: EMPLOYEE (Emp_id, Emp_name, Sal…)
Here Employee is a Entity name.

Emp_id, Emp_name, Sal….. are attributes
Emp_id is a Primary Key.
 Weak Entity: A weak entity is one that depends on their entity types i.e.
instances of an entity type does not have a Primary Key.
Ex: DEPENDENT (Dep_name, DOB)
Here, DEPENDENT is a entity name.
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Attributes
An Attributes is a property or characteristics of an entity types that is of
interest to the organisation.
Ex: STUDENT (stud_id, stud_name, address…..)
Here, STUDENT is a entity name.
Attributes are stud_id, stud_name, address….
In naming attributes, we use an initial capital letter followed by lowercase letters.

If an attributes name consists of two words, we use an underscore character to
connect the words and we start each word with the capital letter.
 Simple Attribute: A simple attribute is an attribute that cannot be broken
down into smaller components.
For example: All of the attributes associated with an entity AUTOMOBILE
are simple: vehicle_id, color, weight, power….)
 Composite Attributes: A composite attributes is an attribute such address
can be broken down in to component parts.
Address
Str. Address City State Postal_code
Composite attribute provides considerable flexibility to users, who can either refer
to the composite attribute as single unit or else to individual components of the
attribute.
 Multivalued Attributes: A multivalued attributes is an attribute that may
take on more than one value for a given entity instance. We indicate a
multivalued attribute with an ellipse with double lines.
Ex: STUDENT (stud_name, stud_no, courseno, course_joined)
(Or)
EMPLOYEE (Emp_no, Emp_name, Sal, Addr, Skill)
In above example EMPLOYEE is a table/entity SKILL is attributes with so

many values.
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sal
EMPNO
Emp_no Emp_nam
e
EMPLOYEE
Addr
ADDR SKILL
Tuple The row of a relation is called tuples.

Ex:
WORKER(WORKER_ID,NAME,HOURLY_RATE,SKILL_TYPE,SUPV_ID)
WORKER is entity name.
Attributes are worker_id, name, hourly_rate……
Identifier
It is an attribute (or combination of attributes) that uniquely identifies
individual instances of entity types. The identifier for the STUDENT entity type is
stud_no.
A composite identifier: it is an identifier that consists of a composite attributes.

Ex: FLIGHT (FLIGHT_number, FLIGHT_id, Date, No.of_passenger)
In the above example FLIGHT_Number_id combines to form an IDENTIFIER.
Relationship
A Relationship is an association among the instances of one or more entity

types that is of interest of the organization.
Relationship type is a meaningful association between two or three entities.

A relationship is denoted by a diamond symbol containing the name of the
relationship.
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Ex:
Emp_id Emp_name Courses_id Course title
EMPLOYEE COMPLET COURSE

E
In above example EMPLOYEE and COURSE are two entities making relation
between them. Relationship between them. Relationship name is completes.
Degree of Relationship
The degree of a relationship is the number of entity type that participates in
that relationship. In above example relationship completes is of degree2. Since
there are two entity types: EMPLOYEE and COURSE.
There are 3types of Relationships in E.R.Model:

i. UNARY (degree 1)
ii. BINARY (degree 2)
iii. TRINARY (degree3)
i) Unary Relationship: It is relationship between the instances of a single
entity type. Unary relationships are also called Recursive Relationship.
Ex:
Manages
PERSON EMPLOYEE
Is.Married
_to
One-to-one One –TO- many
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ii) Binary Relationship: It is a relationship between the attributes of two entity

types and is the most common types of relationship in data modeling. This
relationship has 3 types:
 One-one
 One-to-many
 Many to many
One-one
IS_ASSI
EMPLOYEE GNED PARKING PLACE
It indicates that an employee is assigned one parking place, and each

parking place is assigned to one employee.
One to Many
PRODUCT IS_ASSI PRODUCT LINE
GNED
LINE
It indicates that a product line may contain several products and ach
product belongs to only on product line.
Many to Many
STUDENT IS_ASSI COURSE
GNED
It indicates that a student may register for more than one course and that
each course may have student registrants.
iii) Ternary Relationship: A Ternary relationship is simultaneous relationship
among the instance of 3 entity types.
PART
VENDOR Supplies WARE HOUSE
Shipping_mod Unit_Cost
e
22
Cardinality Constraints
A cardinality constraint is a constraint that specifies is constraints that
specify the number of instances of entity B that may be associated with each
instance of Entity A. cardinality constraints normal specify the minimum and
maximum cardinality of one specifies mandatory participation.
Minimum Cardinality
The minimum number of instances of one entity that may be associated
with each instances of another entity.
Maximum Cardinality
The maximum number of instances of one entity that may be associated
with a single occurrence of another entity.
Degree of a relation
The number of attributes in relations is called the degree of the relation.
Tuple The row of a relation is called tuples.

Ex:
WORKER(WORKER_ID,NAME,HOURLY_RATE,SKILL_TYPE,SUPV_ID)
WORKER is entity name.
Attributes are worker_id,name,hourly_rate……
No. of attributes are 5.
So, degree of a relation is 5.
Null Values
The values given an attributes in a tuple. If the attribute is inapplicable or its
value is unknown.
Keys
Ex: WORKER(WORKER_ID,NAME,HOURLY_RATE,SKILL_TYPE,SUPV_ID)
In the above example worker_id attributes uniquely identifies an employee. We

can say that worker_id is a key in the WORKER relation.
23
Composite key
Ex:ASSIGNMENT(WORKER_ID,BLDG_ID,START_DATE,NUM_DAYS)
In the above table, keys consists of the WORKER_ID alone uniquely

identifies every row, but the two attributes together do provide the unique key. Such
a key is called composite key.
A key consisting of more than one attributes is called Composite key.
Candidate key
There may be more than one set of attributes that could be chosen as a key.
These are called candidate keys. When one of the candidate keys is selected as the
relation key. It may be primary key.
Foreign key
A set of attributes in one relation that is key in another relation. These are used
to indicate logical links between relations.
Ex: WORKER(WORKER_ID,NAME,HOURLY_RATE,SKILL_TYPE,SUPV_ID)
ASSIGNMENT(WORKER_ID,BLDG_ID,START_DATE,NUM_DAYS)
SKILL(SKILL_TYPE,BONUS_RATE,HOURS_PER_WEEK)
ASSIGNMENT table has two key attributes, both of them are underlined. This
means that WORKER_ID and BLDG_ID together are key for ASSIGNMENT.
SKILL_TYPE in the WORKER relation, WORKER_ID in ASSIGNMENT are
foreign keys.
FOREIGN key attributes need not have the same name as the key attributes to
which they correspond.
Integrity Constraints
A constraint is a rule that restricts the values in a database. Relational data
models include several constraints that are used to verity the validity of data in a
database as well as to add meaningful structure to the data.
Integrity constraints are of 2 types:
1) Entity Integrity
2) Functional Dependencies.
3) PRIMARY KEY
24
1) Entity Integrity: No key attributes of a row is NULL means value or data

should be given
2) Functional Dependencies: Every foreign key must either be null, or its value
must be the actual value of a key in another relation.
3) Primary Key: Every entity should have primary key.
The Normalization Process

Normalization is a process of deciding which attributes should be grouped
together in a relation. It is primarily a tool to validate and satisfies certain
constraints that avoid unnecessary duplication of data. It is a process of
decomposing relation with some changes to produce smaller, well structure
relations.
Normal form: Applying simple rules on the relation to avoid redundancy and
delicacy.
Functional Dependencies: It is a constraint between two attributes or two sets of
attributes.
Ex: EMPLOYEE (Empno,ename,sal,design)
Here empno is a Primary key with the help of the Primary Key we can identify
the record uniquely. So, ename, sal, design of the employee are identified by an
attribute called Empno. So empno is called kwy attribute or determinant and rest
of the attributes are called non-key attributes. Therefore non-key attributes are
functionally depends on key attributes.
i.e. empno ename, sal, design
The attribute on the left hand side of the arrow is called key-attribute. The attribute
on the right side of the arrow is called Non-Key-Attribute. In general, any relation
or table R, the attribute B is functional dependency B on A is represented by arrow
as follow A B
Determinants
The attribute on the left hand side of the arrow in functional dependency
is called a determinant.
Ex: Empno ename, sal, design
Here empno is called determinant.
Candidate keys
A candidate key is an attribute, or combination of attributes, that
uniquely identifies a row in a relation.
Ex: consider the following relation
EMPLOYEE (empno,ename,sal,design,DOJ,Dno)
Here Empno, depno is called a candidate key which is a determinant
25
Types of Normalization or Normal forms

Normalization: It is the process of eliminating the excess data in a database. That
means the repeated data is eliminated in this process. It is also defined as the
process of grouping data in standard form. Normalization is the process by which
the tables in all the repeated fields are eliminated and grouped the table in standard
single table. Normalization process includes creating tables and establishing
relationships between these tables according to rules designed both to protect the
data and to make the table more flexible by eliminating redundancy and
inconsistency dependency.
There are few rules for database Normalization. Each rule is called Normal
form.
Types of normal forms
Normal forms are of 6 types.
1) First Normal Form
2) Second Normal Form
3) Third Normal Form
1) First Normal Form: A relation which contains no multivalued attributes i.e. In

a relation the value at the intersection of each row and column must be atomic
(or) removing a multivalued attributes.
Ex: WORKER
WORKER_ID NAME SKILL TYPE SUPV_ID BLDG_ID
1235 M.Faraday Electric 1311 {312,515}
1412 C.Nemo Plumbing 1311 {312,460,435,513}
1311 C.Coulomb Electric 1311 435
Above example is not in 1st Normal From. Because, BLDD_ID can have multiple
values: So,
Worker_ID NAME SKILL_TYPE SUPV_ID BLDG_ID

1235 M.Faraday Electric 1311 312
1235 M.Faraday Electric 1311 515
1412 C.Nemo Plumbing 312
26

1311 C.Coulomb Electric 435
st
Above table is in 1 Normal Form because there is not multivalued attributes.
2) Second Normal Form: A relation is in second normal form if it is in first

normal form and every non-key attributes is fully functionally dependent on
the primary key. A relation that is in first normal form will be in second normal
form if following condition applies:
i. The primary key should consists only on attribute
ii. Every non-key attribute is functionally dependents on the full set of
primary key attribute.
Emp_ID Course_Title Name Dept_Name Salary Date_Com
Above table/relation is not in second normal form. In this table Emp_ID,

Course_title are both attributes form a Primary Key. (i.e. composite key).
Therefore the non key attributes Name, Dept_Name, and salaries are functionally
dependent of n part of the primary key i.e emp_id but not on course_Title. So to
convert a relation to second Normal form. We decompose the relation into new
relations that satisfy. EMPLOYEE is decomposed in to following two relations.
i. EMPLOYEE (EMP_ID, Name, Dept_Name, Salary) This satisfies 1 st
condition.
ii. EMP_COURSE (Emp_ID, Course_Title, Date_Completed) This relation
satisfies 2nd condition.
3) Third Normal Form: (Transitive Property)

Every determinant is key. A relation is in 3NF if for every functional
dependency Fd: x y is a key.
If a relation is 3NF, then it is also 2NF and in 1NF.
Ex: WORKER (WORKER, ID, SKILL_TYPE, BONUS_RATE)
27
WORKER
WORKER
Worker_ID Skill_Type Bonus_Rate
100 Electric 3.50
101 Plumbing 3.00
102 Electric 3.50
In the above table functional dependencies are

FD: Worker_ID SKILL_Type 1
FD: Worker_ID Bonus_Rate 2
By observing the above f.D’s 1 and 2

SKILL_TYPE determines Bonus_rate
i.e. Skill_type Bonus_Rate 3
1 and 2 are F.D’s but 3 is not FD became Skill_type is not a Primary Key.
So to convert the above table in 3NF, decompose the relation in to
i) WORKER1 (Worker_id, Skill_Type)
ii) WORKER2 (Skill_Type, Bonus_Rate)
Here Skill_Type is WORKER1 relation is a foreign key and Skill_Type in
WORKER2 is a Primary Key.
4) Boyce-code (BCNE): A relation in which every determinant is a candidate

key. When a relation has more than one candidate key.
Ex: Student_Advisor (SID,Major,Advisor,Maj_GPA)
FD: (SID,Major) Advisor,Maj_GPA (1)
FD: (Advisor) Major (2)
i.e Major is functionally dependent on Advisor above example is in 3NF. But
not in BCNF. Convert into BCNF
FD: Sid, Advisor Major,Maj_GPA
FD: Advisor Major
The determinant advisor becomes part of the composite Primary Key. The
attribute major, which is functionally dependent on Advisor, becomes a non-
key attribute.
In above relation is decompose the relation to eliminate the partial
functional dependency. To eliminate_partial functional dependency.
STUDENT_ADVISOR1 (SID, ADVISOR, MAJ_GPA)
28
STUDENT_ADVISOR2 (Advisor, Major).
Relational Algebra and calculus
Two language used with relational database are Relational Algebra and
Relation calculus.
Relation Algebra: A procedural language for manipulating relations.
Procedural language that provides a step by step method for solving problems.
Relational Algebra is also important because it contributes much of the
vocabulary and many of the basic relational data manipulation concepts that
are commonly found in database languages.
Relation Algebra operations manipulations relations. These operations use one
or two existing relations to create a new relation. This new relation may then
be used as input to a new relation. The creation of new relations from old ones
makes possible an infinite variety of data manipulations Relational Algebra
consists of the following Nine operations:
1) UNION
2) INTERSECTION
3) DIFFERENCE
4) PRODUCT
5) SELECT
6) PROJECT
7) JOIN
8) DIVIDE
9) ASSIGNMENT
The first four operations are taken from mathematical set theory.
Next four operations that apply specifically the relational data model.
The last operation_assignment is the standard computer language operation of
giving a name to a value. Symbol “=” is used to assign value to a variable.
1) UNION (U) OPERATION

This operation allows to combine the data from relations. The result of
this operation denoted by WUM, where W & M are two relations, is a relation
that included all tuples that are either in W or on M or in both W and M.
duplicate tuples are eliminated.
Let consider SP_SUBORD and SP_Mar are two tables
SP_SUBORD
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Salpers_id Sales Name Manager_id Office Com %

10 Jones 27 Chicago 10
14 Masaji Mastu 44 Tokyo 11
23 Francois 35 Brussels 9
37 A 12 B.A 13
39 B 44 Tokyo 10
44 C 27 Tokyo 12
35 D 27 Brussels 11
12 E 27 B.A 10
SP_Mar
Sal Per Id Sal Per_Name Manager_Id Office Com %
27 Terry 27 Chicago 15
44 C 27 Tokyo 12
35 D 27 Brussels 11
12 E 27 B.A 10
Salesperson= SP_SUBORD U SP_SUBORD
The salesperson relation contains all salesperson details. In this relation
columns will be same.
Result of UNION operation is…..
SALESPERSON
SalPers_Id Sales_Name Manager_id Office Com %

10 Jones 27 Chicago 10
14 Masaji Mastu 44 Tokyo 11
23 Francois 35 Brussels 9
37 A 12 B.A 13
39 B 44 Tokyo 10
44 D 27 Tokyo 12
35 C 27 Brussels 11
12 E 27 B.A 10
2) INTERSECTION OPERATION (n)
30
This operation allows us to identify the rows that are common and two
relations. Let us take above tables SP_SUBD & SP_Mar. Intersection of these
two tables results in below table.
SP.SUBORD_Mar= SP_SUBORD n SP_MaR
SP_SUBORD_MAR
Salpers_id Salper_Name Manager_id Office Com %
44 C 27 Tokyo 12
35 D 27 Brussels 11
12 E 27 B.A 10
3) DIFFERENCE OPERATION
The difference operation (indicated by minus signs) allows us to
identify rows that are in one relation and in another. Suppose we are interested
in identifying the manager who is not subordinate to any other manager. Then
we take the difference between SP_MAR and SP_SUBORD.
SP_MAR_MAR: = (SP_MAR) _ (SP_SUBORD)
i.e. SP_MAR_MAR relation consists of all rows that in SP_MAR which are
not in SP_SUBORD. .ie.
SP_MAR_MAR
Saleper_Id Salpers_Name Manager_Id Ofice Com %
4) PRODUCT
Its symbols is ‘*’. This operation creates the Cartesian product of two
relations.
Ex:
A B
X Y V Z
10 22 33 54
11 25 37 98
42 100
The product of A and B results C.
C: =A * B
X V W Z
10 22 33 54
10 22 37 98
31
10 22 42 100
11 25 33 54
11 25 37 98
11 25 42 100
i.e A has 2 Rows

2 Columns
B has 3 Rows
2 Columns
C = A * B has 4 Columns
6 Rows i.e. 2 *3=6
5) SELECT OPERATION
The operation is used to create a relation from another relation by
selecting only those rows from the original relation that satisfied condition.
i.e. to retrieve selected rows from the table.
Query: Give all information or sales person who is in Tokyo office.
SP_Tokyo = SELECT (SALESPERSON: OFFICE = ‘TOKYO’)
City = ‘Tokyo’ (OFFICE)
SP_TOKYO
Salpers_id Salpers_name Manager_id Office Com %

14 Masaj 44 Tokyo 11
39 B 44 Tokyo 10
44 C 22 Tokyo 12
In select operation we can use comparison operation.

i.e. >,< >=, <=
6) PROJECT
This operation creates a relation by deleting unwanted columns from a
existing relation. Here SELECT operation required rows will be given,
PROJECT operation takes required columns will be given. (π) is the symbol
used for .
Ex: SP_Tokyo (SALPARS_NAME) Project
SALPERS_NAME
Masuj
Goro
Albert
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7) JOIN
The operation joins together two tables on the basis of common values
in a column. The join operating is denoted by ><, is used to combine related
tuples from two relations in to single tuples. This operation allows to process
relationships among relations. Join connects relations on columns containing
comparable containing comparable information. There are 3 types of join.
i) Natural Join
ii) Theta Join
iii) Outer Join
8) DIVIDE
This operation creates a new relation by selecting the rows in one
relation that match every row in another relation.
Ex: A (X1, X2, X3…..Xm, Y1, Y2, Y3….. Yn)
B (Y1, Y2, Y3…...Yn)
9) ASSIGNMENT
Assignment operation gives names to a relation.
Ex: A: =SELECT (SALESPERSON: OFFICE = ‘TOKYO)
“:=” is a symbol for ASSIGNMENT.
Unit-3
Data manipulation in data base
Introductions:
33
All organizations need to collect process and store data for its human,
financial, material needs.
For example:- an organization could store information for pay role, accounts receivable
and payable, sales receivable and forecast or design and manufacturing.
Table or entity: - to represent this information one can use DBMS modeling. In a DBMS
a group of interest to an organization is called an entity. Entity information is stored in an
object called table. For example: - client is considered as an entity. Information about the
client entity can be stored in a client master table. A table is really a two dimensional
matrix that consists of rows and columns.
Attributes/columns/fields: - each entity can have a number of characteristics. A client
can have characteristics like name, address, telephone number, fax number, balance due
etc., the characteristics of an entity are called an attribute. The values for this
characteristics are called attribute values. When entity information is stored in a table, the
attributes associated with the entity are stored in the table columns or table fields.
Example: - clients (name, address, telephone no., fax no., balance due)
Here entity : clients
Attribute: Name,
Tuple/record/row: -An organization will deal with many clients and the same
information must be recorded for each clients. Multiple fields paced in a horizontal plane
is called a record/ row / tuple.
NAME ADDRESS TELEPHONE FAX NO., BALANCE
DUE
A HYD 2345 333 1000
B SEC 4565 323 100
Data types: - SQL provides predefined data types and user defined data types in the
relational data types in the relational data base model. There are five data types.
1) CHAR (size): - this data type is used to store character strings values of fixed
length. The size in brackets determines the no., of characters the cell can hold.
The maximum number of characters in this data type can hold is 255 characters.
Oracle compares CHAR values using blank padded comparison, semantic i.e., if a
value that is inserted in a cell of CHAR data type is shorter then the size it is
defined for then it will be padded with spaces on the right until it reaches the size
character in length.
2) VARCHAR (size):- this data type is used to store variable length alpha numeric
data. The maximum data type can hold 2000 characters. One difference between
this data type and the CHAR data type is oracle compares VARCHAR values
using non-padded comparison semantics i.e., the inserted values will not be
padded with spaces.
34
3) NUMBER (p, s):- the number data type is used to store number (fixed, floating).
The numbers may be stored upto 38 digits of precision. The precision “P”
determines the maximum length of the data, where as the scale “S” determines the
number of places t the right of the decimal. If scale is omitted then the default is
zero.
4) Date: - this data type is used to represent data and time. The standard format is
DD-MM-YY.
5) Long: - this data type is used to store variable length character string screen
containing upto 2GB. Long data can be used to store arrays f binary data in ASCII
format.
Rules of SQL syntax:-

1. An SQL statement starts with a verb. This verb may have additional nouns and
adjectives.
2. Each verb is followed by a number of clauses.
3. Each clause has 1 or more parameters.
4. A space separates clauses with in an SQL statement.
5. A comma separates parameters with in clauses.
6. A semi colon is used to terminate the SQL statement.
Ex: - create table employee (employee no., emp……);

Here verb=create, noun/clause=table employee, parameter=employee no., emp…
Creation of a table: - CREATE COMMAND
Table are defined in three steps
1. The name of the table is given.
2. Each column is defined including column constrains.
3. Table constrains are defined.
Syntax: - create table <table name > (column name 1 data type (size), column name 2
data type (size), columnname3 data type (size));
Ex:-employee (emp no, emp name, adder, salary, dept)
To create table first set data types for each field.
Column name Data type Size
Emp no., Varchar 6
Emp name Varchar 20
adder Varchar 30
Salary Number 10,2
dept Varchar 10
35
Creation of a Table: -
Sql>create table employee (emp no varchar (6), empname varchar (20), addr varchar
(30), salary number(10, 2), dept varchar (10));
Insertion of data into tables:- INSERT COMMAND
Once a table is created, the next step is to load the table with data.
When inserting row of data into the table, the insert operation.
I. Creating a new row in the database table
II. Load the values passed into all the columns specified
Syntax: - insert into <table name> (column1, column2...) Values (exp1, exp2...);
Ex:- sql>insert into employee (emp no, emp name, addr, salary, dept) values (102,
‘pavani’, ‘hyd’, 12000, ‘accounts’);
(Or)
Sql>Insert into employee values (&emp no,’&emp name’,’&addr’, &salary, ‘&dept’);
In insert command sentence the columns and values have a one to one relationship i.e.,
the first value described into the first column, the second value describe into the second
column and so on.
Renaming a table: - RENAME COMMAND

Syntax; - Rename<old table name> to <new table name>
Example: - sql>Rename employee to employee details
Destroying /deleting a table:- Drop Command

To destroy a table syntax is
Syntax; - DROP <Table name>
Example: - sql>DROP Employee;
Column details of a table creating:- DESCRIBE COMMAND
This command displays the column names, the data type and the special attributes
connected to the table.
Syntax: - Describe <table name>

Example: - sql> Describe employee;
Data Manipulation:-
Simple query:-
A query involving only one data base table.
Viewing the data in the tables:-
Once data as been inserted into a table. The next most logical operation would be
view what has been interred. The select command is used.
SYNTAX:-
SELECT * from <table name >;
SELECT * from <table name> where <condition>;
36
Select Clauses:-
Identifies the columns desired in query. If the desired result contains more than
one column, the columns are all listed in the SELECT clause all separated by commas.
When data from all rows & columns from the table are to be viewed, we are
(*) char risk.
From clause:-from clause lists the existing tables referenced by the query.
Where clause:-It gives the condition for selected rows from identified tables. Where
clause is applied to each row, one by one any row not satisfying the where clause is
eliminated from consideration. These rows that satisfy the where clause are then
processed by the select clause.
Select command examples;-
Selecting all rows from a table.
Sql>Select * from Employee;
Selecting columns from a table.
Sql> Select Empno, Empname from Employee;
Sql> Select * from employee where DEPT = “Accountants”
Comparison Operators: - =,(not equals), <,>,<=,>=.

There are 6 comparison operator may be used to compare columns
with other columns.
SELECTING ROWS FROM TABLE USING COMPARISION OPERATORS.
1) Display ROWS FROM A TABLE WHOSE SALARY IS MORE THAN 10000.
Sql>SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SAL > 10000;
2) Display Rows from a table whose dept is commerce.
Sql>SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE DEPT = ‘COMMERCE’;
3) Display rows from a table where salary is less than 5000;
Sql>SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE sal < 5000;
Boolean Connections: - AND, OR, NOT.
These connections will be used to create compound conditions or to negate a
condition. Between can be used in a comparison of some value with two other first
smaller than the second. If the comparison value can be equal to either the smaller (or)
the larger (or) can be equal to any value in between.
Ex: -
1) Display rows from a table where salary between 1000 and 5000.
SELECT * from employee WHERE SALARY BETWEEN 1000 AND 5000;

2) Display rows from a table whose employees are in commerce dept or are in
computer department.
Sql> SELECT * from employee WHERE dept = ‘commerce’ or dept = ‘computer’;
Elimination of duplicates from the SELECT Statement:-
A table could hold duplicate rows. In such a case, to see only unique rows
use DISTINCT COMMAND
syntax : SELECT DISTINCT Column name1, Columnname2… from <table name>;
37
Ex: - sql>SELECT DISTINCT * from Employee;

Sorting Data in a Table:-
Oracle allows data form a table to be viewed on a sorted order. The
rows retrieved from the table will be sorted in either ascending or descending order
depending On the condition specified in the select sentence.
Syntax: - select * from <table name> ORDER BY column name1, column name2 (sort
order);
Query: -retrieve information of employee sorted on employee number field, in
descending order.
Sql>SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE ORDER BY Empno desc;
In case there is no mention of the sort order, the oracle engine sorts in
ascending order by default.
Wild Card Characters: - Special symbols that stand for unspecified strings of
characters.
SQL has two wild card characters.
1 ) %( percent)
2) _ (under score). The underscore stands for exactly one specified character, the
percent stands for zero (or) more unspecified character.
The “LIKE” operator is used to compare character variables when wild card characters
are used.
Query: - Find all the employees whose name begins with “A”.
Select * from Employee where Empname like’ A%’;
Data base Change Operations:-
SQL provides three data base change operations
INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE, to allow the addition of rows, the changing of values
in rows, and the deletion of rows, respectively, to or from a table.
INSERT: - Insert operation that causes rows to be added to a table,
Syntax: - INSERT into table name (column1, column2----------n)
VALUES (value1, value2----------value ‘n’);
OR
INSERT into table name values (&column1, &column2, ---------&column n);
Ex: -sql>Insert into Employee (Empno, Empname, Address, Phone no, ----)
VALUES (102, ‘NEELIMA’, ‘UPPAL’, ‘HYD’, 23456, ----);
UPDATE: - Operation that changes column values in rows. UPDATE Operations always
apply to all the rows that satisfy the WHERE clause in the UPDATE statement. TO
UUPDATE
*All the rows from a table
Or
*A select set of rows from a table.
UPDATING OF ALL ROWS:

Syntax: - update table name SET columnname1= Expression, column
name2=Expression2;
Ex:-Change Dept= sales where dept= sales1 of a employee table.
38
Sql>Update Employee SET DEPT= ‘sales’ where dept =’sales1’;

Built – in- Functions:
SQL provides fire statistical functions that examine a set if rows in a relation and
produce a single value. Functions are SUM, AVG, COUNT, MAX, and MIN.
Query:-What is the highest and lowest salary in employee table?
Sql> SELECT MAX (SALARY), MIN (SALARY) FROM EMP1;
The MAX and MIN functions operate on a single column in a relation. They
select the largest (or) the smallest value, respectively, to be found in that column.
COUNT (*):-Returns the number of rows in the table, including duplicates and those
with nulls.
Ex:- sql>SELECT COUNT (*) “TOTAL”FROM EMP;
*Emp1 is table name
SUM:-Returns sum of values of ‘n’
Ex:-sql>SELECT SUM (SALARY) ‘TOTAL AMOUNT’FROM Emp1;
OUTPUT:-TOTAL AMOUNT
What is the average salary paying for employees?
AVG:-sql>SELECT AVG (SALARY) “AVERAGE “FROM EMP1;
Returns average value of ‘n’ ignoring null values.
Multiple- Table Queries:-Some times data needed to solve the query from two tables.
This is accomplished through the relational calculus i.e., “Join”.
Ex:-1 Worker :-( worker ID, Name, Howdy-Rate, Skill type, SOPV-ID)
2 ASSIGNMENT (Worker ID, BLPG-ID, Start Data, NUM-Days)
In above example, there are two tables i.e. WORKER, ASSIGNMENT.

Now
1 QUERY:-What are the skill types of worker assigned to building 435?
This query is found in two in two tables WORKER and ASSIGNMENT. The
SQL solution requires the listing of both of these relations in the FROM clause.
Sql>SELECT SKILL_TYPE FROM WORKER, ASSIGNMENT WHERE WORKER.
WORKER ID = ASSIGNMENT. WORKER ID AND BLDG_ID=435;
2 QUERY:-Displays WORKER_ID, SUPV_ID, BLDG_ID from worker table and

ASSIGNMENT TABLE.
Sql>SELECT worker .WORKER_ID, SUPV_ID. WORKER_ID, ASSIGNEMNT,
BLDG_ID
FROM WORKER, ASSIGNMENT WHERE worker
.WORKER_ID=ASSIGNEMT, WORKER_ID
In this case, they are two tables in the clause. So, system creates the
Cartesian products of the rows in the tables. This means that one huge table is logically
created, consisting of all the columns form both tables, and pairing up every row in one
table with every two in the other table in the clause.
In our example, since there are five columns in the worker table, and for
columns in ASSIGBEMNT there will be 9 columns in the new table, the total number of
rows in the new table is 133 rows i.e. 7x19=133.suppose. In worker table there are 7 rows
In ASSIGNEMNT table there are 19 rows If one table have “m” rows and
second table have ‘n’ rows, then after joining, new table will have mxn rows.
39
 After creating this gaintg table, the system applies the WHERE clause as before.
Each row of the relation created by the FROM clause is examined for conformity
to the WHERE clause. Those not satisfying the WHERE condition are eliminated
from consideration.
SUB QUERIES:
Sub query is a query with in a Query, can be placed with in the WHERE
clause of a Query, resulting in the expansion of the WHERE clauses capability.
Query:-What are the skill types of worker assigned to building 435?
Sql> SELECT SKILL TYPE FROM WORKER WHERE WORKER_ID IN
(Select worker ID FROM Assignment where BLDCT_ID=435);
2 Example:--
Retrieve all orders placed by a client named ‘Rahul Desai’ from the sales order table
Table Name: - Sales order :( Order no, client no, Order date)
Sales order:
ORDERNO CLIENT NO ORDER DATE
019001 C00006 12-04-97
019002 C00002 25-12-97
019003 C00007 03-10-97
019004 C00005 18-01-97
019005 C00002 20-08-97
019006 C00007 12-01-97
Table: Client-master
Client no Name Bal/due
40
C00001 Ashok Mehra 500

C00002 Vishal Parikh 1000
C00003 Ajay Mehta 0
C00004 Rohith Roy 0
C00005 Nalini Deewan 0
C00006 Prem Iyer 0
C00007 Rahul Desai 0
Sql>SELECT * from sales-order WHERE client no= (Select client no from client master
WHERE name= “rahul desai”,
RESULT/OUTPUT:-
ORDER NO CLIENT NO ORDER DATE
019003 C00007 03-08-97
019006 C00007 12-01-97
Primary key:--
A primary key is one (or) more columns in a table used to uniquely identify
each row. A primary key coloum in a table as special attributes
1) It defines the columns as “mandatory column” i.e., the column cannot be left blank
2) The data across the column must be unique
A single column primary key is called a simple key a multi column primary
key is called a composite primary key. The only function of a primary key in a table used
to uniquely identified row. Only when a record cannot be uniquely identified using the
value in a single column a composite primary key will be defined.
Syntax:-Column name data type (size) PRIMARY KEY;
Sql>CREATE TABLE sales _order (order no varchar (6) PRIMARY KEY, orderdate
date, clientno varchar (10), salesman _no varchar (10));
Creation of Primary key as Composite key in the Table.
Syntax:-PRIMARY KEY (column name1, column name2)
Ex:-Create a table sales order details where there is a composite primary key on the
column order, product no
sql>Create table sales _ order(Orderno varchar (6), productno varchar(6), qty. ordered
number (8), product _rate number (8, 2), PRIMARY KEY (order no, product no));
Foreign Key:-
Foreign key represents relationship between foreign key is a column whose
values are derived from the primary key of some other table. The table in which the
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foreign key is defined ids called a foreign table (or) detail table. The table that defines the
primary key and is referenced by the foreign key is called the primary table (or) master
table.
Syntax:-Column name data type (size) PRFERE NCES table name [(column table)]
Ex:-sql>Create table sales order (order No varchar (6) PRFERENCES sales order,
Product no varchar (6), Product rate number (6), Primary KEY (order no, product no));
The references key word points to the table sales order as the column order no as
its primary key column. Since no column is specified in the foreign key definition. Oracle
applies and automatic link to the primary key column i.e., order no of the table sales
order.
Grouping data from Tables:
There are the Group By and having clauses to retrieve data from tables. These
are parallel to the order by and where clause, expect that they act a record sets and not an
individual records.
GROUP BY CLAUSE:
The group by clause is another section of the select statement, this optional clause
tells to group rows based a values for specified columns.
Syntax:- select<select list> from<table name> Where <condition> Group by <grouping
list>
Ex:-retrieve the product number & total quality ordered for each product from the sales
order tables
Table: Sales Order

Order No Product No Qty Ordered Qty
019001 P0001 10 10
019001 P0004 3 3
019001 P0006 7 7
019002 P0002 4 4
019002 P0005 10 10
019003 P0003 2 2
019004 P0001 6 6
019005 P0006 4 4
019005 P0004 1 1
019006 P0006 8 8
Sql>Select product no, sum (qty order) “Total quality” from sales Order group by
product no;
Output:-
ProductNo Total Quality
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P0001 16
P0002 4
P0003 2
P0004 4
P0005 10
P0006 19
Having Clauses:-
The having clauses can be used with group by clause. Having on the
group by clause, which further filter the groups created by the group by clause.
Ex:-Retrieve the product no and total availability ordered for products ‘p0001’, ‘p0004’
from the sales-order table.
Sql>Select product-No, sum sales-(Qty-order) “Total quantity “ from sales-order group
by product-no having productno = ‘p0001’ or productno = ‘p0004’,
Product No Total Quantity
P0001 16
P0002 4
Views:
To reduces redundant data to the minimum possible, oracle allows the create of
an object called a view.
The reasons for creating view sale:
1) When data security is required.
2) When data redundancy is to be kept to the minimum while maintaining data
security.
Creation of Views:-
CREATE VIEW<view name >AS
Select <colname1, colname2, -----from <table name>
Where column name=expression list;
Ex:-create a view the sales man _master for the sales department.
Sql>CREATE VIEW AS SELECT * from Salesdepartment;
Views can also be used for data manipulation (i.e. the user can perform the insert,
update and delete operations).
Selecting a data set from a view:-

Once a view has been created, it can be queried exactly like a base table.
Ex:-SELECT column name1, columnname3, from view name;
Developing Client Applications:
An application development environment, power builder, is a
slow used to build client side applications that can interface over networks with database
systems. Power builder is a graphical application development environment which runs in
43
windows. It can be used to create application programs that interface with a large no.
different DBMS.
To create a application programs power builder provide a
number of painters, which are interactive sub programs that accomplish specific types of
functions needed for full application development. The process of developing
applications in power
Builder as Follows:
1) First, a database must be defined. This involves giving the database name,
defining tables with their columns, data types, keys, foreign keys.
2) After the database has been defined, we can start developing applications this is
done using power builder’s painters.
To develop each application we must perform three major steps.

1) Define the application. This is done with application painter.
2) Define the applications windows. This done with the window painter.
3) The application will act a data in the database. Therefore we must identify the
data needed for input, the data to changed, and the data which will be output.
This data identification is done through data windows, which are

defined in the data window painter.
Using Power Builder:
The main screen of the power builder application development
environment is shown in figure below. This screen contains a title balance at the top,
with a number on the next line, and the “Power Bar” on the line. The Power Bar shows
the icons for the most of the various painters which constitute the functional capabilities
of power builder.
The Button in the Power Bar Represent:
1) Application: This is the application painter. We use if to define the general
aspects of an application, such as the applications name and the opening and
closing programs (or “scripts”), which indicate what processing should take
place when the application is started and ends.
2) Window: This painter is used to construct windows for applications.
3) Menu: This painter is used to construct menus for windows.
4) Data Window: This painter constructs data window objects which are used to
access the database and place the results in windows. The window painter will
be used to indicate which data window objects are to be used in which windows.
5) Structure: This painter is used to define data structures to be used in scripts
(Power Builder Programs). Structures can be thought of as records (or) groups
of fields constructed so may be referred to as a group.
6) Preferences: To quote Power Builder helps “In preferences you can set
preferences variables for all Power Builder” (or) for a number of the painters.
7) Help: The help button is used to obtain explanations information about Power
Builder features.
8) Data base: This painter is used to define database.
9) Query: This painter is used to develop SQL queries.
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10) Function: This painter is used to develop user-defined functions which can be
used in Power Builder scripts.
11) Library: Library controls the management of applications, windows, and other
objects created using Power Builder.
12) User Object: This painter is used to create user objects-customized “controls”
(buttons, lists, and so on) that can be placed in windows.
13) Run: Pressing this button causes the current application to run.
14) Debug: The debug facility provides means of debugging applications.
The system developer enters the desired painter by clicking on the

appropriate button. As the system enters the painter another bar of buttons, the “painter
Bar”, is displayed.
SERVER DATA MANIPULATION AND PROGRAMING:

SQL: - Server and oracle both provide control structures allowing for batch- style
programs in which sets (or) batches of statements executed with out interruption. These
control structures are part of SQL services control –of –flow and oracles PL/SQL
languages.
Control-of-flow (or) PL/SQL:
1) BEGIN----------END statements, which define blocks of SQL. Statements to be
treated as units for execution.
2) If ----------ELSE Statements for condition execution.
3) WHILE Statements for repeated orientation execution.
4) BREAK and CONTINUE Statements for early exit from WHILE loops.
5) DECLARE Statements allowing defining of local variables.
6) RETURN Statements
7) PRINT Statement provide for messages to be sent to the user.
8) Comments which allow internal documentation to be included with programs.
1. BEGIN------------END:-Condition (IF) and interactive (WHILE) Statements control

the execution of a single statement (or) a block of statements.
BEGIN
SQL Statement
-----------------
SQL Statement
END
A Statement block is either a single SQL Statement without delimiters (or) set of
two (or) more SQL Statements is limited by BEGIN-----------END.
2. IF-----ELSE:
Syntax: If<Conditional EXP>
<Statement block>
ELSE
<Statement block>
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If can be used to determine conditions relative to the relation as a whole before

applying updater to the relation as a whole.
3. WHILE Statement:-A Statement which uses a condition to control the iterative
execution of a Statement block
Syntax:- WHILE <Conditional EXP>
<Statement block>
This statement causes the statement block to be repeatedly executed, as long as
the conditional evaluated to true.
Example:- WHILE( A> 0 )
BEGIN
STATEMENT1
STATEMENT2
END
4. BREAK AND CONTINUE: A KEYWORDwhich causes execution control to exit

from an iterative while loop. CONTINUE – A KEYWORD which causes execution
control to return to the first statement in a WHILE LOOP.
STORED PROCEDURES:Stored Procedures SQL programs that are compiled the first
time they executed and then stored for later use. They provide a no. of advantages over
programs.
1) Procedures that have already compiled execute very fast.
2) They can receive and return parameter variables used to pass data into and out of
stored procedures.
Syntax:-CREATE PROCEDURE<Procedure name>AS

SELECT * FROM <Table name>
The key word “AS” signals the end of the parameter definitions and the
beginning of the procedure definition. Every thing after “AS” constitutes the executable
parts of the procedure.
UNIT-IV
46
Physical database system
Physical access of the database:-
User Request Strategy selection Translated request Buffer Manag
File manager Main Memory
Data dictionary
Disk storage
User data
1. The user interacting with the database system by initiating a request

2. Strategy selector translates the users command or request into its efficient from
for its execution.
3. The translated request then activates the buffer manager that controls the
movement of data between main memory and disk storage
4. File manager supports the buffer manager by managing the allocation of storage
location on disk.
5. In disk storage, data dictionary, user data are stored.
The user data are stored in the form of records.
Physical storage:-
1) MAIN MEMORY 2) SECONDARY STORAGE
1) Main Memory:-It is a storage medium used for data that are available for user
operations. This is where the executing program resides. As data are required for the
program to execute its function, those data are transmitted from secondary storage to
47
main memory. In memory, storing the database is very difficult. So to store entire
storage secondary is required.
2) Secondary storage: - Secondary storage for storing database is in disk storage (hard
disk) and magnetic tapes. The entire database is stored in hard disk, when ever
required it sends to memory. The physically unit in which the disk drive contains one
disk pack or volume.
 Disk pack is made up of a set of recording surface mounted on a shaft. Data

are recorded on tracks, which are circular recording positions found on each
surface. There may be hundred tracks on a single surface.
 To read the data and save the data on each track of the surface, a set of
read/write heads, positioned on each surface of the disk. Set of such tracks is
called cylinder. The address of each record requires a cylinder no. A surface
number and block no.
Disk Performance factors
There are four factors that directly affect the speed with which data are transferred to
from disk storage.
1) Access motion time.
2) Head activation time.
3) Rotational delay
4) Data transfer rate.
1) Access Motion Time :-( A):- it is the time required to move the read/write heads
from their current position to new address. Where required data is stored.
2) Head activation time: - it is the time required to activate the head over the surface
where data transfer is to take place. This is used in performance calculations.
3) Rotational delay :-( R):- this is third timing factor. It denotes the amount of time
required for the desired block to rotate to the head. Rotational delay depends
upon two factors.
A) How fat the disk is rotating and
B) The location of the block to the read/write head at the time of its
activation.
4) Data transfer rate :-( D):- it refers to the amount of time requires to transfer data
from the disk to primary memory.
Data transfer time :-( T):- the expected time (T) to access a disk adder and transfer
a block of data is estimated as
T=A+R/2+L/D
A is the access motion time
R I the rotational delay
L is the length of the block in bytes
D is the data transfer data.
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File oriented system (or) file organization:-

The way of storing data (or) rewards in a file is called file organization. There are
four types of file organization. They are:-
1. Serial file organization:-
Here, the records are stored one after and accessed in the same manner. In order
to get a particular record all the previous records must be read to access the required records.
There is no logical order in this method of file organization.
 It is simple and easy to understand
 It is the cost effective method
 It needs only one key record to locate
 There is full utilization of storage space
 This method is very slow as the entire file must be processed.
 To reach the 12th number record, we should surpass first three records.
 In this method updation i.e., addition (or) deletion of records is not a simple task.
2. Sequential file organization:-
Here, records are kept either in ascending (or) descending order. Here, if we
want a particular record, we have to read on the record before acquiring (or) reaching the
desired record. Ordering can be done on the basis of one key field.
Example: - If we take the employee list in an office, the ordering can be done in the ascending
order of employer number. The records in this file are stored on a magnetic tape.
 Working with sequential file is simple.
 Records can be accessed easily on the basis of key field.
 Cost is minimized as only transactions file are restored.
 Making changes in the existing records is some what difficult job.
 For addition or deletion of records, everytime file should be sorted.
3. Index sequential file organization:-
This file organization ennables the user to access file randomly. The index
table is created on the disk. This index table file organization stores each records key field and
the address of the disk of that record.
Example: -
Key field H.T.No Name Subject
49
20 101 A RDBMS
30 102 B ACCOUNT
15 103 C BFS
 Read sequential from beinging, until you find your record.

 Look at the index, find the address and go directly to that record. Just like a books index,
which has different topics and their corresponding page number.
 Immediate access to records is possible.
 Several files can be updated simultaneously.
 Addition and deletion of records are more complex as they effect both the index and file
tables.
 Data security is less.
4. Random file organization:-
In this file organization user can access any record in the file. In this approach
computer can directly locate the record without searching or reading the previous records. In
this organization record is given a particular number which is called as key number to reach
directly for a particular record. This key number is calculated using a hash technique.
 Immediate updating of various files is possible in lesser time.
 Addition and deletion of records is very simple.
 This file can be opened on the devices like magnetic disk.
Hash function: -
The use of hashing is a method of record addressing that eliminates the need for
maintaining and searching indexes. There are important application whose predominant need is for
direct access of records, whose services could be encumbered by the use of indexing methods. The
basic idea is that of trading the time and effort associated with storing, maintaining, and searching
an index for the time required for the central processing unit (CPU) to execute a hashing algorithm,
which generates the record address. The hashing algorithm is a procedure for calculating a record
address from some field in the record, usually the key.
Dynamic hash functions: -

The static hash function is fairly simple. As the database grows, however, the static
hash function loses its appeal. A growing number of collisions is assured, resulting in increased
overhead to access records. One strategy for dealing with this problem is to allocate estimated
space for future requirements at the outset; but this wastes storage space. Another scheme is to
allocate additional storage and reorganize the file as it grows.
A better approach is provided by the dynamic hash function. In particular, the
method we demonstrate here is called extendable hashing. Extendable hashing splits and combines
blocks as the database grows or shrinks. This ensures efficient space utilization. Moreover, since
reorganization involves only one block at a time, the associated overhead is minimal.
50
Extendable hashing uses a hash function, h, that has the useful characteristics of
randomness and uniformity. It also (typically) uses a 32-bit binary string in order to create and
identify block indexes.
Secondary key access: -

The work key rather freely to mean a data item whose value uniquely identifies a
record. This definition define a primary key. A secondary key is one that identifies a set of records
having the same value for the secondary key. Secondary keys play an important role in supporting
the information requirements of DBMS users.
Secondary key access is accomplished by establishing indexes that traverse desired
paths through the physical data records.
Example: - Query: Identify names of customer having 48-months loans. Figure below is a sample
instance, which shows how this information would be provided through the use of linked lists. The
primary key is CUSTOMER-NAME, and the secondary key is LOAN-PERIOD. There are three
financing periods for loans: 24 months, 36 months and 48 months. Thus, the sets of records
associated with each of the three financing periods. Three pointers are thus required to identify the
beginning record in each set. These pointers are stored separately from the data records
themselves.
RELATIVE CUSTOMER LOAN-TYPE LOAN-PERIOD LOAN-PERIOD

ADDRESS NAME POINTER
1 Nixon Auto 48 6
2 Patton Auto 36 4
3 Forties Boat 24 0
4 Wood Auto 36 5
5 Cayman Home 36 7
6 Vance Auto 48 8
7 Costas Home 36 0
8 Ubu Auto 48 0
51
Database Administration and Control:
Introduction: - database Administration is basically concerned with ensuring that

accurate and consistent information is available to users and applications when
needed and in the form required. So, Database Administration interacts with both the
system and users.
Responsibilities
Data Administrator Database Administrator

(DA) (DBA)
Data Administrator: - manager whose responsibilities are focused on establishing

policies and procedures for the organization information system
Database Administrator: - manager whose responsibilities are focused on

management of the technical aspects of the database system
The main functions of DBA are:-

 Communicating with database users.
52
 Planning, designing and implementing database systems

 Establishing standards and procedures.
1) Communicating with database users:-

 First duty contralizing the database, because to eliminate local ownership of
data and to reduce redundancy
 To maintain this database, users should have knowledge about database
concepts. So DBA should give training in database technology. How it can
make them more effective and efficient at their jobs.
 So, DBA is responsible for educating users in the structure of the database and
technology used.
 Training sessions should be given to users.
2) Planning, designing and implementing database systems :-

 Planning for database design should be done by DBA with top management
cooperation
 Conceptual design, physical designs are also taken care by DBA only.
 For implementing the database certain skilled persons are to be required
3) Establishing standards and procedures:-

Effective database administration requires the establishment of uniform standards
and procedures
 Their main purpose is to maintain control of data security and data integrity.
 Standards are mainly applicable in controlling the development and use of
database programming and operations. These standards are required to test
data to evaluate how a program handles both correct and erroneous data.
 Procedures are created for error correction, check points and backup and
recovery.
DBA Goals:-
The main Goals of DBA are
1) Data Integrity: - The accuracy and consistency of data stored in the database
system.
2) Data Security: - Refers to protecting the database system from unauthorized use.
These two occurred in the case of concurrent processing.

Concurrent processing means when two or more transaction concurrently request
access to the same database record at about the same time.
Database Integrity:-
 Integrity control or constrains means restriction applied to a given set of data;
used to minimize data entry error.
 ER-Model have constraints that apply to
1) Individual attributes 2) Relationship between two tables
1) Integrity constraints on SQL
2) Transaction processing
53
3) Concurrency control
1) Integrity Constraints: - A constraint is a rule that restricts that the vales in a

database. Relational data model includes several constraints that are used to verify the
validity of data in a database a well as to add meaningful structure to the data.
Integrity constraints are of two types:-
1) Entity Integrity:- no key attribute of a row is null means value or data should
be given
2) Referential Integrity: - every foreign key must either be null (or) its value
must be the
actual value of a key in another relation.
2) Transaction control or processing: - transaction means a program unit whose

execution preserves the consistency (being in same result) of the database. If the
database is in consistent before a transaction executes then the database should
still be in a consistent state after its execution.
Atomic transaction:-a transaction in which all actions associated with the

transaction are executed to completion or none is performed.
Aborted transaction: - transaction that is canceled before changes are applied to

the database.
To support the transaction processing, a DBMS must maintain a transaction
record of every change made to the database, such record called a LOG.
LOG: - A record of all transactions and the corresponding changes to the

database.
 If any changes are occurred on database i.e., updation has done, then
record resulting updates on the LOG.
 If transaction fails, no need to write any thing on the LOG.
3) Concurrent control:-a common way of preventing the concurrency problem is
through a simple locking policy.
LOCK prevent access to a database record by a second transaction unit the first
transaction has completed all of it actions.
If two or more users are accessing the database at the same time and
transaction are interleaved, undesirable results may occur.
When first user, performing first transaction on particular record, he lock the
record until hi transaction completes, when a record until I locked by one user, no
other user may ace it for update.
Dead lock: - Two transactions are mutually excluded from the next record
required to complete their transaction; that status we called it as Deadlock.
Deadlock detection: - A periodic checks by the DBMS to determine if the waiting

line for some records or resource exceeds a predetermined limit.
54
Another method of deadlock detection is by graph called wait for graph. A

deadlock exists in the system if and only if the wait for graph contains a cycle.
Periodically invoke an algorithm that searches for a cycle in the graph.
1) Transaction T9 is waiting for transaction T10 and T11.
2) Transaction T11 I waiting for transaction T10.
3) Transaction T10 I waiting for transaction T12.
Wait for graph with a cycle
T10
T9 T12
T11
Database security
Database security is generally easier to cope with an malicious
access to the database, which includes the following
55
1) Theft of information
2) Unauthorized modification of data.
3) Unauthorized destruction of data.
So 3 ways have a database security.
1) Authentication 2) Authorization and views 3) Encryption
1) Authentication:-
a) First level of authentication is giving identity to the user by
 Something the user knows, such as password
 Something the user processes such as ID card
 Physical representation of the user, such a finger print or voice print.
b) A password scheme limits unauthorized system access by creating a password
that is difficult to guess but still easy for the user to remember.
c) A passwords will be different for different user and different systems. So to
maintain all the passwords, it is advisable to appoint a password supervisor to
ensure that password parameters are satisfied. All the list of passwords will be
maintained by him. If any employee terminates or transfer to other functional area,
all the passwords will be changed by the supervisor.
d) For creating passwords one scheme can be used is a question and answer session
with user.
e) If the user unable to supply a valid password with in a set time or no; of trials, the
should automatically logoff users.
f) Unauthorized system access can be further controlled by allowing read only
functions.
Authorization and views:-

 Creation of views
 Giving authorized to access those views.
Views: - A restricted subset of a stored relation.
Types of Authorization on views:-

1) Read authorization, which allows reading but not modification of data.
2) Insert authorization, which allows insertion of new data, but not modification of
existing data.
3) Update authorization, which allows modifications, but not deletion of data.
4) Delete authorization, which allows deletion of data.
To give this authorization to the users SQL have2 commands called GRANT and
REVOKE>
GRANT statement is used to give authorization to the user.

Syntax: - GRANT <insert/alter/delete/select/update> on <view name> to user list>
Ex: - GRANT UPDATE on branch to U1, U2, U3.
In above example branch is the view name, U1, U2, U3 are the users name
REVOKE command is used to revoke authorization from the user.
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Syntax: -REVOKE <command> on <view/table> from <user list>

Ex: -REVOKE UPDATE ON BRANCH FROM U1, U2 and U3.
ENCRYPTION
The various authentication and authorization measures that are standard for
protecting access to databases may not be sufficient for highly sensitive data.
In such instance, it may be desirable to ENCRYPT the data.
ENCRYPT: - it means that to convert readable text to unreadable text by use of an
algorithm; this method is used to protect sensitive data.
Method of converting Encrypted data to Normal text we called it as Decipher or
Decryption
Plaintext: - Which is readable text.

Cipher text: -Encrypted text
Ex: - SUCCESS
Becomes
TVDDFTT
But technique we used is very easy. Any one can decipher it.
ENCRPTION has many techniques.
One method or scheme is called public key encryption. In this method, there are
two keys, a public key and a private key. Each user has a public key (Ei) and private
key (Pi). All the public keys are published. Each user’s private key is known only to
the user to whom the key belongs. If user wants to store encrypted data, he can
encrypts it using public key (Ei). Decryption requires the private key (Pi).
57
Database Recovery:-
Sources of failures: -
1) System errors: -the system has entered an undesirable state, such as deadlock,
which prevents the program from continuing with normal processing. This type of
failure may or may not result in corruption of data files.
2) Hardware failures: - two of the most common types of hardware failures are
disk failures and loss of transmission capability over a transmission link
3) Logical errors: - bad data or missing data are common conditions that may
interrupt the programs continuing with normal execution.
The information stored on computer media is subject to loss or corruption by a

wide range of events, it is important to provide means for restoring correct data to
the database. Restoring the database to the same state that existed at the time of
system failure is not always possible, but database recovery procedures can restore
the database to the state that existed shortly before the failure and identify the status
of transaction processing at the time of the failure.
One of the methods in database Recovery is using LOG details.

The LOG is a history of all the changes made to the database as well as the status of
each transaction. LOG information is stored on a mythical “stable storage” that
survives all failures.
A recovery strategy can be pursued by one of two approaches

1) Logging with deferred updates:-
In this technique, all data is stored in database. after committed
statement, then use redo ( ) operation. To perform commit statement again.
2) logging with Immediate database Modification: -
58
In this technique, all data is updated on database before commit

statement is performed. When crash occurs before commit statement, then Undo
operation is performed.
UNDO (Ti): - which restores the value of all data items updated by transaction (Ti)
to the old values.
REDO (Ti): - which sets the values of all data items updated by transaction (Ti) to
the new values.
These two operations are important in order to guarantee correct behaviour
even if a failure occurs during the recovery process.
59
UNIT-V
DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE SYSTEMS
NEED OF DISTRIBUTED DATABASES:-
A distributed database is not entirely stored in one central location but is
distributed among a network of location that are geographically separated and connected
by communication links. Each location has its own database and is also to access data
maintained at other locations.
1. Often organizations have branches or divisions in different locations.
2. Allowing each site to store and maintain its own database allows immediate and
efficient access to data that are used most frequently.
3. Distributed database can upgrade reliability. If one sites computer fails, or if a
communication link goes down, the rest of the network can possibly continue
functioning. Moreover, when data are replicated at two or more sites, required
data may still be available from a site which is still operable.
4. Allowing local control over the data used most frequently at a site can improve
user satisfaction with the database system.
5. The advantage of data replication is the speed gained in processing at sites
where the duplicate data are maintained, as well as providing backup copies of
data in case of a system failure another location.
Distributed database system design:-

The design of a distributed database system can be a complex task.
Strategies and objectives:-
Some of the strategies that are common to most implementations of
distributed database system are:
 Location transparency: - location transparency enables a user to access data
without knowing, or being concerned with, the site at which the data reside. The
location of the data is hidden from the user.
 Replication transparency: - replication transparency means that when more than

one copy of the data exists, one copy must be chosen when retrieving data, and
all copies must be updated when changes are made.
 Configuration independence: - configuration independence enables the

organization to add or replace hardware without changing the existing software
components of the DDBMS. Configuration independence results in a system that
is expandable when its current hardware is saturated.
60
 Nonhomogeneous DBMSs: - it is sometimes desirable to integrated database

maintained by different DBMSs on different computers. Often the DBMSs are
supplied by different vendors and may support different data models. One
approach to integrating these databases is to provide a single user interface that
can be used to access the data maintained by the nonhomogeneous DBMSs.
Data replication: - Data replication occurs if the system maintains several identical
copies of a relation, R, with each copy being stored at a different site. Typically
replication is introduced to increase the availability of the system: when a copy is
unavailable due to site failure(s), it should be possible to access another copy.
Replication can also improve performance under routine conditions, since transactions
have a greater probability of finding a copy locally.
The advantages of replication are:
1. If one of the stations containing relation R fails, the relation can be retrieved
from another site, and the system may continue any processing involving R. thus,
database availability is enhanced.
2. If most accesses to R only involve a read of the relation, then several sites can
process queries involving r concurrently. The more copies of R there are
throughout the network, the better the chance that a query can be executed
without requiring data transmission between stations. There is a corresponding
cost and time saving.
Database partitioning: - Efficiency may result from a strategy that implements a

partitioned database. With this approach, the database is distributed such that there is no
overlapping, or replication, of data maintained at the various locations. Since there is no
duplication of data, the costs associated with storing and maintaining redundant data are
avoided.
Because the distributed environment of the DDBMS allows the database to be
physically partitioned, data security may also be improved, particularly when the
partitioned segments have different security needs.
**Data fragmentation: - Data fragmentation applies to relation database systems. It refers
to ways in which relations can be subdivided and distributed among network sites. This is
an extension of the data-partitioning strategy, which is generally concerned with locating
entire relations (or files) from the database at various sites.
If a relation R is fragmented, it is divided into subsets (fragments) R1, R2,….,
Rn. The unions of these fragments reconstruct the original relation R. this fragmentation
can be horizontal, which assigns tuples to the various fragments; or it can be vertical,
where selected attributes are projected onto the various fragments.
Need of Fragmentation: - a database of airline reservations might be more effectively
used if database subsets are stored at the location of their respective flight origins.
Similarly, for a banking a
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banking database, it may be useful to store database subsets at the location of the branch
where the respective accounts are located.
If fragmentation is allowed, a given relation is not necessarily stored in it’s
entirely at any single site. Its subsets may be distributed among several sites for
performance considerations. Moreover, these subset may be replicated.
Types of fragmentation:
Horizontal fragmentation: - Horizontal fragmentation is the division of tuples of a given
relation into fragments. Usually fragments are disjoint and may be replicated. In this way
replication is managed at the fragmentation level and not at the level of individual tuples.
Vertical fragmentation: - Vertical fragmentation is the division of the set of attributes of
an object into possibly overlapping subsets. Fragments are obtained by projecting the
original relation over each set of attributes.
***Distributed Query Processing:-
Some database system support relational databases whose parts are
physically separated. Different relations might reside at different sites, multiple copies of
a single relation can be distributed among several sites, or one relation might be
partitioned into subrelations and these subrelations distributed. In order to evaluate a
query posed at a given site, it may be necessary to transfer data between various sites.
The key consideration here is that the time required to process such a query will
largely be comprised of the time spent transmitting data between sites rather than the time
spent on retrieval from secondary storage or computation.
Semijoins:-
Suppose the relations R and S shown in figure below are stored at sites 1 and 2,
respectively. If we wish to respond to a query at site 1 which requires the computation:
JOIN(R, S),
We could transmit all of S from site 2 to site 1 and compute the join at site 1. This would
involve the transmission of all 24 values of S.
Another way would be to compute
T=R [A2]
At site 1; then send T (6 values) to site 2, and compute
Site 1 Site 2
R S
A1 A2 A2 A3 A4
1 3 3 13 16
1 4 3 14 16
1 6 7 13 17
2 3 10 14 16
2 6 10 15 17
3 7 11 15 16
3 8 11 15 16
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3 9 12 15 16
Fig: R and S relations to be used in semijoin example

U=JOINT (T, S);
And finally send U (9 values) to site 1, we can then compute the desired
JOINT (R, S), as JOIN(R, U).
These steps and their results are shown in figure below. Note that with this approach we
have only transmitted 15 values to complete the query
1.T=PROJECT A2
(R:A2)=
3
4
6
7
8
9
2. U=JOIN (T,S)= A2 A3 A4
3 13 16
3 14 16
7 13 17
3.JOIN (R,U)= A1 A2 A3 A4
1 3 13 16
1 3 14 16
3 7 13 17
This example provides a basis for defining a semijion. The semijoin of R with S is
SEMIJION (R, S) =<A projection of those attributes of R that intersect those of S>,
which is simply that portion of R that joins with S.
Therefore, JOIN (R, S) =JOIN (R, (SEMIJOIN (R, S), S).
If R and S are at different sites, computing join (R, S) as shown previously saves
transmitting data whenever R and S do not join completely, as was demonstrated in
above figure.
Client/Server Systems:-
The term client/server (CS) is not new, since CS system involving multiple
computers connected in a network is a concept that has been around for some time.
63
Client: a computer or workstation attached to a network that is used to access network

resources.
Server: a computer that furnishes clients with services such as databases, connections to a
network, or large disk drives. Servers can be mainframes, minicomputers, large
workstations, or LAN devices. More than one server can be involved in providing
services to clients.
Figure below shows as CS system with two servers, a database server and a fax server.
Suppose that client A requires data contained in the database server. The user expresses
the data request in the form of a query (e.g., SQL) and transmits it to the database server.
The database server executes the query on its data from the database server, and the
database server may service several request in parallel.
Clients communicate with servers through an application program interface (API)
sometimes called middleware. That is, remote procedure calls and message exchanges are
handled by APIs. Effective APIs can facilitate the implementation of new applications by
accommodating different network protocols and operating systems. As CS technology
matures, API features will probably become part of operating systems.
Workstations
Client A Client
B
Fax server Database server
Client Client D
C
Database applications:-the most common client/server applications use a relational

database. The set of transactions involved are requests from user and responses from the
database system. The interaction is facilitated by software that enables the client to make
request of the server’s database. A widely used example is the language SQL.
DBMS SELECTION AND IMPLEMENTATION
 Analyzing Management Information Needs: - The management information
required by a firm providing a product that changes slowly in a stable market
may be somewhat different from the information required by a firm that is in a
volatile market, or that produces a variety of products subject to rapid
obsolescence.
The management information needs of the firm should influence the

choice of DBMS. Characteristics of management information needs that may affect the
choice of DBMS could include the following:
1. The potential need for information that may require data from more than one
application.
2. The number of applications where the relationships among data are well
established and subject to little change.
64
3. The current and expected volume of insertions and deletions pertaining to

existing and new data structures.
4. The way in which data need to be clarified for decision making.
 Determining Application Requirements:-Determining the information

requirements to be supported by a database system is a complex process that is
entail in guiding the selection of a DBMS. The analysis process can be simplified,
however, if you realize that user typically fall into two classes: regular, repetitive
users and occasional users.
The repetitive user is the one whose applications may be described as

production systems. The requirements for these transaction-driven systems are planned in
advance and generally support routine company operations such as recording of sales,
keeping track of inventory, and so forth. Ideally, the DBMS should be able to support
these applications in an efficient way.
The occasional users may require the greatest flexibility, since their
requirements are often unforeseen. Such users tend to require information for analysis
and decision making as opposed to support of routine operations. This type of user
needs powerful capabilities for classifying and combining data, as well as an easy-to-use
query language.
Database Recovery in DDMBS:-

The log plays a key role in failure recovery. The log is a history of all the
changes made to the database as well as the status of each transaction. It is important that
the data on the log not be lost or destroyed.log information is stored on a mythical “stable
storage” that survives all failures.
In distributed system, a log must be maintained at each site. In addition to
the previously specified information, the site log must record each message that it sends
and receives. In the distributed database environment there must be a means of detecting
failure and reestablishing the system status at time of failure when the system comes
backup.
DBMS functions and capabilities:-
To evaluate a DBMS’s ability to service the organization information requirements,
following features required:-
1. The data dictionary/directory:-
An effective database system will allow growth and modification

in the database with compromising the integrity of its data. This feature is accomplished
by data dictionary. The data or information in the data dictionary is called metadata or
“data about data”. Other benefits provided by the DD/D includes
 Physical storage structures can be changed without affecting the programs that
use the data.
 Passwords and other security measures can be stored in DD/D.
65
 Centralized data definition enables easy reporting on the status of the database:
whose is responsible for various data items, what programs and users are
accessing the data.
To yield these benefits, the DD/D includes the following features:-

 A language for defining entries in the DD/D.
 A manipulation language for adding, deleting, and modifying entries in the DD/D
 Means for producing reports.
2. Data security and integrity:-

 Access controls: - It is very important factor. It controls that limit user access to
programs and data.
 Concurrency control: - It means that maintaining data integrity in the multi user
environment. Controls that maintain database integrity when two or more users
simultaneously request a database record.
 View controls: - It provides an automated means of limiting what a user is
allowed to access from a given relation. Those controls that restrict access to
views (subsets of base relations).
 Encryption: - Encoding data to make them unintelligible to unauthorized
persons.
 Backup and recovery: -Those controls that provide for restoring the database in
case of system failure.
3. Query data manipulation and reporting capabilities: -
The DBM’s ability to support report requirements, along with

users query and data manipulation needs, is the corner tone of today’s management
system. The DBMS will provide a query language which is easy to learn and use.
4. Support of specialized programming requirements: -
Besides making it easier for the user to access the database for
information, the DBMS commonly provides significant assistance to the
application programmer as well such tools screen, menu and report generators;
application generators; compilers; and soon.
5. Physical data organization: -

The firm acquiring a DBMS may not wish to involve itself in the
details of physical data organization. Instead, it may guage the efficiency of a
DBM’S physical organization by running Sample applications.
66
DBMS feature requirements:-

The function and capabilities provide a guide to determining key evaluation
criteria for choosing DBMS.CODASYL recommended some features for further analysis
in to the following categories:
1. Mandatory: - A DBMS feature that must be provided.
2. Important: - A DBMS feature that is not mandatory but makes the DBMS more
attractive.
3. Optional: - A DBMS feature that is of secondary importance.
4. Unnecesary: - A DBMS feature that contributes nothing to the value of the DBMS to
the firm.
5. Undesirable: -A DBMS feature that detracts from its value to the firm.
Analyzing Management Information Needs: -
Management Information: - Information to support company operations and decision
makers in pursuing of company goals.
So, management information needs of the firm should influence the choice of DBMS.
Characteristics of management information needs that may effect the choice of DBMS
include the following.
1. The potential need for information that may require data from more than one
application.
2. The way in which data need to be classified for decision making.
3. The current and expected volume of insertions and deletions pertaining to
existing and new data structures.
Determing application requirements: -

The application requirements can be done by the types of users.
1. Regular or repetitive user: - regular user is the one whose applications may be
described as production systems. The requirements for these transactions driven
system are planned in advance and should support routine company operations.
2. Occasional users: - these users may require the greatest flexibility. Since their
requirements are often unforeseen. This type of user needs powerful capabilities
for classifying and combining data, as well as an easy-to-use. Query language.
These users tend to require information for analysis and decision making as
apposed to support of routine operations.
Response-time requirements:-
A DBMS has to perform at an expected level to be valuable to users.
Unacceptable response time to user request will lead to frustration. Frustration will lead
users to purse other means of satisfying their information needs. So, response-time should
be speed.
Implementing Issues:-
1) Database administration:-
The responsibilities for DBA are
67
 Servicing end-users requirements:-he is the responsible for tracking the

frequency of database use by end users and the response times needed by their
database application. He also involved with satisfying the training needs of users.
 Ensuring database security and integrity:-the DBA must maintain controls to
restrict the updating of the database to authorized users.
 Back up and recovery: - DBA has responsibility to look after the database
integrity and also when disk failure occurs.DBA devises methods for restoring a
complete and consistent database after a failure. Restoration procedures involve
utilities provided by the DBMS as part of a larger recovery plan designed by the
DBA.
2) Database testing:-
Good testing procedures are needed to ensure that the database3 system
fulfills user requirements and operates without major problems. Testing is normally
focused on validating the following operations:
 The loading of the database has been done without violating the data integrity.
 The application interface correctly with the database.
 The performance of the system satisfies the requirements for which the DBMS
was acquired.
Another important testing is data testing

 Values that have negative signs.
 Invalid codes or keys.
 Null values.
 An unauthorized users attempt to change data.
 Inappropriate units of measure.
Generation of test data that will check every possible undesired condition
has been shown to be an intractable problem.
Loading the database: - Often the data to be stored in the database already exist on some
computer based medium such as magnetic tape. If all the required data exist, and database
loading may simply involve reconstructing the existing data i.e., program can be written
that reads the old files and creates the structuring needed for the new ones. As time goes
on slowly change the old files to new files.
Database Maintenance:-
 Managing resources (storage devices)
 Backup and recovery
 Managing changes to the database system
 DBMS monitoring facilities
68
 Managing resources:-When new data will be added to the database, or some

data may be deleted, and application will be added and monitor such changes.
Database resources such as storage devices, indexes, and tables need to be
checked. This information will make decisions about upgrading resources as well
as forecasting future needs.
 Backup and recovery:-Saving a copy the database at selected time intervals

should be a standard backup file. If database used is damaged or destroyed, it
can be reloaded by using backup copy. This will be made by using an operation
system utility or DBMS utility.
 Managing changes to the database system:- When changes made in database

like attributes added to tables, new tables creation, new views creation and
adding new indexes, making the more complex forms and application,DBMS
performance will be degraded. So for successful database implementation
attempt to make the process of change orderly and subject to analysis and
management involvement.
 DBMS monitoring facilities:-following are the monitoring functions:-
 Input/ output usage by user

 No., of read and write operations executed in a set time period.
 No., of completed transactions pre set time period.
 Provision of an audit trails for activities of interest.

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1

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT

DATA :- Data is a collection of facts, which is in unorganized but they can

Proccessing of data is called Data Proccessing.

Meta data: Data that describe the properties or characteristics of other

DataBase : A Database is a collection of interrelated data.

DATABASE MANAGEMNT SYSTEM (DBMS) :- DBMS is a collection of

TRADITIONAL FILE PROCESSING:-

DISADVANTAGES OF FILE PROCESSING SYSTEMS:-

DATA MODELS: - The structure of a database is the concept of a data model, a

viewed as pointers. The records in the database are organised as collections of

Hierarchical Data Model :-

From the above CUSTOMER and ACCOUNT relations, we can make a

FILE ORIENTATED SYSTEM (OR) FILE ORGANISATION

Ex: INDEXTABLE STUDINFO

Reading a record in 2 ways

a) Immediate updating of various files is possible in lesser time.

i) Data Redundancy: It means data reputation. Redundancy increased the

Components of Data Base Management system

i) Hardware: The Hardware is the set of physical devices in which a

ii) Software: A database system includes tow types of software.

iv) Users or people: People are of 2 types:

Relationship of the four system components

i) Sharing Data b/w functional units

b) Middle management or management information system

a) Operation or electronic data processing (EDP): EDP was first applied to

The MIS approach elevated the focus on information system activities.

Middle manager MIS

Database Administration or Database management control:

i) Database Design: in this level there are 2 types of database designs.

In conceptual database design identification of data, relationship’s that

Problems are mainly involving in hardware, physical arrangement of

Risk and Cost of Data Base

i) Organisational conflicts: Getting data in a common database may not be

different user group designing database, establishing data recovery

i) Function oriented approach: This approach mainly depends on the

DATA DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Depend on this approach one method called Database development

i) Preliminary Planning: This mans planning for a database that occurs

ii) Feasibility study: This stage involves preparing a report on the

Principles of conceptual Database Design

Reality: Reality involves a very large number of details.

Model: A model is a representation of reality that retains only selected details.

Map: Association elements in reality to elements in the models. If this mapping is

Conceptual data models: A model representing real work entities as objects

Objects: Objects represent things that are important to users.

An object is a particular thing (an individual person a specific band…) or a set of

Objects set are either lexical or abstract

E.R-Model: E.R.Model is also known as entity relation ship model. It is a detailed

Strong Entity: Weak Entity:

Attribute Attribute Attribute Attribute

Entity is represented b y rectangle, symbol, while relationships between

Here Employee is a Entity name.

In naming attributes, we use an initial capital letter followed by lowercase letters.

Str. Address City State Postal_code

In above example EMPLOYEE is a table/entity SKILL is attributes with so

Tuple The row of a relation is called tuples.

A composite identifier: it is an identifier that consists of a composite attributes.

In the above example FLIGHT_Number_id combines to form an IDENTIFIER.