1 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

Introduction

PC technologies continue to evolve as performance demands grow, and system

memory technology is no exception. Throughout the history of the PC, memory

technology has steadily progressed in capacity and performance to meet the increasing

requirements of other PC hardware subsystems and software. In the past, there have been

relatively clear industry transitions from one memory technology to its successor.

However, today there are multiple choices— PC133, RDRAM, and Double Data Rate

(DDR)— and more choices may exist in the future as providers of DRAM system

memory accommodate a growing variety of platforms and form factors. These range

from small handheld devices to high-end servers, each with different power, space, speed,

and capacity requirements for system memory. This seminar focuses on PC system

memory issues and trends. It begins by reviewing the role of memory in the system and

the key memory parameters that affect system performance. This report then presents the

basics of memory technology and today's alternatives. Finally says about the key

upcoming transitions in the DDR and Rambus memory technologies.

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2 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

Role of Memory in the System

The primary role of memory is to store code and data for the processor. Although

caching and other processor architecture features have reduced its dependency on

memory performance, the processor still requires most of the memory bandwidth. Figure

1 shows the major consumers of memory bandwidth: the processor, graphics subsystem,

PCI devices (such as high-speed communications devices), and hard drives. Other lower

bandwidth interfaces such as the USB and parallel ports must also be accommodated. The

memory hub provides an interface to system memory for all of the high bandwidth

devices. The I/O hub schedules requests from other devices into the memory hub.

Memory plays a key role in the efficient operation of I/O devices such as graphics

adapters and disk drives. In a typical system, most data transfers move through system

memory. For example, when transferring a file from the network to a local disk, the PCI

host adapter transfers data from the network to memory. This is commonly referred to as

direct memory access (DMA), as opposed to programmed I/O (PIO), in which the

processor is directly involved in all data transfers. The processor, after performing any

required formatting operations, initiates a transfer from memory to local disk storage.

Once initiated, the data is transferred directly from memory to disk without any further

processor involvement. In summary, the system memory functions as the primary storage

component for processor code and data, and as a centralized transfer point for most data

movement in today's systems

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3 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

Performance Factors

Memory parameters that impact system performance are capacity, bandwidth, and

latency.

Capacity

How does capacity impact system performance? The first step in answering this

question is to describe the memory hierarchy. Table 1 shows the capacities and speeds

of various storage mechanisms found in a typical mainstream desktop computer in

service today.

These storage mechanisms range from the very fast, but low-capacity, Level 1 (L1)

cache memory to the much slower, but higher-capacity, disk drive. Ideally, a computer

would use the fastest available storage mechanisms—in this case L1 cache—for all data.

However, the laws of physics (which dictate that higher capacity storage mechanisms are

slower) and cost considerations prevent this. Instead, PCs use a mechanism called

“virtual memory,” which makes use of the L1 and L2 cache, main system memory, and

the hard drive. The virtual memory mechanism allows a programmer to use more

memory than is physically available in the system, and to keep the most frequently and

recently used data in the fastest storage. When more memory is needed than is available

in system memory, some data or code must be stored on disk. When the processor

accesses data not available in memory, information that has not been accessed recently is

saved to the hard drive. The system then uses the vacated memory space to complete the

processor's request. However, disk access is comparatively slow and system performance

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4 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

is significantly impacted if the processor must frequently wait for disk access. Adding

system memory reduces this probability. The amount of capacity required to reduce disk

activity to an acceptable level depends on the operating system and the type and number

of active applications, including background tasks. Semiconductor technology has

provided capacity improvements consistent with Moore's law—greater than a 1.4x

compound annual growth rate—and the outlook is for similar increases over the next few

years. These increases have exceeded the requirements of mainstream desktop PCs and,

as a result, the number of memory slots is being reduced from three to two in many of

today's client platforms. However, servers and high-end workstations continue to take

advantage of the capacity increases.

Typical Capacity Current Speed

Level 1 cache 32KB 4ns

Level 2 cache 256KB 20ns

System memory 128MB 100ns

Hard drive 4GB* 8ms

*Although many disk drives contain much more storage capacity, 4 GB is the
memory-addressing limitation in most PC systems.

Table 1. Memory Storage Mechanisms

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5 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

Bandwidth

Memory bandwidth is a measure of the rate at which data can be transferred to and

from memory, typically expressed in megabytes per second (MB/sec). Peak bandwidth is

the theoretical maximum transfer rate between any device and memory. In practice, peak

bandwidth is reduced by interference from other devices and by the “lead-off” time

required for a device to receive the first bit of data after initiating a memory request.

There should be adequate memory bandwidth to support the actual data rates of the

highest-speed devices and to provide enough headroom to prevent significant interference

between devices. In many systems, memory and I/O hubs are designed to accommodate

peak requirements by buffering transfers and scheduling conflicting memory requests.

Table 2 shows the data rates of various system components over the last 4 years.

Although the need for memory bandwidth is not directly proportional to these data rates,

the upward trend is obvious. Memory systems have done a fairly good job of keeping up

Figure1.Major Consumers of Memory Bandwidth

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6 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

with system requirements over this period of time, moving from 533 MB/sec to 2133

MB/sec. Dual-memory interfaces using Rambus or DDR memory boost bandwidth to

3200 MB/sec.

Latency

Latency is a measure of the delay from the data request until the data is returned. It is

a function of peak bandwidth, lead-off time, and interference between devices. In general,

processors are more sensitive to latency than bandwidth because they work with smaller

blocks of data and can waste a significant number of clocks waiting for critical data. In

contrast, I/O data transfers are relatively long, and bandwidth is a more important

consideration than latency. Data transfers moving to and from system memory must pass

through the memory hub and, in many cases, the I/O hub. These components are

collectively referred to as the chip set or core logic, and are major contributors to the

latency from a device to memory. They can restrict or exploit system memory capabilities

and must be designed to provide a balance of bandwidth, buffering, and scheduling of

data transfers for optimum memory performance. Over the last 4 years, memory

bandwidth has kept up with system needs, but latency improvements have lagged.

Current Rambus and DDR technologies double the memory bandwidth over100-MHz

SDRAM, but do not reduce latency. Ideally, latency should be reduced in proportion to

processor clock rate increases.

CAS Latency

The RAM module is an organized collection of integrated chips (ICs). Each module is

controlled by the memory controller, which handles the signals going from the CPU to

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7 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

the RAM. There are two signals--- the Row Access Strobe (RAS) and the Column Access

Strobe (CAS). Each memory chip is divided into rows and columns, making it look like a

cell matrix. Each cell ha s a row address and a column address. When the CPU sends a

signal to the memory controller, it first accesses the row by putting an address on the

memory’s address pins, and activation the RAS signal. Then it waits a few clock cycles---

this is the RAS-to-CAS Delay. It then puts the column address on the address pins, and

activates the CAS signal. Then there’s a wait for another few clock cycles, which is the

CAS delay. Finally, the data appears on the pins of the RAM.

The CAS delay is called CAS Latency. Lower CAS latency provides faster data

access. CAS-2 is where the CPU waits for 2 clock cycles; CAS-3 is where it waits for 3

clock cycles, and so on. However, CAS-2 affords a performance gain over CAS-3 only

while playing games or over clocking the CPU. The CAS latency is usually 2.5ns for

DDR RAM.

New processor architecture features—improved caches, more support for out-of-

order execution, and prefetch instructions for applications that are sensitive to processor

latency—have helped to offset this lag in latency improvements.

MEMORY TECHNOLOGY BASICS

While the complex world of main system Memory technology can be regarded from

many angles, it is beneficial to begin with a look at two large-scale perspectives, ROM

(Read-Only Memory) and RAM (Random Access Memory). An important distinction

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between the two is that RAM is volatile memory, that is, any data existing on the memory

is erased when the system shuts down. By comparison, ROM memory is referred to as

nonvolatile, meaning its data content remains intact, irrespective of shutdown and boot

activity. Note that RAM and ROM are commonly used terms, and are used here, although

both types actually allow random access.

ROM

As the name implies, ROM memory can only be read in operation, preventing the re-

writing of contents as part of its normal function. Basic ROM stores critical information

in computers and other digital devices, information whose integrity is vital to system

operation and is unlikely to change. Other commonly used forms of ROM are:

PROM (Programmable ROM)

Programmable ROM is a blank memory chip open for one-time only recording of

information that is then stored permanently.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)

This is PROM equipped with a special sensor to which application of a UV light

erases stored information, allowing subsequent rewriting.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)

This type of ROM is rewrite able by way of software. It is used in flash BIOS, in

which the software allows users to upgrade the stored BIOS information (flashing).

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RAM

The Random component of RAM’s name actually refers to this type of memory’s

ability to access any single byte of information without contacting or affecting

neighboring bytes. The main difference between a ROM and a RAM is that a RAM

is that a RAM is written under normal operation, while a ROM is programmed

outside the computer and is only normally read. RAM plays a major role in system

operations and specifically performance. Essentially, the more complex a program is, the

more its execution will benefit from the present of both ample and efficient RAM access.

RAM takes two forms, SRAM (Static RAM), and DRAM (Dynamic RAM). A detailed

discussion of both follows.

SRAM (Static RAM)

Static RAM memory devices retain data for as long as DC power is applied. Because

no special action (except power) is required to retain stored data, these devices are called

static memory. They re also called volatile memory because they will not retain data

without power. The SRAM stores temporary data and is used when the size of the

read/write memory is relatively small. Static RAM provides significant advantages for

performance, in that it holds data without needing to be refreshed constantly. This allows

access times as low as 10 ns as well as a shorter cycle time. A disadvantage is Static

RAM’s high cost to produce, limiting most of its practical applications to memory

caching functions. There are three types of SRAM, Async RAM, Sync RAM, and

Pipeline Burst RAM.

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Async SRAM

The designation Async is short for Asynchronous, meaning here that the SRAM

functions with no dependence on the system clock. Async SRAM is an older type of

SRAM, normally limited to L2 cache only.

Sync SRAM

Obviously, this is a synchronized form of SRAM, matched to the system clock’s

operations. The marked speed advantage of this feature also dictates a higher cost.

Pipeline Burst SRAM

Most common, this type of SRAM directs larger data packets of data (requests) to the

memory (pipelining) all at the same time, allowing a much quicker reaction on the part of

the RAM, thus increasing access speed. This type of SRAM accommodates bus speeds in

excess of 66MHz, hence its popularity.

DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

DRAM is essentially the same as SRAM, except that it retains data for only 2 or 4 ms

on an integrated capacitor. After 2 or 4 ms, the contents of the DRAM must be

completely rewritten (refreshed) because the capacitor, which store a logic 1 or logic 0,

lose their charges. In order to refresh a DRAM, the contents of a section of the memory

must periodically be read or written. Any read or write automatically refreshes an entire

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section of the DRAM. The number of bits refreshed depends on the size of the memory

component and its internal organization.

Refresh cycles are accomplished by doing a read, a write, or a special refresh cycle

that doesn’t read or write data. The refresh cycle is totally internal to the DRAM and is

accomplished while other memory components in the system operate. This type of

refresh is called either hidden refresh, transparent refresh, or sometimes cycle stealing.

For example, it takes the 8086/8088, running at a 5 MHz clock rate, 800 ns to do a

read or write. Because the DRAM must have a refresh cycle every 15.6 µs, this means

that for every 19 memory reads or writes, the memory system must run a refresh cycle or

memory data will be lost. This represents a loss of 5% of the computer’s time, a small

price to pay for the savings represented by using the dynamic RAM. While the raw speed

consideration renders it a secondary choice to SRAM, its superior cost advantages make

it a vastly more popular choice for system memory.

In the last few years, a tremendous upsurge has occurred in the evolution of DRAM

technology. Where originally, nearly all PC system memory was confined to FPM (Fast

Page Mode) DRAM. Rapid growth in both CPU and motherboard bus speeds, however,

spurred development of improved DRAM methods to provide performance equal to

faster and faster system capabilities. Numerous options are now, and have been,

available, some popular, some less so. They fall into two main categories, Asynchronous

and Synchronous, with the latter taking the lead in recent years.

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Asynchronous DRAM models

FPM (Fast Page Mode)

An improvement on its Page Mode Access predecessor, FPM quickly became the

most widely utilized access mode for DRAM, almost universally installed for a time, and

still widely supported. Its bypassing of power-hungry sense and restore current is a major

benefit. With speeds originally limited to around 120 ns, and later improvements to as

low as 60, FPM was still unable to keep up with the soon-to-be ubiquitous 66 MHz

system bus. Presently, FPM is rarely used, having been usurped by several superior

technologies. Ironically, its rarity of deployment has resulted in it often being more costly

than other forms.

EDO (Extended Data Output)

EDO, or Hyper Page mode, as it is sometimes called, was the last significant

improvement to be made available to DRAM customers before the development of

synchronous DRAM interface technology. Its advantage over FPM lies in its ability, by

not turning off the output buffers, to allow an access operation to commence prior to the

completion of the previous operation. This provides a performance improvement over

FPM DRAM, with no increase in silicon usage, and hence, package size. Improvements

in the 30-40% range are seen in the implementation of EDO DRAM. Additionally, it

supports memory bus speeds up to 83 MHz, sacrificing little or no performance

capability. Given proper chip support, even 100 MHz bus speeds are accessible, although

with much lower results than the newer synchronous forms. Users whose bus speed

requirements are no higher than 83 MHz should see no clear advantage in upgrading from

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EDO to synchronous embodiments. Nonetheless, the rise in widely available higher

chipset capabilities has, for the most part, left EDO in the past alongside FPM DRAM.

BEDO (Burst Extended Data Output)

BEDO was a largely unsuccessful attempt to further improve on EDO performance. It

utilized a burst mode combined with dual bank architecture to beat EDO capabilities.

Simply put, the BEDO advantage lay in its ability to prepare 3 subsequent addresses

internally following an initial address input. This technique allowed it to overcome time

delays resulting from the input of each new address. The timing of its development was,

however, poor, in that by the time it became a possible alternative, most large

manufacturers had devoted most of their development energies towards SDRAM and

related advancement. Consequently, industry wisdom, led by Intel, negated the viability

of BEDO as an acceptable solution, irrespective of its possible merits.

SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) Models

As parallel advances made it clear that the future belonged to bus speeds in excess of

66 MHz, it became incumbent upon developers to overcome latency problems inherent in

existing DRAM forms. The development of workable solutions in the area of

synchronous operations was the result, accomplishing not only the ability to embrace

higher bus speeds, but other advantages as well.

DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous)

Presently accepted as the de facto industry standard for system memory, DDR This

section provides a more detailed view of DDR SDRAM (and in some cases, simply

DRAM), its advantages to users, especially those in data-intensive environments. About

Unbuffered and Registered modules Generally, in the present marketplace, different

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implementations of DIMM memory are available in two major types, Unbuffered and

Registered.

About Speed Ratings

It is worthwhile to be aware of the conventions used for rating the relative speed of

SDRAM modules. While ratings for asynchronous DRAM are listed in nanoseconds, an

additional MHz rating is applied to SDRAM, since its synchronous nature requires that it

be compatible with system bus speed. Unfortunately, exactly matching exact SDRAM

ratings with bus speeds, that is, for example, to say that a 100 MHz/10 ns-rated SDRAM

speed will operate properly with a 100 MHz system speed, is not practically correct. This

stems from the fact that the SDRAM MHz rating refers to optimum conditions in the

system, a scenario that rarely, if ever, occurs in real-world operations. More operable

would be to “over-match” the SDRAM rating to compensate. Thus, a much more realistic

qualification is undertaken by manufacturers, in which 100MHz SDRAM is intended for

operation with a system speed of, say, 83 MHz.

To make the entire process easier, Intel implemented a Speed Rating system for

SDRAM qualification, its now universally exercised “PC” rating. The qualification,

intended as an aid to both manufacturers and users, takes into account the above noted

considerations in addition to other internal timing characteristics. As much as any across-

the-board rating system, this scale comes very close to assuring the compatibility of

SDRAM with its host system speed. According to the Intel system, a PC100-compliant

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SDRAM module will perform well with a 100 MHz system. Likewise its PC66 and

PC133 ratings. The ratings also guarantee compatibility with Intel protocols, such as

PC100 with Intel BX motherboard.

Current Memory Technologies

Over time, PC system memory has evolved to increase capacity and bandwidth, and

reduce latency. There has been progress at the component and interface level. While the

basic component core architecture has not changed significantly, the interfaces to the

component cores have and continue to evolve. Speed and capacity advances in the core

have been driven by advances in semiconductor technology. Interfaces have also

benefited from semiconductor advances, but with notable architectural changes. PC

memory interfaces have transitioned through conventional DRAM, page-mode DRAM

(or fast page-mode), and extended data out (EDO) DRAM. Today, three main memory

interfaces are used:

• Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

• DDR SDRAM

• Rambus

SDRAM
SDRAM is a 64-bit-wide interface (or 72 bits in implementations that include error correction

capability). The interface clock rate began at 66 MHz, evolved to 100 MHz, and is now capable of

operating at 133 MHz in system memory implementations. (100- and 133-MHz implementations

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16 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

are often referred to as PC100 and PC133.) The bandwidth in MB/sec is equal to the clock

multiplied by 8. (A 64-bit wide interface transfers 8 bytes per clock.) This yields 1066 MB/sec

bandwidth for current 133-MHz SDRAM. Both latency and bandwidth have improved in proportion

to the clock speed increases. A single system memory semiconductor component may provide 4,

8, or 16 bits on each data transfer. Regardless of the bits per transfer, each component contains

the same amount of storage (in bits) for a given DRAM component generation. Multiple

components are mounted on a memory module (or DIMM). The system's memory hub interfaces

with one or more of these memory modules. An SDRAM module combines the components to

provide 64 bits on each data transfer. Desktop and portable systems use 8- and 16-bit

component interfaces to provide 64-bit interfaces in lower capacities. For example, a typical

desktop or portable SDRAM module might consist of four 16-bit components, each with a 128-

megabit (Mb) capacity, for a total of 64 MB of memory. In contrast, 4- and 8-bit components are

used for the higher capacities needed in servers. An SDRAM module used in a server might

contain 16 4-bit components, each with 128-Mb capacity, for a total capacity of 256 MB of

memory. Component capacities have increased over the life of SDRAM in proportion to the

advances in the semiconductor industry.

Current SDRAM Implementations

133-MHz SDRAM is used in today's value and mainstream computers. Its

performance is adequate for the application mix in the target markets, but it is expected to

be replaced rapidly as the memory performance demands of new system components,

operating systems, and applications increase. Dual SDRAM interfaces are used in servers

for added bandwidth and capacity. In system memory implementations, SDRAM

frequencies are not expected to increase beyond 133 MHz. Instead, DDR will be used

beyond the 133-MHz performance point. (SDRAM frequencies beyond 133 MHz are

available, but are used in specialized applications such as graphics controllers.)

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DDR SDRAM

DDR SDRAM (see Table2-DDR Naming Conventions) is similar to standard

SDRAM, but adds strobes that operate at the same frequency as the clock. These strobes

travel with the data from the memory hub to the memory components on writes and to the

memory hub from the memory components on reads. Data is transferred on both the

rising and falling edges of the strobe. This architectural change, coupled with lower

signal levels and advances in semiconductor processes, doubles the data rates and the

bandwidth. However, DDR does not reduce latency. In general, the PC1600

implementations have greater latency than PC133. Despite this, PC1600 provides a

performance advantage for most systems and applications in which it is implemented.

Like SDRAM, PC system memory implementations of DDR have 64-bit data paths (or

72 bits for error correction capability). Bandwidths for DDR are 1600 MB/sec for

PC1600 and 2133 MB/sec for PC2100. Component capacities for volume production

DDR began at 128 Mb and will be available at least through the 1-Gb generation.

One of the goals of DDR was a smooth technology transition. Many memory hubs are

designed to operate with either SDRAM or DDR SDRAM modules. However, practical

space and cost considerations, driven in part by different module connectors, has

prevented any practical system-level application of this capability. DDR has minor

incremental system- and component level cost penalties over standard SDRAM, but these

costs will decline with volume and advances in semiconductor processes.

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Original Name Name Based On Name based on

Clock Rate Band-width

DDR SDRAM
(100 MHz) DDR200 PC1600

DDR SDRAM
(133 MHz) DDR266 PC2100

Table2- DDR naming conventions

Some topological differences between DDR SDRAM and SDRAM DIMM modules

are as shown below in the table:

SDRAM DDR

Profile

Voltage 3.3 2.5

Pin
Count 168 184

Notches 2 1

Table 3: topological differences between DDR SDRAM and SDRAM DIMM modules

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DDR modules, like their SDRAM predecessors, arrive in their DIMM modules.

Although motherboards designed to implement DDR are similar to those that use

SDRAM, they are not backward compatible with motherboards that support SDRAM.

You cannot use DDR in earlier SDRAM based motherboards, nor can you use SDRAM

on motherboards that are designed for DDR.

Rambus

SDRAM and DDR SDRAM share many architectural and signaling features. Both

use a parallel data bus, mainly available in component widths of x8 or x16, both have a

single addressing command bus that must be shared to transmit row and column

addresses. DDR SDRAM increases data bandwidth over conventional SDRAM by

transmitting data on both edges of the synchronous clock signal, thus in theory

“doubling” the data rate of the memory. It is important to note that DDR SDRAM does

not double the address command bandwidth of the system by using both edges of the

clock on the command bus, a factor that ultimately limits the real world performance gain

from using DDR signaling on the data bus. RDRAM memory, which pioneered double

data rate technology for DRAM in 1990, takes a different approach. It combines a

conventional DRAM core with a high-speed serial interface called the RDRAM Channel.

The Rambus architecture is significantly different from previous system memory

interfaces. RDRAM memory uses separate buses to transmit row and column address

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information on both edges of the clock. This enables higher efficiency by allowing the

issue of a column packet while a row packet is simultaneously being issued to another

device, a feature not present in SDRAM or DDR. Both commands and data are

communicated on packet buses from the memory hub to the modules. There are two

command buses—RAS bus and CAS bus—and one data bus. Eight transfers on both

edges of a 400-MHz clock are used for all packets. The separate command and data

buses, along with identical packet lengths, allow memory hubs to improve the scheduling

of memory transfers to achieve higher memory data bus utilization. The result is higher

actual bandwidth. One of the benefits of this architecture is that it allows the banks of the

individual devices to be additive, pooling them to decrease the probability of bank

conflict and thus minimize bank conflict effects. RDRAM memory is capable of

servicing a memory request every 10ns. This allows RDRAM to be implemented in a

capacity that better matches the needs of a particular system. However, each memory

component must be capable of providing the full bandwidth needed by the system. This

requirement, coupled with other internal architecture specifications, have resulted in a

cost premium for RDRAM components.

Unlike SDRAM, motherboards that support Rambus memory require that all memory

slots in the motherboard must be populated. Not with memory modules necessarily, but

with a combination of memory modules and Continuity Modules, more commonly

referred to as CRIMMs. As an example, on SDRAM based motherboards, you could have

4 memory slots and fill only one with a memory module, and the system would operate.

On Rambus based motherboards, all blank or unfilled memory sockets must be populated

with either a memory module (in this case a RIMM™ Rambus Inline Memory Modules)

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or a Continuity Module, (CRIMM) to complete the memory path to the bus. Rambus

memory is available in either ECC or non-ECC format

Rambus memory is a proprietary technology of Rambus Inc., therefore manufacturers

that want to produce it are required to pay a royalty to Rambus Inc. DDR designs, on the

other hand, are open architecture. Since Rambus is an entirely new design, there are other

cost factors to be added in, such as an entirely new module manufacturing and testing

process.

The results of the bandwidth study for typical memories of different types, operating

frequencies and core latency (tRAC) timings can be referenced in the Table 4 below.

Table 4: Effective Bandwidth of 256Mbyte Memory Modules

Upcoming Memory Interface Transitions

There are key upcoming transitions in the DDR and Rambus memory technologies, as

well as an emerging new technology for example - Advanced DRAM Technology

(ADT).

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ADT

ADT is an emerging memory interface technology targeted for introduction slightly

after DDR. Details of this interface have not been publicly disclosed; however, all major

DRAM component manufacturers are involved in defining both the DDR and ADT

interfaces. It is expected that ADT will initially target desktop applications. There is a

strong possibility that only one of these standards will be adopted by the PC industry, and

the emerging standard will incorporate features from both technologies.

Rambus

Rambus has plans for a new high-speed memory interface called Yellowstone. This

next-generation interface is intended to provide 3.2 Gb/sec per differential signal pair

between DRAM components and the memory interface. A 200-millivolt differential

signal is planned to support this data rate. The Yellowstone is expected to be within

mainstream PC memory cost budgets.

Multiple Memory Interfaces

Although memory technology has kept pace with increasing capacity requirements,

system memory bandwidth is not keeping pace with the demands of the rest of the

system. The ratio of bandwidth to capacity for a given memory module implementation is

falling over time. A dual interface helps to alleviate the resulting performance issues.

Multiple memory interfaces in high-end systems are not new, but their use in mainstream

desktop PCs is expected to begin soon.

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Future RAM Technologies

Improvements in the memory interface performance require advances in

semiconductor technology and the techniques used to maintain signal integrity and timing

across the interface. There are challenges on the component side to providing capacity

and speed increases at the pace of Moore's law; it is difficult to make components bigger

and faster at the same time. Containing cost, reducing size, controlling emissions, and

maintaining the reliability of the system memory interface becomes more difficult as

performance increases. Future interface transitions must address all of these issues.

MRAM

Manufacturers such as IBM, Motorola and Infineon are specifically involved in the

research of a new form of solid-state memory called Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM).

This type of RAM uses the principle of alignment of magnetic particles as the basis of

storing zeroes and ones in a digital system.

An inherent advantage with MRAM is that it since it’s based on the principle of

magnetism: it retains whatever information is contained in it even after power is switched

off. Additionally, these elements do not need an electric charge to retain information,

hence power consumption of these devices is minimal compared to that of DRAM.

Finally with the absence of the delays associated with transferring electricity between the

storage elements for retaining the information, MRAM is expected to be up to 30 times

faster than DRAM. MRAM is thus poised to give rise to a new breed of instantly-on

computing devises.

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24 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

The technology is already up and running in some high-tech labs around the world.

But only after the fabrication process for this memory becomes commercially available, it

will make its way into mainstream home PCs and handhelds.

IRAM

One approach to reduce the problem of processor-memory communication delay is

Intelligent RAM (IRAM)—integrating processor and memory on a single die. Of course,

for the solution to be complete, memory latency needs to be reduced, too. Currently,

IRAM products are no commercially available: however, several university and company

research labs are working on IRAM architectures.

NRAM

Nano RAM(NRAM) being developed by a company called Nantero, based in

Woburn, Massachusetts, may be out ay any time now. MRAM is non-volatile, like

MRAM, so your computer can boot up within a second. The chips would run at 2 GHz,

and last virtually forever. The concept behind NRAM is simple: combine carbon

nanotubes—a molecule of carbon atoms connected like a tube and sealed at both ends

with traditional semiconductor techniques. Ones and zeroes revisited: A nanotube is bent

using electrostatic forces so that the top touches the bottom. Bent nanotubes can be

unbent too. Bent means a 1, and unbent means a 0. And billions of nanotubes can be

squeezed into a four-inch wafer.

Dept of E&CE PDACE Gulbarga

25 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

Conclusion

In today’s world of ever growing need of faster and high-end computers the need for

faster and better memory technology is never ending. Consider, for example, the Intel’s

newest Pentium4 processors have front-side bus architectures operating at data speeds of

533MHz and 800MHz. This translates to a peak data bandwidth of 4.2GB/s (533MHz x 8

Bytes) and 6.4GB/s (800MHz x 8 Bytes) respectively!

Considering the fact that the computer industry has come so far from the FPT to the

RDRAM it can now be said that a day will come when every user will be able to start

his/her PC like a bulb with out any delay (no time requirement for booting)! Giving rise

to a new breed of instantly on computing devises.

Dept of E&CE PDACE Gulbarga

26 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

Reference:

1. www.pcguide.com/ref/ram/tech.htm

2. www.rambus.com

3. www.dell.com/r&d

4. www.dewassoc.com

5. www.kingston.com/newtech/MKF_520DDR

6. digit Your Technology Navigator (www.thinkdigit.com) (Feb 2003, June 2003

July 2003, March 2004)

7. www.jedec.org

8. THE INTEL MICROPROCESSORS 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486,

PENTIUM, AND PENTIUM PRO PROCESSOR Architecture, Programming, and

Interface By: Barray B. Brey (Forth Edition, Page No: 353)

Dept of E&CE PDACE Gulbarga

27 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

APPENDIX –A - Motherboards at a Glance

Dept of E&CE PDACE Gulbarga

28 Seminar on: Trends in PC system memory

INDEX

A L
About Speed Ratings, 14 Latency, 6
ADT, 22
M
APPENDIX –A - Motherboards
at a Glance, 27 MEMORY TECHNOLOGY
Async SRAM, 10 BASICS, 7
Asynchronous DRAM models, 12 MRAM, 23
Multiple Memory Interfaces, 22
B
Bandwidth, 5 N
NRAM, 24
C
Capacity, 3 P
CAS Latency, 6 Performance Factors, 3
Conclusion, 25 Pipeline Burst SRAM, 10
Current Memory Technologies, 15 PROM (Programmable ROM), 8
Current SDRAM Implementations, 16
R
D RAM, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 23, 24
DDR SDRAM, 17 Rambus, 19, 22
DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Reference, 26
Synchronous), 13 Role of Memory in the System, 2
DRAM (Dynamic RAM), 10 ROM, 8
E S
EDO (Extended Data Output), 12 SDRAM, 15
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) Models, 13
Programmable ROM), 8 SRAM, 9
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM), 8 Sync SRAM, 10
F T
Figure1.Major Consumers of Memory Table 1. Memory Storage Mechanisms, 4
Bandwidth, 5 Table 3: topological differences between DDR SDRAM
FPM (Fast Page Mode), 12 and SDRAM DIMM modules, 18
Future RAM Technologies, 23 Table 4: Effective Bandwidth of 256Mbyte Memory
Modules, 21
Table2- DDR naming conventions, 18
I

Introduction, 1 U
IRAM, 24 Upcoming Memory Interface
Transitions, 21

Dept of E&CE PDACE Gulbarga