Five Quantitative Physics

Experiments (Almost)
Without Special Apparatus
James L. Hunt, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

T
here are situations in which physics students
would profit from the performance of real
quantitative experiments but the equipment is
lacking, expensive, or too bulky. One such situatuation
is in distance education courses, where the desire to
have students perform real experiments is outweighed
by cost and/or logistics. The result often is a resort to
simulated experiments, or incurring the expense of
bringing students to a central location for a marathon
session of lab exercises, many of which are done out of
sequence. I describe here five quantitative experiments
designed for an introductory DE course in physics,
that require almost nothing in the way of equipment
except a computer and items commonly found in the
Fig. 1. The equilibrium of three forces using “soda straw
home. pulleys.” The weights (in jumbo paper clips) are from
The physics department of the University of left to right 3, 2, 4.
Guelph, in common with others, has for many years
offered an introductory physics course as a make-up it mildly, has not been a success, with drop-out and
for those entering the university in science studies but failure rates running to 80%, while the lecture version
without the senior course in high school physics. The has fulfilled its objectives. It was decided, therefore, as
objective of this noncalculus course, therefore, is to a last chance, to make the effort to mount this course
establish a sufficient base of largely classical physics as an interactive web-based course.
and permit the students to progress to the university Initially it was thought that the laboratory section
physics course with some confidence and assurance of would have to be entirely in the form of simulated
success. experiments, of which there are many available. How-
About 10 years ago it was also decided to offer this ever, further consideration suggested that there might
course through distance education, and a study guide be meaningful experiments that could be done with
was written for this purpose. As the students could simple apparatus and the simulated exercises kept to a
not attend the university, a rather elaborate and costly minimum. The challenge became to find a way of do-
lab kit was assembled with written and videotaped ing meaningful quantitative experiments in elementary
instructions. physics using mostly materials that the student could
It has to be acknowledged that this course, to put reasonably find in the normal household or purchase

412 DOI: 10.1119/1.2060634 THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 43, October 2005
easily and cheaply. I interpret the contents of a “nor- system. Close to the edge, however, produces just
mal household” in the broadest sense and include a enough motion to largely eliminate the friction. This
computer in the list. latter point can be verified by moving the equilibrium
The exercise proved to be an illuminating one, point away and plucking the straws again. The equi-
and several good lessons were developed although the librium point will move back to its former position.
stricture of “no special apparatus” was relaxed a bit in Once the frictionless position has been achieved,
one case where the exercise was impossible without it. the string assembly can be carefully pushed back
It is also interesting that certain branches of elemen- against the paper, the configuration traced, and the
tary physics seem to me to be intractable to this usual analysis carried out. Careful elimination of the
approach. friction can produce a vector sum correct to within
Of course this topic has been addressed previously a few percent. It should be noted that plastic soda
in various articles, even in this journal. Many elegant straws work best. The waxed ones are too sticky.
ideas are collected in that excellent book String and
Sticky Tape Experiments.1 However most of those ex- Centripetal Force
periments require considerable construction on the This basic experiment is well known (see experi-
part of the student and I wished to avoid that. In what ment 1.32 of Ref. 1) and in this discussion only a few
follows, I will describe several experiments that were refinements will be mentioned as well as the problem
designed or adapted, which more or less conform to of timing. The apparatus consists of a thin tube with
the stated criteria. Some approaches are, I think, new a thread (white is best) running through it with a
and others are slight variations of old favorites. small mass on the upper end and a larger one on the
lower. By moving the tube rhythmically in a small
Equilibrium of Forces (Addition of circle, the small mass can be made to swing in a large,
Vectors) nearly horizontal circle, and equilibrium is established
An experiment to add three or more force vectors is between the swinging mass and weights hanging on
common in elementary physics courses. The usual the lower end of the string.2 It turns out that there are
apparatus is a vertical board upon which drawing many household items that can be used for the tube,
paper is pinned and, with the aid of pulleys and string, most commonly the plastic cap from a ballpoint pen.
a point is placed in equilibrium. The only “uncom- If the closed end of the cap is cut off with a knife, then
mon” parts of this apparatus are the pulleys, whose the molded ridge at the other end is sufficiently fric-
purpose is to eliminate friction; a simple substitute for tionless to allow equilibrium to be established easily.3
these was easy to find. Again jumbo paper clips are used as weights, and
Figure 1 is a photograph of the apparatus that was typically one would be used for the moving mass and
decided upon. In place of the pulleys, two plastic soda several for the centripetal force. To keep the radius
straws are used. They are taped to the top of a table constant it is much easier for a student to observe a
and extend about 8 or 10 cm from the edge; they are stationary marker than a moving one. Therefore, it is
placed about 15 cm apart. Also taped to the edge of best to make a black mark on the white thread at the
the table and hanging vertically is a sheet of ordinary bottom of the plastic tube rather than at the top.
note paper. Jumbo paper clips are used for the hang- If a student has an assistant, then the timing can be
ing weights and common sewing thread for string done with a wristwatch that has a sweep second hand.
(black is best). The string and weight assembly is hung However, the experiment can also be performed alone
about 1 to 2 cm in front of the note paper. using a stopwatch program available on the computer.
To eliminate friction it is only necessary to gently, There are several of these on the web, but most of
and simultaneously, pluck the ends of the soda straws them are useless for a student working alone because
two or three times; the equilibrium point will move to the START and STOP buttons on the screen are far
a final resting place. If the string is placed too far out too small to be used while concentrating on some-
on the straws, the amplitude of the plucking motion thing else. We have commissioned one in which the
produces too much disturbance of the equilibrium whole screen is the START and STOP area. It is at

THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 43, October 2005 413

 Fig. 3. Intensity-vs-time display for the sound of a coin falling 1.5 m. The time
scale in s is at the top. The cursor is placed at the leading edge of the first
sound.

from common thread and a 25-cent piece for the bob.

In this way the person holding the strip can hold it ac-
curately a fixed distance above the floor. Several strips
and bobs can be made up in advance, for example, ½,
1, 1½, and 2 m in length.
Fig. 2. Paper strip with coin. The Recording and analyzing the sound requires special
large arrow indicates where the software. A microphone and appropriate recording
paper is struck. and playback software is standard on Macintosh com-
puters and on most modern laptops. PCs are now
either of the following websites: almost universally equipped with a sound card but
• http://canudev.pjl.ucalgary.ca/map/content/time/ a microphone is an extra. The Microsoft operating
basic/simulate/applet.html. system provides a program called “Sound Recorder,”
• http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/map/content/time/ which gives 60 seconds of recording time, more than
basic/simulate/applet. html. enough for each measurement.
The result of the recording is a .wav file that must
be analyzed. The analysis requires some proprietary
Free Fall
software designed to analyze at least the temporal
In this experiment the computer is again used as properties of a sound file. There are, in fact, a large
a timing device; however, the times are far too short number of programs available in shareware and even
to use the stopwatch program. Instead the computer
is used to record the sound of a coin dropped from a
fixed height onto a hard floor. Also a sound must be
produced at the beginning of the drop. A computer
with a sound card and microphone are required for
this experiment. As a result it may be better suited to
classroom use than at home, as not all home comput-
ers are equipped with microphones.
The apparatus is shown in Fig. 2. A strip of news-
paper about 2 in wide and 6 in long is held tightly
with two hands. A large coin is placed at one end of
the strip. (The Canadian $2 coin is perfect for this.)
The sound recording is started and the strip is given a
sharp blow near the center with the edge of a ruler to
break or release one end of the strip. It is the sound of
this blow that provides t = 0. The end of the free fall
is the first sound of the coin hitting the floor. Taped
to one edge of the paper strip is a plumb bob made
Fig. 4. The layout of the paper chute.

414 THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 43, October 2005

 Conservation of Momentum
The almost elastic collision of two coins is an ex-
cellent example of the conservation of momentum.
What a shame that there isn’t a method of easily mea-
suring the velocity of a flicked coin. Although measur-
ing the speed is difficult, controlling the direction is
rather easy. Therefore, an experiment can be devised
that can measure the conservation of momentum in
Fig. 5. The paper chute folded. one direction, i.e., transverse to the initial direction
of motion of the coin. The direction is controlled by
Final position flicking the coin out of a small paper chute. The best
of shooter coins to use are nickels as they have smooth edges and
are sufficiently thick. Pennies have a tendency to ride
up over each other.
A piece of heavy paper is laid out as shown in Fig.
Final position 4. When folded as shown in Fig. 5, it is taped at one
of target end of a sheet of note paper on which a center line has
been drawn as shown in Fig. 6. The center line of the
chute must be matched carefully with the center line
φ of the paper.
θ One nickel is placed just beyond the end of the
Circle 2 chute, carefully matched to the center line, and a
circle drawn around it with a sharp pencil (Circle 1).
Circle 1
A simple experiment at this stage is to shoot a nickel
at this “target” and observe that the target always stops
on or very near the center line and that the “shooter”
Chute
intrudes very little into the target circle. The amount
of intrusion is an indication of the nonelasticity of the
collision.
Fig. 6. The geometry of off-center collisions of two Next the target is placed off-center and its posi-
nickels.
tion drawn (Circle 2) in contact with Circle 1. Flick
freeware. Figure 3 shows the intensity-versus-time the shooter with various speeds until a good separa-
display of a perfectly adequate freeware program.4 tion of final positions is achieved as shown in Fig. 6.
The first sound, at 13.7 s, is that of the ruler striking Record the final positions. Since we do not know the
the paper and that at 14.25 s, the coin striking the input speed, we can do nothing about momentum
floor; the later rather messy sound is the bounce of the conservation along the center line, but the momentum
coin. By placing the cursor on the leading edge of the perpendicular to this direction can be measured. Using
sounds, the time between them can be determined eas- the friction law, we know that the initial speed is pro-
ily to within 5 ms since any portion of the sound can portional to the square root of the displacement, so a
be expanded to fit the full window. The correct sounds center-to-center measurement of initial and final posi-
can be identified by playing the recording and seeing tions is all that is required for the speeds. By measuring
where the cursor is as the relevant sounds occur. Per- the angles, it is not difficult to verify that the transverse
forming the experiment at several heights and plotting momentum is conserved to 2% or less. More advanced
a graph of distance versus (time)2 will give values of g students can also investigate the sum of the two angles
to within 2%. and its dependence on the friction between the nickels
on contact. It is also instructive for students to carry

THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 43, October 2005 415

 20 cm experiments in elementary physics that do not require
specialized laboratory equipment. Of course some of
CD case the functions of laboratory equipment are provided
gusset by the personal computer, but the ubiquity of the PC
back-reflected beam
and sophisticated software is a present-day reality that
laser might as well be exploited. It was further hoped that
beam a reasonable accuracy might be achieved with these
experiments and that has also been realized; the preci-
sion compares with, or even exceeds that, realized by
students using conventional laboratory equipment.
It will be noticed that there is a glaring lacuna in the
Fig. 7. Using a CD as a diffraction grating. list of experiments—there is no electricity exercise. It
seems to me that you can’t do electricity without at least
out several subsequent collisions and observe that the one meter, and as these are not common household
coins always end up on or near the same lines. items, I see no way to fill this gap. Of course the com-
puter can be used with the proper interface, but that
Diffraction of Light is out of the question in the context of this exercise. I
The use of a CD to demonstrate diffraction is of place this problem before the readers as a challenge.
course known to all physics teachers.5 It can also form
an essential part of a quantitative experiment. By tap- References
ing a right-angle cardboard gusset into the CD case, 1. R.D. Edge, String and Sticky Tape Experiments (AAPT,
we have a convenient holder for the grating if the CD College Park, MD, 1987).
is turned outward, instead of the usual inward, on the 2. In a previous home experiment we have supplied a
spindle as shown in Fig. 7. For this experiment the fire-polished glass tube that was taped for safety. Oth-
rigorous requirement of no special equipment was ers have used the siphon tubes from water closets. See
Aaron McAlexander, “Physics to go,” Phys. Teach. 41,
relaxed and the students were supplied with a small
214–218 (April 2003).
key-ring laser. These are sufficiently inexpensive in
3. The soda straw used in the version of Ref. 1 exhibits
bulk (around $1 Canadian) that it was not felt worth-
considerable friction where the thread runs over the
while having them turned in, so they were retained by edge of the straw. The molded plastic ends advocated
the students as souvenirs of the course. The switch on here have much less friction.
these lasers does not have a permanent “ON” position, 4. The “Audacity” sound editor is freeware and available
but a spring clothes pin will keep the switch depressed for download at http://audacity.sourceforge.net. It can
and also makes a handy stabilizing mount. The grat- also be used to record the sound.
ing mount and the laser are placed on piles of books 5. Joel Tellinghuisen, “Exploring the diffraction grating us-
and adjusted in height until the laser beam strikes the ing a He-Ne laser and a CD-ROM,” J. Chem. Educ. 79,
horizontal diameter of the CD, as this is the only place 703 (2002).
where the grating lines are vertical. By making sure 6. This is the industry standard and is adhered to with
that the back reflected beam is perpendicular to a wall, great precision.
then the distance between the first-order diffractions PACS codes: 01.50P, 01.50H
and the distance from the grating to the wall can be
determined with a tape measure. Using a figure of 1.6 James L. Hunt is emeritus professor of physics at the
University of Guelph and has taught there for 40 years.
x 10-3 mm for the grating spacing,6 the wavelength of He is the coauthor of several physics textbooks and the
the laser light can be determined. author of papers in physics pedagogy and the history of
physics. He currently writes web-based distance education
Conclusion courses in physics and astronomy.
Department of Physics, University of Guelph, Guelph,
The objectives set out in the beginning have been ON, Canada N1G 2W1; phyjlh@physics.uoguelph.ca
largely realized. It is possible to devise quantitative

416 THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 43, October 2005