FACTS & HVDC

Controllers
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

by

Issarachai Ngamroo, Ph.D.

Energy, AIT

Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology

Thammasat University
December 16, 2004
 Why FACTS & HVDC ?
1. Connection of generation
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

Some of power plants (large

hydro and thermal stations)
can be located near the load
and can be connected by
relatively short AC lines to the FACTS or HVDC
grid. But some of them have to
be located far from the load,
particularly hydro plants and
coal plants, and the
transmissions often has to be
HVDC or AC with FACTS.
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Three Gorges HVDCs, China

 Why FACTS & HVDC ?
2. Connection of isolated loads HVDC or FACTS

With isolated loads we mean

loads that due to geographical
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

or other conditions are not

connected to a major grid but
have to rely on (small) local
generation. Examples are
islands and remote towns and
villages. The local generation
is often expensive and not
environmentally sound. If an
isolated load can be connected
to a main grid the cost of
electricity goes down. The
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transmissions options are

often HVDC/HVDC Light or AC
with FACTS.

The HVDC link to Gotland, Sweden

 Why FACTS & HVDC ?
3. Interconnection

HVDC or FACTS
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

50 Hz 50 Hz

It is increasingly economic to interconnect with neighbouring

grids to benefit from the pooling of resources. We have selected to
distinguish interconnections within a grid and new interconnections
between grids.

3.1 Within a grid (same frequency)

By this we mean const ructing or strengthening a circuit between
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two points that belongs to the same synchronous grid (or group of
grids). If the electrical distance is short or of moderate length, it is
often enough to build one or two uncompensated AC-lines or cables.
But with increasing distance, the addition of FACTS and utilizing
HVDC can be the optimum choice.
 Why FACTS & HVDC ?
3.2 Between grids (different frequencies)

HVDC
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

50 Hz 60 Hz

Between grids

This means linking two separate networks that are

not running in synchronism so that exchange of power
can take place. If they are linked by an AC circuit
assuming the same nominal frequency, then the
combined network becomes one synchronous grid
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with common frequency control. But if the power

transfer is on a HVDC link, the networks can maintain
their separate frequencies.
 Why FACTS & HVDC ?
4. Increasing existing grid utilization

new transmission
lines are expensive
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

and not permitted

FACTS

FACTS solutions is an attractive means to raise the

capability or enhance the reliability of the grid.
In many countries new transmission facilities are not
permitted and transmission grids world-wide are as a
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consequence of load growth stressed closer to their power

transfer limits. In many cases FACTS solutions appear as an
attractive short term means to raise the transfer limit or to
more generally enhance the reliability of the existing grid.
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) are the name

given to the application of power electronics devices to
control the power flows and other quantities in power
systems.

IEEE Definitions
FACTS: AC transmission systems incorporating the power
electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance
controllability and increase power transfer capability.
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FACTS Controllers: A power electronic based system &

other static equipment that provide control of one or more
AC transmission parameters.
 FACTS Concepts
V1∠δ1 V2 ∠δ 2
Bus 1 jx Bus 2
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

P12 + jQ12
V1V2
Active Power Flow P12 = sin (δ1 − δ 2 )
x
V12 V1V2
Reactive Power Flow Q12 = − cos (δ1 − δ 2 )
x x
Control Variables
1. Phase Difference : δ1-δ2
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2. Voltage : V1, V2
3. Line Reactance : x
 Objectives of FACTS Controllers
1. Solve Power Transfer Limit & Stability Problems
1.1 Thermal Limit
1.2 Voltage Limit
1.3 Stability Limit
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1.3.1Transient Stability Limit

1.3.2 Small Signal Stability Limit
1.3.3 Voltage Stability Limit
2. Increase (control) power transfer capability of a line
3. Mitigate subsynchronous resonance (SSR)
4. Power quality improvement
5. Load compensation
6. Limit short circuit current
7. Increase the loadability of the system
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Demerits
1. Expensive 2. Controller interactions are possible
 Types of FACTS Controllers

FACTS
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Series- Series-
Series Shunt
Shunt Series
• Thyristor • Static Var
Controlled Compensator • Unified Power • Interline Power
Series (SVC) Flow Controller Flow Controller
Capacitor
• Static (UPFC) (IPFC)
(TCSC)
Synchronous
• Static Compensator
Synchronous (STATCOM)
Series
Compensator
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(SSSC)

Thyristor-based FACTS VSC-based FACTS Controllers

Controllers: TCSC, SVC ect. SSSC, STATCOM, UPFC, IPFC
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,
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Figure: Basic type of FACTS controllers: (a) general symbol

for FACTS controller; (b) Series Controller; (c) Shunt
Controller; (d) Unified Series-Series Controller; (e)
Coordinated Series and Shunt Controller and (f) Unified
Series-Shunt Controller.
 Series Controllers

1. It could be a variable impedance such as capacitor,

reactor, etc or power electronics based variable
source of main frequency, sub-synchronous or
harmonic frequencies ( or a combination).
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

2. All series controller inject voltage in series with line.

3. If voltage is in phase quadrature with the line
current, it only supplies or absorbs the variable
reactive power.

Shunt Controllers

1. It could be a variable impedance, variable source or

a combination of these.
2. All shunt controllers inject current into the system
at the point of connection.
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3. If injected current is in quadrature with the line

voltage, it only supplies or absorbs the variable
reactive power.
 Combined Series-Shunt Controllers

1. It could be a combination of separate shunt and series

controllers as coordinated or unified. UPFC is example of
this.
2. Combined series and shunt controller injects current
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into the system with shunt part and voltage in series with
series part of controller.
3. When shunt and series controllers are unified there can be a
real power exchange between shunt and series controllers
via DC power link.
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 Static Var Compensator (SVC)
A shunt-connected static var generator or absorber whose output
is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to
maintain or control the bus voltage.
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

• Regulate the line

voltage by connecting
an inductor or a
capacitor in shunt
with the transmission
line

• Thyristor Controlled
Reactor (TCR)

• Thyristor Switched
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Capacitor (TSC)
 Thyristor Controller Reactor (TCR)
A shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled inductor whose effective
reactamce is varied in a continuous manner by partial-conduction
control of the thyristor valve.
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V V - ΔV
IL
L
∆QSVC
L
α
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 TCR: Bus voltage and current

BTCR (α) = 2(π – α) + sin 2α

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πXL
= σ – sin σ
πXL

α : firing angle
σ = 2(π-α)

σ : conduction angle
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 Control Characteristic of the TCR Susceptance, BTCR
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• BTCR is maximum at full • BTCR is minimum at α =

conduction ( α = 90° or 180 ° or σ = 0°
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σ = 180° )
BTCR(MIN) = 0
BTCR(MAX) = 1/XL
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched capacitor whose effective
reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full-or zero-
Conduction operation of the thyristor valve.
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V V + ΔV
IC
C
C
α ∆QSVC
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Training Workshop on FACTS Application,
Energy, AIT 1. Damping of power oscillations
SVC Applications
 2. Voltage Stability Enhancement

Vth X th V
I
P + jQ
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,
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Voltage Stability Enhancement

 3. Maximum Power Transfer Improvement
P + jQ
V δ V V 0

jX/2 jX/2
QSVC
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No SVC SVC With SVC

P = (V2/X) sin δ P = (2V2/X) sin (δ/2)
QSVC = (4V2/X) (1 - cos (δ/2))

Q s v c (m a x ) = 4 * P m a x = 5 .3 2
5

4
P m a x (c o m p ) = 2 * P m a x = 2 .6 6
P (pu)

3
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P m a x (u n c o m p )
2 = 1 .3 3

0
0 50 100 150
a n g le (d e g )
 4. Transient Stability Margin Enhancement
V

jX/2 jX/2
SVC
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Equal-Area Criterion With SVC, decelerating area margin

is larger.
3

D e c e le ra tin g
2.5
A re a

2 D e c e le ra tin g
A c c e le ra tin g
A re a M a rg in
A re a
1.5 (S h u n t C o m p .)
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0.5

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
 Thyristor Control Series Capacitor (TCSC)
A capacitive reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor
bank shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor in order to provide a
smoothly variable series capacitive reactance.
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Tunable Parallel LC Circuit

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Swedish National Grid TCSC at Stode

 TCSC Applications
1. Transient Stability Enhancement
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V1V2
With SC P12( nc ) = sin (δ1 − δ 2 )
x
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V1V2
Without SC P12( c ) = sin (δ1 − δ 2 )
x − xc
P12(max) with SC > P12(max) without SC
 2. Voltage Stability Enhancement
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Decreasing line reactance increases maximum active

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power demand
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,
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3. Damping of Power Oscillations
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,
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4. Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) Mitigation
 Voltage Source Converter (VSC)-based
FACTS Controllers : STATCOM, SSSC, UPFC
Voltage Source Converter
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Vs Vc
DC Energy
Storage

Power P + jQ
System

P + jQ
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Vs 0 Vc Ө
AC Voltage Source
with controllable
Xt Magnitude & Phase
 Active & Reactive Power Control
by VSC
P + jQ
Vs 0° Vc Ө
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Xt
Vc
P = (VsVc/Xt) sin Ө
Ө
Vs Q = Vs (Vccos Ө - Vs)/Xt

Control Variables for Power Flow Direction

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1. Active Power Flow => Phase difference Ө

2. Reactive Power Flow => Voltage magnitude Vc
 Active & Reactive Power
Diagram of VSC
Q
Absorbs P Supplies P
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Vs Supplies Q Supplies Q Vc
Ө
Vc Ө
Vs
Rectifier Inverter
P
Vc
Vs
Ө
Vc Ө
Vs
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Absorbs P Supplies P
Absorbs Q Absorbs Q
 Static Synchronous Compensator
(STATCOM)
STATCOM is the voltage-source converter, which converts a
DC input voltage into AC output voltage in order to
compensate the active and reactive needed by the system.
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Vs

Vs
Q
Iq Iq
Vc Xt

Vc
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Idc
- +
Vdc
 Control Modes of STATCOM

Vs At AC Terminal
Iq Iq
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Xt Capacitive Mode
V c > Vs (supplies Q)

Vc Vac
V c < Vs Inductive Mode
(absorbs Q)

-Iq
Advantages

1. Voltage Stability Enhancement

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2. Angle Stability Improvement

3. Power Quality
etc.
 Static Synchronous Series Compensator
(SSSC)
SSSC is the solid-state synchronous voltage source employing an
appropriate DC to AC inverter with gate turn-off thyristor used for
series compensation of transmission lines.

Vq
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Vq Xt
I I

At AC Terminal
Q Vq
Inductive Mode
(absorbs Q)
I
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Capacitive Mode
(supplies Q)
-Vq
 Control Modes of SSSC
- Injected voltage (Vq) emulates an inductive or a capacitive
in series with the transmission line.

Vq
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Vs Xt Vr
I

Vq VL VL
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Vq
Vs δ Vr Vs Vr
δ
 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
UPFC is a combination of STATCOM and SSSC, which are coupled via
a common DC link, to allow bi-directional flow of real power between
the series output terminals of the SSSC and the shunt output
terminals of the STATCOM, and are controlled to provide concurrent
real and reactive series line compensation without an external electric
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

energy source.
Vpq
I V V + Vpq

P Vpq
Q
Q
V + Vpq
V
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STATCOM SSSC
• Independent reactive power exchange between shunt/series
converters and power system.
• Active power constraint : Pshunt = Pseries
 HVDC
The High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) technology
is used to transmit electricity over long distances by
overhead transmission lines or submarine cables. It is
also used to interconnect separate power systems,
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where traditional alternating current (AC) connections

can not be used.
Converter Converter

AC DC line or cable AC

Limitations of HVAC Transmission

1. Reactive Power Loss Solve by
HVDC
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2. Stability
3. Current Carrying Capacity Transmission
4. Ferranti Effect
 Advantages of HVDC
1. Total investment cost of HVDC transmission is lower.

Investment Cost
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Terminal Transmission
Tower Cost Land Cost
Cost Line Cost
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 Terminal Cost & Transmission Line Cost

1.1 A HVDC transmission line costs

less than an AC line for the same
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transmission capacity.

1.2 DC terminal cost is more

expensive than AC terminal cost.

1.3 But above a certain distance, the

so called "break-even distance",
the HVDC alternative will always
give the lowest cost.

1.4 Break even distance: 600 ~ 800

km
Total DC cost < Total AC cost
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Training Workshop on FACTS Application,
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Tower Cost & Land Cost
 2. HVDC cable transmissions for long distance water
crossing
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In a long AC cable transmission, the reactive power flow

due to the large cable capacitance will limit the maximum
possible transmission distance. With HVDC there is no such
limitation, why, for long cable links, HVDC is the only viable
technical alternative. The longest HVDC submarine cable
presently in operation is the 250 km Baltic Cable
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transmission between Sweden and Germany. Several HVDC

submarine cables of 500 km or more are currently being
planned in Europe and elsewhere.
 3. HVDC transmission has lower losses.

An optimized HVDC
transmission line has lower
losses than AC lines for the
same power capacity. The
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losses in the converter

stations have of course to
be added, but since they are
only about 0.6 % of the
transmitted power in each
station, the total HVDC
transmission losses come
out lower than the AC losses
in practically all cases.
HVDC cables also have
lower losses than AC cables.
The diagram below shows a
comparison of the losses for
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overhead line transmissions

of 1200 MW with AC and
HVDC.
 4. HVDC transmission for asynchronous connection

Converter Converter

AC DC line or cable AC
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Many HVDC links interconnect incompatible AC systems.

Several HVDC links interconnect AC system that are not
running in synchronism with each other. System frequencies
of both areas may be same or different.

Examples
4.1 Interconnected System with same frequency
a) UCTE (Union for the Co-ordination of transmission of
Electricity) and Nordel
(websites: www.ucte.org and www.nordel.org)
b) US Eastern & Western
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4.2 With different frequency: In Japan 50-60 Hz systems

 Interconnection with Same Frequency

The Nordel power system in

Scandinavia is not
synchronous with the UCTE
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grid in western continental

Europe even though the
nominal frequencies are the
same.

The power system of eastern

USA is not synchronous with
that of western USA. The
reason for this is that it is
sometimes difficult or
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impossible to connect two AC

networks due to stability
reasons.
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,
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Interconnection with Different Frequencies
 Other advantages of HVDC

5. Require less space compared to ac for same voltage

rating and size

6. Ground can be used as returned conductor

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7. Less corona loss and radio interference

8. No charging current

9. No skin and Ferranti effect

10. No switching transient

11. An HVDC transmission limits short circuit currents

12. HVDC transmission for controllability of power flow

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13. Environmental benefits.

 Disadvantages of HVDC
1. High cost of terminal equipments
HVDC transmission system requires converters at both
ends and those are very expensive than ac equipments
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2. Introduction of harmonics
Converter generate considerable amount of harmonics
both on ac and dc sides. Some harmonics are filtered out
but some harmonics still enter into the system and affect
the apparatus These harmonics may also interfere with
communication system.

3. Blocking of reactive power

DC lines block the flow of reactive power from one end
to another end. These reactive powers are required by
some load that must be fulfilled by the inverters.
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4. Point-to-point transmission not possible.

It is not possible to tap dc power at several locations in
the line. Wherever power is to be trapped, a control
station is required and coordinated with other terminals.
This increases the complexity and cost of the systems.
 Types of HVDC Links
1. Monopolar & Bipolar
Monopolar
- Having one
conductor and
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ground is used
as return path.

Bipolar
-There are two
conductors
(Poles). One
operates at
+v polarity and
other is on –v
polarity.
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-During fault in
one pole, it works
as monopolar.
 2. HVDC back-to-back station : Japan 50/60 Hz systems
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2.1 To create an asynchronous interconnection between two

AC networks, which could have the same or different
frequencies.
2.2 Both the rectifier and the inverter are located in the same
station
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2.3 The direct voltage level can be selected without

consideration to the optimum values for an overhead line
and a cable, and is therefore normally quite low, 150 kV
or lower. The only major equipment on the DC-side is a
smoothing reactor.
 3. HVDC multi-terminal system
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3.1 A multi-terminal HVDC transmission is an HVDC system with

more than two converter stations.
3.2 A multi-terminal HVDC transmission is more complex than
an ordinary mono/bi-polars transmission. In particular, the
control system is more elaborate and the telecommunication
requirements between the stations become larger.
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3.3 There is only one large-scale multi-terminal HVDC system in

operation in the world today. It is the 2000 MW
Hydro Québec – New England transmission
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,
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Main Components of an HVDC System
 Converter
3 phase converter arrangement 3 phase arrangement inside a valve hall
(thyristor and arresters): (500 kVdc / 825MW).
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1. Sending end converter works as rectifier (converts AC power to DC

power), however converter at receiving end works as inverter
(converts DC power to AC power).
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2. Several thyristors are connected in series/ parallel to form a valve to

achieve higher voltage/current ratings.

3. Line-commutated converter: use thyristor as switch

Self-commutated converter: use Gate-turn off (GTO) thyristor etc,
as switch
 HVDC Converter Transformers
For six-pulse converter, a conventional 3-phase or three single phase
transformers is used. Converter transformers serve several functions.

1. Voltage transformation between the AC

Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

supply and the HVDC system.

2. Supply of AC voltages in two separate

circuits with a relative phase shift of 30
electrical degrees for reduction of low
order harmonics, especially the 5th and
7th harmonics.

3. Act as a galvanic barrier between the AC

and DC systems to prevent the DC
potential to enter the AC system.

4. Reactive impedance in the AC supply to

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reduce short circuit currents and to

control the rate of rise in valve current
1 phase / 3 winding during commutation.
/354 MVA
 DC Smoothing Reactors
A DC reactor is normally connected in series with the converter.
The main objectives of the reactor are:
1. To reduce the harmonic currents on the DC side of the converter.
2. To reduce the risk of commutation failures by limiting the rate of
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rise of the DC line current at transient disturbances in the AC or DC

systems.
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Air-core smoothing reactor in the Oil-insulated smoothing reactor

FennoSkan HVDC transmission in the Rihand - Dehli HVDC
 AC/DC Filters
1. Harmonics generated by converters are of the order of
np±1 in AC side and np in DC side where p is number of
pulses and n is integer.
2. Filters are used to provide low impedance path to the
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ground for the harmonic currents.

3. They are connected to the converter terminals so that
harmonics should not enter to the AC system.
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Two three-phase AC filter banks for 500 kV DC-filter with

400 kV at the Tjele HVDC converter Suspended capacitor
station, Denmark.
 Reactive Power Sources
Conventional HVDC converters always have a demand for
reactive power. At normal operation, a converter consumes
reactive power in an amount that corresponds to
approximately 50 % of the transmitted active power. The least
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costly way to generate reactive power is in shunt connected

capacitor banks.
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Capacitor Bank 400kV shunt capacitor

at the Dannebo HVDC
converter station, Sweden
 HVDC Light
1. HVDC Light unit sizes range from a few tens of MW to presently
350 MW and for DC voltages up to ±150 kV and units can be
connected in parallel.
2. HVDC Light consists of two elements: converter stations and a
pair of cables. The converter stations are Voltage Source
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Converters (VSCs) employing state of the art turn on/turn off

IGBT power semiconductors. (IGBT = Insulated
Gate Bipolar Transistor) => Self-commutated switch
3. VSC => Active Power & Reactive Power are controllable.
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 HVDC Light Applications
1. Infeed of small-scale generation e.g. small hydraulic
generators, windmill farms and solar power etc.
2. Feed small local loads, isolated load, and island
3. Asynchronous grid connection etc.
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Rectifier Inverter
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 Conventional HVDC & HVDC Light
Conventional HVDC HVDC Light main circuit
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 Whether HVDC or FACTS ?
1. Both are complementary technologies.

2. The role of HVDC is to interconnect ac systems where a

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reliable ac interconnection would be too expensive.

2.1 Independent frequency and control
2.2 Lower line cost
2.3 Power control, voltage control and stability control
possible

3. The large market potential for FACTS is within AC system on

a value added basis where
3.1 The existing steady-state phase angle between bus
node is reasonable
3.2 The cost of FACTS solution is lower than the HVDC cost
3.3 The required FACTS controller capacity is lesser than the
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transmission rating
 Costs of HVDC & FACTS
Throughput HVDC 2 terminal FACTS
200 MW $ 40-50 M $ 5-10 M
500 MW 75-100 M 10-20 M
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1000 MW 120-170 M 20-30 M

2000 MW 200-300 M 30-50 M

FACTS Cost (US$)

Shunt Capacitor 8/kvar
Series Capacitor 20/kvar
SVC 40/kvar
TCSC 40/kvar
STATCOM 50/kvar
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UPFC 50/kvar
(series portion)
UPFC 50/kvar
(shunt portion)
 References
1. N.G. Hingorani & L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS, IEEE Press.
2. Y.H. Song & A.T. John, Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(FACTS), IEE Power and Energy Series.
3. R.M. Mathur & R.K. Varma, Thyristor-Based FACTS Controllers
Training Workshop on FACTS Application,

for Electrical Transmission Systems, Wiley.

4. E. Acha et al, FACTS Modelling and Simulation in Power
Networks, Wiley.
5. P.M. Anderson, Series Compensation of Power System,PBLSH!
6. E. Acha et al, Power Electronic Control in Electrical Systems,
Newnes.
7. S.N. Singh, Electric Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution, Prentice-Hall.
8. P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw Hill.
9. Pardiya, HVDC Power Transmission System, Wiley.
10. E.W. Kimbark, Direct Current Transmission, Wiley.
11. E.Uhlmann, Power Transmission by Direct Current, Springer.
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12. J.Arrillaga, High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, IEE.