DynaPro

Data Interpretation Guide

Understanding Results Obtained from the
DynaPro Light Scattering Instrument
Operated in Batch Mode

An overview of Size Distributions,

Autocorrelation Functions, and Molecular Weight Estimates

Quickly and Easily determine the ‘goodness’ of results

by comparing actual data to typical data.

December 15, 2002 Proterion Corporation. © 1

Table of Contents
• Part I: Introduction
– Introduction
– Glossary of common terms
– Interpreting a Dynamic Light Scattering Measurement
• Part II: Size Distributions
– Size Distribution Results
– Monomodal size distribution
– Multimodal size distribution
– Polydispersity
– Size Distribution Interpretations
– Hydrodynamic radius: the physical interpretation of ‘size’
– The physical interpretations of size distributions
• Part III: Goodness of Data
– Good or Bad: Judging the goodness of the data
– Summary of Operation
– The Autocorrelation Functions
• Sample vs. Solvent
• Large particles, Large Fluctuations
• Large particles, Multimodal Size Distribution
• Weak Signals
– Summary of Goodness of Data
• Part IV: Molecular Weight Estimates
– Molecular Weight Estimates
– Molecular Weight Interpolated from Radius
– Interpreting the BSA Standard
– The many size distributions of the BSA Standard
• Part V: Beyond the Single Data Point – The Experiment

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Part I: Introduction
• Introduction
• Glossary of common terms
• Interpreting a Dynamic Light Scattering Measurement

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Introduction
• The purpose of the DynaPro Data Interpretation manual is
to provide a basic understanding of the results obtained
from your DynaPro Light Scattering instrument.

• The manual will define the common terms associated with

data interpretation, provide a framework for determining if
the data are ‘good’ or ‘bad’, and explain typical results.

• The manual will not cover the basic theories of light

scattering, however it will provide you with references
which do cover the theories in detail.

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Glossary: Common Terms
• The DynaPro determines Size distributions of particles in solution. Size Distributions are defined by several terms.
– Size: refers to the radius or diameter of the particle modeled as a sphere that moves or diffuses in the solution (in
contrast to the Molecular Weight of the particle). Usually expressed as the mean value of the peak of the size
distribution.

– Size Distribution: the manner in which the sizes of the particles are dispersed or spread or allocated among one or
more peaks; presented in a graphical form known as a Histogram.

– Peak: A Peak in a Size Distribution represents a distinct and resolvable species or population of analytes or particles.
A Peak is comprised of several size particles, represented by bins or bars, and is defined by a mean (average) value
and polydispersity.

– Modality: refers to the number of ‘peaks’ in the size distribution. A size distribution with one peak is called
Monomodal. A size distribution with more than one peak is called Multimodal (Bimodal, Trimodal are common
terms for size distributions with 2 or 3 peaks).

– Mean value: the mean value of the peak is the weighted average of the various size particles (bins or bars) in the
distinct or resolvable population. The various sizes are weighted by their probability of being detected.

– Polydispersity: the standard deviation of the histogram which refers to the width of the peak. Sometimes referred to
as the percent polydispersity (polydispersity divided by the mean value), it is a measure of heterogeneity or
homogeneity of the species comprising the population.

– Bin: a discrete numerical particle size component of the Histogram or Size Distribution which is defined by an x-axis
value in nanometers (size), and a y-axis value in relative amount of light scattered by the bin to the other bins. The
number of bins, the value or particle size represented by the bin, and relative amount of scattered light are determined
by numerical algorithms associated with the analysis of the raw data from the DynaPro. The bins do not reflect
actual, physical particles.

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Interpreting a Measurement
What is a measurement?
– The DynaPro defines a measurement as a
collection of acquisitions for a particular
sample. An acquisition is a period of time,
typically 10 seconds, during which the light
scattered by the sample is averaged and
correlated. We recommend a measurement
last 100 seconds (10 acquisitions, 10
seconds each or 20 acquisitions, 5 seconds
each).
– The result of a measurement contains N
number of acquisitions, which are averaged
and presented in a number of ways.
– Generally speaking we want to see the ‘size
distribution’ of the sample: analyte in
solution. Information of the distribution of
the sizes of the analyte is applied to protein
crystallization, protein based drug
development, drug delivery nanoparticle
development, nanoparticle characterization
and many other areas of advanced materials
characterization.
The size distribution
The ‘tree’ lists the is data of interest.
measurements and
Their acquisitions.

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Part II: Size Distributions
• Size Distribution Results
• Monomodal size distribution
• Multimodal size distribution
• Polydispersity
• Size Distribution Interpretations
• Hydrodynamic radius: the physical interpretation of ‘size’
• The physical interpretations of size distributions

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Size Distribution Results
Results are shown in
graphical as well as
tabular form. The table
located below the size
distribution histogram
describes the number of
peaks and their mean
value (Radius),
polydispersity (Pd), %
polydispersity (%Pd),
molecular weight
estimated from the
measured radius (MW-
R), relative amount of
light scattered by each
population (%Int), and
estimated relative amount
of mass (concentration)
of each peak or species
(%Mass).

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Monomodal Size Distribution Histogram
This histogram has one peak so we
Y-axis call it a monomodal size distribution.
Relative amount of
light scattered by The peak is defined by the mean value
each bin, % and polydispersity.
Intensity (% of
Total Light
Scattered).
Represents the
probability of
existence of the The ‘width’ of the peak is the standard
species.
deviation of the weighted bin values, also
known as the Polydispersity.

The mean value of the peak is defined

X-axis
Discrete particle sizes,
by a weighted average of the number of
in nanometers
bins comprising the histogram, in this
case three. The bins by themselves do
not represent real, distinct, physical
particles however their mean and
standard deviation do.
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Multimodal Size Distribution This histogram has more than one
peak so we call it a multimodal
size distribution. Specifically this
What causes Modality? histogram is trimodal. The
The presence of different and resolvable DynaPro determined three distinct
species in the sample cause modes in the populations exist in this sample.
size distribution. To be resolved as a
separate peak, a species must have a size
(radius) larger than another species by a
factor of two or more, and be detectable
(produce sufficient scattered light for
detection by the DynaPro). Roughly
speaking a factor of two in radius is
equivalent to a factor of eight (octamer) in
MW. When the sizes of the species are
below this factor, a separate peak will not
be resolved for each species.

By definition, a multimodal size distribution is heterogeneous: the

sample contains distinct populations of particles that are not the same
size. The DynaPro can resolve up to four or five modes in a size
distribution. For each mode, the DynaPro estimates the relative amount
of light scattered and the relative amount of mass based upon one of
several possible particle scattering properties. Often times the relative
amount of mass of a peak is quite small e.g. less than .1 % and is
considered to be negligible.
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Polydispersity Each peak has a unique mean value
and width or Polydispersity. It is
useful to normalize Polydispersity to
the mean size of the peak, also
Polydispersity refers to the level of known as percent polydispersity.
homogeneity of the sizes of the particles.
When the level of homogeneity is high, the
particles can be considered to be virtually
identical in their size, or monodisperse.
The level of homogeneity is considered
high when the percent polydispersity is
less than 15%. When the level of
homogeneity is low (percent
polydispersity greater than 30%), the
particle population can be considered to
contain significantly different sizes, or
‘polydisperse’.

What causes Polydispersity? Heterogeneity is caused by the presence of

different species that can not be resolved by the technique of dynamic
light scattering (species with sizes less than a factor of two relative to
other species exist in solution can not be resolved). A peak containing
100% monomer will have a smaller polydispersity than peak containing a
mixture of monomer:octamer. The peaks shown here all have %
Polydispersity greater than 30%.
Note: refer to appendix for an alternate cause of polydispersity.

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Size Distribution Interpretations

Monomodal Monomodal Multimodal

Monodisperse ‘Polydisperse’ Polydisperse

BLGA, 4 mg/ml, PBS, T = 25 C BLGA, 4 mg/ml, PBS, T = 5 C BSA, 2 mg/ml, PBS, T = 25 C

Peaks: 1 Peaks: 1 Peaks: 2
Mean Radius: 2.8 nm Mean Radius: 3.4 nm Peak 1:
% Poly: 13.8 % % Poly: 22.1 % • Mean Radius: 4.3 nm
Majority monomer Increasing amounts of Dimer • % Poly: 32.1 %
• Monomer, Dimer, Trimer

Peak 2:
• Mean Radius: 130.9
• % Poly: 34.5 %
• Various non-specific aggregates

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Hydrodynamic Radius: The Physical Interpretation of ‘Size’

The DynaPro measures the size

distribution of the particles in the
sample. The size, previously
defined as the radius or diameter of
the particle, is represented in this
figure as Rh. Rh, or
Hydrodynamic Radius, is a particle
radius that embodies a ‘hard
sphere’ particle which is in fact
aspherical and typically
surrounded or covered by solvent.
Please refer to PSI Books or the
article for a more thorough
explanation of the physical
interpretation of particle size as
measured by the DynaPro.

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Physical Interpretations of Size Distributions
Bimodal
Monomodal Monomodal Bimodal Monodisperse
Monodisperse Polydisperse Monodisperse Polydisperse
Radius = R1

Radius = 1.5*R1 The samples contains two

types of particles, monomer
and trimer. The radius of the
trimer is less than twice the The sample contains two types
radius of monomer so only of particles, the monomer and
one peak is resolved, the The sample contains three
a large aggregate. The large types of particles monomer,
distribution is monomodal. particle is more than twice the
However the population trimer, and larger aggregate.
radius of the monomer and in In this case the DynaPro
consists of two species and sufficient quantities to be resolves only two peaks. The
Radius = 5*R1 this increase in size measured, so two peaks are monomer and trimer are not
heterogeneity causes an resolved by the DynaPro. The
increase in measured resolved from each other and
mean radius of Peak 1 will be form only one peak, a
polydispersity compared to R1 and Peak 2 will be equal to
the samples containing 100% polydisperse peak. The
5*R1. Both species are second peak is formed by the
monomer and 100% trimer. homogeneous so measured
Also, the mean radius of the larger particle, which is
polydispersity is low. resolvable from both
peak will be larger than R1
but smaller than 1.5 R1. monomer and trimer. The
second peak is monodisperse.
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Part III: Goodness of Data
• Good or Bad: Judging the goodness of the data
• Summary of Operation
• The Autocorrelation Functions
– Sample vs. Solvent
– Large particles, Large Fluctuations
– Large particles, Multimodal Size Distribution
– Weak Signals
• Summary of Goodness of Data

December 15, 2002 Proterion Corporation. © 15

Good or Bad: Judging the Goodness of the Data
• At this point we have covered the basic interpretations of DynaPro results,
describing size distributions and understanding the meanings of mean size,
modality, polydispersity.

• However, how do we determine if the results are acceptable or unacceptable,

good or bad?

• The DynaPro software, Dynamics, does provide basic data analyses that indicate
if the data are in ‘acceptable’ ranges. The analyses are based upon simple
numerical data filters or qualifiers. Yet these data filters do not always capture or
allow for good and bad raw data.

• We will explain what is good or bad by commenting on various examples of raw

data. The name applied to the raw data is an autocorrelation function. An
autocorrelation function is a collection of correlation coefficients – unitless values
indicating the level of similarity among sets of data. At this time we will not
concern ourselves with the underlying theory and physical meaning of the
autocorrelation function. We will examine only how to interpret these functions.

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Summary of Operation
Particles moving in solution,

Intensity
illuminated by a laser, create time
intensity fluctuations (on the order
of microseconds).

Time

The rate of time intensity

fluctuations are determined by
Autocorrelation, resulting in an
Autocorrelation Function

Numerical methods determine the

rates of decay in the
Autocorrelation Function, which
are related to the particle sizes.
The result of the analysis of the
Autocorrelation Function is a Size
Distribution.

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The Autocorrelation Function
The DynaPro determines the size of particles in
solution by exploiting the physical process of
Brownian Motion: the particles are moving in
solution as a function of time, and their rate of
motion is related to their size. The rate of motion
is measured by illuminating the particles with
laser light and determining the rate at which light
scattered or reflected by the particles changes with
time.

The technique of autocorrelation determines the

rate of these time intensity fluctuations, expressed
as an autocorrelation function (shown here).

An autocorrelation function is an exponential

function comprised of correlation coefficients (y-
axis) dependent upon the ‘delay time’ (x-axis), the
time-value separating the sets of data. The
Numerical algorithms are applied to determine the rates of
function can be mathematically described by one
decay or size distributions of the exponential autocorrelation
or more decays. The rate of decay is related to
functions. The DynaPro utilizes a proprietary ‘non-negative
particle size. A faster decay indicates a smaller
least squares’ algorithm, a method that finds the size
particle, a slower decay a larger particle.
distribution producing the smoothest distribution with the least
amount of error. The error is the difference between the
Autocorrelation functions are determined during
measured autocorrelation function and the fitted autocorrelation
each acquisition comprising a measurement, as
function.
described earlier.

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Autocorrelation functions: Sample vs. Solvent
Not all samples can be measured, nor are all samples
properly suited for measurement by the DynaPro, and
therefore not all samples produce valid autocorrelation
functions. Without a valid autocorrelation function, it is
not possible to determine a valid size distribution.

A valid autocorrelation function is generally smooth and

continuous, exponentially decaying from a maximum
value of 2 to a value of 1.

To the right is shown a valid autocorrelation function. By

eye we observe one decay in the function.

The function contains random values centered around 1,

asymptotically reaching 1. Randomness represents the
result from measuring pure solvent: solution containing
zero analyte or analyte below the limits of detection. The
size distribution analysis will attempt to find a result for
these functions. These must be marked and removed
from the analysis. It is generally a good idea to measure
the solvent to confirm its purity. If one unexpectedly sees
a function characteristic of solvent increase laser power,
measure the sample unfiltered (to avoid potential binding
to the membrane) or unspun, and/or increase the
concentration of the analyte.

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Autocorrelation Functions: Large particles, Large fluctuations

If during the measurement of an autocorrelation function

the total intensity scattered by the population of particles
changes rapidly or spikes, the detector and/or correlator
can saturate, resulting in a discontinuity as shown here.
These functions must be marked and removed from the
size distribution analysis.

The situation can be remedied by removing bubbles,

spinning or filtering the sample, or changing solvent
conditions to remove large aggregates or particles.
Alternatively, the particles may be larger than the size
range of the instrument (several microns in radius).

The decay of this function has not been fully captured, it

is prematurely terminated. This is caused by have an
acquisition time too short relative to the long decay of the
autocorrelation function. Generally a larger particle size
requires a longer acquisition time. The size distribution
analysis can be performed however there will be greater
error in the results. The additional autocorrelation
coefficients can be captured by extending the acquisition
time of the measurement. Note: increasing the number of
acquisitions will not capture additional coefficients in the
longer time delays.

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Autocorrelation Functions: Large Particles, Multimodal populations

The autocorrelation function shown here contains two

visually observable decays. One is faster, representing a
smaller particle and the other is slower, representing a
larger particle. These functions are valid and can be
analyzed.

The autocorrelation function associated with larger

particles has a longer decay, as shown here. Note the y-
value of the function has asymptotically reached a value
of 1 yet the function has some variation at the larger time
delays. The variation is referred to as ripple or noise.
The noise is due to insufficient numbers of correlation
coefficients being collected and calculated. The noise can
be reduced by collecting additional numbers of
acquisitions. With less noise, the size distribution
analysis will be of higher quality.

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Autocorrelation Functions: Weak signal
Ripple or a lack of smoothness of the function in the short
time delay area indicates a weaker signal from the
particles. These functions can be fitted however the
polydispersity may be greater due to this ‘noise’.

The remedy for this situation is to either extend the

acquisition time, collect more acquisitions, increase laser
power, and/or increase analyte concentration.

Refer to PSI Books for a discussion of the advantages and

disadvantages of increasing acquisition time and the
number of acquisitions.

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Summary of Goodness of Data
Proceed Caution Stop

Increase acquisition time Spin or filter sample

Increase acquisition time If not pure solvent…

Increase acquisitions Increase acquisition time
Increase laser power Increase acquisitions
Increase concentration Increase laser power
Increase concentration
December 15, 2002 Proterion Corporation. © 23
Part IV: Molecular Weight Estimates
• Molecular Weight Estimates
• Molecular Weight Interpolated from Radius
• Interpreting the BSA Standard
• The many size distributions of the BSA Standard

December 15, 2002 Proterion Corporation. © 24

Molecular Weight Estimates
• The Molecular Weight of a biological molecule can be estimated from the measurement of
the size or hydrodynamic radius. The estimate is based upon on an empirical curve of
known proteins and measured hydrodynamic radius.

• The error of the estimated Molecular Weight from Hydrodynamic Radius ranges from
several percent to over 100%. The wide range of error is due to the nature of the estimate.
Not all proteins fall on the curve. The estimated value must be used with caution.

• When applying the Molecular Weight estimate, make sure the intensity weighted size
distribution analysis is selected. The empirical curves are based upon the use of the
intensity weighted calculation of the mean of the peak.

• Also, if the peak is determined to be polydisperse by the DynaPro size distribution

analysis, then the mean radius is a weighted average of more than one species. The
estimated molecular weight will be a weighted estimate based upon the weighted average
size.

• The molecular weight estimate can be qualified by examining the shape factor, the
relationship between the measured hydrodynamic radius and the ‘hard sphere radius’
calculated from the known molecular weight and density of the protein. Please refer to
PSI books for a review of the concepts of the shape factor or axial ratio.

December 15, 2002 Proterion Corporation. © 25

Molecular Weight Interpolated from Radius

MW = 14

Rh = 1.9

MW-R is the Molecular Weight Interpolated from the Measured Hydrodynamic

Radius. Ideally the size distribution is monodisperse, otherwise the measured radius is
a weighted average of more than one species, and the estimated MW – even for a
protein or other particles that falls on the empirical curve – will be in error.
Select the model that best fits the a priori knowledge of the sample. Or, match the
model that best matches the known molecular weight or oligomer to obtain an
estimate on the shape or conformation of the sample.

December 15, 2002 Proterion Corporation. © 26

Interpreting the BSA Standard
MW ~ 130 kDa

MW = 66kDa

Rh = 3.5 nm Rh ~ 4.5 nm

The DynaPro is provided with an ampoule containing 2 mg/ml of BSA prepared in a PBS
solution. Often the sample is measured and the molecular weight results are higher than the
expected value for monomeric BSA (Rh = 3. nm and MW = 66 kDa), sometimes as much as a
factor of two larger. The reason for the difference is that the BSA ampoule contains monomer,
dimer, trimer, and large non-specific aggregates. The majority peak of the size distribution
typically comprises the specific aggregates, and the minority peak (low % mass peak) typically
comprises large non-specific aggregates. Depending upon the relative amounts of the specific
aggregates, the mean value of the majority peak can range Rh = 3.6 nm (virtually 100%)
monomer to 4.5 nm or more (dimer and trimer), with the large amounts of polydispersity.

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The many size distributions of the BSA standard

Monomodal Monomodal
Monodisperse Polydisperse
Monomer Monomer,
Dimer, Trimer

Bimodal Bimodal Multimodal

Peak 1: Monodisperse Monomer Peak 1: Polydisperse M:D:T Peak 1: Polydisperse M:D:T
Peak 2: Monodisperse Aggregate Peak 2: Polydisperse Aggregate Peak 2: Polydisperse Aggregate

December 15, 2002 Proterion Corporation. © 28

 Part V: Beyond the Single Data Point
Design, Perform, and Interpret an Experiment
The power of the DynaPro.

BLGA as a function of Temperature.

By determining the size distribution over a range of experimental conditions the DynaPro
determines that the mean size, total intensity, and polydispersity of BLGA increase with
decreasing temperature due to the formation of specific aggregates. Refer to all of our
application notes to learn how to capitalize on the DynaPro. www.protein-solutions.com

December 15, 2002 Proterion Corporation. © 29