CHM092

CHAPTER 2: STOICHIOMETRY
Siti Fatimah Aminuddin, Pusat Asasi UiTM

Subtopics

CHEMISTRY A MOLECULAR APPROACH Chapter Page No 13-30 66-71 97-77 100-104 530 82-83 105-110 128-139 140-144
Material from karentimberlake.com and H. Stephen Stoker 527-534
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2.1 Standard units of measure 2.2 Mole Concept 2.3 Percent composition of compounds 2.4 Empirical and molecular formulas 2.5 Limiting reactants 2.6 Concentration of solutions 2.7 Solution stoichiometry 2.8 Molality and mole fraction

1 2 3 3 12 3 4 4 4 12

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2.1: STANDARD UNITS OF MEASURE

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The Standard Units

Scientists have agreed on a set of international standard units for comparing all our measurements called the SI units

Systme International = International System

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Mass

Measure of the amount of matter present in an object

weight measures the gravitational pull on an object, which depends on its mass about 2 lbs. 3 oz.

SI unit = kilogram (kg)

Commonly measure mass in grams (g) or milligrams (mg)

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1 kg = 2.2046 pounds, 1 lb. = 453.59 g 1 kg = 1000 g = 103 g 1 g = 1000 mg = 103 mg 1 g = 0.001 kg = 103 kg Material from karentimberlake.com and 1 mg = 0.001 g = 103 g H. Stephen Stoker

Volume

Derived unit

any length unit cubed

Measure of the amount of space occupied SI unit = cubic meter (m3) Commonly measure solid volume in cubic centimeters (cm3)

1 m3 = 106 cm3 1 cm3 = 106 m3 = 0.000 001 m3 1 L = 1 dm3 = 1000 mL = 103 mL 1 mL = 0.001 L = 103 L 1 mL = 1 cm3

Commonly measure liquid or gas volume in milliliters (mL)

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Temperature Scales

Fahrenheit scale, F

used in the U.S. used in all other countries absolute scale

Celsius scale, C

Kelvin scale, K

no negative numbers

directly proportional to average amount of kinetic energy 0 K = absolute zero

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Kelvin

vs. Celsius

The size of a degree on the Kelvin scale is the same as on the Celsius scale
though technically, we dont call the divisions on the Kelvin scale degrees; we call them kelvins! so 1 kelvin is 1.8 times larger than 1F

The 0 standard on the Kelvin scale is a much lower temperature than on the Celsius scale
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2.2: PROBLEM SOLVING AND DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

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Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis

Many problems in chemistry involve using relationships to convert one unit of measurement to another Conversion factors are relationships between two units may be exact or measured Conversion factors can be generated from equivalence statements e.g., 1 inch = 2.54 cm can give or

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Arrange conversion factors so the given unit is on the bottom of the conversion factor and will be canceled out

May string conversion factors so you do not need to know every relationship, as long as you can find something else the starting and desired units are related to

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Conceptual Plan
A conceptual plan is a visual outline that shows the strategic route required to solve a problem For unit conversion, the conceptual plan focuses on units and how to convert one to another For problems that require equations, the conceptual plan focuses on solving the equation to find an unknown value

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Conceptual Plans and Conversion Factors

Convert inches into centimeters

1. Find relationship equivalence: 1 in. = 2.54 cm 2. Write a conceptual plan
in. in. cm cm

3. Change equivalence into conversion factors with given/starting units on the bottom

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Prepared & edited by LHSim

Systematic Approach to Problem Solving

Sort the information from the problem

identify the given quantity and unit, the quantity and unit you want to find, any relationships implied in the problem devise a conceptual plan sometimes may want to work backward each step involves a conversion factor or equation check that units cancel properly multiply terms across the top and divide by each bottom term

Design a strategy to solve the problem

Apply the steps in the conceptual plan to solve the problem

Check the answer

double-check the set-up to ensure the unit at the end is the one you wished to find check to see that the size of the number is reasonable because centimeters are smaller than inches, converting inches to centimeters Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach should result in a larger number 14

2.3: MOLE CONCEPT

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Formula/Molecular Mass
The mass of an individual molecule or formula unit
also known as molecular mass or molecular weight

Sum of the masses of the atoms in a single molecule or

formula unit
whole = sum of the parts!

mass of 1 molecule of H2O = 2(1.01 amu H) + 16.00 amu O = 18.02 amu

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Formula Weights

Formula and Molecular Weights Formula weights (FW): sum of atomic weights (AW) for atoms in formula.
FW (H2SO4) = 2AW(H) + AW(S) + 4AW(O) = 2(1.0 amu) + (32.0 amu) + 4(16.0 amu) = 98.0 amu

Molecular weight (MW) is the weight of the molecular formula.

MW(C6H12O6) = 6(12.0 amu) + 12(1.0 amu) + 6(16.0 amu) = 180.0 amu

Formula Weights
Percentage Composition from Formulas Percent composition is the atomic weight for each element divided by the formula weight of the compound multiplied by 100:

% Element =

( No of atoms of Element )( AW ) 100

FW of Compound

The Mole
Mole: convenient measure of chemical quantities. 1 mole of something = 6.0221367 1023 of that thing. Experimentally, 1 mole of 12C has a mass of 12 g.

Chemical Packages - Moles

Mole = number of particles equal to the number of atoms in 12 g of C-12 1 atom of C-12 weighs exactly 12 amu 1 mole of C-12 weighs exactly 12 g The number of particles in 1 mole is called Avogadros Number = 6.0221421 x 1023 1 mole of C atoms weighs 12.01 g and has 6.022 x 1023 atoms the average mass of a C atom is 12.01 amu
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Molar Mass

The mass of one mole of a substance is called the molar mass of the substance. Molar mass: mass in grams of 1 mole of substance (units g/mol, gmol-1). Mass of 1 mole of 12C = 12 g. The molar mass of a substance is numerically equal to the relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass or formula mass of the substance, but expressed in g/mol. The lighter the atom of an element, the less a mole of the element weighs.

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Molar Mass of Compounds

The relative masses of molecules can be calculated
from atomic masses Formula Mass = 1 molecule of H2O = 2(1.01 amu H) + 16.00 amu O = 18.02 amu 1 mole of H2O contains 2 moles of H and 1 mole of O so molar mass = 1 mole H2O = 2(1.01 g H) + 16.00 g O = 18.02 g so the Molar Mass of H2O is 18.02 g/mole
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Interconverting Masses, Moles, and Number of Particles

Molar mass: sum of the molar masses of the atoms: molar mass of N2 = 2 (molar mass of N). Molar masses for elements are found in the periodic table. Formula weights are numerically equal to the molar mass.

 Start with mass % of elements (i.e. empirical data) and calculate a formula, or Start with the formula and calculate the mass % elements. Once we know the empirical formula, we need the MW to find the molecular formula.

Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations

Balanced chemical equation gives number of molecules that react to form products. Interpretation: ratio of the number of moles of reactant required to give the ratio of number of moles of product. These ratios are called stoichiometric ratios. Stoichiometric ratios are ideal proportions Real ratios of reactants and products in the laboratory need to be measured (in grams and converted to moles).

Example 2.1: Calculate the relative molar mass of Na2(CO3).10H2O

Molar mass = 2(mass Na)+ mass of C + 3(mass O) + 10 (mass of H 2O) = 2 x 22.99 + 12.01 + 3 x 16.00 + 10 {(2x1.008) + 16.00} = 45.98 + 12.01 + 48.00 + 180.16 = 286.15 g/mol

Practice 2.1: Calculate the relative molar mass of the following substances. (a) Ca3(PO4)2 (d) K4Fe(CN)6 (b) Na2B4O7.10H2O (e) (CH3)2CO (c) (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2

EXAMPLES
1 mol of copper, Cu contains 6.022 x 10 23 of Cu atoms. 1 mol of water , H2O contains 6.022 x 1023 of H2O molecules. 1 mol of MgCl2 crystal contains 6.022 x 1023 of MgCl2 formula units.

The following relationships supply the conversion factors for the conversions among mass in grams, amount in moles, and number of elementary units, Mass (gram) of substance Mol substance = molar mass of substance (g mol-1) Number of elementary units = mol X Avogadros No (atoms / molecules / formula units)

Mole and Mass Relationships

1 mole sulfur 32.06 g

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1 mole carbon 12.01 g

Example 2.2: Calculate the number of atoms in 2.45 mol of copper

Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: mol Cu 2.45 mol Cu atoms Cu atoms Cu

1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Check: because atoms are small, the large number of atoms makes sense
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Example 2.3: A silver ring contains 1.1 x 10 22 silver atoms. How many moles of silver are in the ring?
Given: Find: Conceptual Plan:
Relationships:

1.1 x 1022 atoms Ag moles Ag atoms Ag mol Ag

1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Solution:

Check:

because the number of atoms given is less than Avogadros number, the answer makes sense
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Example 2.4: How many copper atoms are in a penny weighing 3.10 g?
Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: 3.10 g Cu atoms Cu g Cu mol Cu atoms Cu

1 mol Cu = 63.55 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Check: because the given amount is much less than 1 mol Cu, the number makes sense
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Example 2.5: Find the number of CO2 molecules in 10.8 g of dry ice
Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: g CO2 10.8 g CO2 molecules CO2 mol CO2 molec CO2 1 mol CO2 = 44.01 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Check:

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because the given amount is much less than 1 mol CO2, the number makes sense 34

Example 2.6 How many formula units are in 50.0 g of PbO2? (PbO2 = 239.2)
Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: g PbO2 50.0 g PbO2 formula units PbO2 mol PbO2 units PbO2

1 mol PbO2 = 239.2 g,1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Check:

because the given amount is less than 1 mol PbO2, the number makes sense

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Example 2.7 What is the mass of 4.78 x 1024 NO2 molecules?

Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: 4.78 x 1024 NO2 molecules g NO2 molecules

mol NO2

g NO2

1 mol NO2 = 46.01 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Check:

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because the given amount is more than Avogadros number, the mass > 46 g makes sense 36

Example 2.8: Calculate the number of (i) H2O molecules (ii) H atoms and (iii) all the atoms in 0.25 mol of water. Given: Find: Conceptual Plan:
Relationships:

0.25 mol H2O (i) H2O molecules Mol H2O

6.022 x 1023 molecules 1 mol

Molecules of H2O

1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 molecules

Solution:

6.022 x 10 23 molecules 0.25 mol x = 1.51 x 10 23 molecules 1 mol

Check: because the number of molecules is less than that of 1 mol, the answer makes sense
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Given 0.25 mol H2O, to find (ii) No. of H atoms (iii) total atoms Conceptual plan :
3 atoms 1 molecule

Total atoms H atoms

Mol H2O

Molecules H2O

6.022 x 1023 molecules 1 mol

2 H atoms 1 molecule

Taking the answer from (i), we proceed to (ii) & (iii) (ii) No. H atoms = No. of H2O molecules x 2 H atoms 1 molecule = 3.01 x 1023 H atoms (iii) Total atoms = No. of H2O molecules x 3 atoms 1 molecule = 4.52 x 1023 atoms

Practice 2.2: Calculate the number of : (i)formula units of AlF3 , (ii)(ii) F- ions and (iii)(iii) Al3+ ions and (iv)(iv) all the ions in 0.02 mol of the compound AlF3. { Ans : (i) 1.204 x 1022 formula units , (ii) 3.612 x 1022 F ions (iii) 1.204 x 1022 Al3+ ions (iv) 4.82 x 1022 ions }

Practice 2.3 Calculate the number of moles present in each of the samples given below : (a)10.5 g of Ca(OH)2 (b)(b) 0.2 x 1023 of Fe atom (c) 1.5 x 1024 of CH4 molecules. { Ans (a) RMM = 74; 0.14 mol (b) 0.03 mol (c) 2.49 mol } Practice 2.4 Calculate the mass, in grams, of each of the following : (a)1.5 mol of C9H8O3. (b)(b) 2.2 x 1020 of Ag atom (c) 3.0 x 1022 of HI molecules { Ans (a) 246 g (b) 0.0432 g (c) 6.28 g }

Practice 2.5 A sample of suphur dioxide gas, SO2 , contains 6.6 x 1022 of oxygen, O, atoms. Calculate (i) the number of S atoms (ii) the number of moles of SO2 (iii) the mass of SO2 in the above sample. { Ans 3.3 x 1022 S atom , (ii) 0.055 mol (iii) 3.52 g }

2.4: PERCENT COMPOSITION

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Percent Composition
Percentage of each element in a compound
by mass

Can be determined from

1. the formula of the compound 2. the experimental mass analysis of the compound

The percentages may not always total to 100% due to rounding

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Example 2.9: Find the mass percent of Cl in C2Cl4F2

Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: C2Cl4F2 % Cl by mass

Check:

because the percentage is less than 100 and Cl is much heavier than the other atoms, the number makes sense
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Example 2.10: Determine the percent composition of CaCl2 (Ca = 40.08, Cl = 35.45)

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Mass Percent as a Conversion Factor

The mass percent tells you the mass of a constituent element in 100 g of the compound the fact that CCl2F2 is 58.64% Cl by mass means that 100 g of CCl2F2 contains 58.64 g Cl This can be used as a conversion factor 100 g CCl2F2 : 58.64 g Cl

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Example 2.11 : Find the mass of table salt containing 2.4 g of Na

Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: 2.4 g Na, 39% Na g NaCl g Na g NaCl

100 g NaCl : 39 g Na

Check:because the mass of NaCl is more than 2x the mass of Na, the number makes sense
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Example 2.12: Benzaldehyde is 79.2% carbon. What mass of benzaldehyde contains 19.8 g of C? Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: 100 g benzaldehyde : 79.2 g C 19.8 g C, 79.2% C g benzaldehyde

Check: because the mass of benzaldehyde is more than the mass of C, the number makes sense
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Conversion Factors in Chemical Formulas

Chemical formulas have inherent in them relationships between numbers of atoms and molecules

or moles of atoms and molecules

These relationships can be used to convert between amounts of constituent elements and molecules

like percent composition

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Example 2.13: Find the mass of sodium in 6.2 g of NaCl (Na = 22.99; Cl = 35.45)
Given: Find: Conceptual Plan:
Relationships:
1 mol NaCl = 58.44 g, 1 mol Na = 22.99 g, 1 mol Na : 1 mol NaCl

6.2 g NaCl g Na

Solution:

Check: because the amount of Na is less than the amount of NaCl, the answer makes sense
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2.5: EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

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Empirical Formula
Simplest, whole-number ratio of the atoms of elements in a compound Can be determined from elemental analysis

masses of elements formed when a compound is decompose, or that react together to form a compound
combustion

analysis

percent composition
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Finding an Empirical Formula

1. Convert the percentages to grams a) assume you start with 100 g of the compound b) skip if already in grams 2. Convert grams to moles a) use molar mass of each element 3. Divide all by smallest number of moles a) if result is within 0.1 of whole number, round to whole number 4. Multiply all mole ratios by a number to make all whole numbers a) if ratio ?.5, multiply all by 2; if ratio ?.33 or ?.67, multiply all by 3; if ratio 0.25 or 0.75, multiply all by 4; etc. b) skip if already whole numbers
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Example 2.14: Laboratory analysis of aspirin determined the following mass percent composition as follows: C = 60.00%, H = 4.48% and O = 35.53%. Calculate the empirical formula of aspirin. Solution: In 100 g of aspirin there are 60.00 g C, 4.48 g H, 35.53 g O The conceptual plan is gC gC gH gH gO gO mol C mol C mol H mol H mol O mol O
mole ratio whole number ratio

empirical empirical formula formula

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Given the molar mass: 1 mol C = 12.01 g; 1 mol H = 1.008 g; 1 mol O = 16.00 g calculate the moles of each element

The mole ratio of C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220 Divide the mole ratio by the smallest number of mole in the above mole ratio to get the whole number mole ratio
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Whole number mole ratio: C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220 = 2.25 : 2 : 1 2.220 2.220 2.220

Choose a small number to multiply the mole ratio in order to get the whole number mole ratio Multiply by 4 C : H : O = 2.25 x 4 : 2 x 4 : 1 x 4 = 9: 8: 4 The empirical formula = C9H8O4 Convert one unit to another, then you can evaluate the empirical formula in a table format.
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Empirical and molecular formula

Element
% composition by mass (g) Relative atomic mass Number of moles Mole ratios Simplest ratio
(whole number)
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Empirical formula
Element
% composition by mass (g) Relative atomic mass Number of moles Mole ratios

C
60.00

H
4.48

O
35.53

12.01 4.996 4.996 2.220 = 2.25 9

1.008 4.44 4.44 2.220 =2 8

16.00 2.220 2.220 2.220 =1 4

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Simplest ratio (x4)

Practice 2.6: Determine the empirical formula of magnetite, which contains 72.4% Fe (55.85) and the rest oxygen (16.00)

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Molecular Formulas
The molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula To determine the molecular formula you need to know the empirical formula and the molar mass of the compound

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Example 2.15: Find the molecular formula of butanedione Given: Find:

Conceptual Plan: and Relationships:

emp. form. = C2H3O; MM = 86.03 g/mol molecular formula

Solution:

Check:

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the molar mass of the calculated formula is in agreement with the given molar mass
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Example 2.16: Benzopyrene has a molar mass of 252 g and an empirical formula of C5H3. What is its molecular formula? (C = 12.01, H=1.01)

C5 = 5(12.01 g) = 60.05 g H3 = 3(1.01 g) = 3.03 g C5H3 = 63.08 g

Molecular formula = {C5H3} x 4 = C20H12

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Practice 2.7 Methyl salicylate has a mass percent composition of 63.2% C, 31.6% O and 5.26% H. The mass of one molecule of the compound is 2.53 x 10 -22 g. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of methyl salicylate. Practice 2.8 The mass percent composition of an organic acid is given as 41.4% C, 3.47% H, 55.1% O. 0.05 mol of this acid has a mass of 5.80g. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of this acid.
{ Ans : CHO; C4H4O4 } { Ans : C3H8O3 }

Practice 2.9 An 0.648 g sample of isobutene contains 0.556g of carbon and the rest is hydrogen. 0.5 mol of the isobutene has a mass of 28.5g. What is the empirical formula and molecular formula of isobutene.
{ Ans : CH2 ; JMR = 57 g mol-1 ; C4H8 }

Combustion Analysis

A common technique for analyzing compounds is to burn a known mass of compound and weigh the amounts of product made generally used for organic compounds containing C, H, O By knowing the mass of the product and composition of constituent element in the product, the original amount of constituent element can be determined all the original C forms CO2, the original H forms H2O, the original mass of O is found by subtraction Once the masses of all the constituent elements in the original compound have been determined, the empirical formula can be found
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Combustion Analysis

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Example 2.17 Combustion of a 0.8233 g sample of a compound containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen produced 2.445 g CO2 and 0.6003 g H2O. Determine the empirical formula of the compound Solution: Let the empirical formula to be CxHyOz Write a conceptual plan g CO2, H2O mol CO2, H2O mol C, H, O
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mol C, H mol ratio

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g C, H

g O empirical formula

mol O

Convert : g CO2 9 H2O

mol CO2 mol H2O

mol C mol H

Use the following relationship: Molar mass of CO2 = 12.01 + (16.00)2 = 44.01 g/mol Molar mass of H2O = 2(1.008) + 16.00 = 18.02 g/mol 1mol CO2 = 1 mol C; 1mol H2O = 2 mol H

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Calculate the grams of C and H using molar mass of C and H

Calculate the grams and moles of O Mass of O = Mass of compound (mass of C + mass of H) 0.8233 g (0.6673 g + 0.06715 g) = 0.0889 g O

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Mole ratio C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556 Divide by the smallest mole C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556 0.00556 0.00556 0.00556 = 10 : 12 : The empirical formula = C10H12O Practice 2.10 The smell of dirty gym socks is caused by the compound caproic acid. Combustion of 0.844 g of caproic acid produced 0.784 g of H2O and 1.92 g of CO2. If the molar mass of caproic acid is 116.2 g/mol, what is the molecular formula of caproic acid? (Molar mass C = 12.01, H = 1.008, O = 16.00)
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{Ans : C3H6O ; C6H12O2 }

2.6: Reaction Stoichiometry Or Solving Chemical Problems Equations & Dimensional Analysis
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