Steamturbineprin 00 Crof

1
n*/
|Stbrarg
STEAM-TURBINE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TERRELL CROFT,
Editor
CONTRIBUTORS
The
following have contributed manuscript or data or have otherwise assisted
in the preparation of this work:
Edmoxd Siroky
I.
Y.
Le Bow
E. R. Powell,
Terrell Croft Engineering
Company
BOOKS ON PRACTICAL
ELECTRICITY
By Terrell Croft
American Electricians' Handbook Wiring of Finished Buildings
Wiring for Light and Power Electrical Machinery
Practical Electric Illumination Practical Electricity Central Stations Lighting Circuits and Switches Alt:^rnating-Current Armature Winding
Conduit Wiring Machinery Electrical
and Diagrams Circuit Troubles and Testing Electrical-Machinery Erection Signal Wiring Automobile Wiring Diagrams
Control
POWER PLANT
Editor-in-chief
SERIES
Terrell Croft
Steam Boilers Steam-Power- Plant Auxiliaries Steam-engine Principles and Practice Steam-turbine Principles and Practice Machinery Foundations and Erection
Practical Heat
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY Inc.
STEAM-TURBINE
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
lh^-^
\J^
TERRELL-CROFT,
Editor
CONSULTING ENGINEER. DIRECTING EfTOINEER, TERRELL CROFT ENGINEERING CO. MEMBER OP THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. MEMBER OF AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS. MEMBER OF THE ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING SOCIETY. MEMBER AMERICAN SOCIETY TESTING MATERIALS.
NORTHEASTERN U^VERSITV
Ss^y Division
First Edition
Fourth Impression
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc. NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE

LONDON:
6
&
BOUVERIE
ST., E. C. 4
1923
C8S
Copyright,
1923,/
by Terrell Croft
PKINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMEBICA
HE MAPLE PRESS
YORK PA
PAY CHV^^
PREFACE
in
Although the steam turbine is a relatively new development steam power-plant practice, it is already of great importance. Its adoption has, because of its economic superiority for many Today, turbines of different conditions, been very rapid. capacities ranging from 1 hp. up to 80,000 hp. are being effecThe number of turbines tively utilized for power generation. the if it does not already exceed in use will soon exceed number of reciprocating steam engines. It follows that all successful power-plant men must now be informed concerning
these machines.
Steam-tuebine Principles and Practice has been prepared, for the ''practical" man, to furnish this information.
It has
been written to provide the operating engineer, the
plant superintendent, or manager with such steam-turbine
information as he requires in his everyday work. The aim has been to treat only topics of two general classes: (1) Those
with which a
man must
he familiar to insure the successful
and
economical operation of steam turbines. (2) Those a knowledge one who is not familiar of which is necessary to enable a man
to make a wise choice if with the details of its Only sufficient he contemplates the purchase of a turbine. theory is given to insure a sound understanding of the principles
design or theory
The
of turbine operation.
''design" of turbines
is
at
all.
working knowledge
of arithmetic will enable
not treated one to
read the book intelligently.
282 illustrations were made been the endeavor to so design and render these pictures that they will convey the desired information with a minimum of supplementary discussion. Throughout the text, principles which are presented are explained with descriptive expositions or worked-out arithmetical examples. At the end of each of the 14 divisions there are questions to be answered and, where justified, problems to
Drawings
for nearly all of the

It has
especially for this work.
vii
Vlll
PREFACE
be solved by the reader. These questions and problems are based on the text matter in the division which they follow. If the reader can answer the questions and solve the problems, he then must be conversant with the subject matter of the
division.
Detail solutions to
all of
the problems are printed

principles of
in the appendix in the back of the book.
As
to the
method
of treatment:
first
is
Fundamental
turbine operation are
presented so as to provide a knowlnecessary for the understanding of

is
edge of the theory which
how
turbines function.
This
followed by a division on
turbine classifications and nomenclature.
Next, the principal
turbine types and constructions are described and discussed.
Then
follows a division on steam-turbine installation.
This
is
on important turbine parts which These divisions treat of: Shafts, require periodic attention. bearings, and packing glands; governors and valves; reduction Next is an gears and couplings; regenerators and condensers. important division on high-pressure, bleeder, mixed-pressure, and exhaust-steam turbines. Following this are practically-treated divisions on lubricaThe next division on tion and operation and maintenance. testing explains the methods whereby the efficiencies of turbines are determined. The last two divisions one on the effects of steam pressure, superheat, and vacuum on steamturbine economy; the other on steam-turbine economics and selection outline the processes by which the most economical steam conditions and the most economical turbine may be
followed
divisions
by four
selected for a given installation.

of steam-condition
They also
interpret the effects
changes on the economy of the turbine. With this, as with other books which have been prepared by the editor, it is the sincere desire to render it of maximum useIt is the intention to improve the book fulness to the reader.
each time
it is
revised
and to enlarge
it
as conditions
may
be accomplished most effecThis tively, it is essential that the readers cooperate with us. they may do by advising the editor of any alterations which they feel it would be advisable to make. Future revisions and additions will, insofar as is feasible, be based on such
demand.
If these things are to
suggestions and criticisms from the readers.
PREFACE
IX
Although the proofs have been read and checked very carefully, it is possible
Readers
will confer
that some undiscovered errors may remain. a favor in advising the editor of any such.
Terrell Croft.
University City,
St. Louis, Mo,, December, 1922.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The editor desires to acknowledge the assistance which has been rendered by a number of concerns and individuals in the preparation of this book.
by the
Portions of the text material appeared originally as articles editor in certain trade and technical periodicals among
which are Power, Power Plant Engineering, and Southern Engineer. In all such cases and in others where material from publications has been used, it is beheved that proper acknowledgment has been accorded at the proper place in the
text.
The list of manufacturers who cooperated in supplying text data and illustrations would include practically all manufacturers of steam turbines, both large
States. special
is
and
small, in the United
In virtually
all
cases where such data have been used,

is
acknowledgement
accorded in the text.
The
editor
particularly indebted to the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing
Company and the Terry Turbine Company for the data which was submitted by their chief turbine engineers. Assistance and information have been obtained from certain recognized technical turbine books and, in some cases, tables and other data were taken from them. Proper acknowledgment
accorded in the text wherever such data were used. acknowledgment is hereby accorded Edmond Siroky, Head Mechanical Engineer of the Terrell Croft Engiis
Special
neering
Company, who has been responsible for the technical accuracy of the book. Other acknowledgments have been made throughout the book. If any has been omitted, it has been through oversight and, if brought to the editor's attention, it will be incorporated in the next edition.
Terrell Croft.
CONTENTS
Paqb
Frontispiece
iv
vii
Preface
Acknowledgments Division 1 Steam-turbine Division 2 Steam-turbine Division 3 Steam-turbine Division 4 Steam-turbine Division 5 Steam-turbine
Division 6 Division 7 Division 8 Division 9
Fundamental Principles 1 Nomenclature and Classification. 23 Types and Construction 42

Installation Shafts, Bearings,
74
and Packing
Glands 86 Steam-turbine Governors and Valves 119 Steam-turbine Reduction Gears and Couplings 160 Steam-turbine Regenerators and Condensers. 173 High-pressure, Bleeder, Mixed-pressure, and Exhaust-steam Turbines 186 Division 10 Steam-turbine Lubrication 218 Division 11 Steam-turbine Operation and Maintenance .235 Division 12 Steam-turbine Testing 251 Division 13 Effect of Steam Pressure, Superheat, and Vacuum on Steam-turbine Economy 278 Division 14 Steam-turbine Economics and Selection 307 Solutions to Problems 337 Index 339
. .
XI
STEAM-TUEBHE
PEINCIPLES
km PRACTICE
1
DIVISION
STEAM-TURBINE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

1.
A Steam
abstracts from the steam and which
Turbine Operates By Virtue Of Heat which it it converts into mechanical
work.
cal
Heat and mechaniwork are both forms of

Turbine
energy
(see
the
author's
Wheel
Practical Heat) and can,

therefore, be converted one
to the other
by the proper
doiler
means.
apparatus which can convert heat e n e r g y into mechanical

is^called a heat engine^ Thus, the steam turbine is just as much a heat engine
is a steam or internalThe combustion engine. steam turbine is different, howeyer înTXher^ anner in which itconxerts the heat e n e r gy into mechanical
Any
work
as
Fig. 1. The earliest known heat engine, described by Hero of Alexandria about 150 B. C, was a reaction turbine.
work, as will be_explained.

Note. The Steam Turbine Was The First Form Of Heat Engine To Be Developed And The Latest To Be Perfected, thus it might be
said that
it is
the oldest as well as the newest form of heat engine.
The
earliest record of
any heat engine is in a book written by Hero of Alexandria, probably about 150 B.C., in which a steam reaction wheel (Fig. The next development on record was the turbine of 1) is mentioned.
1

Branca, an Italian architect, (Fig.
later.
2).
[Div.
These turbines
will
be described
The
first
turbine patent in the United States was issued in 1831 and
under
Reducfhn Gears
it
several turbines were built.
r-~^
.Turbme Wheel
They seemed to give satisfaction for some time but they did not
last long.
The commercially successful

bine
tive
is
tur-
due, however, to the inven-
genius
and experiments
of
De Laval and Parsons, who worked

separately and along different lines,
Pebfli;-
Mortars
Fig.
2.
Branca's impulse turbine (1629).

In
during the years 1882 to 1889. Turbines of large capacities have been developed only within the
last
twenty years.
2.
A Steam
Into Velocity Energy
Turbine, Heat Energy Is First Converted Or Kinetic Energy which is then converted
into mechanical work.
siderable velocity through

vessel
is,
The fact that steam will issue with conany small opening in a containing no doubt, known to all. It will be shown that the
derived from heat energy which the steam hberates
velocity
as
it
is
It will also be shown that the velocity of the issuing steam can be forecasted with reasonable accuracy. Such calculations are, however, the work of the turbine designers and, except in so far as they
passes through the opening.
explain fundamental principles of turbine operation, will not be treated herein.

3. A Steam Turbine Does Mechanical Work By Virtue Of The Velocity With Which The Steam Strikes Or Leaves Moving Parts. As the steam attains its velocity, by issuing
from an opening, its velocity energy may be converted into mechanical work by suitably deflecting its current. In this respect, a steam jet acts just as does a water jet. The manner in which fluid jets may produce forces will now be shown. 4. The Terms "Impulse" and "Reaction'* Have Specific Meanings In Turbine -engineering Parlance. These specific meanings, which are employed in this book and which are explained in the following sections, are different from the meanings of the same words as they are employed in physics, mechanics and in ordinary usage.
Sec. 5]
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Note. "There Is Little Connection Between The Usual Meanings Of The Words 'Impulse' And 'Reaction' And The Specific Ideas They Are Intended To Convey In Steam-turbine Parcommercial steam turbines work by both impulse has used instead of impulse and reaction' words meaning 'equal pressure' and 'unequal pressure,' which to the author seem much more appropriate." This paragraph abstracted oyer's Steam Turbines, John Wiley & Sons. from
lance.
Actually,
all
and
reaction.
A German writer
'
'
6.
An
Is Produced
Impulsive Force Or "Impulse" Is That Force Which On An Object When A Fluid Jet Strikes The Object,
Nozz/e Tends To'Reacf" In This D/recf ion. Fireman
Must Forcibly Moid If

Against This Reaction.
House -y
Jet Of Water
Fig.
3.
Illustrating
the "impulse" effect of a jet of water stationary object (window pane).
when
directed against a
Fig. 3.
This
Blocl<
is
the specific turbine-engineering definition;

fact that a stream of water
see Sec. 4.
The
from a
fire
hose
can shatter a pane of glass (Fig. 3) or even

OfWoocf Scale Shows Fastened ToScale-: Force
^
-
move
Shaft.
heavier
Vaned
Wheel'.
Jet Of Water ''
||
S^^////Z
'
Household Scale Secured To Wall'
'Steam Pipe
Vanes ''
milof a
|J
Direction OfRotation
Fig.
4.
Measuring
the "impuls
Fig.
5.
The elements
of
Branca's steam
jet of water.
turbine (1629).
A distinguishing strikes is well known. an impulsive force is that the fluid stream which strikes the object, and thereby produces the force, leaves the object at the same or at a less velocity than that with which it strikes the object. A simple means of measuring the impulsive force is shown in Fig. 4. The force which the
objects which
it
characteristic of
Oav
n\/ic!AH

is
[Div.
scale indicates
that which
is
produced by the impulse of
the water
jet.
Note. This ''Impulse" Principle Was Employed By Branca In His Primitive Turbine, Figs. 2 and 5, which was formed by mounting a number of vanes on the circumference of a wheel and directing a steam jet against them at one point. As the wheel is moved by the impulsive force, the steam jet plays successively on other vanes, thus providing a continuous motion of the wheel whereby it may be caused to do work. Those turbines which employ the impulse principle mainly for their
operation are called impulse turbines; see Sec. 30.
6. A Large Impulsive Force Is Produced When A Fluid Stream Strikes An Object And Then Leaves It In An Opposite
Wocvlen Block Scale Shorn Fastened To Scale\ ^ f-Q^f^g .
Nozzle^
^^^Kjef Of Water.
;5^^^//
Fig.
6.
HousehoklScale: Secured To Wall Wall-
Measuring the impulse
of a jet of water.
(Compare with
Fig. 4.)
Direction.
This
6.
ment, Fig.
is
may well be When the fluid

it
explained by a simple experi-
so shaped that
stream strikes an object which reverses the direction of the stream, a

Direction
Of Rotation
^^^.
\.
Jet Of Water
Fig.
7.
-A Pelton watcrwheel.
much
greater impulsive force

is
is
direction of the stream
not reversed (Fig.
produced than when the This occurs 4).
in spite of the fact that the
stream
may
it
leave the object with

object.
the same velocity as that with which
approached the
Sec.
7]
found that the force
in Fig. 6 is just twice that of
in
In
fact, it is
Fig. 4.
(In ordinary parlance
the force produced by the

called a ''repulsive" force.)
not
steam-turbine parlance
jet leaving the object
would be
Note.
The
Is
Forces
Principle Of Thus Utilizing Large Impulsive Employed In The Pelton Waterwheel (Fig. 7) and in the
Supply Sfeam
I Assembled Turbine
ETranversc Section Through Bucket

Fig.
8.
HL Longitudinal Section Through Bucket
The De Laval trade mark

(It uti-
which
lizes
illustrates the principle of the
so-called "impulse" turbine.
Fig. 9. An early form of steam turbine which was patterned after the Pelton waterwheel.
impulsive forces.)
De Laval
shown
single-stage turbine (Fig. 8).
Some
of the earlier turbines, as
were made very similar to the Pelton waterwheel, but exactly this construction is no longer used (see Div. 3) because more efficient ones have been developed.
in Fig. 9,
7.
Is
Produced
Reactive Force Or "Reaction" Is That Force Which On An Object When A Fluid Stream Leaves
The Object At A Greater Velocity Than That With Which It Approaches The Object Figs. 1 and 10. This is the specific
turbine-engineering definition; see Sec.
force are,
4. Examples of this no doubt, familiar to everyone even though many do not know their explanation. Some familiar
people

(1)
[Div.
The " push-hack '^ or " kick-back '^ of a hose, as in Fig. 3, or of a shot-gun. (2) The fireworks pin wheel, Fig. 10-7. (3) The revolving lawn sprinkler, Fig. 10-/7. The existence of a force when a fluid stream leaves a body may well be illustrated by the simple experiment, shown in Fig. 11 wherein the bucket is held from the vertical by the reactive force of the water jet. In each of these cases the velocity of the fluid stream which leaves the body is greater than that of the fluid stream approaching the body.
examples are:
Arms
/////}/////'///^7/^.
'Deflection,
I-Lawn Sprinkler
Fig. 10.
fbinter Shows Deflect/on
I- No Fig.
Jet
11.
n.- Jet
Producing Reaction
Illustrative
examples
of reac-
simple
of
experiment which
a
reaction
force
deflec-
tion wheels.
proves the existence
when a jet leaves an object. tion is shown exaggerated for
(The
clearness.)
Note. Reactive Forces, Which Were Produced At The Ends Of The Arms Of Hero's Turbine (Fig. 1) as steam issued from them,
provided the rotational motion whereby work was done. Hero's turbine was, thus, similar to our common lawn sprinkler. Fig. 10-/7. No modern turbines employ only reaction forces (see Sec. 31), but those
turbines which employ the reaction principle mainly for their operation are called reaction turbines.
Explanation. The Nature Of Reactive Forces can easily be understood by a study of Figs. 12, 13, and 14. Imagine a tank which has similar holes on opposite sides near its bottom, Fig. 12. If both holes are corked and the tank is filled with water, the water will exert a force on each cork tending to push it out. But, since the corks plug
Sec. 7]
equal holes and since both are subjected to the same pressure, the force is equal to that on the other. Say each cork is subjected to 2 lb. as in Fig. 12-7. If, now, one cork is removed as in II, then the one force of 2 lb. is removed and the other 2-lb. force must be balanced from
on one cork
5Lb.
'Thcfionless Surface
I- No
React ive"
1- Reactive Force
Jef Rotation Produced By Two 5 Lb. Reactive

IT-
'
Force
Fig. 12.
force
On Tank
Forces
reactive Fig.
13.
Illustrating
how
Showing
the nature of
rotation
of a
comes into action. Note that the reactive force would exist even if the tank were in a vacuum.
the forces that cause
lawn sprinkler.
without the tank as shown. If the scale were not in a position to prevent it as shown, the remaining 2-lb. force in Fig. 12-/7 would be capable of moving the tank and thus doing work upon it.
Supply

In Fig. 14-7 the rotor of a modern reaction turbine
is
[Div. 1
diagrammatically
shown with
its
outlet plugged.
The
internal forces
on the plug and on
the equal area at the inlet end of the nozzle are balanced as indicated. If, however, the plug is removed as in 77, the force which it withstood
is
also
removed and the
force on the rotor blade
is
unbalanced.
Hence,
this force is capable of rotating the rotor.
8. Steam Liberates Heat As It Flows Through An Opening from a region of high pressure to one of lower pressure. Dry saturated steam at low pressures contains less heat (B.t.u.) per pound than does dry saturated steam at high pressures; a study of any steam table will confirm this statement, see Therefore, if dry satualso the author's Practical Heat. rated steam undergoes a reduction in pressure, it must either Experience shows, howlose heat or become superheated. ever, that when steam expands in a turbine nozzle the steam does not become superheated in fact, it undergoes a reducTherefore, in a turbine, the steam tion in quality or dryness.
loses or liberates heat as its pressure
is
reduced.
Experience
further shows that steam,
when
it
passes without friction
through an opening, loses just as

lost,
much heat as it would have expanded adiabatically behind a piston from the same initial to the same final pressure. But, in flowing through a relatively small opening, the steam acquires a high velocity which it would not have acquired if it had expanded behind a It can be conceived that, in flowing through an openpiston. ing, the steam does its work upon the steam immediately ahead of it by pushing it forward so hard as to increase its velocity. 9. The Kinetic Energy Which Steam Acquires in flowing through an opening from a region of high pressure to one of
had
it is
lower pressure
equal (except for small losses) to the heat
which is liberated by the steam. It is known that the work which steam does when expanding adiabatically behind a
equal to the heat that is liberated by the steam; see Hence, it follows, that the kinetic energy acquired by steam in flowing through an opening is equal to
piston
is
Practical. Heat.
the work which the steam would have done

adiabatically behind a piston.
if it
had expanded
turbine could utilize

acquires,
it
all
Obviously then, if a steam of the kinetic energy which its steam

of
would do exactly the same amount
work
as
Sec. 10]
would a perfect steam engine which expanded steam adiabatiThe relation between heat cally between the same pressures. energy and kinetic energy in a steam turbine is, therefore,
neglecting small losses:
(1)
Kinetic energy acquired
=
Heat
liberated by adiabatic expansion.
10.
The
Velocity Theoretically Acquired
By Steam
In Flow-
ing Through
region of
of the
An Opening from a region of high pressure to a lower pressure may be readily computed if the state
steam at the higher pressure is known and if the lower known. These known factors determine the is amount of heat liberated by an adiabatic expansion. Hence,
pressure
by For. (1), they The formula, (see
also determine the kinetic energy acquired.
also chart
C
is
of Fig. 15)
which expresses the

is:
velocity acquired and which

(2)
V
derived below,
= 223.7%!
-H2
(ft.
per sec.)
= velocity acquired by the steam, in feet per second. Hi = total heat of the steam at the higher pressure, in British thermal units per pound; this may be obtained from a steam table or from the chart of Fig. 15. H2 = total heat
Wherein:
v
of the
steam
after adiabatic expansion to the lower pressure,
in British thermal units per
pound;
this
may be
obtained most
readily from the chart of Fig. 15 as explained below.

Derivation.
of
From the mechanics of moving bodies, the kinetic energy

is
any moving body
(3)
Kinetic energy
-^f
g
= "2X32^ = -qU
(^^-^b-)
Wherein
the weight of the body, in pounds,
the body, in feet per second,

feet per second per
v = the velocity of the acceleration due to gravity, in
second (= 32.2).
Also,
(4)
from the thermodynamics, see the author's Pbactical Heat:

Heat
liberated by adiabatic expansion
= W(Hi H2)
(B.t.u.)
Or, since
(5)
1 B.t.u.
77Sft.-lb., expressing the
same thing
in foot-pounds:
(ft.-lb.)
Heat
liberated by adiabatic
expansion
= 778"W(Hi H2)
Wherein: = the weight of the steam, in pounds. Hi and H2 have the meanings given above. 778 = the equivalent of 1 B.t.u. in footpounds.
10

^-A
' ' '
'
[Div. 1
!;
Lb. Per Horse power-Howr
''
'
'
Ti'''n"i'
'
'
i'
i'
i
i
i |
i'
i'l'i' î
i
l
i
|i|i
P BSBmgPerLhg
|ik'i|ji,ii'u'J iV
i
l|ii'
i
i'
iliMi4
'ii|i
|
i
|
li
i;ii'
i|^'|lMivX^
Constoint Qudli+y Lines
Lines Of Constant
6ao|e_JPre55u
-Pressures Above Atmospheric Line Given In Lb. Per Sguotre Inch Ga ge
Pressures Below Atmospheric Line Are Given In Inches Of Mercury Referred, To, 30 Inch Barometerf
I
I
I
I
I
1.4
Ln+ropy
1.5
1.6
1.7
L6
19
2.0
Copyright, TOO. De Loval
Steam Turbine Co, Trenton, NJ.
Fig. 15.
Total-heat-entropy chart
for steam.
Sec. 10]
11
Since steam, in flowing through an opening, may be assumed to possess no kinetic energy before it reaches the opening. For. (3) will express the For. (1) kinetic energy which it acquires in passing through the opening.
states that:
(6)
Kinetic energy acquired
= Heat
liberated by adiabatic
expansion
Now,
(7)
substituting values from Fors. (3) and (5) in For. (6)
-^ = 778 W (H: - H2)

by transposing and simplifying:
V
(ft.-lb.
Or,
(8)
223.7
V Hi
- H2
(ft.
per sec.)
Example. What theoretical velocity will steam acquire when it is expanded through an opening from the dry saturated state at 200 lb. per Solution. Use the chart of Fig. sq. in. abs. to 15 lb. per sq. in. abs. ? 15 to obtain the values for Hi and H2. In this chart, pressures above atmospheric are expressed as gage pressures. Now, 200 lb. per sq. in. Also, 15 lb. per sq. in. abs. = 200 14.7 = 185.3 lb. per sq. in. gage. Then, from Fig. 15 on the "Dry abs. = atmospheric pressure, closely. and Saturated Steam" line for 185.3 lb. per sq. in. gage, Hi =1198.1 Also from Fig. 15, by adiabatic expansion following B.t.u. per lb. B.t. u. vertically downward on Fig. 15 to 15 lb. per sq. in., H2 = 101
per
lb.
Hence, by For.
223.7
13.72
Note. somewhat on the shape of the opening or nozzle through which the steam expands. As the steam flows through the nozzle, the friction of the steam on the walls of the nozzle produces heat which is returned to the steam and which raises the value of H2 in For. (2), thus reducing the amount of heat actually liberated by the steam. In a well designed nozzle, that is one in which friction has been minimized by properly
shaping the nozzle, the actual velocity is usually about 95 per cent of the theoretical or computed by For. (2).
(2) y = 223.7VHi - H2 = 223.7 X -n/i88.1 = = 3,072 ft. per sec, which is about 15 miles per minute. The Velocity Actually Acquired By The Steam depends
:
Note. The Calculation Of Steam Velocities With a Totalheat-entropy Diagram, Fig. 15, is much simpler than by using the above formula. The entropy (see Practical Heat) is the property of steam which does not change during an adiabatic expansion. Therefore, the heat liberation during an adiabatic expansion can be traced from a total-heat-entropy diagram by following along a vertical (constant entropy) line from a selected point representing the initial state of the .steam to the line which represents the pressure into which the steam is being discharged. The heat liberation is read, as the difference between the initial B.t.u. value and the final B.t.u. value, along the vertical scale of the diagram. The velocity of the steam (theoretical) can then be read from the B.t.u. velocity scale, C, at the top of the main diagram, which was computed by using For. (2).
12
[Div 1
Example.
By using the chart
of Fig. 15,
velocity with which steam, at 200 lb. per sq, in. gage 100 F., will issue from a nozzle into a region of 29 in.
determine the theoretical and superheated
found, at the intersection of the 100 superheat line and tTie 200-lb, pressure line, to be 1259 B.t.u. pe lb. Following vertically down to the 29-in. vacuum line and then ]C<> the left, H2 is found to be 863 B.t.u. per lb. Therefore, H: - H2 t 1259 - 863 = 396 B.t.u. per
tion.
is
lb.
Hi
vacuum.
Solu-
From
4,460 /^ per
Note. The Chart Of Fig. 15 Is Ltrawn For Gage Pressures For Use In Districts Where The Average Barometric Pressure is
the B.t.u. velocity scale, C, a^^.e top, the theoretical velocity sec. (approximately 51 m'per minute).
Such charts are generally drawn (in it is believed that, for most purposes, one drawn for gage pressures (assuming an average atmospheric pressure) will be more useful for the operator. Hence, the one here given is so drawn. To use the chart in districts where the barometric pressure is much different than that specified above, or for extreme
in. of
about 30
mercury column.
other books) for absolute pressures; but
accuracy, the reader

using this chart
(9)
may
calculate the pressure correction required for
by the
relations:
to be
Gage pressure value
(10)
Vacuum
gage value
to
Actual gage reading X (30 barometer reading)] be used on chart = Observed vacuum gage readused on chart
[0.49
ing
Or, one
(30
barometer reading)
which is based on absolute presexample Marks and Davis' Tables and Diagrams of the Thermal Properties of Saturated and Superheated Steam (Longmans, Green, and Co.).
a similar chart
sures, for
may employ
11. The Velocity Of A Fluid Stream May Be Reduced As The Stream Passes Over A Moving Surface (Fig. 16). It is necessary to know something
T,^^:tZtL'.
Nozz/e (Stationary)
verify
'-^Biock^
Of
y/ ^..
about
i
this reduction of veloc-
,.,: Of Water .' Velocify n^^. leay/ngBiock^s^---'

.
^^^-su /J^ mamt
that One may understand why turbine parts move at such great speeds o rity in Order
^^
and why staging

employed.
(Sec.
17) is
Ve
= Vj
-2Vb
(Approximately)
Fig. 16.
Illustrating the loss of velocity

of fluid as it does work.
by a stream
EXPLANATION. In Fig. 6 it waS shown how a fluid stream may pro-
duce a force but, since in Fig. 6 the force of the stream did not move the block and hence did no work, the velocity of the stream was undiminished (except for a slight loss due to friction) as it passed over the surface of the block. But if, now (Fig. 16), the block is free to move, and does
Se.c.
11]
13
move away from the stationary no/zle with a velocity Vb, then obviously the stream will not approach the block with its full veloctiy Vj. The stream will only strike the moving block with a velocity equal to Vj Vb,'
just as. when an automobile going at 45 mi. per hr. overtakes a train
traveling at 30 mi. per hr.; see also Fig. 17.

Man
,
Thus,
if
the velocity of the
On Ground Throws Object
Car Is Moving ZOMi.Per
In This Direction With Velocity Of4IHi. PerHr=60Ft Perjec.

N/
HrOr44TtPer5ec.
6round
BBtttltibt^fcjS
I- One Second Later, Object Overtakes Car

Fig. 17.
'mBm
Showing
44
of their velocities.
why one moving object strikes another only with the difference To the man on the platform the object seems to come with a velocity
16
ft.
of only: 60
per sec. or 11 mi. per hr.
3,000 ft. per sec. (Fig. 18) and that of the moving block is per sec, the stream overtakes or approaches the block with a velocity of 3,000 1,400 = 1,600 ft. per sec. Now, in passing over the surface of the moving block, the stream passes just as fast over a point where it leaves the block as it passes over
stream
1,400
is
ft.
vj= Jet Velocity Feet Per Second,
mo
s^=Velocity
Nozzle--,..
Jl_
J400
.Per.
Of B/oc/<^ Second
^@&.^
yelocify
Of
Leaving
Sfeam-^y'bis/ Direction
lOOrt.PerOf. Second
Rotating
--
Disk--
Frame
?^???^?;^^^^^^^^^^
Fig. 18.
Illustrating the velocities of a fluid
stream as it strikes a moving surface turbine blade) and then leaves in an opposite direction.
it strikes
a point where
with which
it
Therefore, the stream leaves the block with the
the block (except for a slight frictional loss). same velocity as that
Vj
struck the block, or with a velocity of
Vb
to the left.
That
ft.
is,
in Fig. 18, the
stream leaves the block with a velocity of 1,600
per
sec.
(with relation to the moving block).
14
[Div. 1
But, since the block is moving away from the nozzle to the right with Vb, the actual velocity of the leaving steam jet toward the stationary nozzle is made up of is the difference between the velocity
a velocity of
with which the stream passes from the block and the velocity of the block itself just as when one throws an object with a velocity of 41 mi. per hr. from the rear end of a train traveling at 30 mi. per hr., the object appears, to an observer on the ground, to move only at the rate of 11 mi. per hr. see Fig. 19. Therefore the stream (Fig. 16) actually leaves the block with a velocity toward the stationary nozzle of Ve = (vj Vh) Thus, also in Fig. 18, the stream from the moving block Vb = Vj 2vh. approaches the stationary nozzle only with a velocity of 1,600 1,400 = 200 ft. per sec.
Man On Platform
Throws Object
This Direction With Velocity

Mi.
In Of 41
Car Is Moving 30 Mi. Per Hr. Or 44- Ft Per Sec.
Per Hr. Or 60 Ft Per Sec.
Posfin
(yrouni.
-/^--^j/^^lI
Man On Platform Throws Object

,
wm^mm
_-Man Catching Object
^t<---/6^->H<
44
15ec. = IIMi PerHr.
^.'--""V- Object Goes le-Ft In
m
Fig. 19.
^'H-One Second Later, Man On Oround Catches Object'

is discharged from a moving body, the actual the difference between the velocity of discharge and the velocity of the moving body. To the man on the ground the object seems to come with a velocity of only 16 ft. per sec. or 11 miles per hour.
Showing why, when an object

is
velocity of the object
12. Kinetic
Energy
is
Is
Converted Into
Of A Jet
For.
(11)
(3)
Is
Reduced
in passing over a
Work As The Velocity moving surface. The

(3).
truth of this
evident by inspection of For.

it
Applying
to the example of Fig. 16
follows that:
Kinetic energy of
jet
=
64.4
(ft.-lb.)
in
Wherein: = weight of fluid which passed through nozzle, pounds, vj = the velocity of the jet, in feet per second. Also, from Fig. 16,
(12)
Kinetic energy of streain leaving block

since, as explained, Ve
= -^^
(ft.-lb.)
Now
(13)
Vj
2vb\
Kinetic energy of stream leaving block
a^
(ft.-lb.)
Sec. 13]
15
Hence,
(14)
Kinetic energy converted into work
{Kinetic energy of jet)
{kinetic energy of stream leaving block)
Or using the symbols instead
of
words:
(15) Kinetic energy converted into
work
13.
Perfect
Steam Turbine Would Convert
All
Liberated Heat Into Mechanical Work.

in turn, into
Thus,
The
all of
the heat
energy would first be converted into kinetic energy and then, mechanical work. Obviously, then, for a perfect
steam turbine:
(16)
Mechanical Work
= Heat
liberated
Substituting, then, the expression for the heat
liberated
from For.
(17)
(5):
Mechanical Work
Wherein: steam used,
the
in the
= 778W(Hi - H2) (ft.-lb.) work done, in ft. lb. W = the weight of ''perfect" turbine, in pounds. Hi = the
TF
steam admitted to the perfect turbine, in may be found from the steam chart of Fig. 15. H2 = the total heat of the steam after adiabatic expansion to the pressure at which it is exhausted from the perfect turbine, in British thermal units per pound; this may also be found from Fig. 15 as explained under Sec. 10. 14. The Horsepower And Water Rate Of A Perfect Steam Turbine are dependent on the conditions of the steam admitted to the turbine and on the pressure at which the turbine exhausts steam; the horsepower also depends on the rate at which steam is supplied to the turbine; that is, in a sense, on the capacity of the boiler. The formulas for the horsepower and water rate of a perfect turbine which are derived below,
total heat of the
British thermal units per pound; this
follow
,.g.
^'^^
778W(Hi-H2) W(Hi - H2) o = ^ = 2,545 60X33,000
,,
, (horsepower)
(19)
W^ =
W^%^ rli 12
(It),
per hp.-hr.)
16
[Div. 1
Wherein:
steam supply, in pounds per hour. Hi = the steam under the conditions at which it is supplied to the perfect turbine, in British thermal units per pound. H2 = the total heat of the steam after adiabatic expansion to the exhaust pressure, in British thermal units per pound. Wh = the weight of steam flow required for the perfect turbine in pounds per horsepower per hour; this is the
the rate of
total heat of the
P =
the power of the perfect turbine, in horsepower.
water
rate.
Derivation. Using For. (17) to express the work done by steam, there results:
(20)
W pounds of
(ft.-lb.)
33,000 ft.-lb. per min., also obviously 1 hp. = 60 X 33,000 ffc.-lb. per hour. Therefore, to find the number of horsepower in of For. (20), it is only necessary to divide For. (20) by 60 X 33,000; thus:
1 hr. 1
But, since in For. (20), expresses the work done in
W = 778W(Hi - Ho) W expresses the weight of stsam used in

Now,
since a rate of
1 hr.,
hp.
,01
('')
-D P =
728W(Hi - H2)
60X33,000
W(Hi =
2,545
H2)
,,
, (horsepower)
which
(22)
is
the same as For. 18.
Now, by transposing
Ill
For. (21)
W=^^-^
XI2
(Ib.perhr.)
Dividing For. (22) by

(23)
^ = (h!^- H Jp
W/P = Wh,
For. (23) simplifies to:
(Ib.perhp.-hr.)
But, since
(24)
Wh
^ xli XI2
'
(lb.
per hp.-hr.)
which is the same as For. (19). Example. A theoretically perfect steam turbine is supplied with dry saturated steam at 175 lb. per sq. in. gage pressure and exhausts into a condenser where the vacuum is 28.5 in. of mercury column. The turbine is supplied with steam at the rate of 1,000 lb. per hour. What are its horsepower and water rate? Solution. From the chart of Fig. 15:
Hi =
1,197 B.t.u. per
lb.
H2 = 851
B.t.u. per lb.
By
For. (18):
P =
W(Hi -
H2)/2,545
1,000
For. (19):
Wh =
2,545/(Hi
X (1,197 - 851) -^ 2,545 = 136.0 Ap. By - H2) = 2,545 ^ (1,197 - 851) = 7.36 lb.
per hp.-hr.
Note.
of
The
May Be Read From A

any turbine
is,
Theoretical Water Rate Of Any Steam Turbine Chart, AB, Fig. 15. The theoretical water rate
of course, the
water rate of a perfect turbine operating
Sec. 15]
17
under the same steam conditions. In Fig. 15, values of Wh, as computed by For. (19), have been shown in scale A opposite the values of Hi H2 on scale B from which they were calculated. The use of scales A and B
of Fig. 15, therefore, replaces the use of For. (19).
15. The Horsepower And Water Rate Of A Commercial Steam Turbine depend in part on the same factors as do those of a perfect
efficiency of
steam turbine but,

the turbine in
its
in addition, they depend on the conversion of heat energy into
mechanical work. Energy is "lost" in all steam turbines; is, some energy is not converted into work. Some of the losses are: (1) F fictional losses at the surfaces over which the
that
Brake Horsepower
Fig. 20.
Graph
showing approximate values of the efficiency horsepower, for commercial steam turbines at rated
ratio,
based on brake
full load.
steam rubs. (2) Eddy losses, which are introduced whenever the current of the steam suffers an abrupt change in direction, as when the steam current strikes anything but the desired
surface. (3) Windage losses; these are occasioned by the motion of the turbine parts within a space which is filled with steam vapor. (4) Radiation losses; that is, the heat which is lost as such from the hot surfaces. (5) Frictional losses in the bearings. (6) Exhaust losses, due to velocity which is not
converted into work.
(7)
Leakage
losses
introduced
it,
when
steam flows through the turbine, or part through the desired path.
of
without passing
18

for the
[Dw.
The formulas
mercial turbine
follow
horsepower and water rate of a comdirectly from those of Sec. 14 by
introducing the efficiency and are:

(25)
P^ ^^- ^^"545"'^
(horsepower)
P^' ^^- ^''^
of
(26)
W. = E.(Hr-H.)
=
the brake
(or
E,-
^'^-
Wherein: P^
turbine,
in
delivered)
power
the
or
horsepower.
the
''
efficiency
ratio"
commercial turbine as compared with that of a perfect turbine, expressed decimally; approximate values of Er are given in Fig. 20. Wb = the water rate of the commercial turbine, in pounds per brake horsepower-hour. The other symbols having the same meanings as in Sec. 14.
efficiency of the
Example.
A 200-hp. commercial steam turbine operates on dry satu
lb. per sq. in. gage and exhausts into a condenser where the vacuum is 28.5 in. of mercury column. What, approximately, is its water rate at full load and at what rate must it be supplied with steam to develop its full load rating? Solution. As in the example under Sec. 14: Hi = 1,197 B.t.u. per lb. H2 = 851 B.t.u. per lb. From
rated steam at 175
Fig. 20, for a 200-hp. turbine, Er
49 per cent
0.49.
Hence, by
For. (26):
851)]
Wb =
^
=
Pfi
2,545
2,545/[Er X (Hx - H2)] = 2,545 ^ [0.49 X (1,197 169.5 = 15.01 Ih. per b.hp.-hr. At 200 hp. the turbine
(25)
will require, as is
X Wb =
found by combining and simplifying Fors. 200 X 15.01 = 3,002 lb. per hr.
and (26)
16. Theoretically,
The Work
Done By An Impulsive
Jet (From A Stationary Nozzle) Is a Maximum If The Velocity Of The Moving Surface Which It Strikes Is One-half That Of The Jet (for the conditions shown in Fig. 16). The proof Actually, the velocity of the moving of this is given below. must always be slightly less than one-half that of the surface
jet.
by inspection of Fig. 16 and For. (15) that the work will be a maximum when Ve^ =0; that is when Ve = 0. Hence, since by Sec. 11, We = Vj 2%, when /; = then Vj 2vb = 0. Or, then, by transposing: 2vb = Vj or Vb = Vj/2. Hence, it is proved that the work done by the jet is a maximum when Vh = Vj/2', that is, when the velocity of the moving surface is one-half that of the jet. This result seems logical for (Fig. 16) when Vb = Vj/2
Proof.
It is evident
kinetic energy converted into

Sec. 17]
=
19
then
Ve
leaving the block
and, then from For. (12), the kinetic energij of the stream = 0; therefore, the total kinetic energy of the jet has
been converted into work.
Work Doxe By A Reaction Jet (From A Moving Maximum When The Velocity Of The Nozzle Is Equal To That Of The Jet. It is obvious that, in order that the actual
Note. The Nozzle) Is A
kinetic energy of the
steam leaving a reaction wheel
(Fig. 1)
be zero, the
steam,
nozzle
must
travel
away from the steam
jet as fast as
the steam passes

in the
through the nozzle. Then, since no kinetic energy remains it must all have been converted into work.
17. "Staging" In A Steam Turbine Is The Division Into Parts Of The Processes Of Converting Heat Energy Into Mechanical Work. As explained in the previous section, the kinetic energy of a jet can be iuhy utilized by conversion into work only when the velocity of the moving surface (in an impulse
turbine; see Sec. 30)

or, in
is
approximateh" one-half that of the
jet;
a reaction turbine (Sec. 31)
when
the velocity of the
Furthernozzles is approximately equal to that of the jet. more, the velocity of a steam jet is very great (see example under Sec. 10 wherein the theoretical jet velocity is 51 miles
per minute). Such high steam velocities would steam turbines necessitate extremely high velocities
ties
in of
actual
moving
surfaces or nozzles (rotating parts); in fact, structural difficul-
prohibit such velocities except in very small turbines. These high steam velocities can, however, be either prevented
or utilized
18.
by ''staging." There Are Three Classes Of "Staging," pressure and reaction. Each is defined below; see explanations which follow.
1.
velocity,
also the
Pressure Staging
(Fig. 21) is
that in w^hich the conversion of the
available heat energy of the supplied steam into mechanical
divided into the desired
number
of steps
by causing the steam
through two or more impulsive-jet nozzles successively or in each of which the steam is directed against moving surfaces. There will be as many ''steps" (pressure stages, Sec. 40) as there are stationary nozzles; in Fig. 21 II there are 4 steps. KxPLANATioN. The Effect Of PRESSURE Stagixg maj" be understood by a study of the hydraulic analogy shown in Fig. 21. Suppose that the level of the water in the reservoir, R, is just 156 ft. above the nozzle A. Then water wall issue from A at a velocity of approximately 100 ft. per sec. Hence, the velocity of the blades or buckets against
work is expand series, from

to
20
which

A
directs its stream should, for
ft.
[Div. 1
maximum work, be approximately per sec. (Sec. 16). Suppose, however, that the pressure which produces the velocity is divided by the arrangement of Fig. 21 //, so that each of the nozzles B, C, D and E is supplied from a tank in which the water level is only one-fourth as high above the nozzle as in /.
^ of 100 or 50
Then each
nozzle will deliver water at a velocity of approximately 50
ft.
per sec, and
the velocity of the blades or buckets of each wheel in // need only be 25 ft. per sec.
Theoretically, arrangements / and // will develop the same amount of work from a given quantity of water. Practically, arrangements / and II will give very nearly the same amount of work. In a pressure-staged steam turbine, the principle described above arrangeis exactly duplicated by
ments
(as are
shown
in Div. 3)
divide the liberation of heat
steam into a satisfactory

steps.
which by the number of
The kinetic energy produced by each liberation of heat is converted into work before the next
liberation of heat.
Ve/odfi/
OfJef- Vj
.
Nozzle-
rUns+aged
(
I"
(
Pressure Stage
Fig. 22.
of
0ne"5êp" Or SinglcStage)
rour"5tep5 Or Four Stages
Fig. 21.
turbine.
pressure-staged hydraulic
Illustrating the
staging.
principle
(Analogous to a pressure-staged
velocity
(Two
velocity
impulse steam turbine.)
"steps" or stages.)
2. Velocity Staging (Fig. 22) is that in which the conve rsion of the available heat energy, of the supplied steam, into mechanical work is
divided into the desired number of steps by using a single impulse-jet nozzle and then, after the jet leaves the first moving surface, redirecting There will then it with guide vanes against additional moving surfaces.
faces over which the steam
"steps" (velocity stages. Sec. 39) as there are moving surmust pass; in Fig. 22 there are two moving surfaces, hence two steps.
be as
many
Sec. 18]
21
is
Explanation,
Fig. 22.
If,
The
Effect Of Velocity Staging
illustrated in
instead of being used as in the arrangement of Fig. 16, a stream be reversed in direction by a stationary block, A (Fig, 22) and thus redirected against a second moving surface on the block, B, the jet
have its velocity reduced by twice the velocity of the moving Thus, in Fig. 22, the velocity of the stream as it finally leaves the moving block, B, is Ve= Vj 4 Vh. Hence, for maximum work, Ve = and Vb = y,/4. Thus, if Vj = 100, Vb = 25. Comparing this with Fig. 16, where (Sec, 16) for maximum work vo = vj/2, it is obvious that the block in Fig. 22 (which represents buckets on an impulse-turbine rotor) need travel only half as fast as that in Fig. 16, for if in Fig. 16, Vj = 100 then, for maximum work, Vb = 50, 3, Reaction Staging (Fig, 40) is that in which the conversion into work of the available heat energy in the supplied steam is divided into the desired number of steps by causing the steam to expand through a There will successive series of two or more moving reactive-jet nozzles.
will again
surface.
be as
many
steps as there are reactive-jet nozzles,
QUESTIONS ON DIVISION
Is a steam turbine a heat engine? 1. Define a heat engine. 2. Give a brief history of the development of the steam turbine and draw sketches to illustrate Hero's and Branca's turbines. Give 3. What is the first step in the conversion of heat energy in a steam turbine? an everyday example of the physical change involved in this first step. In 4. Describe the second step in the conversion of heat energy in a steam turbine.
second step does the action of steam differ from that of any other fluid? Why? Draw a sketch to show how Cite several common examples of impulsive forces. an impulsive force may be measured. What primitive steam turbine utilized impulsive forces only? Draw a sketch to show how a 6. Give several common examples of reactive forces. What primitive steam turbine utilized reactive forces reactive force may be measured.
this
5.
only?
sort of force is produced when a fluid stream strikes an object and then an opposite direction? Draw a sketch to show how this force may be measured. What kinds of turbines are typical examples of the use of such forces? 8. How is it shown that steam liberates heat when it flows through an opening from a region of high pressure to one of lower pressure? What becomes of this heat? 9. What relation holds between the kinetic energy which steam acquires in flowing through an opening and the heat energy which is liberated? Show its derivation. 10. State the formula for the theoretical velocity of a steam jet.
7.
What
it
leaves
in
11.
How
is
the actual velocity of the jet related to the theoretical?
12. Explain the use of the total-heat-entropy 13.
diagram
for calculating
steam
velocities.
with a sketch, the reduction of velocity of a fluid stream as it passes over a moving surface. What is the relation between the velocity reductien and the
Explain
fully,
velocity of the
14.
moving surface?
stream gain or lose kinetic energy as it passes over a moving surface? Explain fully. 15. In a perfect steam turbine, what is the relation between work done and heat
Does a
fluid
liberated?
16.
State as a formula. factors determine the horsepower and water rate of a perfect steam turbine? State and show the derivation of the formulas. 17. Explain the use of the chart of Fig. 15 for finding the theoretical water rate of a
What
steam turbine.
22
18.

Name and
[Div. 1
describe six forms of energy loss in a commercial steam turbine.
19. State the formula for the water rate of a commercial steam turbine. 20. Explain fullj' the meaning of the efficiency ratio of a steam turbine.
What,
in
What values does it have? general, determines the efficiency ratio of a turbine? 21. What should be the velocity of a moving surface to insure that a fluid stream in
passing over the surface will do the maximum amount of work on the surface? Explain and show the kinetic energy changes. 22. What should be the velocity of the nozzles of a reaction turbine to provide that the steam will do as much work as possible? How is this explained? State 23. How great may the velocity of a steam jet be under some circumstances?
fully
why
such high steam velocities lead to difliculties in turbines. how high steam velocities may be either prevented or utilized. Of velocity 25. What is the underlying principle of pressure staging?
24. Explain
staging?
PROBLEMS ON DIVISION
i^ How much heat is theoretically liberated from each pound of steam that flows L. through an opening from a region where the pressure is 175 lb. per sq. in. gage and the steam is superheated by 20 F. to a space at atmospheric pressure? 2. How much heat is liberated (theoretically) when dry saturated at 100 lb. per sq. in. gage flows through a nozzle into a region where the vacuum is 28 in. of mercury column by gage? Compute by formula 3. In Prob. 1 what theoretical velocity does the steam attain? and compare with result obtained from BC, Fig. 15. 4. In a perfect turbine, how much mechanical work would be derived from each
pound
^
of
steam
in Prob. 2?
6. If a perfect
steam per hour, what are
turbine with steam conditions as given in Prob. 2 consumes 2,000 lb. of Compare the result with its horsepower and its water rate?
AB,
Fig. 15.
X 6. What might be expected as the water rate of a 2,000-hp. commercial steam turbine which operates under the conditions of Prob. 1 and how much steam would it require per
hour at
7.
full
load?
IG) travel to extract the
At what velocity should a moving surface (similar to Fig. maximum amount of energy from the jet of Probs. 1 and 3?
DIVISION
STEAM-TURBINE NOMENCLATURE AND

CLASSIFICATION
19. The Terms Which Are Applied To The Various Kinds Of Steam Turbines And To Their Principal Parts will be defined and-Ttiuslrated in this division. Terms descriptive of turbines and their parts are used with different meanings by various writers and manufacturers. It is therefore
important that the reader understand

the meanings which will be implied
by the terms as used in this book; hence these definitions. Where several terms are popularly used for the same thing, all will be given; the one which is preferred and which will be used in this book will be stated first.
Note.
Sees.
Mouth-
The
first
bine will
principal parts of the turbe defined and illustrated in
20 to 28. Then the various classes and types as regards their construction and the steam conditions for which they are designed will be defined and illustrated in
Sees. 29 to 46.
Fig. 23.
De Laval divergent
nozzles. /-Nozzle used in class
"C"
20.
turbine for high- pressure
Nozzle (Fig. 23)
is
an openallowed
ing through which steam
is
condensing service. JZ-Nozzle used in class "C" turbine for low-pressure condensing or high-pressure non-condensing
service.
to flow from a region of high pres-
sure to one of lower pressure so as

to acquire additional velocity (Sec. 2).
The function
of a
nozzle in an impulse turbine (Sec. 30)

to the active or
is
to admit the steam
moving parts
of the turbine.
In a reaction
turbine, the stationary nozzles admit steam to the
moving
parts which are also of nozzle shape and guide the steam 23
24
[Div. 2
from them. Nozzles are usually so constructed that the steam flow is restricted by a small opening or throat which The steam is disis the smallest section of the nozzle. charged at the mouth of the nozzle. Steam always expands in flowing through a turbine
.
B/acfes
Fastened Info Diaphragm
ySfeam Flow
.'Entrance
nozzle; its expansion is attended with least friction if the nozzle is larger where the steam enters it than at the throat.
If
'-Mouth
'-Throat
'
--Uiaptiragm
'Hozzle Formed Between B/acfes
the throat of the nozzle
is
Fig. 24.
Convergent nozzles
diaphragm.
smaller than the

nozzle
(Fig.
is
mouth, the
in
said to be divergent
23).
pressure-drops are always

nozzles, are
made
divergent.
Nozzles for large Such divergent

nozzles.
If
sometimes called Curtis or De Laval

of the
mouth of a nozzle is same cross-sectional area

the
throat, the nozzle
vergent (Fig. 24).
is
as
the
said to be con-
Such convergent
nozzles are sometimes called Rateau

nozzles.
The
nozzles of a turbine
are frequently formed

ings
by the openas
in
between the
blades
Fig. 24.
Not e. Divergent Nozzles Are Sometimes Called "Expanding" Nozzles; and, similarly, convergent nozzles,
non-expanding.
Since expansion occurs

types, these
in nozzles of both
terms
Fig.
in
are not strictly correct
and should be
avoided.
I- Side View 25. Moving blades used class "C" De Laval turbine.
These blades are formed by the
Blades Or Vanes (Fig. 25) drop-forging process and the bulb ^^^^^^ ^'^ accurately machined to curved metallic parts, the are ^* *^ corresponding recesses in in function of which is to deflect or the wheel rim. change the direction of a curBlades are sometimes called buckets; rent or jet of steam. but buckets are, more properly, the deflecting surfaces of a bucket-wheel or tangential-flow turbine (Sec. 43). Blades
21.
.
Sec. 22]
NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION
25
may
is
be either moving blades on which the work of the steam
done, or fixed or stationary blades (Fig. 26) which reverse the direction of the steam jet so that more work may be abstracted
it.
from
Stationary blades are sometimes called guide vanes
Shroud Ring
Fig. 26.
Fixed blades
of Allis-Chalmers
Parsons turbine.
The openings between guide blades. quently constitute nozzles as in Fig. 24.
or
the
blades
fre-
22. The Rotor Or Runner (Fig. 27) of a turbine moving part which carries the blades or buckets.
is
the main
It consists
Fig. 27.
Complete rotor with two
discs.
mainly of a spindle or shaft which is supported by the bearings carries one or more discs, D, (Fig. 27) drums (Fig. 45) or wheels W, (Fig. 31) according to the type of turbine. The blades or buckets are carried on the discs, drums or
and which
wheels.
26
23.
[Div. 2
Casing, Case
covering
usually
Or Housing (Fig. 28) of a turbine is a a horizontally split cast-iron shell which
confines the
steam and
the rotor bearings.

I-SideElevoi+ion
frame for the support of Casings are frequently provided with

also acts as a
,'4"Pipe Tap For Steam Seal When Operating Condensing
Y-IO'Â
f"Pipe Open To
<--8[<-... ./5/:..|
'fPipe
Tap, Drain
''^"P/pe
Tilis Is
Drain
Atmosphere
From
Casing ]! Bottom Vievv Of Foot
Fig. 28.
From Gland. Clean Steam

To
And Can Be Led
Feed Water Tank
m-End View
casing,
Outline dimensions
(Fig.
of Steam Motors Company turbine Type B with one bearing pedestal.
frame No.
5,
relief valves
29)
to prevent rupture due to excessive
The part of the casing immediately surrounding the moving blades, together with the fixed blades and nozzles
pressure.
.Center Line Of Er^haust
^- Exhaust Casing -.^
\^ CenterLine Of Wtieek
'Adjusting fiut
Drain-Pipe Connection
'
I- Sect ion
H- Front View
Fig. 29.
Relief
it
valve of Type-6 Sturtevant turbine. This is located on the exhaust casing directly opposite the exhaust-pipe opening.
sometimes called the stator (Fig. 30). 30 shows a half cylinder) is a cylindrical part of a casing in which a number of the stationary blades of the turbine are secured. The term cylinder is most frequently used in connection with reaction-type turbines (Sec. 31).
carries is
which
24.
A Cylinder
(Fig.
Sec. 25]
27
25. A Barrel {B, Fig. 30 shows the stationary nozzles of one barrel) is a group of rotor and stator blades which are
mounted
in rings or
drum
sections of the
same diameter,
which are the same height, and are so arranged as to act successively on the steam current. There may be a number of barrels in one turbine cjdinder. The term barrel is most
frequently used in connection with reaction-type turbines.
Fig. 30.
Half
A
cylinder
ôr
half stator
of a multi-stage reaction turbine.
(Parsons
type, Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co.)
This turbine has 38 stages.
26.
Gland
{G,
Fig. 31)
is
a device for preventing the
leakage of steam or air between the stationary parts of a

turbine and the shaft or the drums which form balance
pistons.
27.
See Div. 5 for further definitions and examples. Governor (C and B, Fig. 31) sometimes called the
is
speed governor
a device for maintaining the speed of a turbine

all
if
practically constant at
loads; see also Div. 6.
Governors
are either direct governors
the centrifugal force of the weights
is the only force used in operating the governing valve; or indirect or relay governors if some other An overspeed force is used to operate the governing valve. governor, emergency governor or safety stop {E and V, Fig. 31) is a device which operates to stop the turbine when its speed exceeds a certain pre-determined value for which the overspeed governor has been set; but which is inoperative as long (See Div. 6.) as this value is not exceeded.
which they employ
28
[Div. 2
L/^
'
Sec. 28]
29
28.
A Turbine
delivering
Reduction Gear (Fig. 32) is a mechanism for power to a driven machine at a rotative speed conLow-Speed Shaff.^
SpirvrlMern'n^hone.
'
siderably less than the speed of the
turbine shaft.
29.
(See Div. 7.)
'Driven
Gears -
Showing The Five Principal Ways, A To E, In Which Steam Turbines May Be Classified and the various classes into which
Table
;'
Driving Pinion
Conriecfeei To
Turbine Shaft"' they are thus divided. The terms 'HicfirSpeedSfyaft 32. a turbine reduction gear which describe these classes will be ^^^defined in subsequent sections. Study the note on page 30.
Classifi-
cation
Class with respect to
Class
No.
Class
Illus-
tration
'
30
[Div. 2
Note.
Every Turbine Belongs To One Of The Classes Of Each
Classification, A io E inclusive, shown in the preceding table. For example, considering classification. A, every turbine is either an impulse, a reaction or an impulse-and-reaction turbine. Also in classification, D, The figure numbers given it is either axial, radial, or tangential flow. do not, necessarily, indicate the only illustrations in this volume of each In fact, some of the classes of the various classes (see also Table 70). include a large number of kinds and makes class No. 17 probably The names of the includes over half of the steam turbines now in use. various manufacturers who make turbines of these various classes and the sizes in which they are made are given in Table 70.
'c--Uftincf
Eye
Shaft EKfension
Carries
Coupling
Casing -'i^
..r;
Shaft Exfentton
Carries
Glands
Governor.. ^_
Relief Valve
2^^ Row OfStationary Blades/

1^^ Row
''Hand Valve For No22le Control
OfStationary Blades
'Expanding Nozzle
in
Fig. 33.
Impulse turbine which has three velocity stages

{Moore turbine.)
one pressure stage.
equal-pressure turbine (Figs. 33
velocity turbine or an and 34), is one which depends almost wholly for its operation on the ''impulsive force" of a steam jet or jets which impinge upon the buckets of the turbine rotor. See Sec. 5 for the definition of an ''impulsive
30.
An Impulse
Turbine, also called a
Thus, an impulse turbine is so designed that the expansion of the steam which passes through it and makes it
force."
Sec. 31]
31
do work
in its
occurs
;
almost entirely in
its
stationary nozzles or
fixed blades practically no expansion of the steam occurs
in its
moving
blades.
For an impulse turbine, the designer
intends that the steam jet from the stationary nozzles or
blades shall impinge on the rotor vanes and thus cause the
rotor to revolve
by
virtue of the ^*push" thus produced.

0.5 per cent,
The
usual impulse turbine probably operates about 99.5 per cent,
by ''impulse" and
by
reaction.
Note. The Pressure Of The Steam Entering The Moving Blades Of An Impulse Turbine Is Almost Exactly The Same As That Of
-yrê/
Nozzle x->\
(CCCCCC
mSsM nnro
Stator
I- Circular Section
I- Longitudinal
Section
Fig. 34.
Impulse-turbine blading.
The Steam Leaving Them. This follows since there is no expansion of the steam in the moving blades; see Fig. 40, / and II. In the nozzles or fixed blades, the steam velocity increases as the steam pressure falls while in the moving blades the velocity of the steam is expended in
turning the rotor.
Note. The Important Characteristics Of Impulse-type Turbines are: Few stages, expansion occurs only in stationary nozzles, large drop in pressure per stage, best efficiency is obtained when blade velocity is appiîmately one half the initial velocity of the steam (Sec. 16).
called an unequal-pressure one which depends principally on the *' reactive force" of the steam jets as they leave the
31. a' Reaction Turbine,
also
turbine (Figs. 35
and
44),
is
32
[Div. 2
turbine's revolving blades at greater velocities than those at
which they approached the blades. See Sec. 7 for the definiThus, a reaction turbine is so designed that about half of the expansion of the steam which passes through it and causes it to do work occurs in the moving blades and about half in the stationary guide vanes. For reaction turbines, the designer endeavors to so design the guide vanes and moving Nozzles blades that the steam will flow into the blades without striking them. This he does by endeavoring to insure that
tion of a ''reactive force."
the circumferential speed of

the
moving blades
will
be
the same as the velocity of the steam stream which enters

Fig.
35. Reaction-turbine blading.
The space between the adjacent blades, on the rotor and on the stator, form
slightly-divergent nozzles.
them.
Icaves
ity
But the moviug bladcS

.
are SO designed that the steam
them
at a higher veloc-
than that
rotor
at
is
entered them; thus the rotation of the
which it produced
by
reaction. The usual reaction turbine probably operates about 90 per cent, by ''reaction" and 10 per cent, by "im-
pulse."
Hero's turbine Fig.
was a purely reaction turbine.
Note. The Pressure Of The Steam Entering The Moving Blades Of A Reaction Turbine Is Higher Than That Of The Steam Leaving Them. This follows because expansion occurs in the moving blades; see Fig. 40-///. Some of the heat energy of the steam is changed to mechanical work (Sec. 2) in passing through the moving
blades.
Note.
The Important Characteristics Of

:
bines are
Many
stages, expansion occurs in
Reaction-type Turmoving as well as in stationis
ary nozzles, small pressure-drop in each stage, best efficiency
obtained
when blade velocity is nearly equal to the highest steam

^
velopity (Sec. 16).
32. \rhe Distinguishing Difference Between Impulse And Reaction Turbines is, therefore, that: In the impulse turbine there is no appreciable expansion of steam in the moving blades; in reaction turbines there is considerable expansion of
the steam in the moving blades.
Furthermore,
it
follows
Sec. 32]
33
that: In impulse turbines there
is practically no differencebetween the pressure of the steam which enters the moving blades and that of the steam which leaves them; in a reaction turbine there is a difference between these entering and leaving
pressures.
Pressure.::-
Oages'
.-Steam
Fig. 36.
-On impulse turbines, G\ reads the same as

higher.
G-i.
On
reaction turbines Gi reads
: Fixed Blades.
'
'Blading Straightened
Out Into A Plane

Blades
I-Cylindrica!
'
-Plane Surface OfSection.
Section
I- Transverse Section
E- Longitudinal
Section
Fig. 37.
Showing relation
of a "cylindrical section" to the actual blading of a turbine.
Note. To Determine With Pressure Gages Whether A Turbine Is Of The Impulse Or The Reaction Type, take steam-pressuregage readings Gi and G^, as in Fig. 36. If there is no difference between the readings, the turbine is of the impulse or equal-pressure type, because If Gi is in this type there is no pressure drop in the moving blades. greater than G^, the turbine is of the reaction or unequal-pressure type, in which type there is a steam-pressure drop in the moving blades. Note. The Distinguishing Difference Between Impulse Blading And Reaction Blading is that the cross-sectional shape of impulse
3
(
34
[Div. 2
blades (Fig. 34-7) is such that the exterior curved surfaces of adjacent blades in a row, lie almost parallel to one another whereas the curved surfaces of reaction blades are such that the opening between adjacent blades
is
smaller on the steam outlet than on the inlet ride, thus forming
a nozzle.
Note.
A Cylindrical Section
is
(Fig. 37) also called
a circumferential
34 and 35, and in many other pictures in this book, in illustrating steam flow in turbine blading. A cylindrical section is a section which is taken along a cylindrical surface through the turbine blading; it shows as a circle, AAA (Fig. 37) in the end view or transverse section. This surface AAA is considered to be unrolled or unbent as shown in // and then appears, when looking at it from the side, as a "cylindrical section." The blades in a cylindrical section all show their true cross sections and spacing, whereas any plane section through the blades would cut some of them obliquely and show
or circular section
employed
in Figs.
the sections distorted.
33. An Impulse -and -reaction Turbine (Fig. 83) is one which has some of its blading designed and arranged as in an impulse turbine and some as in a reaction turbine. See Sees. 30 and 31. Some of the largest turbines now in use are
of this type.
The impulse blading
is
used for the
first
stages
as will be explained later.

34.
High-pressure Non-condensing And Condensing Tur-
bines are turbines which are designed to operate on steam at 100 to 350 lb. per sq. in. pressure and exhaust at atmospheric
pressure or into a condenser respectively.
difference
The chief structural

larger exhaust
between the two
is
the
much
steam
spaces of the condensing turbine which are necessary to
provide for the large volume of steam at the low pressure of

the condenser.
to operate at a
Non-condensing turbines which are designed back pressure considerably above atmospheric
are called hack-pressure turbines.
^35. A Low-pressure Or Exhaust-steam Turbine is one which is designed to operate on low-pressure steam say to 10 lb. per sq, in. gage. A low-pressure turbine is always a condensing turbine and usually operates on the exhaust from a high-pressure turbine or from a reciprocating engine. The low-pressure turbine is characterized by the large steam spaces near the admission end which are necessary for the large volume which the steam occupies at the low pressure.
See Sec. 192.
Sec. 36]

(Fig. 38, also called
is
35
flow4urbines) are turbines to which steam
mixedadmitted at two or more pressures. They usually operate on a combination of live steam from the boiler and additional exhaust steam from some other equipment; this exhaust steam being admitted to an intermediate steam belt before the low-pressure stages. Thus, steam from both sources flows through the low-pressure
36.
stages.
Mixed -pressure Turbines
(See Div. 9.)

Steam Divides Here-,
High-Pressure
High-Pressure
Law-Pressure
Steam Inlet-'
Steam Inlet.
Sfeamlnlet'^x
l^
Moving Blades
'Low-Pressure
Steam
-Exhaust
^--
To
-Exhaust
To
Condenser
Heating Equipment
Outlet To
Fig. 38.
Diagram
Condenser
of
a mixed-pressure turbine.
r IG. 39.
Diagram of a bleeder turbine.
37. A Bleeder Turbine Or Extraction Turbine (Fig. 39) is one from which steam is extracted at an intermediate stage and led away to be used for some other purpose, usually for heating. The usual arrangement is to extract enough steam at about atmospheric pressure for feed-water or building heating and to allow the rest to flow through the low-pressure stages of the bleeder turbine and thence to the condenser. Obviously, more steam passes through the high-pressure stages of a bleeder tu;d|ine than through its low-pressure stages. (See Div. 9.)
^^8oA
stit^tiiig
is: A period cona development or one of several well defined successive periods in a development. A steam-turbine stage may be
Stage, as defined in general terms,
defined as a section which comprises, or one of a

well defined sections which comprise, the
number
of
steam path through
a turbine.
because
it
does not
This general definition, however, is indeterminate fix the limits of the section which comprises
36
[Div. 2
Different kinds of stages are spoken of in connecwith turbines but their meanings are not definitely estabUshed nor recognized among manufacturers and writers.
tion
the stage.
The
>,
following
definitions
are
proposed because they are

37
Sec. 40]
see Sec. 5 for definition of 'impulsive force" of the steam which consists of one row of stationary nozzles (or one set of stationary guide vanes) and the moving blades of the one runner which immediately follows the row of nozzles or vanes and on which the steam from the nozzles impinges. A velocity stage may begin with one row of either nozzles or guide vanes and always includes only one set of moving blades. 40. A Pressure Stage (Fig. 40-//) is that portion of the steam path, in a turbine, wherein work is done by the impulsive force of the steam, which comprises one or more velocity stages through which the steam passes consecutively, its first velocity stage having nozzles and the other velocity stages being all which follow up to the next set of nozzles. A pressure stage always begins with a set of nozzles but may contMn in addition many rows of impulse stationary guide ^s and corresponding rows of moving blades. ir A Reaction Stage (Fig. 40-///) is that portion of the s^~m path, in a turbine, wherein work is done by the reactive force of the steam. Sec. 7, which is composed of a set or row of stationary nozzles and that row of moving blades upon which these nozzles direct the steam. The steam, in passing through reaction stage, suffers a reduction of pressure in both the a stationary and the moving blades. Reaction stages are frequently called pressure stages but it is believed to be better
to reserve the latter
name
for the use given in Sec. 40.

is
A halfshown
cylinder of a reaction turbine with 38 reaction stages

in fig: 30.
42. Various
Terms Which Are Used To Designate The
Staging Of Impulse Turbines and their significance are as

follows
are
Single-stage Turbines (Fig. 31) are those impulse turbines which composed of but one pressure stage which contains but one velocity
stage.
Velocity-staged Turbines
bines), Fig. 33, are those impulse turbines
(sometimes called velocity-stage turwhich are composed of but
one pressure stage which contains two or more velocity stages. Pressure-staged Turbines (sometimes called pressure-stage turbines) are those impulse turbines which are composed of two or more pressure stages each of which contains but one velocity stage.
38
[Div. 2
tur-
Velocity-and-pressure-staged Turbines are those impulse
bines which are composed of two or more pressure stages each of which contains two or more velocity stages.
Composite-staged Turbines are those the stagings of which are formed as a combination of some of the above stagings, so arranged that the steam passes through them in succession or in series: see Sec. 63. For a further discussion of staging see Div. 3.
^7^^ An Axial-fiow Turbine (Fig. 41) is one in which the steam flows in a direction approximately parallel to the rotor
.'Steam-Supply
'<i
Pipe
Blades-
Fig. 41.
Elementary
all
diagram
of
an
axial-flow, single-stage turbine.
axis.
Nearly
large turbines
and many small ones are
of
this type.
tangential-flow turbine, also called a hucket-wheel
Buckets.
LJ kJ
Wheel
Fig. 42.
Elementary diagram
and 42)
is
of a tangential-flow turbine.
turbine (Figs. 31
one in which the flow of steam
is
approximately tangent to the rim of the wheel.

turbines are of this type.
Many
small
is
radial-flow turbine (Fig. 43)

is
one
in
which the flow of steam
radially inward
toward or
Sec. 44]
39
outward from the shaft. Radial-flow turbines have never been regularly manufactured in America but have been
-
Steam Admission
;.
Blade Rings-.
I- Longitudinal
Section
of
1-Transvers6 Section
Fig. 43.
bine.
Diagram showing action

A
and
steam
in
Ljungstrom radial-flow reaction turits
Shafts
are forced to rotate in opposite directions; each drives
own
generator.
built in
Europe by a Swedish engineer; one

Moving
Blades.
is
being built in
the United States.

; Live-Steam Inlet
, Fixed Blades
.'Fixed Blades
Moving Blades^
Live -Steam
Inlet^
Blading'
^'Ê/.haust-Steam Outlet
Fig. 44.
Elementary single-flow reaction

turbine.
Fig. 45.
Elementary double-flow
action turbine.
re-
Single-flow Turbine (Fig. 44)
is
one in which nearly
the steam which drives the turbine flows together
40
[Div. 2
through the blades in the same general direction parallel to

the rotor axis.
45.
A A
Double-flow Turbine
is
(Fig. 45) is
one in which the
main steam current

46.
divided and the parts flow parallel to
the rotor axis in opposite directions.

Single -and -double -flow Turbine or semi-douhle-flow
is
turbine (Fig. 46)
one in which the steam flows through part

. ,
u-LiveSteam
-^
Steam Divides Mere
gYl
Inlet
OutletsFig. 46.
Elementary single-and-double flow turbine.

two currents
of the blades as a single current, then divides into
which flow
in opposite directions.
1.
Name three parts of a nozzle. are two general classes of nozzles? In what two ways are blades used in steam turbines? What is the function of the guide vanes in an impulse turbine? What are its principal parts? 3. What is a rotor? How is rupture of casings by pressure 4. What are some of the functions of a casing?
What
2.
prevented? 5. Define the terms, barrel and cylinder as used in steam turbine nomenclature. 6. What is the purpose of a gland? Relay governors? What other kinds of steam7. What are speed governors? turbine governors are there? 8. Why is a turbine reduction gear used? Give at least three 9. Name four ways in which steam turbines may be classified. classes under each classification. Is it actuated entirely by impulse? 10. What is an impulse turbine? What other force does it employ? 11. What is a reaction turbine? 12. What is the chief difference between the action of the steam in impulse blading
and
in reaction blading?
13.
What
is
the direction of flow in a bucket-wheel turbine?
What
is
meant by
axial flow?
Sec. 46]
14.

are pressure stages?
Velocity stages?
41
What
What
are the differences between
the two?
16. What is the chief difference in design between a condensing and a non-condensing high-pressure turbine? 16. What are the usual sources of steam for a low-pressure turbine? 17. What is the approximate pressure range for the steam supply for a high-pressure turbine? For a low-pressure turbine? 18. What is the difference between a bleeder turbine and a mixed-pressure turbine?
To what other equipment may 19. What is a double-flow

sketches.
the steam outlets of each be connected. turbine? A semi-double-flow turbine?
Explain with
DIVISION
STEAM-TURBINE TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION

47. Table Showing Classification Of Steam Turbines By General Construction. This classification will be followed Note that this classifiin the development of this division. cation combines in one arrangement all of the five classifications, A to E, Table 29.
Blading Or
Nozzle Ar-
rangement
(AJableiS)
Sec.
TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION

The Three Fundamental Types Of Steam Turbines
and
Fig. 50.
(2)
43
are,
48v
see Table 47: (1) Impulse, Sec. 30,

Sec. 31
Fig. 83.
Reaction,
and
Fig. 78.
(3)
Impulse-and-reaction, Sec. 33 and
embodied in the construction of steam turbines of each of these types are described hereinafter in this division.
Note. Steam Turbines Are Manufactured In Both The Horizontal And Vertical Types. In a "horizontar' turbine, the shaft is, In a ''vertical" turbine, the shaft is vertical. horizontal. However, vertical steam turbines, though formerly widely used, are, except in small sizes for driving sump pumps and similar services, becoming obsolete.
The
principal features which are
Step-bearing troubles rendered vertical turbines unreliable. Therefore, only horizontal turbines will be discussed in this division.
The general
49.
construction, except bearings, of both types
is
similar.
The Four
Principal Types
are (Table 47): (1) Single stage. Sec. 42

tloving
Of Impulse Steam Turbines and Fig. 50. (2)

Sfaiionaru blades
Lxhaust,
Diaphragms.,
blades
rOe Lava Type Or
IVelocity
ni-Pressurc-AndVelocity
TSC-
Pressure StagecC
Staged
Curtis Type (One Pressure
Staged
Or Rateau
Type
jingle t>tage
Curtis Type tTwo Pressure
(Three Pressure
Stage Containing Two Velocity

Stages)
Fig. 47.
StagesÊach Containing Two Velocity

Stages)
of
Illustrating De Laval, Curtis and Rateau types
steam turbines.
Sec. 42 and Fig. 63. (3) Pressure-staged, 42 and Fig. 67. (4) Velocity-and-pressure -staged. Sec. 42 and Fig. 70. As shown in Table 47 and in the following sections, certain of these types may be still further subdivided.
Velocity-staged,
Sec.
Also,
(3)
two types of impulse-turbine staging usually (2) and be combined in one turbine. A turbine which is made up of such a combination of staging is (Sec. 42) called
may
composite-staged
44
[Drv. 3
Note.
ing
Impulse Steam Turbines May Also Be Classified AccordTo The Name Of The Man Who Obtained The Original Patents
(1)
(Table 47) as:

type.
(Fig.
De
Laval.
is
(2)
Curtis.
(3)
Rateau.
single-stage,
axial-flow turbine (Fig. 47-7)
De Laval Those turbines which belong either to the velocity-staged type 47-77) or to the velocity- and pressure-staged type (Fig. 47-777)
usually considered to be of the
f:r\
Fan Casing,
Nozzle,N
fiozzh valve N
[Fan
Fig. 48.
Single-stage
single-entry turbine direct-connected to a blower,
manufactured by the Power Turbo-Blower Co.
are generally called the Curtis type.
pressure-staged turbine (Fig.
From a conbe noted that, in reality, the Rateau type merely consists of a number of turbines of the De Laval type arranged in series. It should not be inferred that all of the turbines which are manufactured by the De Laval Steam Turbine Co. are of the De Laval type. In fact, most of the large-capacity turbines which are manufactured by this company (Table 70) closely resemble the velocity-staged (Curtis) type or the Rateau type.
47-7 F)
is
generally considered to be of the Rateau type.
sideration of 7
and IV,
it
will

Sec. 50]
45
Principal Types Of Single-stage Impulse Turbines (Table 47) are: (1) The single-entry type, Steam Fig. 48, wherein the steam jet strikes the moving blades only once. (2) The re-entry type, Figs. 54, 57, and 58, wherein the direction of flow of the steam jet is reversed and it is made to
50.
The Two
strike the
same
set of
moving blades or buckets two or more

single-stage
times.
Different
manufacturers'
turbines
of
each of these types are briefly described in the following

sections.
Single-stage Smgle-entry Impulse Steam Turbine 48 and 49) is the simplest type of turbine. Because of their inherently high speeds, mechanical difficulties render
51.
(Figs.
The
impracticable the manufacture

of single-stage single-entry turNoiile Valves
bines in capacities greater than
about 600 hp.
If
a single-stage
is
single-entry turbine
run at
the proper speed,

efficient of
it is
the most
''Valve Chest 'Steam Inlet
its
any turbine within up to about 600 hp. However, this proper speed is so high, that for most
capacity limits
Exhaust'
I-Sidc Elevation
I-End Elevation
Fig. 49.
Coppus steam turbine, type
TC.
services, reduction gears (Div.

7)
will
be required.
Consequently,
it
is
frequently desir-
able to run a single-stage single-entry turbine at a speed
lower than the speed at which it would have This is because that, by running efficiency. the turbine at a lower speed, the reduction gear may, for these small capacities, sometimes be economically eliminated.
which
the
is much maximum
Turbines of this type are generally designed to operate at steam pressures from about 100 to 250 lb. per sq. in., with exhaust pressures ranging from about a vacuum of 28 in. of Their usual operatmercury up to 35 lb. per sq. in. gage. ing speed is some speed between about 2,000 and 5,000 r.p.m. However, some small single-stage single-entry turbines have been designed to operate at about 30,000 r.p.m. 52. The Usual Construction Of Single-stage Impulse Turbines Of The Single-entry Type (Table 47) is indicated in Figs. 48, 50 and 51 which show turbines manufactured,
46

JL<----5feofm Inlet
Nozzle
Valves..
I
[Div. 3
Fan
Shroud
T'-.
Castfiof-''
Ring
Fig. 50.
' Exhaust Pipe
Single-stage,
single-entry
exhaust E, may be so arranged that be delivered into the blower.)
all,
Coppus impulse turbo-blower, Type C. (The none, or only a part of the exhaust steam will
,'Ccrs/h^
%oyernor ^'Vccuum Breaker

Fig. 51.
Single-entry, single-stage steam turbine.
(De Laval Steam Turbine Co.)
Sec. 53]

by the
Poioer
47
Turbo-Blower Co., the Coppus and the De Laval Steam Turbine Co; the method of converting the heat energy of the steam into mechanical energy is the same in all of these three turbines. The path of the steam through the turbines is, as indicated by the arrows, from the inlet, I, through the nozzles, A^, through the moving blades, B, and out through the exhaust, E. As the steam passes through the diverging nozzles, N, it expands (Div. 1). This expansion results in a considerable drop in
respectively
Engineering
&
Equipment
Co.,
pressure and an increase in velocity of the steam.

sure drop
all of
is
The
pres-
practically equal to the difference
between the
steam pressure at the inlet and that at the exhaust. Practically the velocity energy which the steam thus acquires is converted into mechanical work as the steam jet impinges on the moving blades. The steam passes through the moving
63. Single-stage
blades only once.
Type (Table 47 and
Impulse Steam Turbines Of The Re-entry Figs. 54 and 57) are but slightly more complex in construction than those (Sec. 51) of the singleentry type. Because of the fact that the steam strikes their
moving blades two

ciency at a
type.
or
more times
(see Sec. 18), turbines of the

effi-
re-entry type can be operated with but a slightly lower
much lower speed than can those

same
of the single-entry
Turbines of the re-entry type
are, in general,
used for
larger capacities for about the
classes of service as are
those of the single-entry type.

re-entry type are
hp.
Single-stage turbines of the
made
in capacities of
They
are designed to operate at
from about 1 to 1,000 steam pressures from
about 75 to 250 lb. per sq. in., and at exhaust pressures ranging from a high vacuum up to about 35 lb. per sq. in. gage. The usual operating speed of turbines of this type is some speed between about 3,000 and 5,000 r.p.m. 54. There Are Two Types Of Single-stage Re-entry Impulse Turbines (Table 47): (1) Axial flow, Sec. 43 and Fig. 54. The principle of (2) Tangential flow, Sec. 43 and Fig. 57. energy conversion in each type is essentially the same as that of the single-entry turbine (Sec. 51). However, in the re-entry types only a part of the velocity energy of the steam is given up to the rotating wheel the first time it strikes the moving

48
[Div. 3
blades.
After the steam has impinged once on the moving

it
blades or buckets
passes through a reversing chamber, which
MainGovernor
\
Valve-'
/
'-Nozz/e.
x/?aust-
p/pef/cfnge
Emergence/ Valve.
Fia. 52.
Midwest Engine Company single-stage,
axial-flow, re-entry turbine, longi-
tudinal section.
See Fig. 54 for detail of reversing nozzle of thia turbine.

^Mfrhospheric Relief
Moving Blades^
'xhausf Nozzle
Peversi'ngr^
Chamber
Fig. 53.
^-
-Inlet Yalre
-Steam Inlet
Cross section
of a 10-kw., single-stage, axial-flow re-entry turbine.
(lFe<-
inghouse Electric
&
Mfg. Co.)
strike the
changes the direction of flow, whereby the steam is made to moving blades a second time. In the axial-flow
Sec. 55]
49
type (Fig. 54) the direction of steam flow is usually changed only once; consequently, in this type, the steam-jet strikes In the tangential-flow type, the moving blades only twice.
_^- -Reversing Chamber- -
Fig. 54.
of
Cylindrical section showing

an impulse,
arrangement
of nozzles
and reversing chamber
single-stage, axial-flow re-entry turbine.
(Alidwest Engine Co.)
Fig. 55.- -Showing nozzle
and reversing chamber of an axial-flow, single-stage, re-entry steam turbine. (Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co.)
the steam jet generally undergoes two or

58),
more
reversals (Fig.
thus striking the moving blades three or more times.

is
Each type
55.
briefly described in the following sections.
The Usual Constructional Arrangement Of Impulse Single-stage Re-entry Turbines Of The Axial -flow Type
50

is
[Div. 3
employed
The device which is steam flow is called the The path of the steam through the nozzles, reversing chamber. the moving blades, the reversing chamber and back through
(Table 47)
indicated in Figs. 52 and 53.
to reverse the direction of the
Reversi'ngr
Chamber
Fig. 56.
Cylindrical section showing arrangement of nozzles which is sometimes used on axial-flow single-stage re-entry turbines. (Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co.)
the moving blades the second time

in Figs. 54
is indicated by tne arrows and 55. Turbines of this type as manufactured by the Midwest Engine Co. (Fig. 52) are usually provided with three or more nozzles, two or more of which may be controlled
Nozz/e Valve
Fig.
Terry Type-Z2 turbine, longitudinal section. (Axial adjustment is made by the wheel nuts.)
of the
wheel
by a hand-operated valve
(Fig.
as
shown
certain
in Fig. 54.
The Westingsome
H,
of
house turbines of this type usually have only one nozzle

55).
However,
for
services,
the
Westinghouse turbines of this type are provided with two

nozzles as
shown
in Fig. 56.
One
of the nozzles,
may
be
Sec. 55]

.Nozzle
51
Removed
Removeof
To Show Steam Path
.-Reversing Buchefs
Fig. 58.
Showing path
bine; part of the nozzle
path.
See Fig. 59 for
of steam jet in a tangential-flow, single-stage, re-entry turand reversing bucket is broken away to better show the steam {Terry Steam Turbine Co.) the nozzle of a similar turbine.
y^- Casing
Reversing Buckets
'-Toe
Nozzle-'
Heer
Flangfe-''
Steam Inlet''
Nozzle and three reversing buckets of Sturtevant turbine, made from one solid bronze casting.
Fig. 59.
Buc/cet Wheel (Rotor)
valve of Type-6 To inspect for proper longitudinal alignment of rotor and nozzle, remove plug P. The alignment is correct when the edge of rotor, R, is flush with the edge of
Fig. 60.
Nozzle
turbine.
Sturtevant
nozzle N.
52
[Div. 3
The other nozzle, T, is controlled controlled by a hand valve. by the constant-speed governor. 56. The Usual Construction Of Impulse Single-stage Reentry Turbines Of The Tangential -flow Type (Table 47) as manufactured by the B. F. Sturtevant Co. and by the Terry Steam Turbine Co. is shown, respectively, in Figs. 31 and 57. The principle of operation, as explained below, is the same About the only difference between the two in both turbines.
turbines
is in
the details of construction.

fxhrcfsfCase
Inspection Hole.,
Stuffing Box.-.
U- Steam Case
Nozzle Valve î . Bearing Cap
Ball-
Beanng
Step
'Thrust
T-.
Collar
Steam
Steam
Exhaust
Inlet Tripper Mechanism

'Emergency Valve(Inside)
Fig. 61.
-External view of Type-6 Sturtevant turbine.
Explanation. The Flow Of The Steam Jet In A Single-stage Impulse Turbine Of The Re-entry, Tangential-flow Type is shown A nozzle and a reversing chamber which contains three in Fig. 58. The steam, after passing through reversing buckets is shown in Fig. 59.
the expanding nozzle
(iV, Fig. 58) strikes the side of one of the semicircular-shaped wheel or rotor buckets. This wheel bucket changes the
The steam jet then strikes direction of the steam-flow through 180 deg. the first reversing bucket, B, of the stationary reversing chamber. This stationary reversing bucket again changes the direction of the steam flow through 180 deg. so that the steam jet strikes another wheel bucket. This reversal is repeated until practically all of the velocity energy of the steam is converted into mechanical work of turning the wheel, whereupon the steam passes out of the buckets into the casing and then through
the exhaust. A cross-section of a nozzle valve for, and an external view of a Type-6, Sturtevant turbine are shown, respectively, in Figs. 60 and 61. 57. Impulse Turbine Of The Velocity-staged Type (Table 47 and Figs. 33 and 64) inherently have a lower rotative
Sec. 57]
53
.'tnifht Pressure
54

is
[Div. 3
Practically all of the remaining velocity energy
converted
into mechanical
row of moving blades. Consequently a velocity-staged turbine which has two rows of moving blades will, when operating under the same condi-
work
in this second
tions,
bine.
run at about one-half the speed of a single-stage turSee also Sec. 18.
Note. Velocity-staged Turbines Are Not, Inherently, Quite As Efficient As Are Single-stage Turbines. Nevertheless, for some
services,
it is frequently desirable to use the velocity-staged turbines. This is because that by their use, reduction gears may sometimes be dispensed with. For driving a given low-speed unit, a single-stage turbine with a reduction gear might or might not, depending on conditions, provide a higher efficiency than would a direct-connected velocity-staged Velocity-staged turbines, however, generally are simpler, operturbine. ate more quietly, and are lower in first cost than single-stage turbines
with reduction gears.
Consequently velocity-staged turbines find their widest application in driving relatively low-speed auxiliaries of small capacity where low first cost is of greater importance than is the over-all
operating efficiency.
58. In
The Usual Constructions Of Velocity-staged Impulse

(Figs. 33,
(Outsicle Screen
Turbines
64 and 65) there is one set of expanding nozzles with either two rows of moving blades and one row of stationary
''
(Air Inlet )-._
>Noz2le Valve
Fan
Wheel.
.Nozzle
blades (Figs. 64 and 65), or three rows of moving blades and two rows
of stationary blades (Fig. 33).
More
than three rows of moving blades are seldom used in velocity-staged impulse turbines. One method which is employed in securing the blades in turbines of this type
66.
Air-Outlet Flange
is shown in Fig. For mechanical reasons, velocity-
staged impulse turbines are only

Fig. 64.
made
If
Longitudinal
in sizes
up to about 1,000
hp.
sec-
tion through Carling impulse velocity-staged type, turbine-
made
in capacities
much
larger than
driven volume fan.
1,000 hp., the wheel diameters and blade lengths become so great that
the
centrifugal
stresses
is
thereby
introduced
are
excessive.
Their chief application
for driving power-plant auxiliaries

Sec. 59]

pumps
55
such as centrifugal
boiler feeding,
for circulating cooling water or
blowers, small generators
and the
like.
As
manufactured, their speed ratings and steam service condi-
"da// Bearing
Steam Supply
Nozzle
'Blades
Steam Motors Company turbine, top view with cover removed and certain parts shown in section. (Steam Motors Company, Springfield, Mass. See Fig. 113 for gland details and Fig. 135 for governor.)
Fig. 65.
tions are about the
same
as those given in Sec. 51 for single-
stage impulse turbines.

Sfeel-Band
,Electr!calty
C Shroud-...
:'.mided
I-Section
I- Partial Side
View
Fig. 66.
Method
of attaching
buckets to wheel in Moore steam turbine.
59.
Impulse
Turbines
Of
The
Pressure -staged
Type
(Table 47 and Fig. 67) consist essentially of several singlestage turbines which are contained in one casing and which
are
connected in
series.
In the
pressure-staged
turbines
56
STEA M-T (/RHINE I'lilNCIPLES A ND
I'liA CTICE
Div. 3
(Fig. 67)
row
of
each row of moving blades is separated from the next moving blades by a diaphragm. This diaphragm con-
.Overload bypass .'Hand nozzle Valve
Bearing
Fia. 67.
Axial soction showing gcnorid arranKcinent

has 12 pressure stages.
(Z)e
of a prossuro-staKod turbine which Laval Steam Turbine Co.)
tains stationary blades which are (Sec. 20) of nozzle form.
The steam,
iSiathnary Nozzles
I'OrMore
Clearance,,
'2
as
it
enters the turfirst set of
Gr More Clearance
bine through the

zles (Fig. 68), is
noz-
expanded. The velocity which the steam thus acquires is utilized in doing work on the first row of moving blades just as was explained in Sec. 52
for the single-stage turbine.
After
the steam leaves this
first
row
of
moving
the
blades,
it
passes through
nozzle-shaped
first
stationary
In
blades in the
Circumferential Section
diaphragm.
passing through these stationary

I[-
Fio. 68.
Section of
of
nozzles, buckets
and wheels
Ridyway turbine.
l)lades a second expansion of the steam, with a consequent velocity This velocity increase, occurs.
energy
of
is
moving blades
converted into mechanical work in the second row in precisely the same manner as was
Sec. 60]

for
57
of
explained
the
first
row.
The
action
is
the
steam
throughout the succeeding pressure stages

in either of the first
identical to that
two pressure stages described above.
Note. The Purpose Of Pressure Staging is to provide a method whereby the mechanical difficulties which are encountered in attempting
make a single-stage turbine of large capacity may be surmounted. The velocity of the steam as it issues from a nozzle is a function of the That is, if a large pressure drop occurs, a large pressure drop (Div. 1).
to
velocity increase will result, and
if only a small pressure drop occurs, a correspondingly small velocity increase will result. Therefore, by dividing the total pressure drop inlet pressure minus the exhaust pressure into a number of small pressure drops, the velocity with which the steam strikes any row of moving blades will be much smaller than
Conseof the pressure drop was produced in one set of nozzles. quently, in a pressure-staged turbine, the velocity and the diameter of the rotor can be decreased and the capacity of the turbine increased over
if all
that of the single- or velocity-staged turbine and yet a comparatively high efficiency can be maintained.
Pneumatic
'Governor
Carbon Packing
Runner Or Rotor
Maphragm
<
LiftlncfEyd
Higti-Pressure Nozzle '
'Gland Impeller (Water-Sealed Gland)
Fig. G9.
Section through Ridgway high-pressure turbine.
60. The General Constructional Arrangement Of Impulse Turbines Of The Pressure-staged Type is indicated in Figs. 67 and 69. Although the principle of operation is the same for both of these turbines, the constructional details differ. As indicated in Fig. 68, the clearance between the moving and stationary parts may be comparatively large. In all pressurestaged impulse turbines, some means must be employed to minimize the leakage of steam through the clearance between
58

This
is
[Div. 3
the diaphragms and the shaft.
usually accomplished
5).
by a labyrinth passageway or by carbon glands (Div.
To
take care of overloads, the turbine
may
be provided with
extra nozzles which
be either hand- {H, Fig. 67) or may be provided with a bypass (B, Fig. 67) so that high-pressure steam may be admitted Turbines of this directly to one of the intermediate stages. are usually designed for capacities of from about 500 to type
governor-controlled, or they
may
5,000 kw., to operate with either high- or low-pressure steam,
condensing or non-condensing, at some speed between about

3,000 and 5,000 r.p.m.
61.
Impulse
Turbines
Of
The
Velocity-and -pressure-
staged Type (Table 47, and Fig. 70) consist, essentially, of a

Nozzle diaphragm, 3rd stage.^
3rd. Stage
_
,'2ncf Stage
guide vanes
/Nozzle diaphragm,
,1st
2nd stage
guide vanes
Stage guide vanes
Governor-;
Steam
Inlet'
JrdStagTimljll^''"^
d^'^'P
SrdSfagi
Wheef
rings
, ^ l^rid Stage
\
'Isf.
Stage drain
wtêel
^Packing drain
Diaphragm packing^'
Fig. 70.
^'''"
Îsf.Stage wheel
2nd Stage
Sectional view showing assembly
of a velooity-and-pressure-staged impulse
turbine which has three pressure stages with two velocity stages in each pressure stage.
(General Electric Co.)
number of velocity-staged turbines which are contained within the same casing, and which are connected in series. The total steam-pressure drop between the inlet and exhaust is divided into a number of smaller drops as in the pressurestaged turbine (Sec. 59). Then the action of the steam in each pressure stage is the same as that which was described The purpose of (Sec. 57) for the velocity-staged turbine.
Sec. 62]
59
is about the same as that of Turbines of this type are also sometimes called the Curtis type (Sec. 49). 62. The General Construction Of Impulse Turbines Of The Velocity-and-pressure -staged Type is illustrated in Fig. 70. Turbines of this type are made in capacities of from 10 to 400 hp. and are adapted to operate at pressures from 60 to 250 lb. per sq. in., condensing or non-condensing, at some speed between about 1,200 and 5,000 r.p.m. The non-condensing
velocity-and-pressure staging
pressure staging (Sec. 59).
.Hoving Blades-^
\
'>
Sfafhnary
Guide Vanes-
\
;
^Stationary Nozzles,^
ill
Sil
-^^+^" 5tage5--..->l
of a composite-staged
'<---^+age"
Fig. 71.
turbine.
Cylindrical section through nozzles and blades

Five stages are shown.
steam
{Moore Steam Turbine Corp.)
units of this type have
two pressure
stages.
The condensing
turbines have two, three or four pressure stages, depending
upon the capacity and upon the operating conditions. Each pressure stage has two rows of moving blades and one row of stationary guide vanes. Diaphragms separate the pressure stages from each other. These diaphragms are provided with nozzles, just as are the pressure-staged turbines. Each diaphragm is provided with a metal labyrinth packing to minimize steam leakage along the shaft. Those turbines of
this
type which have three or four pressure stages may be arranged for either mixed pressure or extraction service
(Div. 4).

60
STEAM-TURBINE PlllNCIPLES AND PRACTICE
[Div. 3
63. Impulse Turbines Of The Composite-staged Type (Table 47 and Fig. 71) usually consist of a number of pressure The first pressure stage (Fig. 71) usually contains two stages. This first stage is followed by the required velocity stages.
number
locity
of pressure stages,
(for
each of which contains one ve-
stage
exception see Fig. 76).
The
first
stage
is
sometimes called a Curtis stage, and those which follow are sometimes called Rateau stages. Therefore, a turbine of the
Governor
p.erM Byp.S5
Pfpes
.'^fJShî:
Diaphragm
Fig. 72.
Shaffy
Partial longitudinal section

is,
of a high-pressure composite-staged impulse tur{General Electric Co.) bine which has twelve pressure stages.
composite-staged type
(Sec. 57)
in reality, a velocity-staged turbine
which has in
series
with
it
a pressure-staged tur-
bine
(Sec. 59).
The
action of the steam through such a
turbine
Note.
may
be understood from a study of Sees. 57 and 59.

in
turbines are that, for the larger capacities
The Reasons For The Use Of Composite Staging impulse above about 1,000 kw.
efficient
and less expensive to construct than turbines of which are described in the preceding sections. This is because the two velocity stages, which are in such turbines always placed in the high-pressure end, will efficiently cover an expansion range equal to Thus, by employing them, the size and conseseveral pressure stages.
they are more
any
of the types
quently the cost of the turbine
may
be reduced.
Also,
by placing the
two velocity stages

therein
if
steam be considerably reduced over that which would be required the velocity staging were replaced by equivalent pressure staging.
in this first pressure stage, the pressure of the
may
Sec. 64]
61
This decreases the windage loss and the leakage of steam, thereby
increasing the efficiency.
hfmosphenc
re/to
f Valve
Fig. 73.
Longitudinal
having one Curtis and
section of an impulse turbine of the composite-staged type five Rateau stages. {I nger soil-Rand Co.)
^ Lifting Eye
Relief Valve
,M9ving Blaoles
"ooiinq
Coil
''xhcxusf riancfe'
Fig. 74.
Longitudinal section
of a
composite-staged impulse turbine. Turbine Co.)
{Terry Steam
64. Various Methods Of Construction Of Composite-staged Impulse Turbines are illustrated in Figs. 72, 73, 74, 75 and
"
[Div. 3
62
76.
The same principle is employed in all of these turbines. However, the different manufacturers follow different mechanical designs. Practically all impulse turbines between
(Diaphragm Cover
Eye Bolt
ForLiftingf
Exhausf-
End Cast/ngf Exhaust

Cavity
5team-Enc( Casting
- -j^
Carbon
Packi'nef-
''Oil Baffle
Steam Supply
Valve
'Live Steam Cavity
'Impulse Bucket
''Nozzle Valve 'Nozzle

1,
Fig. 75.
Sectional
view of Moore steam turbine. (Instruction Card No. Steam Turbine Corporation, Wellsville, New York.)
Moore
ilYtelve RateauStages.
'
Two Curtis Stages^
^^-^
Governor-
Exiyaust Flange Fig. 76.
Longitudinal section through a 1,000 kw. Kerr Curtis-Rateau type turbine

two Curtis stages and twelve Rateau
stages.
about 1,000 and 35,000-kw. capacity are of the compositeHowever, they are also regularly manufactured in smaller capacities. Their usual operating speeds are from about 1,500 to 5,000 r.p.m. They are made for high, low
staged type.
Sec. 65]
63
and mixed pressures, condensing and non-condensing, and

(Div. 9) for extraction service. drive large-capacity generators.
65. In
In general, they are used to
Reaction Turbine The Steam Expands In Both The Moving And In The Stationary Blades (see Sec. 31 and Fig. 77).
Fig. 77.
Obsolete Allis-Chalmers reaction-turbine blading.

first
The steam
is
admitted to the
row
of nozzle blades {E, Fig.
78) at full inlet pressure.
The steam,
in passing
through these
blades, undergoes a slight expansion.

High Pressure section
further expansion of
By-pcrss Vafve
Baiance Piston^-
low Pressure Section

Gland),
Fia. 78.
Longitudinal section
of a single-flow reaction turbine. Co.)
(Allis-Chalmers Mfg.
the steam occurs in the moving blades; the work of rotation
is
thus produced by reactive forces (Sec.
7).
The
action of the
each successive reaction stage of a reaction turbine is identical to that in the first reaction stage which is described above. To take care of the increasing volume of the steam
in
steam
64
as
it
[Drv. 3
expands throughout the successive reaction stages
of
a reaction turbine, the blade lengths and the rotor diameter are increased by successive steps (barrels, Sec. 25) or sections
(H, J, and K, Fig. 78).
66.
reaction turbine
is
sometimes
called the Parsons type of turbine.
Reaction Turbines Are Manufactured For Nearly All However, they are usually designed for operation on high- or low-pressure steam and to exhaust into a high-vacuum condenser. The reason for the general use of a high-vacuum condenser with turbines of this type is that the
Steam Conditions.
intermediate and low-pressure

efficient
sections
Fig.
78) are
more
than
is
the high-pressure section.
The most
efficient
speeds of reaction turbines are usually lower than are those of
impulse turbines because reaction turbines are generally built with very many more stages. Consequently, they are generally
used to drive large alternators through a direct connection, at some speed between about 750 and 3,600 r.p.m. Reaction turbines are made in capacities of from about 300 to 30,000
kw.
For capacities above about 30,000 kw., compound turbines

Various types of reaction turbines
(Sec. 68) are generally used.
are described in the following sections.

67.
The Three
Principle
(1)
Types
Sec.
(3)
(Table 47) are:

Sec.
Single-flow,
Of Reaction Turbines 44 and Fig. 78. (2)

Single-and-double-flow,
Double-flow, Sec. 45
and
Fig. 79.
46 and Fig. 80. Reaction turbines of each of these types are described in the notes below.
the high-pressure section, H, of the cylinder at E. After passing through the turbine, the steam is exhausted at G. The difference in the steam pressure which is caused by the expansion of the steam in the moving blades, Sec. 65 on
is
live
Note. steam
A Single-flow Reaction Turbine

admitted through the
inlet, C, to
is
shown
in Fig. 78.
The
the two sides of each row of moving blades produces an end thrust in the direction (to the left in Fig. 78) of the steam flow. To equalize this
end thrust, balance pistons, L,
and A'^, are provided, respectively, for each of the three sections //, J and K. These pistons connect with the high-pressure ends of their respective sections by the passageways E, O and P. The area of the balance pistons, L, and N, is just sufficient so that the steam pressure on them exactly balances the end thrust to the left. To operate at overload, the govQrnor-controlled bypass valve, V2 (Sec. 154), admits steam directly to the intermediate-pressure sec-
tion J.
Sec. 67]
65
(Fig. 79), the steam There the steam divides One-half of it flows to the left and the other half into two equal parts. Consequently the end thrust (see preceding note) in flows to the right.
Note.
In A Double-flow Reaction Turbine
is
admitted at the center of the blading at A.
Exhaust Space
" /
Lv5Zitk__JJ_
Fig. 79.
Low-pressure
double-flow reaction turbine.

Co.)
{W estinghouse
Electric
&
Mfg.
one-half of the turbine is counter-balanced by that in the other half, thus obviating the necessity of balance pistons. Also, since the steam
Relief Va/vQ^
.Relief Va/re
Bearina
'i</?aus/
Exhaust
Section of a 30,000-kw. single-double-flow steam turbine having reaction Fig. 80. blading and complete expansion within a single cyhnder. Note that the legend Overload Admission Spces should read Overload Admission Spaces. (Westing house Electric &
Mfg. Co.)
is
turbine, be
divided into halves, the diameter of the rotor can, in a double-flow made smaller than in a single-flow turbine of equal rating. Note. A Single-and-double-flow Reaction Turbine (Fig. 80) provides a means of utilizing the energy in the large volume low-pressure
66
[Div. 3
steam without unduly increasing the blade lengths in the low-pressure sections of the cylinder. In Fig. 80, the steam enters the turbine at the admission space, S, and flows through the turbine, in a left-hand direction, to A. At A, the steam divides, one-half flowing through the lowpressure section B and the other half, via NMP, through the low-pressure
section C, to the exhaust.
5fec/m Passacfe
From
High-To Low- PressureCylinder Hlgh-PressuKe Cylinder

(Governor:
iiJ
\:5feam
Lxhausf
Fig. 81.
cylinder,
To
\X;;5ypp!y
Condenser-
Founcfafi'on
reaction turbine; the high-pressure
Exterior view
is
of a
tandem-compound
H,
of the single-flow type, the low-pressure cylinder, L, of the single-and-
double-flow type.
tion turbine.
See Fig. 245A for a sectional elevation of a tandem-compound reac-
.Alfernafors,
lO.OOO-Kv/.
Eac^
Low-pressure
Cylinder
Fig. 82. Three cylinder cross-compound, 50,000-kw. reaction turbine unit consisting of one high-pressure and two low-pressure elements. (Westinghouse Electric & Mfg.
Co.)
68. A Compound Steam Turbine is one wherein the total steam expansion from boiler pressure to condenser pressure occurs in two or more separate cylinders. Compound steam turbines are (Table 47) made: (1) Tandem-compound, Fig. 81, wherein the axes of both cylinders lie along the same straight
line.
tandem-compound turbine unit
is
usually direct-con-
Sec. 69]
67
nected to a single generator. (2) Cross-compound, Fig. 82, wherein the axes of all cylinders are not in the same line, but usually in parallel lines. Each element, or cylinder, of a cross-compound turbine unit is usually direct connected to a
separate generator.
The tandem-compound
reaction turbine
which
is
shown
in Fig. 81 has a high-pressure cylinder of the
single-flow type
and a low-pressure cylinder
of the single-and-
double-flow type.
69.
An Impulse -and -reaction Turbine
(Fig. 83)
is,
in addi-
tion to the reaction blading, R, generally provided with
two
Exhaust flange.
Fig. 83.
Single-flow impulse-and-reaction turbine

house Electric
of 10,000-kw. capacity.
{.Westing-
&
Mfg. Co.)
rows of moving blades, V, of the velocity-staged impulse type The steam flows through this impulse blading (Sec. 57). Thus both the temperabefore it reaches the reaction blading. ture and pressure of the steam is decreased before it enters the Since the steam pressure on the first first reaction stage. reaction stages is thereby decreased, the leakage of steam over the ends of the short reaction blades will not be as great as if the high-pressure steam were admitted directly to the first reaction stage as is done in turbines (Sec. 65) of the purely Also, since the temperature of the steam is, in reaction type. the impulse-and-reaction turbine, lowered before it reaches the
68
[Div. 3
reaction blading, the high-pressure section of an impulse-andreaction turbine

is
not subjected to such high temperatures as
hmliary Steam Infef

M'efValve^-:
Fig. 84.
Section
of a 20,000-kw., 1,500-r.p.m., double-flow Westinghouse impulse-and-
reaction turbine.
is
the high-pressure section
of
a purely reaction turbine.

(Sec.
For the same reasons as were given for reaction turbines

Safofy '
Valve
FiQ. 85.
Westinghouse single-and-double
flow, impulse-and-reaction 25,000-kw. turbine.
67),
impulse-and-reaction turbines are
83), double-flow (Fig. 84),
made single-flow (Fig. and single-and-double-flow (Fig. 85).
Sec. 69]

S
69
the three fundamental types of steam turbines. A vertical turbine? What tends to cause vertical 2. What is a horizontal turbine? turbines to be unreliable? What two of these 3. What are the four principal types of impulse steam turbines? types are frequently combined into one turbine?
1.
Name
4. Name the classification of impulse turbines according to the name of the man obtaining the original patent. Make a sketch to illustrate each. What 5. For what purposes are single-stage impulse steam turbines generally used? Range of pressure ratings? Range is about their usual maximum horsepower rating?
of
speed ratings?
6.' Name two principal types of single-stage impulse steam turbines and explain with a sketch the action of the steam in each type. 7. Name the two principal types of single-stage re-entry turbines and make a sketch to show the path of the steam through each type. 8. For what classes of service are single-stage impulse re-entry turbines especially
adapted? 9. Explain with a sketch the action of the steam in a turbine of the velocity-staged Does the velocity of the steam with respect to the vanes or blades change in type. passing through them and if so how? 10. What is the maximum number of rows of moving blades which is generally used in
velocity-staged turbines?
11.
Why
are velocity-staged turbines sometimes used in preference to single-stage
turbines?
12. Make a sketch to show the usual arrangement of the nozzles, moving and stationary blades in a velocity-staged turbine. For what 13. What are the principal applications of velocity-staged turbines? speeds, horsepowers and steam conditions are they usually designed?
14.
Make
What
what
a sketch of and explain the action of the steam in a pressure-staged impulse

is
turbine.
16.
plishes this purpose.

if
the purpose of pressure staging? Explain how pressure staging accomHas pressure staging any advantage over velocity staging and
so
is it?
What means are generally employed to minimize steam is a diaphragm? leakage through the clearance between the diaphragm and the shaft? 17. What two methods are used on pressure-staged turbines to provide for overload? 18. Give the horsepower range, the usual steam conditions and the speed range for which pressure-staged turbines are ordinarily designed. 19. Make a sketch to illustrate the action of the steam in a velocity-and-pressureWhat is the purpose of velocity-and-pressure staging? staged turbine. 20. What are the horsepower range, the usual steam conditions and the speed range for which velocity-and-pressure-staged turbines are usually designed? 21. Make a sketch to explain the action of the steam in a composite-staged turbine. What is the reason for using composite staging? Within what horsepower and speed ranges are composite-staged turbines usually designed to operate? 22. Explain the action of the steanl in a reaction turbine. 23. Give the range of speed and horsepower ratings for which reaction turbines are ordinarily designed. For what steam conditions are they especially suitable? 24. What are three principal types of reaction turbines? Why 26. Why are balance pistons generally used in single-flow reaction turbines? are they not required in double-flow reaction turbines? 26. Why is the single-and-double-flow construction used in large reaction turbines? 27. What is a compound turbine? What is a tandem-compound turbine? What is a
16.
What
cross-compound turbine? 28. What are the advantages

turbine?
29.
of
an impulse-and-reaction turbine over a

all
reaction
Make
a complete table showing the classifications of
steam turbines according
to general construction.
70
70.
[Div. 3
Table by Manufacturers Showing Steam Conditions,

Fig.
Manufacturer
No.
Steam conditions
Class or description
Alberger
Pump &
Condenser Co.
Sec. 70]
71
Classes and Approximate Ratings of Steam Turbines

Approxi-
Type
of
mate
ratings
staging
Governor
Glands
Notes
10-50 hp.
72
70.
[Div. 3
Table by Manufacturers Showing Steam Conditions, ClasFig.
Manufacture
No.
Steam conditions
Class or
description
Power Turbo Blower Co

Sec. 70]

of
73
Continued
ses,
and Approximate Ratings

Type
of
Steam Turbines
Glands
Approxi-
mate
ratings
staging
Governor
Notes
1-20 hp.
DIVISIOX
STEAM-TURBINE INSTALLATION
71. The Various Steps In Installing A Steam Turbine may be given in the order in which they should usually be performed The principal parts of the as follows: (1) Plan if necessar\\ installation which must be planned are the foundation and
piping.
(2)
Build
(4)
the foundation.
(3)
Receive
the turbine.
grout.
(5)
Pluce the turbine on the foundation,

initial adjusttyietits.
and unpack level and
Make
The
bearings, coupling,
governor and thrust bearings should be adjusted suflSciently so that the turbine may be turned over slowly without damage.
(6)
Conned up the condenser,

(7)
oil
system, piping, drains, and
other accessories.
conditions.
under operating up the first time. The governor must be adjusted by running the turbine at its rated speed. 72. In Planning The Installation Of Large Turbines, (Fig. 86) pro\'ision should be made for the space and support
final adjustment
(8) Start
Make
required
by
all
turbine casing
location of
all
principal piping, bearing in mind that the must not be subjected to piping strains. The auxiharies and accessories should be carefully
planned so that they can be readily handled b}' the crane and so that they are all as nearly alike as possible thus facilitating the stocking of spare parts.
The method
and
be
of cooling the
generator, of supporting the condenser
of connecting the
turbine
exhaust
of
passage
large
should
completely
planned.
The planning
the
tm-bine foimdations
involves pro\4sion for the extra stresses
and supports occasioned by the
vacuum in turbine casing. ForxDATioxs AXD Erectiox.)

Note.
(See the author's
Machinery
The
Piping For
narily be accurately planned.
A Small Turbixe (Fig. 87) need not ordiThe turbine may be located where desired
steamfitter but
and a pipe Une run to it and exhaust line run from it by an experienced it must then be properly supported to reUeve .:ie turbine
74
Sec. 73]
casing of
all
stresses.
75
Provision
is
sometimes made in small turbine
piping for special governing.
Pressure-controlled diaphragm valves are
sometimes used on turbo-blowers
for boiler furnaces (Fig. 87) so that the speed of the turbine will be proportional to the steam requirements of
-Steam Supply-''
Free Exhaust To
AfmospHere,^^^^.^^
K^^J
,
^_
'
Exhaust-
Outlet Air Dud
Atmospheric Exhaust Reiki

Yalye--
Surfoce Condenser
Lire
,
\
A'lr
Steam
'[Elector
Clrcukiiing Pump:
Supply If ate/ Make-ip'

installation
Hot-fi'ell
Pump-
'Hydraulk S^pp.y pjrr:p

auxiliaries
Fig. 86.
Turbo-generator
showing principal
and piping.
the plant
if
the boiler pressure
falls,
the turbine will furnish more air
and %'ice versa. Similar valves or pump governors are sometimes used on turbine-driven boiler-feed pumps to keep a desired water pressure in
the feed
line.
To Boiler Pressure--,
To Steam
ReyuMIn^
Turbine _
VaAie.^
\^^[\
h
ForAc/Justiny
Pressi/re.
'Extiausf
SyPcns-
Fig. 87.
Piping connections,
for turbine-driven blower,
which enable blower to mainit sersês.
tain a constant steam pressure in the boiler which
73. Foundations For Large Turbines are ordinarily built
Or Medium-sized Steam
in
hollow form so that the

placed directly beneath
condenser and other auxiliaries
may be
76
the

turbines.
[Div. 4
The foundation
is
frequently
in
the
form
supported from a subbase or footing by a superstructure consisting mainly of vertical columns. Foundations for small non-condensing turbines are simple blocks of concrete which differ in no essential respect from foundations for small motors or other small machinery. In no event, however, should a turbine bedplate
of a raised platform or capslab
be bolted to a wooden floor without building for

rigid concrete slab (or structural steel
it
a suitable
frame for small turbines) which will protect the bedplate from possible bending. It should be remembered that the function of the foundation is to maintain the unit in alignment. Permanence of alignment is largely dependent upon the rigidity of the foundation. 74. In Receiving And Unpacking A Turbine Which Is Shipped Assembled (from General Electric Co. ^'Instruction Book 82,200") see that the blanks over the piping outlets and inlets are intact and that no foreign material has lodged in the steam passages. Look over the gages and piping and see that all the fittings are in place. Report any shortages as soon as possible. When ready to install the machine, wipe off all slush with clean waste and, if carbon packing boxes or other machined surfaces coming in contact with the steam or exposed to view or touch are slushed, they should be cleaned thoroughly with gasoline. No bearings, linings, journals, or roller or ball thrusts should be cleaned with gasoline but merely wiped clean with waste. 75. In Receiving And Unpacking A Turbine Which Is Disassembled, locate all parts called for on the shipping memorandum. If the parts are to be assembled immediately, wipe off all slush or clean with gasoline as previously noted. The wheels and shaft will, in most cases, be shipped resting in blocks fitted to the recesses in the heads where the carbon boxes belong and this blocking should not be removed until the wheel casing is resting in the base and the shaft in the
linings.
See that
all
the blanks over the openings are intact

its
and that no foreign material has found

machine. 76. Turbines Are Placed Aligned On Wedges (Fig. 88).
of the
way
into
any part
On
Their
Foundations
And
The wedges
are of steel about
Sec. 77]
in.
The primary aUgnment and leveHng
all
is
77
usually
thick.
made with
principal parts of a turbine in place but before
the piping and auxiliaries are connected.

slid slightly or
The machine
is
the wedges driven in or out until the desired
level of the bedplate is obtained.
The
level is indicated
by
placing an accurate spirit level across the finish bosses of the

bedplate.
These bosses are usually provided at convenient

It
is
points on the bedplate and are scraped to an accurate level at
the factory.
not sufficient to try the level at one or two
bedplate
\-''0.
C7.-:.A^-^?;,
dam
Fig. 88.
Bedplate
of turbine
supported on wedges and surrounded by wooden

for grouting.
points.
It should
be tried
all
the
way around
since there
is
often
plate
some warping
is
of the bedplate in shipment.
The bed-
then grouted to the foundation by pouring thin grout A dam is built (usually or cement mortar under the plate. confine the grout and force it to fiow under of strips of wood) to the plate and up inside for 2 or 3 in. After about 2 or 3 hr.
the
dam
is
removed and the excess grout trimmed
off.
About
two days later, the wedges may be removed, if desired, and the anchor bolts tightened. See the author's Machinery
Foundations And Erection

77. In
for further information.
Handling Small Turbine -driven Sets (sizes up to about 100 kw.) which are usually shipped completely assemIn general bled, no unusual amount of care is necessary. they can be rolled on skids without special regard to deflecting
78
[Div. 4
up by a crane with almost any convenient hitch without fear of undue buckling. They are thus readily set on the foundation where the bedplate may be leveled by means of supporting wedges (Sec. 76)
the bedplate; or, they can be picked
although very careful leveling

78.
is
not usually necessary.
In Handling Medium-sized Turbine -driven Sets (150 to 2,000 kw.) the bedplates should be given uniform support to insure against deflection (bending) by the heavy supported
parts. for small parts.
These machines are usually shipped assembled except If rolled on the skids, great care should be
exercised to see that the skids are supported at a

points.
number
of
Likewise,
when hitched
to a crane hook, the
heavy
parts should be supported individually instead of being carried
on an unsupported part of the bedplate. When set on the wedges on the foundation top, the bedplates should be very carefully leveled by means of the spots or surfaces provided
therefor;
see
the
author's
Machinery Foundations and
Erection.
Note. A Medium-sized Turbine-driven Unit May Be Aligned Its Coupling; see Sec. 167 for the method. When so ahgned, however, account must be taken of the fact that, after the turbine-end of the unit is heated by the steam which it contains when operating, it will have expanded and will stand at a higher elevation than when cold. Allowance must be made for the amount that the turbine end will rise; see
At
Sec. 85.
79. In Erecting
Large Turbo-generator Sets
it is
important
can give
to plan the
work
as completely as possible so that the erection
will progress
smoothly and that the
man
in charge
his entire attention to the
work at hand without fear of getting *'hung up" or wasting time and labor. The following procedure (based on an article by E. H. Thompson in Power,
6,
July
1920) will be of value in such work:
Is Received on freight cars, the various and arrangements made for unloading. It is necessary to consider which parts are first needed, which are to be stored until later, where and how these are to be stored, and how transported to the foundation when needed. In most plants the cars are brought
1.
When The Machine

must be
identified
parts
within reach of the power-house crane; often
it is
necessary to
roll or
Sec. 79]
79
drag them to the crane. Sometimes the plant may be in the process of building with no crane in operation, then rigging work is the largest problem. 2. The Shipping Lists Can Be Checked as the unloading proceeds. Meanwhile a shack can, if necessary, be erected near the installation for tools, storing delicate parts, blueprints, and for the convenience of the men. Wedges and blocks for the grouting and special tools can be ordered for the work, to be ready when needed. A sec3. The Bedplate Is First Placed On The Foundation. tional baseplate should be assembled by either heating the bolts or drivThe bedplate should then be checked for ing the wrench with a sledge. The bedplate may then be located on the foundation accordaccuracy. ing to the center lines shown on the plant-design drawing. All openings in the foundation for pipe connections, generator air ducts, drains and the like should be checked for accuracy. Sometimes it is well to check openings and connections by temporarily assembling parts of the turbine A little such forethought may obviate the necessity casing or generator. of moving a 100-ton condenser or of chipping a concrete opening at the last minute, or of straining pipe flanges to make connections and causing a bad joint, or other trouble. The bedplate can then be carefully leveled. 4. The Bearing Pedestals, Turbine Casings, Generator And Other Parts Which Must Be Aligned may now be placed on the bedplate. A steel wire is generally used for aligning. The end bearings are first carefully doweled and bolted into their permanent position. A new steel wire 0.008 to 0.010 in. in diameter, such as piano wire, is tested to breaking strain by lifting various weights with it. The line is then stretched between two rigid supports, such as heavy timbers or convenient columns or pieces of machinery and a tension is produced in it by suspending from it a weight of about î of its breaking load. The Line Is Now Moved Up Or Down Or Crosswîse at each end until it is exactly central with the bored surfaces of the end-bearing pedestals or other parts used as a permanent guide. Wedges to suit the rigging are convenient in making small changes in position of the wire. The distance from the wire to the bored surface can be roughly measured with an inside caliper and with final accuracy by an inside micrometer The pin gage is generally the machinist's choice and is or pin gage.
made by
selecting a piece of wood }i to shorter than the average measurement.
^
A
in. in
pin or needle
diameter, and in. is driven in at
each end so that measuring
The
distance
is
is done between the two pinheads or needles. changed by driving the pins in or pulling them out. The
must be adjusted so that the radial distance to the bored surface is the same at each side as well as above and below. It is not difficult to obtain an accuracy of 0.000,5 in.
position of the wire
After The Tight Line Has Been
Set, the other bearing pedestals,
turbine casings, generator, gear housing, etc., can be adjusted so as to be central with the line. They should then be doweled, by drilling and
reaming and accurately
fitting dowels.
80
[Div. 4
The Middle Bearing Will Be Lower Than The Outside Bearings by an amount equal to the sag in the wire. This would ordinarily be negligible up to 15-ft. span of wire. It can be checked by assembling the rotary element and opening up the coupling; see Sec. 167. The middle bearing should be shimmed until the distance between the flanges of the coupling is the same above as it is below, or perhaps 0.002 to 0.006
in.
more on
best,
if
top.
The Turbine Casing Is Usually Set Low to

is
allow for expansion.
It
any question arises in this connection, to get the manufacturer's information on this point. It can readily be settled, however, by making the adjustment that seems best, and then checking the alignment with shaft again, when the machine has been put in service, and correcting to be central under working conditions of temperature. If the shaft is sprung, the amount of the "spring" must be measured, and
this
5.
should be taken into consideration

questions
of
when
centralizing with the shaft.
The Grout Should Be Poured under
the bedplate after the fore-
going
etc.,
checking location, alignment, pipe connections,
have been settled. While this is hardening, the parts next to be assembled should be cleaned and made ready. The Importance Of Cleaning is seldom realized by the inexperienced. The practical man knows that grit or sand in a bearing running at high speed can cause considerable damage in a few minutes. A scraped joint, where no gasket is used, is diflScult or impossible to make steam-tight when dirt is present. Dirt causes alignment troubles when shims and contact surfaces are not properly cleaned. Cleaning is something of an art. An appreciable skill is required in preparing, with a sharp machinist's scraper, a scraped surface which has been warped by bolt pressure and expansion, and which is covered with sticky dope. Some judgment is required in getting this work done by unskilled and unreliable labor. When large pieces are cleaned, it is a good plan to provide putty knives or old files ground to a dull edge. The work can then be inspected by an experienced man, and filing or scraping done as required.
Delicate Parts Which Are Being Assembled Should Be Covered With A Tarpaulin Or Other Shield each night to prevent dust settHng from the air, and solid particles, such as bolts or nuts, finding their way
in.
The steam passages must be continually guarded and
inspected.
The Most Difficult Part of The Assembling Is Usually The Turbine Rotor And Casing. It is most important to have reliable men to watch different parts as the lowering is done. The Remaining Parts To Be Assembled, which include generator, packing casings, steam chest, valve gear piping, etc., often require much
painstaking work and represent a large part of the job.
Of Long Horizontal Turbines Are Usually Bolted At One End Only. Due to the difference in length of a long casing when hot and when cold, it is necessary that one
80. Casings
Down
Sec. 81]
slide freely.
81
end be allowed to
The General
Electric Co. gives
the following directions in connection with the installation of their 12-stage Curtis turbines: The bolts holding down the
standard at the high-pressure end of the machine should not be drawn up so tight as to prevent relative movement of standard and base at this point. The turbine casing is doweled to the base at a point approximately near the center of the exhaust passage, and expansion due to temperature changes will cause a movement of the standard relative to the base. Align-
Marks should be placed on both is preserved by keys. standard and base to see that this movement actually takes
ment
place.
81. To Compensate For Expansion And Wear Of Bearings, shims which are provided for the purpose by the manufacturers should be placed under the bearing pedestals. No shims should be used between the turbine casing feet and the supporting pads of the bedplate. Insulating shims are sometimes necessary under the generator end bearing; see Sec. 200. Tests are made at the factory to determine if these shims If so, they are always furnished with the are necessary.
machine.
The bearings
are aligned
by means
of a tight line
stretched through the assembled shells of the bearings.
The
turbine end bearing must be aligned with special accuracy because the worm gear drive for the governor will not operate
satisfactorily
82.
if
there
is
any misalignment
at this point.
When A Turbine Is Shipped Entirely Disassembled, the bearings may be aligned by means of a fine steel wire tightly
stretched through the bearing center line as explained in Sec.
When the bearings themselves are received disassembled, 79. they should be examined and flushed out with kerosene before assembling. They should, after the primary assembly and alignment have been made, be filled with the proper grade of
oil.
The
cooling coils of the oil systems should be inspected
for leaks
water pressure before the oil system is filled. Leakage of water into the oil causes much The oil system should then be cleaned if necessary, trouble. filled and examined for leaks; see also Sec. 204. 83. The Axial Blade Clearance Of Turbines May Sometimes Be Tested By Means Of A Taper Gage. A plug hole, H, Fig.
full
by applying the
82
89
of
is
[Div. 4
usually provided for such testing in each pressure stage
most impulse turbines. To make the test, remove the plug and insert the taper gage on each side of the fixed blades as shown in Fig. 89. The clearance should be the same on
each side of the fixed blades. If it is not, the difference should be corrected by adjusting the thrust bearing as explained in Div. 5. If the condition is different in two or more stages, the adjustment should be made so that the least clearance in
will be as large as possible. If there is no plug measuring the axial clearance, the adjustment may be made by adjusting the rotor first to one extreme position and hole for
any stage
Fixed Blades
Fig. 89.
Method
of checking the axial clearances of a Curtis turbine.
for
then the other. By carefully turning the rotor and listening sounds of interference the extreme positions may be ascertained but this must be done very cautiously to avoid damage. The extreme positions may be marked on the shaft. See Div. 5 for further instruction. The axial alignment of some bucket-wheel turbines may be tested as shown in Fig. 60 by removing the plug provided for the purpose and observing
the alignment.
84. Some Miscellaneous Precautions Which Should Be Taken In The Piping Of Large- Or Medium-sized Turbines
are as follows: Piping to the turbine should be as short as possible, should be of ample prevent excessive pressure drop, should be formed in smooth bends whenever possible, should be so shaped that expansion will not strain it, and so supported that it will not bear heavily on the turbine casing. Cut-outs or stop valves should be provided in the branch leading from the main header to the turbine so that the whole pipe will not Separators fill with water by condensation when the turbine unit is idle.
size to

Sec. 85]
83
should always be provided, where saturated steam is to be used, in the piping just before the steam is admitted to the turbine. Where superheated steam is to be used, the use of a separator is unnecessary provided that the superheat is not lost by radiation in the piping and provided also that precautions are taken to prevent the flow of condensed steam into the turbine when starting. Before the piping is connected to a turbine, the live steam should be blown through it to remove dirt
and scale. Strainers must always be used on high-pressure turbines and should be removable for cleaning. Strainers are usually provided by the turbine manufacturer just ahead of the governor valve. If none is provided, one should be procured and inserted. For low-pressure turbines using steam through a separator from a reciprocating engine, the strainer is sometimes omitted. Drains should be provided to take the drips from the throttle valve, separator, and exhaust end of the turbine casing, and low points in the piping where water is likely to collect. These drains may usually be combined and run to the condenser. A valve must be provided at the head of each drain to close it off as soon as all the water is removed.
Where the condenser is located too high to take the drains, a trap should be provided which will deliver the drips to the hot well. Casings Should Be Protected From Piping Strains and all other kinds of strains. The capslab (supporting slab) of the foundation should be so rigid that no deformation is possible. The grouting of the bedplate to the slab should be so thorough that no uneven support is formed which will cause warping. The condenser connections and other lowpressure steam connections should (unless a spring-supported condenser is provided) be made with expansion joints so that no strain will be transmitted from the condenser or other structure to the casing; see the author's Machinery Foundations And Erection. The relief valves on the casing and the atmospheric relief valve on the condenser connection should be in good condition to avoid straining the casing or shutting down of the unit in case of a condenser failure. The relief valve should be set for about 2 lb. per sq. in. gage. There should be no hand-operated valve which can prevent the steam escaping through the relief valve.
85. The Final Alignment Of Turbine -driven Units On Their Bedplates Or Soleplates Is Preferably Made When The Unit Is At Operating Temperature. The steam end of the
unit expands
true unless
for the expansion. The steam end of the unit should, for condensing operation, when cold, be lower than the generator end by about 0.005 in. per ft. of vertical distance from the point where the casing is supported to the shaft center and 0.01 in. lower for non-condensing
when heated and, allowance is made
if
aligned while cold, will not run
84

As turbine-driven
boiler-feed
little
[Div. 4
operation.
as hot
pumps
are almost
on one end as the other, very
allowance need be
made
Pellef
Valye^.
for their expansion.
Cast-iron
Casing \
.'Center
Note.
ings
Some Small-turbine CasAre Supported At The Height

(Fig.
Bearing
Of Their Shafts
increased
will
90)
so
that
[Support
or
little
decreased
or
temperature
effect
have
no
on the
alignment.
Bedplate
Shaft
Small Westinghouse turFig. 90. bine so supported that changes in temperature will have little effect on the shaft alignment.
The Governor And Its OperMechanism Should Be Inspected to make sure that it has not been damaged in shipment.
86.
ating
If necessary,
the governor should
then be adjusted to a prehminary If a genersetting (see Div. 6). ating unit which is being installed is to operate in parallel with units already installed, the governor should be carefully
adjusted for the same speed regulation as the other units (see Div. 6 and the author's Steam-engine Principles And Practice). The amount of speed variation obtainable with
the synchronizing mechanism should be noted and adjusted necessarj^ to permit synchronizing. 87. Instructions For Checking Alignment, are given by the
if
General Electric Co. as follows for their one- and three-stage turbine alternators Bosses for checking the axial alignment in a
:
horizontal plane will be found on or close to the horizontal centerlines of the unit.
One
of the bosses
is
located on the wheel

is
casing, close to the outboard end.
second boss
located on
the connection piece adjacent to the stator. A third boss is The two located on the generator outboard-bearing bracket.
outer bosses are tapped for studs to carry a tight line.
0.016,6-in. piano wire weighted
by a 30-lb. weight and supported
at its weighted end

is
stretched along the unit.
by a small roller carried between collars The horizontal distances from the
tight line to the bosses
on the connection-piece, wheel case and generator bearing-bracket are stamped on these bosses.
Sec. 87]
'
85
To check
this alignment, it is necessary to duplicate the distances to the outer bosses and to compare the observed dis-
tance to the middle boss with the figures stamped on it. No correction for sag of wire is necessary, but alignment must be checked when the unit is cold.
Note. The Alignment In A Vertical Plane Is Checked With The Same Wire stretched in the same way across the proper bosses.
One boss for this alignment will be found on the outboard end of the wheel casing, between the two bosses used for leveling; a second boss is located on the generator end bearing bracket. One of the two bosses on the connection piece used for the leveling serves as the third boss.
1.
Give
in order the various steps in installing a turbine.
must the foundation of a large turbine be completely planned' is the general form of foundation most frequently used for large condensing turbines? For small non-condensing turbines? 4. Name several things which should be done in unpacking a turbine which is received for immediate installation. 6. How high above a foundation should a turbine bedplate be supported for grouting? How soon after pouring should the excess grout be trimmed off? 6. Why are long horizontal turbine casings securely bolted down at one end only?
2.
Why
3.
What
the alignment of the other end preserved? the cooling coils of an oil system be inspected for leaks? 8. Explain a method of testing the axial blade clearance of a turbine. 9. When is it unnecessary to provide a strainer for a steam turbine? When is a separator unnecessary? 10. Where should drain pipes be provided in and around a steam turbine? Where should the drains lead to?
is
How
7.
How may
11. 12.
How does an atmospheric relief valve protect a turbine casing? Why should a turbine preferably be finally aligned at operating
temperature?
DIVISION
STEAM-TURBINE SHAFTS, BEARINGS, AND PACKING GLANDS

88. The Satisfactory Operation Of A Steam Turbine Depends Largely On The Condition Of The Shaft, Bearings And Packing Glands. The operator is not particularly concerned
with the turbine shaft except insofar as correct alignment (Div. 7) is concerned. This is because the shaft is designed
and made by the manufacturer. It, if properly designed and made, requires practically no maintenance, except for maintaining proper alignment, and is not subject to operating difficulties. Consequently, only the more usual types of shafts are briefly described in Sec. 89. Bearings and the packing glands however, may require considerable attention and maintenance on the part of the operator if the turbine is to operate satisfactorily, the bearings and the glands must be kept by him in the best possible condition. 89. Turbine Shafts, Which Represent Typical Construction as employed by different manufacturers, are shown in Figs.
on Throweri. Thrusr Rings.
r,
''Governor
location
Coupling Key way'
'
Fig. 91.
^Shaft
of a
De Laval turbine showing key ways

couplings.
for fastening the discs
and
91,
92 and 93. 92 and 93)
are nearlj^ always

(Figs.
cally all turbines
The shafts of impulse turbines (Fig. 91) made solid, while those of reaction turbines are generally hollow. The shafts of practiare now made ''stiff." See note below.
Note. Some Manufacturers Apply The Term "Spindle" to designate the complete rotating element, as in Figs. 92 and 93. However, the terms "shaft" and "spindle" are generally synonymous.
86
Sec. 90]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
87
Note.
The "Critical Speed" Of A Shaft which

is
carries a load, as
the specific speed at which the shaft vibrates most violently. If the shaft is permitted to rotate for any length of time at its critical speed, the vibrations may prove disastrous. The explanation for this vibration is too technical to be given here. It
for instance a turbine rotor,
LP. Balance Piston^
LP. Spindle
\LP.O/ISIin^
iU'lUHaJt^re*^
'^
X
^ H.P.Spindle
^nd
Fig. 92.
93.
^
=
^m^
â,
.1.
'
"Mua^
H.P.
Gland Runner-'
^^^
Thrust)
Collar--'
LP. GlancI Runner
I.P.Spindle Rings'-
Section through the spindle

I. P.
low pressure.
(L.P,. = of a Allis-Chalmers reaction turbine. intermediate pressure. H.P. = high pressure.) See also Fig.
is
a fact, however, that at speeds well above or well below their critical
speeds, all shafts (unless badly unbalanced) will run fairly free
vibration.
from
In the early days of steam-turbine engineering most turIn starting or bines were operated above their shafts' critical speeds. stopping such turbines it was essential that the critical speed be passed Nowadays, however, nearly all turbine shafts are as quickly as possible.
88
[Div. 5
the rotor and which also prevent any excessive
movement
of
the rotor in
any direction perpendicular to its axis; the main bearings are sometimes called radial pressure hearings. (2) The thrust hearings which restrain the rotor from excessive
in either direction parallel to the axis of the rotor.
movement
sections.
Bearings of each of these types are discussed in the following
Table Showing Classification Of Steam-turbine Bear(Only those bearings are included in this table which The bearings which are restrain the movement of the rotor.
91.
ings.
used in connection with the governor, the oil pump, or other subsidiary apparatus are not included in this table and are
not discussed in this division.)
Flexible, Fig. 94
Plain bearings
Rigid, Fig. 100
Main
bearings
One row.
Ball bearings
Fig. 50
Two
Steam-turbine bearings
Roller, Fig. 103
rows. Fig. 65
Simple
collar. Fig.
104
Thrust bearings
Multi-collar, or marine, Fig. 105

Ball, Fig. 106
Kingsbury, Fig. 108
92.
Plain Flexible Steam-turbine Bearings (Table 91 and

94; see also the note below) generally consist of: (1)
Fig.
The hahhitt, B, which contains the oil grooves, G, and upon which the journal bears. (2) The lining, L, which is held in
place
by the
spherical seat, S.
The Hning
it is
is
usually split
along the horizontal center line; thus,

parts,
divided into two
which are sometimes called the upper lining and the lower lining. (3) The pedestal, P^ which supports the lining
Sec. 92]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
seat.
(4)
AND GLANDS
cover, C.
89
through the
facturers
The bearing
Various manuflexible
employ
different constructional details in
Spherical
5eaf
Collar
Bolt
I-Longitucrf noi
Fig. 94.
Section
IL-Transverse Section
of Allis-Chalmers
Spherical-seated bearing
is
steam turbine.
bearings.
96, 97,
This
98.
and
Flexible bearings of
evident from a comparison of Figs. 94, 95, some kind are used in
I-Longi+udinal 5ec+ion
Fig. 95.
bit
is
II-Transvrsal Section
(Oil enters at
Spherical-seated steam-turbine main-bearing.

(Westinghouse Electric
and passes
upward through the spaces E, entering the bearing through the groove
so bored that the horizontal "diameter" dimension
is
at F.
The babthan the
slightly greater
vertical
"diameter" dimension.
&
Mfg. Co.)
nearly
called
all
steam turbines.
Bearings of this type are also
spherical-seated
hearings,
and
is
self-adjusting
hearings.
The
function of a flexible bearing
explained in the following
note.
90
[Div. 5
will,
Note.
Flexible Bearing So Operates that the bearing
ivithout causing excessive friction, automatically adjust itself so that

$,^hf Hole Plug
Lining Screw
Fia. 96.
Section through outboard bearing

.. ,,
of General Electric Co.
steam turbine.
....
/"
Spherical Seat
r'""
upper Lining
babbitt
Oil
S3
>i
Groove <1>
Lower
Lining
-Oil
Passageway
JT-Lpngitudinal Section
of a
X-Transverse Section
Fig. 97.
Section through bearings
Kerr turbo-generator.
the axis of the bearing coincides with or remains parallel to the axis of the journal or shaft. See Fig. 99. The axis of the shaft when in its normal position is indicated by the center line, A. If from any cause,
Sec. 92]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
91
<-F
Casf-Iron Lining
^
"^;,
E-A55emb\ed
\n
Cas-t-lron
l-Tubes Assembled
,-
Shell
-Re fain in
g Nuf
fl
EL-Showing Relative Posi + ions
BC-lnnermosi Bronze Tube
of Tubes
Fig. 98. Self-adjustable or flexible main bearing consisting of a nest of tubes for high-speed turbines of small capacity. [The bronze tubes, E, D, and C (III) fit over each other (II) with some clearance, so that the innermost is free to move slightly in any direction. Oil fills the clearance between the tubes and forms a cushion which tends
to
dampen
vibration.]
Ot/
QitVenf
Vapor
AXIS Of
Bearing Cover
Shaft Ands^ Bearing

before
Bending
Pedesfaf
'mw/wA
Fig. 99.
Illustrating action of a spherical-seated "flexible" bearing,
when the turbine
shaft bends.
The bending
is
exaggerated for purpose of illustration.
92
[Div. 5
indicated
the shaft should bend, its axis will then be at some other position as by B. Now, since the bearing lining is held in a spherical
seat {S, Fig. 94), the bearing will rotate in this spherical seat and assume the position shown in Fig. 99; thus, coinciding with the axis of the shaft. If the bearing were a rigid hearing (Fig. 100) the bearing could not readily Consequently, if the adjust itself to any bending of the turbine shaft. turbine shaft should bend, excessive friction would result and the bearing would be subjected to excessive wear, and probably to heating.
.Threaded Collars Locked In PosWon rprm A Thrusf Bearmgr-^
(Any bending or deflection of the Rigidly seated steam-turbine bearing. Fig. 100. shaft will tend to distort the housing and pedestal, thus causing excessive bearing friction.)
93. Ball Bearings Are Used As The Main Bearings Of Small-capacity Turbines by some manufacturers. A doubleThe race, self-adjusting ball bearing is shown in Fig. 65.
advantages claimed for main bearings of this type are that they minimize friction and are readily accessible for renewal. Ball bearings are seldom used for turbines of capacities greater than about 200 hp. A ball bearing should be flushed out occasionally with kerosene. A ball bearing cannot be repaired; if it becomes badly worn, it must be renewed.
Note. The Relative Location And The Constructional Arrangement Of Steam-turbine Main Bearings are shown in varioua
illustrations in Div. 3.
94. In General, The Temperature Of The Oil Leaving A Turbine Main Bearing should not exceed about 150 F.
Sec. 95]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
93
See also Div. 10. However, there are some turbines the bearings of which are designed to operate at a temperature of from 195 to 212 F. To prevent excessively-high bearing temperatures, the main bearings of some
medium- and
largeis
capacity turbines are (Fig. 101) water cooled.

lining.
Cold water
forced through the coils which are imbedded in the bearing
systems
Those turbines which have circulation lubricating (Div. 10) are generally equipped with separate
.'Spherical
Seat
'S/?crf/-
-Bearlnof Coyer
Upper Half Lining
(End View)
doffpm
I-Partial
Half Linincf
H-Sec+iion X-X
v,
j
.
v^.
vv|.
.
.
Longi+udinal Sec+ion
Cooling
Coil-
'
Retaining Clip
for Pipe Co!
-'^,
tj
IT-Cylinolrlcal Sec+ion Of Bo++om Waif of Lining Showing Cooling Coil
Fig. 101.
Showing constructional arrangement

ing.
of a water-cooled steam-turbine bear(General Electric Co.)
coolers for lowering the temperature of the oil after
it
has
passed through the bearing.

95.
The Care Of The Main Bearings Of A Turbine

is
consists
If
principally in providing proper lubrication (see Div. 10).
proper lubrication
sive
not maintained, excessive wear of the
bearing will result, or the bearing
may
be burned out.
wear
in the bearing will disturb the alignment.
ExcesThis will
usually cause undue vibration which will, in turn, cause the
bearing to wear
still more. If a slight misalignment due to wear is discovered in time it may be corrected by removing and inserting shims (Fig. 94) which are generally provided between the lining and the blocks which support the lining. With proper care, a turbine main bearing should last from 6
to 10 years.
94
[Drv. 5
Note. Excessive Wear In The Bottom Of The Bearing Lining Usually Results In One Or More Of The Following Conditions:
(2) Shoulders along the oil groove, (1) Misalignment of the hearings. which will cut off lubrication and cause heating. (3) Contact between some stationary and some rotating -part of the turbine. (4) Hard parts of
the babbitt
wearing the journal irregularly. (5) Excessive clearance in the upper half of the liner, which may permit the oil to be thrown out. Obviously, the remedy is to install a new lining or to rebabbitt the old lining
(Sec. 97).
96. A Turbine Bearing May Be Repaired by: (1) Installing a new bearing which has been supplied by the manufacturer. If a reserve bearing is at (2) Rebabbitting the old bearing.
hand, the
that,
This is because first method is the preferable one. by using the reserve bearing, the necessary repair can be effected with a minimum loss of time, and also because a better
fit
will
probably be secured.
However,
if
an extra bearing
new babbitt can be poured into the old lining and good results will obtain if the work is properly done. In any case, if a bearing is destroyed by any means except by
is
not readily available,
ordinary wear, the cause of the destruction should be located and removed before the turbine is again put into service.
A method
following
of rebabbitting a turbine bearing is described in the
section.
See
also
the
author's
Steam-engine
Principles and Practice. 97. In Rebabbitting A Turbine Main Bearing, the original dimensions and shape of the old bearing should, if known (Fig. If the original dimen97), be followed as closely as possible. sions of the old bearing are unknown the new bearing can be
made
is
as explained below.
Explanation. Pour the babbitt so that the diameter of the bearing Then scrape out the oil grooves. the same as that of the journal. The oil grooves should (Fig. 102) be about }-i in. deep and about
in.
wide.
Two straight grooves
(Fig. 102) are all that are generally required.
Some
in the top of the bearing.
turbine bearings have only one oil groove (Fig. 95) which is located The location of the grooves will, for a forced-
circulation lubricating system, be determined
by the
holes in the cast-
iron shell for the
and outlet (Figs. 94, 96, 97, and 102). To prevent excessive oil leakage from the bearing, the ends of the groove should The square edges be about in. (Fig. 97) from the ends of the bearing.
oil inlet
of the groove should be scraped
away
to a rounding contour (Fig. 102)

oil film.
so that there will be no sharp edge to interfere with the
Sec. 98]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
is
95
After
journal.
making the grooves, the next step

First
to
fit
the bearing to the
put the lower half of the bearing in place. Then scrape out this lower half (see the author's Steam-engine Principles And Practice) so that for about 55 deg. (Fig. 102) from each side of the vertiBe sure to cal center line the bearing is an exact fit for the journal. remove all high spots from this portion of the bearing. From the extremities of this area that area which is fitted to the journal up to the lower edges of the grooves, the bearing should be scraped away slightly {A and A, Fig. 102) so that a wedge-shaped oil-film space will be provided. A clearance should be provided between the journal and the upper half of the bearing. This clearance should be about 0.002 in.
for each inch of journal diameter.
That
is,
for a 2-in. journal, the clearin.
ance should be about: 2
0.002
0.004
This clearance
may
be
Vertical t
Shims
j '
Direction Of: 5haff Rofafion
Fig. 102.
Illustrating one method
of re-babbitting the
main bearing
of a turbine.
obtained by inserting shims {S and S, Fig. 102) of the proper thickness between the upper and lower halves of the lining, and then scraping away the bearing at B and B. If this clearance is too small the oil passage will be restricted. If it is too great, there may be an excessive oil leakage. The clearance above the journal can be determined by putting a piece of soft lead fuse wire on the top of the journal and then tightly Then remove the upper half of bolting on the upper half of the lining. the lining and caliper the mashed fuse wire.
Of Steam-turbine Thrust 98. The Primary Function Bearings is to hold the shaft in such an axial position that proper clearance will be maintained between the rotating and stationary parts. Since impulse turbines are inherently
subjected to but
little
end thrust and reaction turbines are
generally provided with
dummy
pistons (Sec. 67) for balanc-
ing the end trust, the thrust bearings are not usually (see
'
96
Sec.
[Div. 5
99) required to withstand much pressure. However, where a governor or an oil or water circulating pump is driven from the turbine shaft through a heUcal gear, a considerable end thrust may be exerted. Thrust bearings of the principal types, also some methods of adjusting them, are described in
following sections.
99. The Four Principal Types Of Thrust Bearings which are used in steam turbines by the various manufacturers are: (1)
Bolt,
For
Moving
Thrust Cage And Adjusting
Position
Thrust Cage
.'
Of
Rotating Element
Moved Axially By Adjusting Bolt, A, And Prevented From Turning By Key, K.
Roller
Bearings
Fig. 103.
Roller thrust bearing.
LA
steel washers, S, are held stationary
(The hardened
by the dowels. The washers, M, rotate with the shaft. The rollers, R, roll between and S. Clearance between R, S and is adjusted by removing B and turning C. Axial position of shaft is adjusted by A.)
Roller thrust hearing, Fig. 103.
(2) Collar thrust bearing,
which
of
may
consist of only one collar, Fig. 104, or of a

(3)
number
(4)
collars, Fig. 105.
Ball thrust bearing, Fig. 106.
Kings-
bury thrust bearing. Figs. 107 and 108. The operation of the bearings of the first three types will be evident from a study of the respective illustrations. The operation of the Kingsbury
thrust bearing
Explanation.
is
explained below.
is
The Kingsbury Thrust Bearing
sometimes
(Fig.
108 and Fig. 69) contained within the main bearing lining. Sometimes it is mounted in a separate casing on the end of the shaft, as in Fig. 107.
Sec. 99]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
is
AND GLANDS
97
This bearing
against the bearing blocks,
arranged to withstand thrust in the direction of arrow A F (Fig. 108-/). One block, G, is placed on
.-Main
Bearing Lining
Bearing Cap-^
nî
Thrust
Rlncf^
'Vrah
Plugs-''
Fig. 104. Simple collar thrust bearing. The two thrust rings R and R are pinned to the oil deflectors, Z), and rotate with the shaft. Axial movement of the shaft is restrained by contact of these rings with the ends of the lining of the main bearing which
are faced with babbitt.
(General Electric Co.)
Graduated Dial On Upper Adjusting Screw
Fig. 105.
Multi-collar or marine-type thrust bearing.

Co.)
{Westinghoitse Electric
&
Mfg.
movement
7
the side opposite from the direction of thrust to restrain any endwise The bearing blocks, F, (as shown in ///), rest of the shaft.
98
[Div. 5
The purpose against pivoted projections on the equalizing blocks, K. of the equalizing blocks, K, is to equalize the pressure of each bearing
fnspecHon
BalI-Thrust
'.Bearings
Cap-'^
Fig. 106.
Showing the use

Bearing.
of
shaft alignment.
the Gurney Ball Thrust Bearing for maintaining axial {Terry condensing turbine.)
Sfeam-End
5ieam-End Bearing Thrust Collar Case Cap
Thrust Block
Bearinef Adjusting Screyi
Kingsbury thrust bearing parts of Moore steam turbine (Instruction Card Fig. 107. moves a slide Axial adjustment of the rotor is made by turning screw -S, which 3). The thrust blocks of this Kingsbury thrust r, carrying the thrust bearing with it. and the collar bearing are also adjustable so the correct clearance between the blocks or 0.008 m. to can be obtained. A clearance of about 0.004 to 0.005 in. on each side
No.
0.010
in. total, is
recommended.
block on the collar, E.
The
collar,
E,
is
shrunk on the shaft and rotates
with
it.
Sec. 100]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
99
Thus if any portion of E (Fig. 108-7//) tends to exert a greater pressure on some one bearing block, say block F, the equalizing block, K, on which This this particular bearing block is pivoted is pressed downward. causes the two adjacent equalizing blocks Ki and Ki to rotate a little, which causes the next equalizing blocks K2 to push upward on the next bearing block, F2. Thus, the total thrust which is exerted by E in the direction of A (Fig. 108) is always equally divided between all of the bearing blocks. Also, the total thrust on any one bearing block is uniformly distributed over the face of that block. Consequently every
->A ^^^-^^-c.K'îiJnr^
TI-Transverse Section A-A Y<i+h
I-Longitudlina\
Sec+ion
Shaft And CoWar Omitted
Bearing
Block-
Hi-Cylindrical
Fig. lOS.
Section
Kingsbury thrust bearing.
minute portion
ing the thrust.
lubrication at
is always active in carryThis design and construction produces (automatically) a wedge-shaped oil film at L (Fig. 108-1 1 1), which provides effective
of the face of each bearing block
all
times.
is capable of satisfactory operation under very high unit pressures (350 to 500 lb. per sq. in.), the area of the balance pistons of reaction turbines is sometimes reduced
Inasmuch
as a thrust bearing of this type
and the Kingsbury thrust bearing is designed to carry the unbalanced end thrust. To insure that the end thrust will always be against the bearing blocks, turbines are {Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co.y "Instruction Book No. 5,171"), sometimes installed with the thrustbearing end lower than the other end by about 0.02 in. per foot of length
of the turbine.
100.
The
Axial Adjustment Of
A Turbine
Rotor Determines
The Axial Clearance Between The Rotating And The Sta-
100

The Turbine Proper.
[Div. 5
tionary Parts Of
of the rotor
is
If the axial position
not properly adjusted, the turbine will not
operate at its maximum efficiency; and in case of extreme axial mal-adjustment, the turbine may be wrecked. As suggested in Sec. 98, the axial adjustment of the rotor is generally made
by
this
Various methods of making adjustment and the amount of clearance which is necessary between stationary and moving parts of the turbine are
shifting the thrust bearing.
discussed in following sections.

101. The Types Of Mechanisms Which Are Generally Employed For Axial Adjustment Of A Turbine Rotor are: (1) Screws or nuts, Figs. 103, 105, and 107. (2) Shims, Fig. 104;
Steam
Fig. 109.
Jer-'
Showing correct amount
of
"lap"
for a Terry tangential-flow turbine.
see also Fig. 57.
Screws are used for effecting axial adjust-
ment
in practically all
of the smaller capacities,
steam turbines. However, in turbines some manufacturers use shims (Fig.
The detailed design of the mechanism for axial adjust104). ment which is used by one manufacturer differs from that used by every other manufacturer. Even the axial-adjustment mechanisms for turbines made by the same manufacturer,
but of different types and capacities, are different one from the other. Consequently, it is impractical to treat herein the various mechanisms which are employed for this purpose. The operator should, by a careful study of the machine and of the manufacturer's instructions, thoroughly familiarize himself with the adjusting mechanism before attempting to make an axial adjustment of the rotor.
Sec. 102]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
Axial Adjustment
AND GLANDS
A
101
102.
(Sec.
The
is
Of
Tangential-flow Turbine
the proper ''lap"
56)
usually
made by providing
between the wheel and the reversing chamber. See Figs. 60 and 109. 103. The Axial Adjustment Of An Axial-flow Turbine Rotor Which Is Provided With Adjusting Screws is usually made
as follows: The turbine after being heated to its operating temperature (Div. 11) is throttled down so that it runs at about 10 per cent, of its normal speed. While running at this
decreased speed, the rotor
is,
by the
axial adjusting
mechanism,
moved
heard.
rubbing is Then, the adjusting mechanism is operated in the opposite direction until a slight rubbing is again heard. In making this second movement count the number of nut or screw turns which are made. Now, move the rotor back in
the direction of the
of
first
in a longitudinal direction until a slight
nut or screw turns just counted.
of locking device that is
one-half the number Next, by whatever kind provided, lock the rotor in this position.
movement by
This should locate the moving part in the center of its minimum clearance, which, for most axial-flow turbines, is the correct
axial position for the rotor.
Note.
The
Slightest Rubbing
May Be Readily Heard by hold-
file against the casing and the other end near the adjuster's ear. This rubbing should not be permitted to continue longer than an instant, and should not be severe. Otherwise, the turbine is likely to be damaged.
ing one end of a short piece of gas pipe or a
Example.
First heat
Assume
A
thrust bearing of which

r.p.m.
that the rotor of the 3,600-r.p.m. turbine the is shown in Fig. 103 is to be axially adjusted.
Then, throttle down to about 350 or 400 rubbing is heard. Then, counting the number of turns, turn A back in a left-hand direction until a rubbing is again heard. Now turn A in the right-hand direction one-half the number of turns just counted. Next, lock A in this position with the locknut, N.
up the Turn bolt
turbine.
in a right-hand direction until a
Note. The Axial Rotor-adjustment Of Those Turbines Which Have Axial-clearance Metallic Labyrinth Glands (Sec. 112) Cannot Be Made As Described Above. This is because the axial-clearance
labyrinth glands (Fig. 112) must have a small axial clearance between the rings, R, on the balance piston and the tips, T, of the dummy rings. The proper value of this clearance varies with the size and design of the
turbine and must be obtained from the turbine manufacturer.
102
[Div. 5
104. The Axial Adjustment Of A Turbine Rotor Which Is Provided With Adjusting Shims (Fig. 104) must be made in a manner somewhat different from that which is described in This is because the shims are not readily accessible, Sec. 103. and therefore the adjustment cannot generally be made while the turbine is at its operating temperature. Consequently, the adjustment must be made while the turbine is relatively Therefore, in effecting the adjustment while the turbine cold. is cold, due allowance must be made for the expansion of the shaft and casing which will occur when the turbine is heated Usually this allowance may be to its operating temperature.
made by
below.
adjusting the axial position of the rotor as explained
(Fig. 104) and fill the shimwith shims so that one-third of the thickness of all shims will be in the space at B and two thirds of the thickness of all shims will be in the space at A. This will (Fig. 70) locate the rotating Then, when the turbine is discs to the right of the central position. heated during operation, the expansion of the shaft occurs away from the thrust bearing toward the exhaust end. This expansion moves the discs to the left (Fig. 70), and the rotating blades will take a position
spaces at
Explanation. A and
Take down the bearing

B
nearly central with the stationary blades and nozzles.
105. Thrust Bearings
Of The
Collar, Roller,
Types Must Be Adjusted If the thrust bearing is rotor is made. and may burn out. If it is too loose, the correct
after the axial
of the rotor will
collar, roller, or
And Kingsbury adjustment of the too tight, it will bind

axial position
not be maintained.
thrust bearing of the
Kingsbury type should have a total clearance That is, the thrust bearing of from about 0.008 to 0.010 in. should be so adjusted that the shaft will have a ''play" in the axial direction of from about 0.008 to 0.010 in. This adjustment may be made by screws which are (Fig. 107) provided for this purpose; or in the case of a shimmed bearing (Fig. 104) which has no screws, a 0.004-in. shim is, after the
axial
adjustment
(Sec. 104)
has been made, removed from each
of the shim-spaces.
Note.
Ball Thrust Bearings Usually Require No Adjustment.

made with
the proper
is
They
are
so that the clearance
excessive, they
amount of clearance. When they wear must be renewed; see Sec. 93.
Sec. 106]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
Steam-turbine Gland
is
AND GLANDS
103
106.
a device for minimizing the
leakage of steam or air through the clearance which must be
provided between the rotating and stationary parts. Thus, where the shaft passes through the high-pressure end of the casing (Fig. 75) a gland must be provided to prevent an In a pressureexcessive leakage of steam out of the turbine.
the pressure on one side of a diaphragm
sure on the other side.
for the
staged or a velocity-and-pressure-staged turbine (Fig. 70) is less than the pres-
Consequently, there is a tendency steam to leak past the diaphragm along the periphery of the shaft. To minimize the steam leakage at these locagland of some sort must be used. When a turbine is operated condensing, the steam pressure within the turbine casing at the exhaust end is less than atmospheric pressure.
tions, a
Therefore, to prevent air from leaking into the turbine and
decreasing the vacuum, a gland must be provided around the

shaft where
it
passes through the exhaust end of the turbine.

of glands of various types are
The
repair
and adjustment
described in the following sections.

107. There Are Four Principal T5rpes Of Steam-turbine Glands: (1) Metallic-packed or stvffing-box gland, Fig. 110. (2) The metallic-lahyrinth gland, Fig. 113. (3) The ceiitrifugal water-packed gland, Fig. 116. (4) The carbon-packed gland
(Fig. 120).
The construcof
Thrust Collan Packing
tion
and maintenance
of
glands
each
of
these
herein-
types are treated
after in this division.
108. Metallic-packed
Or
Stuffing
'
Stuffing-box Glands
110)
(Fig.
Locknuf
are
stuffing
boxes
packing.
are,
Fig. 110.
Box
Felt Washer'
which are packed with a

flexible
WaferDef/ector
metallic
this
EKhausf Case
Bearing Case-'
Section
Glands of
generally,
through stuffing box and
type used only
related parts of Type-6 Sturtevant turbine.
for
velocity-
turbines which are designed to operate non-condensing at low back-pressures not exceeding
or single-staged
about 10
lb.
per sq.
in.
and
at speeds below 3,600 r.p.m.
Since the steam pressure in the casing of a turbine of this type
104
is
[Div. 5
about the same as the atmospheric pressure, the function of is not so much to prevent a waste of steam as it is to prevent any steam which condenses on the shaft from
the glands
ultimately finding
109.
its
way
into the bearing.
Metallic -packed Gland
scribed below.
May Be Repacked as deSoft metallic packing rings with skived joints
be used. The rings should be about 3-^ in. The outer diameter of the rings should be approximately the same as the inner diameter of the stuffing box. The inner diameter of the rings should be approximately the same as the diameter of the shaft. The number of rings
(Fig. Ill) should
thick.
\<-'"-^"i'Toi'
B<'
E-5ection
IH-Skivcd
I-Elevoition
Fig. 111.
A-B
Or Lap Joint
rings.
Showing skived-jointed metal packing
required will depend upon the length of the stuffing box and
upon the thickness

packing
is
of the rings
which are used.
After
new
cap (Fig. 110) should be screwed up as Then, after the turbine tightly as possible with the fingers. has been started, the cap may be tightened a little more with a wrench. Allow a reasonable time for the packing to adjust All packing itself before making any further adjustments.
installed, the
of this type will leak
somewhat when the turbine
is
starting
cold but the packing becomes tighter as the turbine heats.
and ruined.
screwed up too tightly, the packing will be scorched Never use a wrench to tighten the gland except when the turbine is running. Unless a packing should burn out, it is seldom necessary to install an entire new packing;
If the
cap
is
merely add a new ring as described below.
Sec. 110]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
105
Note. The Wear In A Metallic-packed Gland Should Be Taken Up by tightening the stuffing-box cap and occasionally inserting a new ring. When a new ring is inserted, it should be placed between
the outer and the second rings of the old packing.
A slight
steam leak-
age from a metallic packed gland is permissible and helps to lubricate the gland. But a leak that "blows" steam should not be tolerated.
110. Metallic-labyrinth
Glands
(Figs. 112, 113
as the
name
suggests, designed to force
and 114) are, the steam to follow a
S-tafionctry Ca5i'r)gr.^
I-
Radio) l-Clearcxnce Type, Low-Pressure Balance Pis+or
Small
Large
f^mofS
balance-Pisfon
'^"/3^
Clearance Clearance
Siaflonary Casing
"Clearance
From
O.OOd To 0.020' Dependiny
On Size Of Unit
H-Axial- Clearance Type, High Pressure balance Pis+oh

Pig.
12.
Double-labyrinth
pistons in a reaction turbine.
glands to minimize steam leakage around the balance {Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co.)
long winding path through the gland.
The steam,
in passing
through each constriction in the path, is subjected to a throtThus, tling action with a consequent reduction in pressure. the reduction in pressure and the frictional resistance which are occasioned in passing through the labyrinth passageway permit but a small amount of steam to escape.
106
[Div. 5
There Are Two Types Of Metallic -labyrinth Glands : The double labyrinth gland, Figs. 112 and 113, which consists of annular rings on the rotating element which fit into annular grooves in the stationary element. (2) The single labyrinth gland, Fig. 114, which consists of a number of stationary annular saw-toothed projections which fit closely
111.
(1)
4
Turbine
Pipe Tap For 5fearn Seal

Do//e/s
-^
{Runner
Third Segment
Steam Motors Company turbine. This gland is of the doublelabyrinth type and is used in all of this company's turbines. It is suitable for any ordinary back pressure or vacuum. A drain. D, is provided between segments 2 and 3 of the packing. This should be piped and the drain line led away to the atmosphere. Or, since only clean steam drains from it, it may be led to the feed-water tank, provided the tank is operated at atmospheric pressure. For location of drain, see Fig. 28. For condensing operation a ^^-in. steam-seal pipe, in which is inserted a valve, should be The sealing steam is admitted to the gland between segments 1 and 2 and led to S. the valve should be opened sufficiently wide, that there is just a "whiff" of steam leakage visible at the bearing end of the gland. The drain connection remains in any case, but for condensing operation it may be fitted with a valve which should be so adjusted that the flow of steam through the drain will not be excessive.
Fig. 113.
of
Gland
to the
smooth
shaft.
Glands
of
each of these types are
described in the following sections.

112.
The Double Labyrinth Glands
are generally used: (1)
balance pistons (Sec.
(Figs. 112 and 113) To prevent leakage of steam over the 67 and Fig. 112) in a reaction turbine;
as indicated in Fig. 112, balance-piston labyrinth glands
may
be of either the axial-clearance or of the radial-clearance type. (2) To prevent steam or air leakage around the shaft (Figs. 65
Sec. 113]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
of
107
an impulse turbine. an appreciable back pressure, steam leakage in minimized by the lab3a-inth passageway as explained in Sec. 110. If the turbine
and 113) at the steam- or exhaust-end

If
the turbine
is
to be operated non-condensing against
is
to be operated condensing, leakage of air into the casing

is
(along the shaft)

of
prevented by a steam
seal,
the operation
which
is
explained below.
Explanation.
The
is
Operation Of
A Steam
Seal
is
as follows:
admitted at about the middle of the gland {S, Fig. 113) at a pressure of 3 lb. per sq. in. gage. The steam will leak through the labyrinth passageway in both directions, part of it going into the turbine and part outward to the atmosphere. If steam is leaking outward to the atmosphere, it is obvious that air cannot at the same time leak into the turbine casing. The steam which leaks into the casing will have practically no effect on the vacuum, whereas air would, if permitted to leak in, tend to lower the
Assume that steam
vacuum
of the
considerably.
in
The operation
a carbon-packed
Diaphragm
'
steam seal
,Garter
Sprlncf
gland (Sec. 118) is essentially the same as is described above.
Note. The Advantages And Disadvantages Of a Double Labyrinth

surfaces.
(1) There are no ruhhiiig Therefore it is frictionless and consequently has a long life. (2)
Packing
Plate
-
Gland
are:
It ordinarily limits the axial
end-play of
Hence, if rubbing should occur and the gland is injured, a new gland will usually be required. The installation of a new gland is an extremely difficult and expensive procedure.
the
shaft.
Packing
Chamber
113.
The Single Labyrinth Packmore

metallic
Fig. 114. Single-labyrintli-t y p e packing gland to prevent steam leakage along the shaft where it passes through a diaphragm.
ing Gland (Fig. 114 and Sec. Ill)

consists of one or
rings (Fig. 115)
which are loosely
supported by a shoulder {S, Fig. 114) in the packing chamber.
Each
Z, Fig. 115)
composed of three equal segments (X, F, and which are held together by a garter spring (G, Fig. 114). One of the segments is provided with a stop to prevent the ring from rotating with the shaft. When first
ring
is
108
[Div. 5
assembled, each ring is so machined that the tips of the sawtooth projections hug the shaft, and the flange {F, Fig. 115)
packing chamber (P, Fig. 114). between the segments of the ring is (Fig. 115) about 0.005 in. When the turbine heats under operating conditions, the rings expand. Thus, the clearance between segments closes up and forms an arch hound buttjoint. Also, the shaft wears off the points of the teeth until the flange {F, Fig. 115) on the ring rests on the rabbeted shoulder, S, in the packing chamber, P, Fig. 114. Thus, a
clears the shoulder, S, in the
When
cold, the clearance
closely fitting labyrinth gland
is
provided, the applications of
which are given below.

Note. Single Labyrinth Packing Glands Are Used In Some Impulse Turbines Of The Smaller Capacities for both the steam and
A<-
5<_' 0.005 I-Plan View

Fig. 115.
H-Section A-6
of the single-labyrinth type.
Metal packing ring
exhaust-end glands and also for the diaphragm glands. When used in a is to be operated condensing, single labyrinth glands for the steam and the exhaust ends are steam sealed in a manner which is similar to the steam seal used for double labyrinth glands (Sec. 112).
turbine that
Note.
Single
Labyrinth Glands
May Be Tightened To Take
out the flange seat {S, Fig. 115) of the ring, and then filing off the ends of the segments so that the correct end clearance of about 0.005 in. (Fig. 115) between segments will be provided. These operations should be performed with extreme care so that concentricity and proper end-clearance will be maintained. If the ends of the sawteeth are worn so that the tips are materially widened, the grooves between teeth should be remachined out so that the teeth are sharp.
Up Wear by machining
114.
Centrifugal Water-packed Gland (Fig. 116)

is
is
merely
a centrifugal-pump runner, C, which
fixed to
and rotates with
Sec. 114]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
109
Machined in the turbine casing, or in the a chamber, B, within which the runner rotates. Water is admitted at the inlet, A The runner is so designed that when the turbine is operating at normal speed, a water pressure of about 20 lb. per sq. in. gage would, if the water
the turbine shaft.
gland casing,
is
Connect /on 6lanc(~Wafer

Pressure Gaofe'
CPSJ^ Drain-.'
Fig. 116.
Wafer
'--Drain To
Inlet-.
Zxhausf
Centrifugal water-packed gland.
were admitted at the center of the runner and no outlet were provided, be produced at the periphery of B, Consequently, if water is supplied at the periphery at a pressure of about 5 lb. per sq. in. gage, the pump runner holds the water in a solid annular ring against the periphery of the chamber, C. This produces a hermetic seal which entirely precludes leakage.
Note. Any Water Leakage From A Centrifugal Water-packed Gland Must Be Drained Away, If the turbine is to be operated condensing, the glands must sometimes be sealed for raising the vacuum
before the turbine
is
started.
Obviously, during the period of starting
110
[Div. 5
the pump runner does not function. Therefore, to prevent excessive leakage of the sealing water while starting, single labyrinth glands are provided as shown at E in Fig. 116. There may also be a slight leakage of water while the turbine is running at full speed. To prevent any water
which may leak outward (to the left in Fig. 116) along the shaft from being thrown out into the engine room, an outer gland flange, H, is provided. To prevent water from finding its way along the shaft and into
the bearing, the drain
is is
region where the pressure
piped to an open sewer or to some other not above atmospheric. This drain, K,
must be kept open at all times. The inner flange (/, Fig. 116) prevents any water which leaks inward from being thrown against the moving blades. The drain, G, is piped to the exhaust pipe of the turbine. Other methods than those described above for sealing during starting and for
taking care of the leakage water, will be evident from the construction of the turbine in which they are used.
115. Centrifugal
Close Proximity
To High-pressure Steam.
Water-packed Glands Cannot Be Used In That is, if a
centrifugal water-packed gland were used in the high-pressure
end
of a pressure-staged or composite-staged turbine (Fig. the water in the gland would tend to vaporize. 73), Consequently, glands of this type are generally used for only: (1)
The exhaust end of impulse turbines, Fig. 69. (2) The steam and exhaust ends of low-pressure impulse turbines, Sec. 35.
The water in a centrifugal (3) Both ends of reaction turbines. water-packed gland must, when used in close proximity to steam which is above atmospheric pressure, be circulated and cooled to keep it from vaporizing. For a gland of this type that is used on the exhaust end of a turbine which is operating condensing, the water does not need to be circulated. 116. The Gland Sealing Water For A Centrifugal Waterpacked Gland Must Not Contain Any Sediment Or Scaleforming Salts. This is because if the water does contain such substances, the centrifugal action and the heat will cause the solids to be deposited in the gland in the form of scale. The scale will clog the gland and frequent disassembling and cleaning will be required. If scale is formed within the gland chamber and allowed to accumulate, the runner will eventually rub and cause excessive vibration and leakage; or in extreme cases, the runner may be broken. 117. The Arrangement Of The Gland -water Piping (Fig. 117) will depend upon the available supply of pure soft water.
Sec. 118]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
111
However, the general scheme which is usually employed, cona tank or reservoir, R, located at a sufficient height above the glands so that the proper water pressure in the glands will be provided by gravity. One such arrangement
sists of
is
shown
in Fig.
is
117.
Where
the only available supply of
pure water
is
that for boiler feeding, and the condensed steam
pumped directly back to the boiler, the gland-water reservoir may be supplied from the delivery of the condensate pump.
In such cases, the gland-water reservoir should be of sufficient
...r/oaf
Valine
.Circulating Wafer
From Condenser
i^^^^^^^^^^^^#^^^^^^. I Fig. Piping arrangement centrifugal water-packed glands.

117.
for
capacity so that the water which is delivered to it will have ample time to cool before it enters the glands. Where the water must flow through the gland (Sec. 115), the discharge may be piped to a feed-water tank or to the hot-well. 118. Carbon-packed Glands (Fig. 118) may be used for packing the steam-end and the exhaust-end of turbines of all types, and also for packing the diaphragms of pressure-staged or of velocity-and-pressure-staged turbines. Carbon-packed glands which are used in the steam and exhaust ends of condensing turbines are generally provided with a steam seal (Sec. 112). The steam which leaks through the glands and condenses must be drained away. Steam-seal piping, drain.
112

lA
'Pressure
\
',
[Div. 5
Gage
^1
'Gage ConnectIon
-To
Sewer-
1-Carbon-Packeol
an
.Packing Springs And Holders
-Stop Pin
tl-Sec+ton Th.rou.g*h Carbon

Fig. 118.
PacKmg
Ring^
glands in head end, exhaust end, and diaphragms of a pressure-and-velocity staged impulse turbine. The steam-seal piping is also shown. General Electric Cb.)
Carbon-packed
Sec. 119]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
113
age piping, operation, and repair of carbon-packed glands are

treated in the following sections of this division. 119. The Construction Of Carbon-packed Glands varies
according to the conditions under which they are to be used, and also according to the manufacturer. Carbon-packed
glands (Fig. 119) consists of one or more carbon rings which are contained in a chamber, C. The
carbon
rings
encircle
and
fit
closely to the shaft, S.

S/7afA
They
are made, usually, in three equal
segments
(Fig. 118-77)
which are
the other.
{B,
butt-jointed one to
either
These segments are held together
by a garter spring
Fig. 120)
Spiral Spring (Garter Spring)
which completely en-Turbine Casing
..
ITwo Chambers Each Con+alning| Two Packlnoj Rings

Axial
^
.
/'
SfectmSecrl Space.
Carbon
,
'*
Gland Chamber
'
B
P7:
Clearance--
Piece
Jiingf No.
{~ Garter Spring^ _i=ij

Dra/nOrLeal<-Off Connection''
'Ji^*
\R>
K-Two Chambers Each Containing One Packinoj Rinqj

Fig. 119.
of
I- Transverse
Section
E-LongitudinaJ Section
Showing various arrangements carbon rings in carbon-packed glands.
Fig. 120.- -Carbon-ring glands of the Terry turbine.
circles
the ring, or
by
three flat tangential springs (Fig. 118-77)
which bear against the inner periphery of the chamber. The chamber is provided with one or more lugs C, Fig. 120, or straps which engage with a lug or keyway that is carried by the ring, thus preventing the ring from rotating with the shaft. Carbon-packed glands which are used in the dia-
phragm
prise
of a pressure -staged turbine generally consist of only
one ring.
any one
But the head- and exhaust-end glands may comof various arrangements, (Fig. 119) such as two
114
[Div. 5
chambers containing one ring each, two chambers containing two rings each, three chambers, containing one ring each (Fig.
120) etc.
may
The Steam-seal Piping Of Carbon-packed Glands be arranged as indicated in Fig. 118. The live-steam admission. A, is taken from the boiler side of the main throttle
120.
valve.
The pop
per sq.
in.
valve, C,
is
set to
blow at a pressure
is
of
about
10
lb.
gage.
If
the turbine
is
to be operated non-
condensing, the steam seal

globe valve, F,
may
be closed.
not required, consequently the If the turbine is to be operated

is
condensing, and the

is
vacuum
established before the turbine
and exhaust-end glands should be steam sealed. To effect this seal, valves F, D and E are opened so that the gages at and N read about 3 lb. per sq. in., or so that a slight steam cloud issues from both packingbox-drain pipes, Di and D-z. Then when the turbine is brought
started, then both the head-
up
to speed, valve
D may be
closed.
The packing-box
drains,
and P, should be piped to a region wherein the pressure will never be above that of the atmosphere. Although there are
other arrangements of steam-seal piping,
treated in this book.
they
will
not be
Note. The Steam Leakage At The Drains Of Steam-sealed Glands Should Preferably Be Visible From The Turbine Room
as suggested at P, Fig. 1 18. Such an arrangement will enable the attendant to readily observe the amount of steam which is issuing from the glands. It is desirable that there be a slight leakage of steam (just a trace of visible water vapor) from carbon-packed glands. This provides a sort of lubrication for the carbon rings. Also, unless some steam is leaking from the exhaust-end gland of a condensing turbine, air is probably leaking into the turbine. If the steam leakage from the exhaust-end gland is excessive when the gland-pressure gage reads about 3 lb. per sq. in., the carbon rings should be refitted. If an excessive amount of steam leaks from the head-end gland, these rings should be refitted. About the only way to determine whether or not diaphragm carbon packing (Fig. 118) needs refitting is, when the turbine casing is opened for inspection, to check the clearance (Sec. 121) with a thickness gage. Methods of refitting carbon packing rings are discussed in the following
sections.
121. The Diametral Clearance Between A Carbon Ring And The Shaft should be about 0.002 in. per in. of shaft
Sec. 112]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
is
AND GLANDS
This
will,
115
diameter when the shaft
cold.
due to shaft
expansion, provide a total diametral clearance of approximately

0.000,5 to 0.001 in. when the tm^bine heats up during operation. For high pressures and superheat, the diametral clearance should be about 0.003 in. per in. of the cold-shaft diameter. On small capacity turbines up to about 100 kw. the rings
approximately the cold-shaft diameter. Then, after two or three hours run, they will wear to normal size and an extremely accurate fit will result. However, this procedure is not advisable for large turbines because, if the rings pinch the shaft of a large turbine, serious heating and vibration may be caused.
be bored
to
may
Note,
The Axial Clearance Of Carbon Packing Rings
(Fig. 119)
should be from about 0.003 to 0.006 in. That is, the width of the groove in the packing casing, as measured in an axial direction, should exceed the axial thickness of the carbon ring by this amount. If the clearance is too small, rust and sediment are Hkely to cause the ring to stick. If the clearance is too large, the steam pressure may not hold the ring tightly against the side of the groove, and steam will leak around the outside of the ring.
122.
Fitting
A Mandrel Will Be Found Extremely A Carbon Packing Ring. The diameter
should be the exact size to which the ring

correct diameter
is
Convenient In mandrel be fitted. The to

of the
may
be determined by the amount of the
required clearance as stated in Sec. 121.
piece of iron pipe
can easily be turned to the proper diameter. The ring can then be easily and accurately fitted around this mandrel. 123. In Refitting A Carbon Packing Ring which has worn too large, the inner diameter must be decreased. This may be
done by
will
filing off
the joints (Fig. 121) and then reboring, as
hereinafter explained so that the inner periphery of the ring
be a true
circle of
the proper diameter.
When
the rings
are but slightly
worn
so that the diameter does not

in. it is
have to be
decreased more than about 0.004 or 0.005

to rebore.
not necessary
The
joint surfaces at the ends of the segments
may
and the ring assembled on the shaft. Then the shaft will wear the inner surface of the ring to a true circle. For methods of decreasing the inner diameter, see note below.
be
filed off
116

it is
[Div. 5
Note.
In Filing Off The Surfaces Of The Joints Of A Carbon

of
jig or
Packing Ring
face, a
of each joint be true as
wooden
'
paramount importance that the finished surfaces shown in Fig. 122. To assist in filing a true surpattern may be made and used as indicated in Fig.
tegmenf Of
Packinsr
**"^Sf.,
^.Surface Square With
.-^=._ Jore And Used To

Guide File
I-P\an
Perfect fit between
View
Carbon And
Wooden Holder-'' Wooden' Model
Radius
Same
As
31-
Elevation
surfaces
of
Which Outside Of Packing Is Turned

That
To
Fig. 122.
Joint
each
Fig. 121. ^Wooden jig for holding carbon packing rings for filing the joint surface. (E. H. Thompson in Power,
Sept. 21, 1920.)
segment of a carbon packing ring must be made true. (The plane of surfaces A should be perpendicular
to the plane of surface B.
Surfaces should also coincide with a radial
line R.)
may
If such a jig is not available, the three or four segments of a ring be held in a vise as shown in Fig, 123 being careful to line up the The relatively large area thus joint surfaces of all of the segments. provided by the ends will assist materially in guiding the file. Be careful
121.
Segmenti Of Rings
.Carbon Packing Ring
Board
Carbon packing rings fitFig. 123. ted in vise preparatory to filing the
joint
surfaces.
(E.
H. Thompson
in
Hacksaw used to decrease Fig. 124. the diameter of a carbon packing ring. (E. H. Thompson in Power, Sept. 21,
1920.)
Power, Sept. 21, 1920.)
not to screw the vise up too tightly as the rings are likely to be broken. If the If the vise jaws are rough, they may be lined with sandpaper. joint surfaces require a considerable amount of dressing down, the entire Then, with a hacksaw, ring may be clamped on a board (Fig. 124).
Sec. 123]
SHAFTS, BEARINGS,
AND GLANDS
117
so that the blade lines
cut through each joint, keeping the saw in a radial and vertical position up with a diameter of the ring.
Note. The Carbon Ring Should, Usually, Be Bored Out To The Proper Diameter (Sec. 121) after the joint surfaces have been The three segments of the ring are dressed down as explained above.
assembled and the boring done on a lathe. A large strong ring with its segments held together with the spiral spring or with a wire wound around its outer circumference may sometimes be held in the lathe chuck for reboring. But the best method is probably to make a wooden chuck by clamping a wooden block in the lathe chuck or in its faceplate, and then boring a cavity in the block, into which the ring will just fit. The bored surface of the ring should be made smooth by polishing it with No. 00 sandpaper. Emery cloth should not be used on the packing rings because particles of emery will stick to the ring and then cut the shaft. If by accident the ring is bored out a little too large, the joints may be dressed down as explained above, and no reboring will be required.
1.
does the satisfactory operation of a steam turbine depend largely upon the condition of the shaft, bearings, and glands? Of reaction 2. How are the shafts of impulse turbines generally constructed? turbines? 3. What is meant by the critical speed of a turbine shaft? By a stiff shaft? Do most modern 4. What is meant by a flexible turbine shaft? turbines have a flexible or a stiff shaft? 5. What are the two principal types of steam-turbine bearings? 6. Make a table showing the classification of steam-turbine bearings. 7. Make a sketch of and name the principal parts of a -plain, flexible, steam-turbine
Why
main
8. 9.
bearing.
a sketch to explain the operation of a "flexible" bearing. In what kind of turbines are ball bearings sometimes used as main bearings? If a ball bearing becomes worn, what must be done? 10. In general, what is the maximum temperature at which a main bearing should be operated? Name two means which are used to reduce the temperature of turbine
bearings.
11. 12. 13.
Make
What
attention
is
Name five things which are likely to result from excessive Name two methods of repairing a turbine bearing.
What
is
necessary for the successful operation of a main bearing? wear of a bearing lining.
how a turbine bearing may be rebabbitted. the primary function of a steam turbine thrust bearing? 16. Name four principal types of thrust bearings. 17. Explain with a sketch the operation of the Kingsbury thrust bearing. 18. What determines the axial clearance between the rotating and the stationary parts of a steam turbine? What is likely to happen if proper clearance between the moving
14. Explain with a sketch 15.
and stationary parts is not maintained? 19. What two types of mechanisms are generally employed
for the axial
adjustment
of
a turbine rotor? 20. How is the correct axial adjustment of a tangential-flow turbine generally
determined? 21. Explain how the axial adjustment with adjusting screws is usually made. 22. Explain how the axial adjustment
23.
of
an axial-flow turbine rotor which
is
provided
of a turbine rotor is
made with
adjusting shims.
Why
must the thrust bearing
itself
have some clearance?
118
24.

How much clearance is usually allowed in a thrust bearing? What is a steam-turbine gland? What are the functions of a gland? Name four principal types of turbine glands. Make a sketch of a metallic-packed or stuffing-box gland.
[Div. 5
25.
26.
27. 28.
29. For what types of turbines and under what operating conditions are metallicpacked glands used? Make a sketch of a skived joint. 30. Explain how to repack a metallic-packed gland. 31. Explain how the wear in a metallic-packed gland may be taken up. 32. Make a sketch of and explain the action of a metallic labyrinth gland.
33.
What
34. For
are the two principal types of metallic labyrinth glands? what purposes and in what kinds of turbines are double labyrinth glands used?
35. Explain the operation of a steam seal. 36. State the advantages
38. Explain 39. 40.
and disadvantages
of a
double labyrinth gland.
37. Describe the packing ring used in a single labyrinth gland.
how
What
is
a single labyrinth gland may be refitted after it has a centrifugal water-packed gland? Explain its operation.
become worn.
cannot a centrifugal water-packed gland be used in close proximity to highIf a centrifugal water packed gland is to be used close to steam above atmospheric pressure, what means are employed to prevent the water in the gland from
pressure steam?
Why
vaporizing?
41. 42.
43.
44. 45. 46.
What must be the condition of the gland sealing water? Upon what will the arrangement of the gland- water piping depend? Where may carbon-packed glands be used? Make a sketch showing one method of steam-seal piping for carbon-packed glands.
should the steam-seal drains be visible from the turbine room? diametral clearance should be provided between a carbon packing ring and the shaft? What axial clearance should be allowed? 47. Explain with sketches how to refit a carbon packing ring.
Why
What
DIVISION
STEAM-TURBINE GOVERNORS AND VALVES

Be Used Whenever
Steam-turbine Governor Or Speed Governor Must It Is Desired To Have A Steam Turbine Run At A Constant Speed While The Load Which It Is Driving Or Its Rate Of Doing External Work Or The Supply-steam
124.
btoam Supply--'
Worm-..,
Flyb^^lô^^rnor
Governor
Vctlve
--
"Spent"
rCca^vf;W
Shaft
Fig. 125.
-Governor used on De Laval vertical oil-purifier turbine which impulse type. (De Laval Separator Co.)
is
of the
Pressure
governor).
Varies, Fig.
If
125
(see
Sec.
27 for definition of
steam were constantly admitted at the same
rate to a turbine while the resistance to the turning of its rotor

its speed would very great load might stop it. A sudden decrease in the load would allow the speed to increase to a dangerous value. Obviously, if the speed of the turbine is to be maintained constant and unless the admission of steam is controlled by hand, there must be some automatic means of
(due to the external load) changed considerably,
fluctuate excessively.
119
120
[Div. 6
proportioning the steam supply to the varying load on the turbine and the varying pressure of the steam supply.
Note. In Marine Service And In Driving Blowers, It Is Possible To Operate A Turbine Without A Speed Governor. In such service, the resistance (torque) which the propeller or blower offers to the rotation of the turbine increases with the speed. The work which the
turbine does increases faster than the speed.

find a certain constant speed at
The turbine
will therefore
which any given steam supply will be sufficient for the work done. In most stationary services there is a possibility that the load may be suddenly removed entirely. Then, the only limit of the turbine rotor's peripheral speed would be that equivalent to the velocity of the steam jet, which is usually high enough (Sec. 10) to burst the rotor due to the centrifugal force.
riy-Ba/l:
Governor
Valve Open--
Fig. 126.
tling
'Diagram
G
of direct throt-
Nozzle--
governor for a steam turbine. (The imaginary construction here shown is never used in practice.)
Diagram of the same imaginary governor as Fig. 126 but in the

Fig. 127.
closed position.
125. How A Governor Keeps The Speed Of A Turbine Nearly Constant, in spite of considerable variations in load, may be understood by a study of Figs. 125 and 126.
Explanation. Figure 126 shows an imaginary turbine governor. The steam flows through the nozzle, //, and impinges on the buckets of rotor, A, causing it to rotate. The movement of the rotor shaft is reduced and transmitted through worm gear, B, shaft, C, and bevel gears, D, to the spindle of a fly-ball governor. The weights, E^ of the governor rise due to centrifugal force (see the author's Steam-engine Principles And
Practice).
The
vertical
movement
of
the
weights
is
transmitted
Sec. 126]
GOVERNORS AND VALVES

If
121
through the drop-rod, F, to butterfly valve, G.

increases
beyond a certain value, the weights
will fly
the speed of the rotor out so far that the
valve will be entirely closed as in Fig. 127. Then the speed of the rotor The weights then fall and will naturally decrease for lack of steam. more steam is admitted as in Fig. 126. In this way, the governor being properly designed and adjusted, the turbine is prevented from running much faster or much slower than its rated speed.
Note.
The Speed Regulation Of A Turbine

=
{No-load speed)
Full-load speed
is
decrease from no load to full load to the full load speed.

as an equation:
(27)
the ratio of the speed Or, expressed
Speed regulation
{Full-load speed)
(decimal)
126. A Complete Goveming-mechanism For A Steam Turbine consists of several parts. There is always a centriOverspeed
.-Knife
\
Edge Block
Weight
nifeEdge .'K
Ball Thrust Bearing On End
OfGovernor Lever
Governor Spindle
^Governor Spring
""Governor
Y/eigtit
Fig. 128.
Governor
of
Moore steam turbine.
(Instruction Card No. 2.)
fugal device (Fig. 128) or rotating part
commonly
called the
governor proper. This device usually consists of movable weights so mounted that they are acted on by centrifugal force and, in some designs, by inertia also. An exception to the general construction is the pneumatic governor of the Ridgway turbine shown in Fig. 157. This governor
mechanism has a pressure blower directly connected to the Since the presshaft instead of the usual movable weights. sure developed by the blower varies with its speed, the blower
pressure can be used to regulate the speed of the turbine
(see Sec.
of governor).
148 for a description of the operation of this type There is always also a valve or a number of
122
[Div. 6
valves (Fig. 129) in the steam passage leading to the turbine nozzles which valves are in some way controlled by the centrifugal force of the weights.
Between these two
essential
elements (the governor proper and the valves) there is a connecting mechanism of some one of the many kinds which
Steam
Governor Valve Chest -.^ Seat Bushing
Governor Lever -
Butterfly Valve
'Governor Valve
Fig. 129. Steam chest of Moore steam turbine (Instruction Card No. 2). The governor valve, F, is operated by the governor (Fig. 128) through lever, L, and valve stem, (S. Valve, F, is of the balanced type which has seats in a valve bushing, B. A steam-tight joint is made between the end of B and the steam-chest cover, C, with asbestos packing soaked in graphite and oil. Metallic valve-stem packing is used. A lantern gland is used from which the leakage along the stem can be piped to the atmosphere. The relative position of the valve is fixed when the turbine is tested and the valve stem nuts, are pinned to the shaft. This adjustment should not be changed.
are
used by various manufacturers for transferring the governor-weight motion or blower pressure to the admission
valves.
Note.
valves.
Steam-pressure And Oil-pressure Governor Systems are

is
employed, as
explained later, on large turbines through pilot or relay

pilot or relay valves multiply the force derived
These
from
the governor proper and are necessary because, in large turbines, the force required to move the governor valve is so great that it is impractical to operate the valve directly by the governor proper. Governors
which employ such systems are called relay governors. Many different mechanisms are also in use which obviate part of the losses of available energy which result from throttling the steam at light loads through valves which are "cracked" or nearly closed. One of these mechanisms which admits the steam to the turbine in "puffs" is described in Sees. 136 to 138; another which admits the steam through a multiported valve, in Sees. 144 and 145. The term governor is used in the following table to indicate a complete governing-mechanism and not merely the governor proper.
Sec. 127]
123
127. Table Showing The Various Ways In Which Turbine Speed Governors May Be Classified and the various subclasses under each classification (see preceding note). (These classes will all be explained and illustrated in the following
sections.)
Classi-
Classified with
Class
Class or
description
Illus-
fication
respect to
No.
tration
124
[Div. 6
Explanation.
As
the speed increases, the centrifugal weight arms
(A, Fig. 130) "fly out," forcing the governor spindle, B, against the ball-bearing socket, C, located in the head of the bell-crank lever, D. This motion is in turn imparted, through the eye-bolt, M, to the valve, Z,
which, in rising, closes the steam ports. When the speed decreases, the action is as follows: The weight arms, A, are drawn in by the centripetal The external spring, P, pulls force of the main governor spring, E. down on the end of the bell-crank, D, causing the ball-bearing socket, (7, to follow the inward movement of the governor spindle, B, thereby
lowering and opening the valve, Z.
In other words, the governor closes the valve and the external spring, P, opens it. The tension of this spring,
I V Centrifugal- Weight Arms k-
"^^^=2^ .-Governor Spindle^ ernorSpindi '^^ 'jll-BeanngSa BatIBeanng Socket^
: Bel/-Crank lever
J)
Lock Nut
Thrust Bearing^
Speed-
Adjusting NutW
ustlng
Nut\,
ExternalSpring P
y^-\/alve
r
i^
Spindle^
In
Strip Or Key
^.
Position-':
-Steam Inlet
I-Genercul
Assembly
I- Ball Bearing Socket

of
Fig. 130.
Main governor mechanism
Type-6 Sturtevant turbine.
The dust shield, A^^, prevents dust is varied by the adjusting nut, L. or grit from working in around the spindle, 0, which would increase its
P,
friction.
130.
To Adjust The
Sturtevant Governor Valve
(Z,
Fig.
130), proceed as follows: Insert a strip or key ^{q in. thick between the governor spindle, B, and the ball-bearing socket, This is done with the throttle valve C, 'as shown at X. After opening the throttle valve, the block, X, being closed. in position as shown, the steam gage on the turbine steam chest should then show a slight pressure, say 10 or 15 lb. per sq. in. If there is a higher pressure than this, the valve, Z, should be
raised
by adjusting the eye-bolt M;
in other words,
remove the
Sec. 131]
125
bell-crank, D, loosen the dust shield
lock-nut) and screw the eye-bolt,
(which also acts as a the valve spindle, 0. If no pressure shows on the turbine-steam-chest gage or the pressure is too low, it can be increased by lowering this This setting will give the maximum opening for full valve.
M, on
load and
light or
will,
at the
no loads.
at thrust-bearing
same time, prevent overspeeding at The valve adjustment can also be made body, F, by firstr loosening the locknut, G.
Note.
The Thickness Of The Stock Used Between The GoverB,
nor Spindle,
varies for different types or turbines.
And The Ball-bearing Socket, C, as shown at X, On turbines equipped with a ball-
bearing step {F, Fig. 130) on the governor pin end use 3'^2-in. stock for types A-6 and B-6, and 3^ g-in. stock for types C-6, D-6 and E-6 turbines. On turbines which {ire not equipped with a ball-bearing step on governor pin end, use ^g-in. stock on all types. If the governor seems to "jump"
or remains unsteady, and thus interferes with the operation of the turbine, this can be eliminated by adjusting the lower valve disc. It may
be necessary to make several

location of the valve disc.
trials in order to determine the correct In making this adjustment the disc should not be moved more than }^ of a turn at one time and, of course, should be securely locked after each adjustment.
Note.
Adjustment
(Fig. 130)
Governor
of the governor.
For Change In Speed Of The Sturtevant be made by adjusting the nut, H, in the end The speed will be increased by screwing in the nut
may
it
and lowered by backing

131.
out.
Direct Centrifugal Throttling
Govemor Which
Is
is
Provided With
An
Auxiliary
Vacuum-breaker Attachment
is
operated condensing, it may be necessary to break the vacuum in order to prevent racing when the load is removed suddenly.
in Fig. 131.
shown
When
a turbine
Explanation. If the nut, D, which is deflected by the movement of the governor, travels outward more than about 3^^ in., it engages the end, The movement of T admits air to the /, of the hollow valve stem, T. turbine exhaust passages through ports O and P.
Other Direct Throttling Governors are shown in Figs. and 135. That in Fig. 135 is almost identical with the leaf-spring governors used for small steam engines. (See the author's Steam-engine Principles And Practice.) The following instructions for care and adjustment of these
132.
132, 133, 134,
126
[Div. 6
governors
may
be applied to almost any small governor of the
direct throttling type.
Note. Speed Adjustments Op Direct Throttling Centrifugal Governors, to provide a speed 2 or 3 per cent, greater or less than the existing speed may always be made on governors of the coil-spring type by screwing up or slacking off on the main-spring tension. Very slight changes in speed may also be secured by varying the external spring tension. In changing the tension on either of these springs, care should
<r---Sfecrn7 Suppflf
Fig. 131.
De Laval governor equipped with vacuum
breaker.
be taken to prevent the springs from becoming "coil-bound" entirely closed when in service. For any material change in speed, in governors not provided with regular speed-changing handwheels, it is best to consult the manufacturers who will usually supply new weights or springs for the new speed. After any adjustment, the governor should be examined, moved by hand or watched to make sure that it shuts off at no load and moves freely in all positions.
Troubles Of Direct Throttling Governors are generally hunting mechanism or faulty adjustment. Lost motion will also cause hunting. Lost motion may be taken up in the valve stem (Fig. 132) of some governors. The lost motion may usually be detected by moving the various parts and observing the fit. A
or racing due to sticking of the
Sec. 132]
127
certain amount of lost motion in the stationary position is sometimes recommended by the manufacturer. This lost motion must not be so
great as to prevent the governor shutting
off,
A sticking
valve stem
may
''Strainer
'Oovemor Valve Box

''Governor- Valve Bonnet
Fig. 132.
Governor valve
of Terry turbine.
by pushing the valve in and noting if it springs back. the valve does not shut off at no load and thereby allows the turbine The effective length to race, it probably leaks or its stem is too short. The cause of of the stem can be increased by means of adjusting nuts.
usually be detected
If
,.
Oil And Grease
Cup
^y
\
.'
Oovernor-
II
Weight Knife Ecfge \ ^Governor Slide

\
Oovernor Ac/Justing Nut
(The shaft, A, supports the governor Fig. 133, Governor of Terry steam turbine. The disc, B, by means of a taper shank which is keyed in position by taper pin, L. governor weights, C, are supported on knife edges, Z). The weights move the governor sUde, H, outward by means of the yoke, G, against the tension of spring F. The movement of the slide is communicated to lever, P, by means of slide end, M, which revolves
against ball,
iV.
Oil
is
fed
is
main speed adjustment
by Q to the by nut Ri)
ball thrust.
The governor
is
housed in
S.
The
leaks should be investigated.

to insure a better seat.
If
due to
rust, the
valve can be cleaned
Conical-seated valves may be refinished on a Corrosion of the lathe and "ground in" by an experienced machinist. valve is prevented by keeping the turbine well drained when it is idle.
128
[Div. 6
Following Possible Causes Of Governor Hunting by the Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co. for the direct throttling governors on their mechanical-drive turbines. (1) Too great a travel
Note.
are given
The
.'^ Sfandarzf 0/7 Cup
;Ball Thrust Bearing.

'
,&overnor5lide.
:
,'Wheel Shaft.
',
Slotin
HolhvtShaft
fr. Governor Slide End Nut. -Governor Lever, '''Jf"Standard Pipe Plug; Remove For Taking Speed With Tachometer.
Fig. 134.
Ball thrust bearing
in
governing mechanism of some Terry turbines.
of governor
guide.
(3)
poppet valve. (2) Sticking of governor poppet valve on Sticking of governor spindle. (4) Bent valve stem. (5)
linkage.
Broken governor weight knife edges. (6)- Distorted or bent governor (7) Weakening of governor springs.
Fly-Bails-
>5team Chest
Fig. 135.
Governor
of
Steam Motors Company turbine.
133. The Emergency Or Overspeed Governor Mechanism Of The Sturtevant Turbine (Figs. 136 and 137) operates
only in case of failure of the regular speed governor.
When
Sec. 134]
129
is running properly, the speed is controlled or governed by the speed governor; that is, the turbine is said to be ''running on the governor." But should the governor lose control of the turbine (permitting it to run too fast) there is danger of accident unless some safety device, which will act automatically, is provided to ''shut down" the turbine. To
the turbine
'No2zle Valves
Bell
Crank
Fig. 136.
Emergency- and
main-governor-mechanism assembly
turbine.
of
Type-6 Sturtevant
avoid this danger, the emergency governor

explanations under Figs. 137 and 138.
is
provided.
See
l/
134. To Adjust The Emergency Govemor (Figs. 136 and 137) screw in or out on the adjusting plug, which is located, opposite the point where the piston. A, protrudes. Screwing this plug alters the relation of the piston's center of gravity to the center of rotation. Consequently, the closer the center of this plug is to the center of the shaft, the higher will be the speed at
which the emergency governor will operate, and vice versa. Do not make the mistake of adjusting the stop bushing which holds the piston spring in position, for this will change the
130

when
it flies
[Drv. 6
distance which the piston extends
out.
The
clearance between the tripper, B, and the rotating element

rAdjusting Plug
.'Spring
^^-D/rect/pn
^^^ffôtation
Turbine
Shaft
B
:"
Tripper
ji^îearance
'TisfonÂ
''Stop Bushing
^Valve
Spring ''Emergency Valve =E
I-Sectiona! View
H-Side Elevation
of Type-6 Sturtevant turbine. When overspeeding, the piston, strikes the tripper, B. B then causes the bell crank, C, to release the valve lever, D, which is directly connected to the emergency valve E, thereby causing E, to close. E is kept open by the valve lever being held up by the bell crank C against the action of a strong valve spring F. When D is released, the strong spring comes into action, causing the rapid closing of the valve.
Fig. 137.
Emergency-governor
mechanism A, "shoots out" and
should not be more than Jfg in. If the emergency governor trips, it cannot be reset until the speed of the turbine has
Governor Cover
Compression Spring
P=Overspeect
;'
''Governor
Cup
Trigger ''TripLever Trip -Lever Siiaft
'^Turbine Shaft
Trip
Lever
'
I-Section A-A
I- End Sectional
View
Fig. 138. Overspeed governor, Moore steam turbine. (Instruction Card, No. 2.) This overspeed governor consists of a small pin, P, which is held in place by a compression spring. At a certain predetermined speed, for which the governor is set, this pin is thrown out and trips a latch, L, operating a butterfly valve, F, which cuts off the supply of steam to the turbine. See also Fig. 128 for another view of this emergency governor.
decreased to about one half of

is
its running speed. This action caused by the pin being unstable and moving to its limit when once started. The emergency governor should be
Sec. 134]
131
running speed.
adjusted to trip at about 10 per cent, above the normal The emergency governor should be tested
Depressions To Hold Spring .-Motion Limiting Stud \ Slot;
Finger-^
Emergency- Vaive
Operating S/?aft'.
Plvof
leaf
Spring-
Stud
EmergencifVaive Operating
Governor ^
Vise
-''
Finger
Fig. 139. Ring-type emergency governor used on the smaller Terry

turbines.
Fig. 140.
Pivoted-lever type of emergency governor on Terry turbines.
Turbine Shaft Governor Weights
n-Sidc Elevation
governor oi Steam Motors Com-panytxahva.^. (Steam Motors Company, Springfield Mass.) The emergency governor is a device for shutting down the machine in case of a "runaway." It is not a speed-regulating governor. The governor weights, TF, are so adjusted that when the turbine shaft attains a speed 10 per cent above the maximum operating speed they will "fly out." They then strike trigger, T. This trigger releases lever L, which gives a hammer blow to rod R, releasing the other tripping mechanism on the valve bonnet. The emergency valve will then be
Fig. 141.
closed by spring S. the catch T.
Emergency
To
reset this
emergency
trip, lift
M,
set
in position
and replace
periodically^
by holding the governor rod against the

weights,
until a
force of
is
the
centrifugal
10-per cent, overspeed
132
[Div. 6
is
obtained as shown by a voltmeter or reliable tachometer. It important that the overspeed governor mechanism be
ready for an emergency. Nearly all emergency may be adjusted to trip at a lower speed by moving the weight further from the center of rotation.
always
governors
-Oil Cylinder
'Synchron/i.
's. :
'0/IUncfer
'"eovernor-
Steam Supply
3To40Lb.
PerSq.In. Pressure
'Spriny
Steam
^''
Valve
Oil PumpI
Steam Chest
'Sieam-End Bearing Case
Fig. 142. Oil-relay governor and steam chest of Moore steam turbine (Moore Steam Turbine Corporation, Wellsville, New York; Instruction Card No. 3). A governor, G, is used to actuate the oil-relay control. An increase of speed causes the weights, to move outward. This moves lever L upward, moving oil-relay valve, Y, which admits oil below piston, P. This causes the governor steam-valve, <S, to close. Movement of 8 moves compensating lever, C, which brings Y back to its neutral position. This stops the flow of oil and prevents over travel of the steam valve. The governor steam valve, jS, is provided with a spring, M, at the lower end of its valve stem. The purpose of this
is to automatically close the valve and shut down the turbine in case the oil pressure fails. The overspeed governor, O, is carried on the governor shaft above the worm wheel, X, which drives the governor; a weight is held in place by a compression spring until a predetermined speed, for which the overspeed governor has been set, is reached. Then the overspeed governor is thrown outward and strikes a lever, H, which trips a latch, allowing auxiliary valve, vl to be forced upward by spring B. This admits full
spring
pressure under piston steam valve, S.

oil
P and
exhausts
oil
from above the piston, closing the governor
Note.
In Maintaining The Emergency Governor

The
piston, A, should
(Fig. 137)
the
following should be observed.
"shoot" out at a
speed about 10 per cent, greater than the rated speed of the turbine. This piston should occasionally be tested for free movement. To make this test, push a wire through the hole in the center of the adjusting plug; it should be possible to thus push the piston out approximately )^ in. It is very important to have this piston working freely, and a little oil applied occasionally say once a month will assure this free movement.
Sec. 135]

and
141.
133
in Figs.
Note.
Other Makes Of Emergency Governors are shown
Their actions and functions are similar to those In general, the emergency governor should be already described. entirely independent of the speed governor.
138, 139, 140
Fig. 143.
Diagram showing operation

An
of the older-type
Parsons turbine governor.
Governor (Fig. 142), accomsame result as does the direct throttling governor but does not depend on the centrifugal force of the weights to operate the main governor valve. Instead, the centrifugal
135.
Oil -relay Throttling
plishes the
force of the weights operates a small valve which admits oil
above or below a piston the rod of which controls the main valve.
134
[Bw. 6
136. Centrifugal Steam-relay Intermittent Or *'Blast Governors are used on a large number of Westinghouse and Oil-relay governors (Sec. 138) foreign Parsons turbines.
The principle of operation of the are superseding this type. governor may be understood by examination of Fig. 143. Its action is, briefly, to admit steam to the turbine nozzles in ''puffs," the length of the ''puff" depending on the load.
The "puffs"
occur at regular intervals and so frequently
2570
V-2Z40^
270
Absolufe Zero
'
-Time
" - -
/4
fmospheric =0
Fig. 144.- -Graphs showing the effect of an intermittent governor on the instantaneous steam pressure in turbine live-steam parts.
that there
on the speed of the turbine. The is to have the valve either entirely closed or wide open most of the time, so that there will be little throttling. Another advantage is that, since the valve is constantly moving, the possibihty of its "sticking" is minimized. With the advent of the larger turbines this "puff"
is
no uneven
effect
principal object of this action
system of admitting steam was found to cause, at times, objectionable vibration in the main steam lines of the power house. About 1909 the steam relay began to be abandoned for
the oil-pressure-relay system.
Explanation.
shaft of the
The turbine shaft
(Fig. 143) carries a
worm, W.
The
and a
worm wheel which
engages
W carries an eccentric, E,
bevel gear,
There
is
fi, which drives the spindle of the centrifugal governor, G. a system of levers connected to the eccentric rod, R, through
Sec. 137]

is
135
which
it
gives a reciprocating motion to the plunger of the relay valve, V.
admitted at N, flows through the space, Q, around the lifts the piston, P, which controls the governor valve, This allows steam to flow through T to the turbine as long as the T. But when V is open, the steam escapes at valve, V, is closed. (into the engine room) faster than it enters at Q; thereby the piston is forced down by the spring, A, which presses behind it. One of the levers, L, is pivoted on the sleeve, S, of the governor so that when the governor lifts, V moves between higher limits and allows steam to escape at for a longer period. In this way, the valve, T, is made to remain closed longer when the speed of the turbine is higher. The effect of this action on the steam pressure is shown in Fig. 144.
live
The
steam
piston rod, C, and
CpnnecHng
Fiocf
To,
Bypass yalre
Governor
Oil-Pelay 'Cylinder
,^;/
Synchroniiing Lever----,
^^Synchronizing Handwheel
Fig. 145.
Throttling and bypass governor used on

An
Allis-Chalmers reaction turbines. See Fig. 146 for an enlarged view of the oil-relay valve.
137.
Allis-Chalmers Oil -relay Throttling

is
And Bypass
used by that company on 5,000 to 15,000 kw. turbo-generators is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 145.
Governor which
Its
action is similar to that already described for oil-relay governors in Sec. 135 except for the bypass and synchronizing
devices.
136
[Div. 6
fly outward Explanation. As the turbine speed increases, weights and raise the vertical rod, R, which is attached to the floating lever, D. This lever D, being supported at pivot C, pushes down on the stem, T, of
is
the oil-relay valve (Fig. 146) thus opening its ports so that oil pressure admitted abovepiston P. This closes the governor valve, U. But as
U moves down, it moves compensating levers, E and G, and thereby moves upward F and synchronizing lever, A, which is pivoted at the fixed point K. Lever A is attached to D ^^ P^^* ^' "^^^^ movement in turn Relay-Valve raises T and closes the relay-valve Rod
ports.
When
Oil Outlets To Governor-
the turbine speed
falls,
due
to an increased load, the above procr

esses are reversed
is lifted
Operating
:
"'^
Piston
from
its seat.
and the valve Its motion
U
is
communicated through connectingrod, <S, to the sliding collar, N. At

a certain position of JJ the sliding the fixed collar, Af, and the bypass valve, Y, is lifted. This admits live steam to an intermediate stage of the turbine. Thus the bypass valve remains entirely closed at light loads and opens for
,
collar strikes
heavy
is
loads.
The end
of
the
short synchronizing lever, A, which
pivoted at
to the floating lever,
Fig. 146. Enlarged view of the AllizChalmers oil-relay valve shown in Fig.
145.
be raised by screwing up on the handwheel, U. This changes the position of the relay valve with respect to the main governor valve and so changes the speed of the
Z),
may
turbine.
5-per
cent,
regulation
above or below normal speed may thus be obtained. Note. Bypassing Is Employed In Many Large Modern Multistage Turbines as a means of carrying overloads. The steam which is bypassed to a later stage of the turbine is not used with as high an There is thereefficiency as that which flows through all of the blading. fore, at overloads, a loss in efficiency due to bypassing but this loss is Thus, offset by the increased ability of the turbine to carry peak loads. for example, a turbine which operates at its best economy at 5,000 kw. can But when carrying readily, by bypassing, be made to carry 7,000 kw. 7,000 kw., its economy is not as good as when it is carrying 5,000 kw.
138.
Intermittent Governor
The Westinghouse Type Of Centrifugal Oil-relay is shown in Fig. 147 and the valves
Sec. 138]

actuates
in Fig.
137
which
Electric
it
&
Mfg.
Go's.
(Based on Westinghouse 148. Instruction Book No. 5,171.) In
general, the functions of this governor (the details of operation

(Fig. 148), are given below) are: (!) To provide a throttle valve, which will be controlled by the governor proper for maintaining a constant turbine speed from no load up to about full load. This is effected by means of an oil-relay system, similar to that
already explained in Fig.

bypass
valve,
142.
,
(2)
To provide an
overload
(Fig.
148)
to
which opens a
the
at about full load
and
admits additional steam

overloads
later stage of the turbine to carry
as
explained
in
preceding
section.
(3)
To
provide a continuous reciprocating motion of the throttle valve, 0, and the bypass valve, P, when the latter is open and of the operating
linkage, whereby: (a) Sticking due to starting friction is avoided,
(b)
Energy
loss
due
to throttling
of the steam at very light loads
is avoided.
governor proper whereby the steam flow to the turbine blading is controlled by governor and P (Fig. 148), which are, as will be explained, valves, actuated by oil under pressure as regulated by the relay-valve system, FE.
(Fig. 147) is the
Explanation.
shaft, drives a
The
worm,
(Fig.
is
worm wheel which
The governor proper is thus rotated. on the governor spindle. This cam gives a rocking motion to the short In this way a lever, N, which is pivoted at q on the governor lever.
short regular reciprocating motion, for reasons previously indicated, is transmitted through the linkage, MYSJ, to the oil-relay valve, E. See
Fig. 149 for
147), mounted on the turbine mounted on the governor spindle. The cam, X, is driven by a gear
an enlarged view of this valve.
As the governor
raises it
rotates lever / around its pivot e and hence lowers the rocking-lever pivot This causes the cam, X, to move the relay valve, E, between lower q.
positions.
This oil-relay valve acts similarly to a piston slide valve for a steam When raised it admits oil, from the pressure chamber, (Fig. 149), to the under side of the operating piston, F, simultaneously allowing oil to flow from the upper side of the piston to the exhaust passage, /. When E is lowered, its action is the reverse and the oil is admitted above
engine.
and exhausted below the operating piston. The floating lever, G, to which the stems or rods of both the oil-relay valve and the operating piston are attached, operates to stop the oil flow as soon as the operating
piston has
moved
a short distance.
This lever
is
arranged in this
that the
way
so that the operating piston will not
move
its
entire stroke for only a
small
movement
of the oil-relay valve.
It is desired
movement
138

much
greater than) the
[Div. 6
of the piston be proportional to (but of the relay valve.
movement
The operating
it
piston,
oil
(Fig. 148), controls (by the
movement which
derives from the
above) the two valves

or bypass valve, P.
pressure through the pilot valve as explained a primary or governor valve, O, and a secondary
levers,
The
and
n,
which connect the operating

is
piston to the valve are similar except that the lever, n,
with an adjustable amount of

until valve, 0,
is
lost
motion so that valve, P,

adjustment).
open
(see Sec. 141 for
provided at R will not lift The valves are
fiufomaf/'c Safety;
Coyer-
5fop/alye-~
Main Goyernor Spring.

Coyernor
Ball- -V
Piyof Of nockingl Leyer On Ooyernor Leyer- .
Speecf Changer
Or Synchronizing.
Spring-.
Ôperating
Phfon
^ynchronmng MotQf
Worm;
Hanctwheel-
Worm-'
Wheel
^-Rocking Car: ^'Oears
- - -Limit Switch
Fig. 147.
Operating gear and governor proper

The valves which
this
Westinghouse intermittent governor. governor controls are shown in Fig. 148.

of a
provided with main springs, C, which close them if the oil pressure fails When shutting these valves, as for instance when the turbine is stopped. the governor tends to raise the operating piston and would, when the governor is not revolving, strain the linkage if it were not for the weak spring, S (Fig. 147). This spring is inserted in the connecting link so as to permit closing the governor valve without straining the linkage. Note. An Automatic Stop Valve, Q (Fig. 149) is provided to shut This valve the governor valve in case of failure of the governor linkage. consists of a piston, L, held to the top of a small cyHnder by the steam pressure on its unequal upper and lower faces. Live steam is admitted at U above the piston but leaks past and establishes a pressure in the
lower part of the cylinder as long as the opening, V,
is
closed.
The
Sec. 139]
139
opening, V, is connected to the emergency governor (Fig. 150). When the emergency governor is tripped, it releases, through a pipe, the pressure in V' and the live steam at U then forces the piston, L, to the bottom The movement of L throws a piston of its cylinder against its spring. valve, T, which operates just as does valve, E, to close the governor
valves.
139.
To Check The Adjustment Of The Westinghouse
Governor (Z, Fig. 147) first adjust the speed changer spring, d, so that it will have practically no tension when the governor balls or weights are in their innermost position. The main governor spring (which is held by nut, a) should now be adjusted so that the turbine will run at 5 per Then tighten d until cent, below normal speed at no load. the speed of the turbine is normal. There should now be the proper amount of speed regulation about 1 per cent, between no load and full load. If there is not, then, for less speed
Centrifugal
regulation, adjust the nut,
a,
so as to render
more
coils of
the
main spring
effective; for
more speed
regulation, so adjust that
fewer of the spring

Note.
this
coils are effective.
made by means
trolled
Adjustments While The Turbine Is Running are The wheel which tightens or loosens spring may be so arranged as to be turned by a motor, which is conof the spring, d.
Speed
from the switchboard, so that the turbine with another one for parallel operation.
may
be synchronized
140. The Oil-relay Control Adjustment Of The Westinghouse Oil-relay Intermittent Governor (Figs. 147 and 149) should be made after the governor proper has been adjusted,
as described in the preceding section.

follows:
The method
is
as
connected and the oil pressure established, permit the turbine to turn slowly under steam so as to make lever, N, oscillate. The governor balls Manipulate or weights should be in their innermost positions. the oil-relay valve, E, by holding down on the pivot, J, to
With the
oil -relay
control
bring operating piston, F, into mid-position.

link, r (Fig. 149), so
Then adjust
that
when
oil-relay valve piston, E, is in

oil
mid-position and will not admit
either
above or below the
operating piston, F, the lever, G, will be horizontal. Then release J so that the spring link, S, is at its full operating
length (not compressed) and the piston F, will
move
to its
140
[Drv. 6
extreme bottom position. Now adjust link, M, until the by Finally, lengthen piston, F, has a slight movement. giving it one and one-half turns. 141. The Setting Of The Primary And Secondary Intermittent-governor Valves Of The Westinghouse Turbine
(Fig. 148)
of the valves
tions,
be checked as follows: The amount of travel their extreme positions to their mid-posiwhen the levers m, and n, are horizontal, should be noted
may
from
strainer
Secondary
Valve
- ~
Fig. 148.
Westinghouse
operating cylinder, primary and secondary valves controlled
by the governor
of Fig. 147.
at the time the turbine
is
delivered as complete
by the
erector.
These travels should be afterwards maintained. With the primary valve, 0, just leaving its seat, the piston, F, should be y^ in. from the end of its stroke. This may be adjusted by
inserting liners at point,
Ifi.
When
the piston, F,
is
in its
extreme upper position there should be from 3^:32 to 3^f e iiiThis may be adjusted clearance underneath link block, Z. The adjusting screw, R, point, g. by inserting liners at
should be so adjusted that the secondary valve, P, will open at the moment the primary valve, 0, reaches its maximum port opening, as shown by the pressure in the space, /.
Sec. 141]
141
Fig. 149.
Enlarged view
of the Westinghouse relay valve of Fig. 147.
142
[Div. 6
142.
The Automatic Stop Adjustment Of The Westinghouse

piston,
Intermittent-governor Turbine
With the automatic stop
of its stroke, the enlarged
may be checked as follows: L (Fig. 149), at the upper end parts, B and C, of the safety stop
plunger, T, should be central over the ports,
and A\,
With
the
the automatic stop
piston, L,
at its lowest
position,
enlarged parts of the safety stop plunger, T, should be central over the ports, D and Bi.
143.
(Fig. 150) releases
Westinghouse Safety Stop Or Emergency Governor steam pressure in a pipe when it trips and
'EmergencLf
Cove rnor Booly
Screwed On The End Of Turbine 5haft\

Automatic emergency governor or safety stop which is used on some WestFig. 150. inghouse turbines in connection with the throttle valve of Fig. 151 and the valve, T of
,
Fig. 147.
this
drop in pressure operates one or more automatic valves
in other parts of the turbine.
Explanation. The weight, E, flies out at the speed at which the emergency governor is set to operate and trips the trigger, T, This
allows the spring, S^ to force the lever, L, free of the set screw, C.
The
steam in the pipe, P, then raises the valve, F, and escapes so that the pressure in P falls. The steam is thus allowed to escape from opening J (Fig. 151) of the automatic throttle valve and from the opening (F, Fig. 149) of the safety governor valve, so that both the throttle and the governor valves are closed (see Sec. 138 and caption to Fig. 151) whereby the steam supply to the turbine is cut off.
Sec. 143]
143
Westinghouse automatic throttle valve which is used in connection with Fig. 151. the safety stop or emergency governor of Fig. 150. (So long as the emergency governor does not release the pressure at J, the valve may be operated as a common throttle valve. The pilot valve, A, and cylinder, C, balance the valve to assist in opening. The spring, P, prevents chattering. When pressure is released at /, the trip piston, L,
moves due to the live-steam pressure behind it, and trips the lever, T, allowing the sleeve, V, to fall. The dash-pot spring, M, then closes the valve. Too rapid movement of the valve is prevented by the oil dash-pot and plunger D. The valve may be re-set by turning the hand wheel at its top until the sleeve, V, is lifted suflBciently that the trip
lever, T,
may
be put in place.)
144
[Div. 6
General Electric Co. Multi-ported Valve Governor The steam for the turbine is admitted is shown in Fig. 152. through the strainer, T. There are shoulders to the space, S, (not shown) on the valve stem which are so arranged that,
144.
i'Sfeam Exhaust
/Relay Val/e
'Steam Inlet
7////////////////////////////////////^^^^
Fig. 152.
^Section
of multi-ported
governor valve used on some General Electric Co.

Curtis turbines.
as the valve stem
lifts,
the valves, A, B, C, and

is
are opened
successively so that only one valve

rest are all either closed or open.
opening at a time.
The
The
various valves admit
steam to the various nozzle passages, N. Thus there is very little throttling action and the governing is accomplished
Sec. 145]

of nozzles to
145
chiefly
by varying the number
which steam
is
admitted.
General Electric Co. Multiple -valve Governor Mech145.
Cam Shaft
anism
figure
is
shown
of
in Fig. 153; this
shows
in section
one of a
number
the
Fig.
similar valves which
are arranged side
by
side along
casing.
in
top
154)
of
the
turbine
The governor proper (shown

operates
valve (F, Fig.

oil
an oil-relay which admits 155)

piston.
against an operating
This piston moves
rack,
R,
which engages a pinion, L,
on
of
the shaft {S, Figs. 153 and 155).
On
this shaft are a
number
cams, C, keyed at different angles. Thus when the operating piston

their
lift
moves, the cams strike successively cam -folio wing rollers, R, and
the various poppet valves, F,
turn. These valves admit steam to the various nozzles and
in
bypasses of the turbine.

146.
Speed
Adjustments Of
Cent. In Spring-
One Or Two Per
opposed Governors such as that shown in Fig. 154 {General Electric Co. Instruction Book No. 82,207) may be made by varying the tension on an external spring. This governor is used with the relay valve of Fig. 155 and the valve gear of Fig. 153. Governors of
this sort are provided with auxiliary springs,
Section
Fig. 153.
for
Controlling valve used

'
some General Electric Co. Curtis These valves are controlled by the governor proper shown
turbines.
in Fig. 154 through an oil-relay valve and rack-and-pinion device.
A, for varying the
If it is desired for any reason to permanently change the speed at which the governor operates,
speed in synchronizing.
10
146

Auxiliary Of Synch ron iz in^
[Drv. 6
^^ Sprlncf^
Limit
Switches
a/
Motor
Contra!
Wires^
tiynzhronizincf Motor;'
Fig. 154.
Vertical centrifugal governor used on large-capacity General Electric Co.
Curtis turbines.
Operatincf
It-Retcy
Fig. 155.
Valve De+e\il
Rack-and-pinion
mechanism and hydraulic cylinder used for operating governor cams on large General Electric Co. Curtis turbines.
Sec. 147]
147
be done by adjusting the nut, N, on the top of Adjusting will, without affecting the speed regulation, change the speed only through a comparatively small range, on either side of that speed at which the governor was designed to operate. Too much adjustment of
this should
the governor.
necessary at any time to increase or decrease the speed regulation of the goverwill affect the
speed regulation.
If it is
nor, this can, within very
narrow
limits,
inserting
more lead
adding
is
weight
if
be accomplished by
in pockets (not
shown)
in the weights,
W,
to diminish the regulation.
To increase the
regulation, take lead out.
However,
required,
a considerable increase
or decrease in regulation
it
should be secured by
respectively decreasing or increasing the

coils in
the main spring,
*S^,
number of working by screwing the top spring plug, P,
in or out.
quarter turn of the plug will effect a material
change in the speed regulation.

Note. The Positive Action Of Ant Governor Is Necessarily Dependent Upon The Absence Of Friction From Its Moving Parts.
All knife edges,
K,
(Fig.
154)
and
joints should,
if
wear causes any
appreciable deterioration, be renewed.
In order that wear
may
be miniall
mized, the governor should be assembled in such a manner that rotating parts run as nearly concentric as is possible.
of its
147. A General Electric Co. Governor Proper Which Employs Inertia And Centrifugal Force As Governing Forces is shown in Fig. 156. The two inertia arms, A, carry the centrifugal weights, W, and the inertia weights, I. As the
speed increases the centrifugal weights fly out against the tension of the spring. The arms are affected by inertia and
prevent sudden change in speed. The horizontal movement arms is changed to a vertical movement by two toggle levers, T, which fit into ball sockets on the arms.
of the
Note.
To
Increase The Turbine Speed With This Governor
without changing the speed regulation, subtract weight from the weight socket, W, or vice versa. The weight of opposite weights, W, must be kept equal to prevent unbalancing the governor. Increasing the main spring tension increases the speed and also decreases the speed regulation, and vice versa. Shortening xtie effective spring length by screwing the plugs, P, closer together increases the speed regulation, and
(Fig. 156)
148
vice

versa.
[Div. 6
The governor
is
ordinarily, be altered except
adjusted at the factory and need not, by the external adjustment (not shown)
which
is
provided for the purpose.
Parallel
Parallel
Link
'r5p indie
H- 5
Fig. 156.
e c +
o n
x-X
Curtis
turbines.
Inertia
governor
used
on
medium-capacity
{General
Electric Co. Bulletin.)
148. An Air-pressure Or Pneumatic Governor Used On The Ridgway Steam Turbine (Fig. 157) employs an air-
pressure blower, B, (directly connected to the shaft to furnish the operating power for the governor) instead of employing
Sec. 148]
149
the centrifugal force developed by weights as do most governors. The blower creates an air pressure which is approximately
proportional to the square of the speed.
This pressure
is
exerted on the under sides of two light aluminum pistons, P, the movement of which is opposed by a spring, S. The ten-
on this spring is varied by the handwheel, K, or by the synchronizing motor, L. The double beat throttle valve, V,
sion
is
controlled
by the operating
piston, D, through the oil-relay
150

and the
a spring,
of
[Div. 6
valve, G,
floating lever,
J?,
in the usual
manner.
There
is
A^,
which
closes the valve in case of failure
The chief advantages claimed for this governing are simplicity and absence of any highspeed parts on which there is friction. The runner of the blower has no friction except that of the air.
of the oil pressure.
method
149. Inertia
So-called Mechanical Indirect Centrifugal And Governor Valve Gear (Figs. 158 and 159) is in use on some medium-capacity (say
-Crossheoict
500 kw.) General Electric Co. Curtis turbines. The illustrations show only one valve mechanism; on a turbine there are a number of
duplicate
mounted
controlled
side
mechanisms
by
îde,
all
by a
it
single gover,
nor and each admitting steam

to or cutting
off
nozzle
section.
from one This valve
gear operates (see explanation
below) in
a way somewhat analogous to a detaching Cor-
J Upper
Of Cross head
Fig. 158.
Position
^.,0f Crosshead
-Valve Stem
liss-valve mechanism for steam engines. That is, it employs two pawls or '^pick-up
hooks," A, for each valve. The pawls are attached to
Lifting and knock-off mech-
anism of the Rice mechanisal valve gear.

{General Electric Co.)
and are
oscillated
up and
down by
mitted to
the motion trans-
by L.
The upper hook,
A, opens and the lower
hook, Ac, closes the valve. The position of the shield plate or ''knock-off cam," E^ is controlled by the governor and
lifted.
determines the height to which the valves, Y (Fig. 159), are Unlike the Corliss mechanism, however, each valve is
closed by a pawl, Ac, instead vacuum.
of being closed
by springs or
up and
on the
Explanation.
The
lever,
(Figs. 158
and
159),
is
oscillated
down by an
excentric
and the
rod, L, at the rate of 120 complete
strokes per minute.
The
pawls, A, are pivoted at
and
Sec. 150]
151
lever, K. Due to the tension of springs, S, on lugs, F, the pawls tend to engage the latch blocks, B, so as to carry the governor valves, V, up and down also. But the position of the shield plate, E, is controlled by the governor. It allows the governor valves to be lifted
when the
stroke.
turbine requires
it
more steam,
more steam. Also when the turbine requires prevents the valves from being closed on the return
steam
is
When
less
required, the shield plate
is
so
moved by
Ovsshead- . .
p
Shield Plafe
Fig. 159.
-Rice mechanical valve gear used on
some medium-sized General
Electric Co.
Curtis turbines.
the governor as to allow the governor valves to be closed and prevents them from being opened.
it
similarly
150. Dash-pots (Z), Fig. 159) are used on many turbine governors to prevent hunting. If a large centrifugal governor were so adjusted as to allow a regulation of only 1 to IJ^ per cent, in the speed of the turbine, the governor would have a tendency to vibrate slowly or to move above and then below
152
its
[Div. 6
correct position.
dash-pot
is
therefore frequently used
to
''dampen" such vibrations

it
of the
governor and to main-
tain
in its correct position.
Note.
To Make A Governok More Sluggish, or slow-moving, use

oil in
it
a heavier
To make
kerosene.
more prompt, give
the dash-pot, or restrict the opening around the plunger. it more opening or thin the oil with
Note. For more complete directions for the care, construction and adjustment of dash-pots, see the author's Steam-engine Principles And Practice.
151. In Adjusting A Governor To Synchronize Steam Turbo -alternators, a motor-operated device which is con.-Synchronixlng Spring
.,'Goyernor Ley^r
Operating
Cylinder^,
pjj^f
yalre'\
Fig. 160. A General Electric Co. synchronizing device for turbo-generators which be controlled from the switchboard. When the motor, M, is connected into circuit at the switchboard, it turns worm, W, and tightens or loosens synchronizing spring, S,
may
depending on the direction
in
which the motor
is
caused to rotate.
trolled
by the switch-board operator

is is
is
often employed.
If
turbo-alternator
to be connected in parallel with another
running under load, it is necessary that, at the instant of connecting the one in: (1) The two (2) The machines he running at exactly synchronous speed. as shown hy a two machines he delivering the same voltage^
which
already
Sec. 152]

(3)
153
The ''dead" he in phase. be connected in, is usually synchronized to with the ''live" machine, which is already under load, by altering the speed of the dead machine until its speed is exactly the same as that of the live machine and the two are
voltmeter.
The two machines

is
machine, which
in phase.
Note.
the
turbines, this
On the smaller may be effected by hand adjustment of the speed changing synchronizing spring {d, Fig. 147 and S, Fig. 157). On the larger
To Adjust The Speed For Synchronizing:
is accomplished by a motor-controlled synchronizing device (Figs. 157 and 160) which forms part of the govThe synchronizing motor may, in order to change the speed, ernor. vary the tension of the governor synchronizing spring as in Figs. 157
turbines, the speed alteration
and 160 or it may change the position of the pilot valve with respect to the governor valve as in Fig. 145. In Fig. 145 this is effected by turning may, if desired, be motor controlled. After the two machines H. have been synchronized and are operating in parallel the proper division of the load between them is accomplished by adjusting their governors, and adjusting the field rheostats to minimize the cross currents. Divi-
sion of load cannot be accomplished with only the field rheostats; see the author's American Electricians' Handbook. The machine which is to pull most of the load must be given proportionally more steam.
152.
The Care Of Governors seldom

oiling
includes anything
stuffing
more than
and occasionally re-packing a
box or
regrinding a valve.
The operation
examined frequently. On may be moved by hand to see that it moves freelj^ and shuts off the steam. If undue lost motion develops, or if any part of the mechanism shows undue friction, the difficulty should be promptly remedied as explained in Sec. 132. There is some simple method of making a small change in speed on nearly all governors; and sometimes adjustable weights are provided to change the regulation as in Sec. 147. But the manufacturer should be consulted before any extensive or radical adjustments are made. After any governor adjustment, the action of the device throughout its range should be
noted to
Note.
governor should be small turbines, the whole governor

of the
make
sure that
it is safe.
The Elaborate Relay Governing Mechanisms Employed

Involved And Various To Admit Of The Care Of All Of Them. In general,
On Large Turbines Are Too

Special Directions For
154

means
filled at
[Drv. 6
there should be
of ascertaining at all times if the relay system is the proper pressure with the operating fluid (usually oil); see Div. 10. There is, usually on large turbines, an emergency oil pump (Sec. 197) which will keep up the pressure in the oil system if the The governor proper of a relay regular pump becomes inoperative.
properly
governor operates exactly as do other spring-loaded
fly-ball governors.
^- 0/7
Return
Fig. 161.
Illustrating the lubrication of a General Electric Co. Curtis turbine governor.
153. The Emergency Governor Should, Preferably, Be Tested Daily by carefully overspeeding the turbine up to the
Sec. 154]
155
speed
at
which the emergency governor should operate.

testing,
When
thus
the
speed, as indicated
by a
tachometer, should be care-
watched. It should never be assumed that the emergency governor is unfully
necessary because the speed
governor functions properly. Additional protection against overspeed is needed.

Note.
The
Steam
Which
thrust
Parts Of A Turbine Governor Require The Most
Oiling are the
worm
bearings.
gears and These are
sometimes
forced-feed
provided with systems as in Fig. 161; see also Div. 10. It is very important that the hnkage pivots be kept oiled and not be allowed to stick but as these move but little, they do not require much oil.
oil
154. The Principal Kinds Of Valves Used In Connection With Steam Turbines
are: (1) Throttle valves (Fig.
162) which are used for admitting steam by hand

to the turbine.
stop
or
(2) Safety-
emergency
valves
Fig. 162.
which are operated by the emergency governor, sometimes the emergency governor trips the throttle valve. (3)
(Fig. 137)
Throttle valve with safety-stop

Electric Co.
attachment used on some General
Curtis turbines. (Many are in use but they are now applied to new machines only in
special cases.)
Governor valves (Figs. 129 and 152) which are operated by
156

(4)
[Div. 6
the speed governor.

additional nozzles for
Nozzle valves (Fig. 163) which are

loads.
used principally on small turbines for admitting steam to
heavy
(5)
Bypass
or stage valves.
' '
-Nozzle
-^yalye
Point
Fig. 163.
De Laval nozzle and
valve.
{Vi, Fig. 78)
which are used
for admitting
steam to
later stages
of a multi-stage turbine to carry overloads; these valves
may
be operated by hand or by the speed governor. (6) Relief valves (Fig. 164 and Fig. 29) which are
Bonnet
safety valves placed in the turbine
casing to protect
sive
Sprfngr,
it
against exces-
pressures.
(7)
Atmospheric
relief valves (Fig. 185)
which allow
the
turbine to exhaust to the atmosphere if the condenser fails and thereby prevent the building up of an excessive pressure in the
turbine casing; such valves are con-
nected as side outlets in the exhaust

pipe between the turbine and the
Pipe
thread
Connection,
Fig. 164.
condenser.
relief
See the author's Steam
Power Plant
valve
suit-
Auxiliaries
And
able for use
on a steam turbine. {Ashton Valve Co.)
Accessories.
Note.
Throttle Valves For Small
Turbines
turbine.
are usually ordinary globe valves in the steam pipe near the
shown
in Figs. 151
For larger turbines, the throttle valves are more elaborate as and 162, and act also as safety-stop valves. The
Sec. 155]
157
balancing pistons of these valves are subject to some of the troubles of engine pistons, although a certain amount of leakage past these pistons is expected.
Note. A Sentinel Valve {Kerr Turbine Co.) is a valve which is so placed and designed as to allow escape of steam and thereby give warning if the pressure becomes high in the low-pressure end of the turbine casing.
Overload valves are valves which are opened to carry overloads, that
give the turbine
narily,
is
to
normal rating. They are, ordistage valves or nozzle valves and may be operated either by hand
its
more power than
(for small turbines, usually) or by the speed governor depending on the construction employed.
(for large turbines)
155.
The Chief Troubles With Valves Are;
{1) Stuffing-box
leaks; (2) Valve leaks or breaks; (3) Sticking.
Stuffing-boxes
can be repacked with various types of high-temperature packings which are on the
market for the purpose. For most saturated-steam valve stems, candle-wicking soaked in oil may be used. A governor-valve stem must be packed very carefully so that it will hold steam without much friction of
the packing.
It
is
usually better to
first
screw the gland nut
up tightly and then slack it off so as to relieve the pressure on the stem. In general, it is better to have a slight steam leak around a governor-valve stem than to have too much friction.
Some
Racing
at light loads with the valve
indications of a leaky governor valve are: (1) apparently closed and (2)
to the
heating of the governor thrust hearing due
force developed
by the governor in endeavoring

for valve tightness
is
to close
a leaky
its
to close the valve
One test by hand while the

valve.
turbine
is
running and note how rapidly
speed decreases.
Note. Common Causes Of Governor Valve Failure are wet steam and running constantly at light loads. Wet steam may be avoided by lagging the steam pipes and installing a separator. Running at light loads will not wear the valve if one or more of the nozzle valves are turned off.
If this
cannot be done, a smaller valve should be used.
ascertain from the manufacturer
what
is
It is necessary to the smallest valve which will
carry the required load.

ally, it
may
If a conical-seated valve is reground occasionbe kept in good condition in spite of continued running at
light loads.
156. Steam Strainers (Figs. 152 and 165) are provided in the admission passages of most steam turbines. They are usually
located so that the steam
is
strained before
it
passes the gover-
158

This
is
[Div. 9
nor valve.
a precaution to prevent particles of scale
from the pipe and other foreign matter from getting under the governor valve and preventing its shutting. Strainers are commonly constructed of sheet metal in which holes are punched which are sufficiently large to allow the necessary flow of steam but small enough to keep out any solid particle which would damage the turbine. The total area of the holes is
5hee-f-,Mefa/ Cylinder.^ S/of3.
"'
Punched
Supporting
Fig. 165.
Ring..-'
Common type
of
steam strainer used on small turbines.
generally
made much
larger than that of the rest of the preced-
ing and following passages so that there will not be

friction in the strainer.
much
1.
Under what conditions may a turbine be operated without a governor?
Why
is
a governor usually necessary? 2. Show by a sketch the action of an elementary direct throttling governor. 3. Of what principal parts does a complete governing mechanism for a large turbine
ordinarily consist?
4. In what three ways may steam turbine governors be two subclasses under each classification.
5.
6.
classified?
Name
at least
What
is one disadvantage of a throttling governor? One advantage? Explain the use of a block or key in adjusting the lost motion on a Sturtevant
governor.
7.
8.
cent,
What is the function of a vacuum breaker on a governor? What method may be used for making speed adjustments of about 2 or 3 per on nearly all horizontal throttling governors? What should be done in case it is
make a
is
desired to
9.
How may
What
10. 11.
radical speed adjustment on a governor? corrosion of governor valves be minimized? an emergency governor? Show by a sketch
is
how
a simple one
may
function.
At about how much greater than normal speed
the emergency governor usually
Bet?
Sec. 156]
12.
159
Draw
13.
14.
15.
16.
Use a
17.
is the function of an oil-relay mechanism for a steam-turbine governor? a sketch of and explain the operation of such a mechanism. What is the advantage of an intermittent governor over a throttling governor? Explain, using a sketch, the action of a floating lever in a relay governor. What is the effect of decreasing the number of coils of a governor main spring? How does the Westinghouse safety stop control the automatic throttle valve? sketch in explaining. What is the purpose of bypassing in a multi-stage turbine? What are its dis-
What
advantages? 18. How do multi-ported governor valves avoid loss of energy by throttling? 19. What is the function of an inertia arm in a governor? 20. Explain the operation of a pneumatic turbine governor. What are its advantages?
21. To what steam engine mechanism may the Rice mechanical valve gear be compared? Explain the Rice governor using a sketch.
22. What is the function of a dash-pot on a governor? How may the piston on one be made to move more slowly? More rapidly? 23. How are turbo-alternators usually synchronized from the switchboard? 24. What is a throttle valve? How may it be interconnected with an emergency governor? Explain with a sketch. 25. What are bypass valves? Atmospheric relief valves? 26. What is a sentinel valve? A relay valve? 27. What are the three chief troubles encountered in valves? 28. How may leakage in a governor valve be detected? How repaired? 29. What steam and load conditions tend to wear out the valves of throttling governors?
30.
What
is
the general construction of most steam strainers for turbines?
What
is
their function?
DIVISION
STEAM-TURBINE REDUCTION GEARS AND COUPLINGS

157.
The Function Of A Steam-turbine Reduction Gear

"reduce" the rotative speed
of the tur-
(Fig. 166) is solely to
bine shaft to a suitable speed for driving
some other machine.
Fig. 166.
single-stage
Moore steam turbine, showing the method of mounting turbine and reduction gears on a common bedplate.
Since turbines can be operated efficiently only at high rotative speeds (see Div. 3) and since many mechanically driven
machines must be operated at low rotative speeds, it is obvious that these low-speed driven machines cannot be
coupled directly to the turbines.
Strictly speaking, a reduc-
tion gear does not reduce the speed of the turbine shaft.
Rather, the turbine shaft transmits

160
its
power through the
Sec. 158]
REDUCTION GEARS AND COUPLINGS
161
is
reduction gear
(or gears) to another shaft which then connected to the driven machines.
Note.
Reduction
:
Gears Are Often Not Necessary With the

(2)
following machines
(1) Alternating-current generators.

(3)
Small
direct(4)
current generators (below about 50 kw.).
Centrifugal pumps.
all
Fan
hloivers.
(5)
Turbo-co7npressors.
Nearly
other machines
must
be driven at much lower speeds than those at which steam turbines operate and, hence, require reduction gears,
158. Steam-turbine
Reduction Gears
May Be
Classified
as follows: (1) Single-reduction gears, Fig. 166.
(2)
Double-
Firsf
.Rec/ucfion
^'9^''^.
,.^
Second Redact ,on.^

^
^..Coupling
Single-plane-tj-pe, double-reduction gears for a 3,000-hp. marine turbine Fig. 167. which reduces the speed from 3,500 r.p.m. at the turbine to 90 r.p.m. at the propeller. (De Laval.)
171. (3) EpicycUc gears, Fig. be employed whenever the turbine speed does not exceed about six or eight times the speed of the driven machine. Double-reduction gears are employed for
reduction
gears,
Fig.
167.
Single-reduction gears
may
greater speed reductions than can be accomplished with a single reduction. By employing a double reduction the sizes
of the gears may be kept smaller than if the total reduction were accomplished with one gear and one pinion. The epicyclic-gear speed reducer is explained and discussed in Sec. 162.
11
162
[Div. 7
Note.
Double-reduction
Gears Are Used Extensively With

all lie in
Marine Turbines and

or shaft drives.
occasionally for such stationary service as mill
Double-reduction gears whose shafts
one plane
j3llddoj(j qi-
Sec. 159]

is
163
159.
The Construction Of Reduction Gears
usually such
that the gears are enclosed in a case (Fig. 169) which serves
to exclude dust
and other foreign matter from the
teeth.
The
gears are usually cut from high-grade rolled steel.
The
teeth are of the double-helical or herringbone type and thus

2^--Liftin0
Eye
.'Supply Line To OfI Cooler

\
Gear Case Cap-.

/^ Supply Line ToBearings From Oil Cooler
OearBearing,
thrive
I Gear
'
/ Q'f
T fhmp
Pinion /'Bearing'
Oif
Supply Line
Slinger
To Oil Spray
\ ^
Tube
Oil-
Inner OilRing
~-
Pump Coupling
of
Overflow From Bearings
^- -
Gear Case
'Spray Tube For Oiling Gears
Fig. 169.
Side sectional view

New
bine Corporation, Wellsville,
double helical reduction gears. York. Instruction Card No. 4.)
(Moore Steam TurForced-feed lubrica-
tion is used in all Moore reduction-gear sets. The oil is supplied from a geared pump, P, under pressure, to the bearings, B, and also is sprayed through small holes in a copper pipe, T, onto the gear, G, and pinion, iV, at the pitch line. Stop cocks are provided in the feed lines to the bearings for regulating the flow and also in the supply line for spraying oil onto the gears. These cocks should be adjusted so both bearings and gears will receive a liberal supply of oil. The bearings should be given all they will take without
overflowing.
Inspection of gear lubrication can be made through the opening (not shown) which is provided for this purpose. A metallic ringing sound is an indication that the gears are not getting sufficient oil. If for any reason too much oil is fed to the bearings and gears, so that it is not carried away fast enough through the drain pipe and that it backs up in the case until the gear dips in the oil, there will result undue heating, caused by the oil being thrown against the sides of the case. The remedy is to reduce the quantity of oil which is used. A cooling device is provided in the form of a brass-tube cooler or plate-type cooler for The oil is circulated from the discharge cooling the oil. Water is used for cooling. of the oil pump through the brass-tube cooler. In the plate cooler, the oil passes over the cooling surface when it is being returned to the suction tank.
provide smooth quiet operation which
is
free
from vibration
oil,
and end
thrust.
The
gears are supplied with

(see
as are also
Div. 10) which is driven from shaft. The oil is cooled by passing the end of the large-gear
the bearings, from a
it
pump
over a water-cooled
coil or plate
and
is
then returned to the
pump.
Some
large marine reduction gears are so designed
164
[Div. 7
that the pinion shaft turns in a floating frame carried on
hydrauhc rams.
ically
This elastic support of the pinion shaft

perfect alignment between gear
renders the gearing practically noiseless and insures automat-
more nearly
all
under
conditions.
With turbines
is
of smaller output,
and pinion how-
ever, the floating
frame
seldom used.
Note. The Transmission Efficiency Of Reduction Gearing is very high; it may exceed 98 per cent. The transmission efficiency = {the power delivered at the low-speed shaft) -^ {the poiver developed by the turbine). This efficiency is materially decreased, however, if the oil level is permitted to reach such a height that the gear dips into it or if too little
oil is
supplied to the gears.
160. Troubles
With Reduction Gears
are infrequent.
is
The
principal care which reduction gears require
to see that they
are maintained in proper alignment

lubricated.
and that they are properly Misalignment causes vibration and rapid wear
and is frequently the cause of noisy operation. up the gears bear in mind that either the gear
depending on the direction of rotation,
top of
its
When
lining
or the pinion,
lifted to
will
be
the
bearings
when the
gears operate.
When
the gears
run toward each other at the top the pinion will lift. When the gears run away from each other at the top the gear will lift. Note the clearance in the bearings by lifting on the
shaft; the clearance
for about 0.002 in. less than the observed clearance. For the lubrication of high-speed reduction gears a good gear oil should be used. See Div. 10. The oil should be kept clean by renewing or filtering it as often as is found necessary. The temperature of the oil should be maintained at between 130 and 180 F.
the bearings.
is the amount of Then make adjustment
''give" of the shaft in
Note.
The Oil-cooling Coils Of Reduction Gears should be supis
plied with cool clean water in sufficient quantity that the oil
kept at
the proper temperature
(see
above).
The water piping should be
arranged that the
coils
may
be protected against possible freezing.
161. The Alignment Of Reduction Gear, as given by the Westinghouse Electric and Mfg. Co. in **Instruction Book No. 5,220" is as follows:
Sec. 161]
1.

If
165
Alignment In A Horizontal Plane.
Check the alignment with
these are unavail'able, caliper between the aligning collars (C, Fig. 170) on pinion and gear wheel and note the
the block gages furnished.
micrometer measurement.
collars.
Micrometer the gear and the pinion-aligning
shafts
and pinion thus determined by calculation from these measurements on each side of the gear wheel, and should of course be the same, within 0.001 in. If it is not, shift a liner from the proper side pad of the pinion bearing, B, to the opposite side. A 0.000,5-in. Hner will affect the difference in center-distance dimensions about 0.001 in. Adjust at the pinion bearing, B, in preference to the turbine bearing, A, since the latter throws the glands slightly more out of center.
center to center distance between gear wheel
is
The
2.
Alignment In The Vertical Plane.
This
alignment can be
ferm/ha/ diock .
-
/^t/^^^ ^^ Bearing
Aligning. ^ ^ (Cd <Co//ars

~,
^
\
Pinion-^
-Turbine
I
Bearing
Casing
Turbine-Wheel
Gearwheel
Fig. 170.
Small
(15-50 kw.) geared-turbine and generator. & Mfg. Co.)
(^Westinghouse Electric
properly checked only by the operation of the unit. As a rough approximation, coat a few pinion teeth with Prussian blue and pull the turbine rotor around in the direction of its rotation. Then note the distribution
of the contact
marks on the gear
teeth.
If
these seem to be concentrated
at the ends of the teeth, say at the turbine end of each helix, raise the
pinion bearing, B, by shifting a liner from the top pad to the bottom one and repeat till the contact appears distributed rather than concentrated. This is not a complete check, since, under load, the pinion takes a slight deflection. To thoroughly check, prepare the gear-wheel teeth by washing them with a copper-sulphate solution, thus giving a light film of copper deposit which will plainly show the contact of the teeth during operation. When everything else about the unit is ready, run the turbine for half an hour under approximately full load. Then remove the gear case cover and examine the contact marks on the gear teeth.
166

of the teeth.
If
[Div. 7
These should extend from end to end
the marks are
concentrated at either end, transfer a 0.005-in. liner as directed above, again apply the copper-sulphate solution and repeat the trial run. Closer pad adjustment than 0.005 in. is not required, even though the tooth
contact marks might seem to indicate
3.
it.
Backlash Or Clearance Of Teeth. Block the gearwheel Push rotor and pinion to one end as far as against end movement.
possible
and take a feeler-gage measurement where convenient, say

5fa Nonary Gecr
__
-^C-^^âtt^
Confêcteof 7o
(Does iVrf Revo/ve)
Pfanchirtj
Or fpicyclfc
\
Gear^; Sh'ifts Are Mo ur ted In A Cage Whic / Revolves Af lov\

-I
Speeci
Fig. 171.
Illustrating
gear Gz
is
so held in the frame of the unit that
the principle of the "Turbo-Gear" speed reducer: Annular it cannot revolve; pinion shaft 5t is re-
volved at high speed.
(Epicyclic reducing gears as manufactured
by the Poole Engineer-
ing and Machine Company.)
between the gland runner and casing. Pull the rotor in the opposite direction and again take a feeler measurement. The difference, or end play In taking such of the pinion should be between 0.009 and 0.016 in. measurements be sure that glands or blades do not strike adjacent parts, thus giving false values. If necessary to correct end play, alter center distance by shifting equivalent liners of both turbine and pinion bearings, A and B, from one side to the other. Operation (1) has already put the shafts parallel and therefore one bearing should not be changed without changing the other the same amount. The end play will be changed
about 0.005
in.
by
shifting a 0.005 liner.
162. Epicyclic
Reducing Gears
that, although they afford
(Fig. 171) are so formed but a single reduction, the driven
Sec. 163]
167
or low-speed shaft has its axis exactly in line with the driving
They are installed in a frame (Fig. which presents the same general appearance as an enclosed electric motor or generator. Under certain conditions their construction makes them more applicable than ordinary single-reduction gears. Their operation is obvious from Fig. 171.
or high-speed shaft.
172)
Planetary Gea/rG^
Casing, F-
Infernal Gear, G3
Pilot
Bearing
-Inspection Pane/hole
Main
Pinion
Bearing,
Shaft
Oil outlet
to Bearings^ Valves
Oil-"
Strainer
Fig. 172.
Longitudinal section through the Turho-gear speed reducer, Fig.

Sj)^ carries
171.
The
supported in the casing, F, on the two ball bearings B and C. The cage, E, contains 3 pins, P, upon which the planetary gears G2 revolve. The pinion shaft, S^^ carries the pinion, Gi, which meshes with the three planetary gears, G2; <Sy is carried in the two bearings A and K. The planetary
low-speed shaft,
the cage, E, and
is
gears Gz "roll around" in the internal gear Gz, which
not turn
in the casing, F.
An
oil
pump
is
is held stationary so that it candriven by the eccentric on the low-speed
shaft, Sjy.
163. Steam-turbine
Rigid,
(Fig.
Couplings Are Of
Two Kinds:
(1)
Rigid 173) (2) Flexible (Fig. 174) see Sec. 164. principally on small turbines and couplings are employed
only where both the coupled turbine and driven shaft are supported on only two or three bearings. Where four bearings are used,
two
for the turbine shaft

is
and two
for the driven
shaft, a flexible
coupling (Sec. 165)
always employed.
Note.
The Rigid-coupling Two-bearing Unit Is Very Desirable

There
is
for small-power machines.
much
less
chance of such a machine
168
[Div. 7
A two-bearing getting out of alignment and thus giving bearing trouble. unit also occupied less floor space than does a three- or four-bearing unit.
The Steam Motors
units which
it
Co. of Springfield, Mass. specializes in two-bearing
builds in sizes
up
to 300 hp.
''Labyrinth Gland
'
'Ri'gr/of
Qqupling
Outboard- beanncf Journal
Fig. 173.
Assembled rotor
for a
"Steam Motor"
generator-set showing rigid flange
coupling.
{The Steam Motors Co.)
164.
The Purpose Of
is:
Flexible Couplings In Steam-turbine
Drives
of the
(1) To provide for any slight inequality in the wear hearings. (2) To permit axial adjustment of the turbine spindle. (3) To allow for differ1 '
Rubber Bushing
ences in expansion.
It is
obvious
that two shafts, each supported
on two bearings, would be bent by any deviation of their bear-
from one straight line. Furthermore, it is very difficult

ings
Driven Coupling
This Dimension
''
to exactly
Turbine Coupling
align four
line
bearings
These Faces Nusf
into
straight
so
and,
if
Be Parallel At
All Points
Should Not Be Less Than^" Nor More Thani
Fig. 174.
Final
alignment
of
Type-6 Sturtevant turbine coupling. The turbine rises when steam is turned
on.
Therefore provide allowances to
maintain them. Hence, and to permit of axial adjustment of the two coupled shafts, a so-called flexible coupling (Fig. 175) is employed; see
aligned, to
Sec. 165.
compensate for this change. It is important that final alignment be made under operating temperatures.
165.
pal
There Are Three PrinciTypes Of Flexible Couplings,
usually coupling bolts

six
namely:
(1)
Ruhher-hushing type, (Fig. 174), wherein a number of or pins are fastened rigidly to
Sec. 165]
169
one half of the coupling and are extended through rubber (or The rubber leather) bushings in the other coupling half. Flexible-pin type, (Fig. 175) wherein affords the flexibility. (2)
flexibility is attained
/Cap Refains Bushing
.
through the bending

-
of small driving pins
^p^rce Here Provides Flexibi/ifu. ^

, '
E-^ End Yiew_

Wire".
VrWing Pins-^
dross 'dushing
'
^J
flexible
Section
tK-K I2-Sect\on B-B
1-Longitudinal Section
Fig. 175.
Pin-type
coupling used on Westinghouse turbines.
Pthis
type employs no highly compressible material; sometimes the pins, P, are built up of small sheet-steel laminations. (3) Claw or jaw type, (Fig. 176) wherein flexibihty is attained
^î^/;^lor
,.
Coupling Ends-
- .
.^
;Oll Orer-Flow
f/eeyeS'^/^
\^
Coupling Housing^
> Oil HoIeS' -k-q >Mw^y^/y^y//y/y^M////AjJ/y ///M,w.vY'///7?7777Â

,
>, "Oil Possage
1-LongItudInal Section
Fig. 176.
H-Troinsversc Section
Claw-type
flexible
coupling used on* Allis-Chalmers turbines.
through the joints between the coupling jaws and the claws on the sleeves. Couplings of types (2) and (3) require lubrication of the driving surfaces because there is sure to be some sUding between the metal contact parts.
170
STEAM-TURBINE PRINCIPLE.'^ AND PRACTICE
[Dj\\ 7
The "Flexibility" Of A Flexible Coupling is very small; a flexible coupling will permit of very little misalignment of the two shafts which it connects. Under operating conditions (turbine hot) there should not be over 0.002 in. difference in height between the two halves, nor should the angular misalignment between the connected shafts be such that the difference in opening between the two halves on
Note.
is,
that
opposite sides of the shaft exceeds 0.002
in.; (see Fig.
174)
and
Sec. 167.
is
The
principal
mode
in
which a
flexible
coupling affords
much "play"
in the axial direction.
166.
The Care Of Steam-turbine Couplings
is
simple.
Rigid couplings, once installed, require no further care.

bolts
out
note the ''wire-lock" fastenings in Fig.

couplings
must be
so fastened, however, that they cannot

175.
The come
All-metal
All
flexible
flexible
must always be
lubricated.
couplings should be examined periodically (say once a month)

to see that the connected shafts have not
become misaligned
by wear
or other causes.
proceed as directed in Sec. 167.
an inspection
is
Should the couplings need aligning Coupling parts which, when made, show considerable wear should be
repaired or the worn parts replaced.
Note.
parts.
Serious
Misalignment Of Shafts Results In
vibration,
hurned-out bearings, broken shafts, broken couplings, or broken other rotating
167. A Convenient Method Of Aligning Two Shafts At Their Coupling is given below. Two shafts may suffer from two kinds of misalignment. They may be out of line sideways (the ends of their axes not meeting) or they may be nonparallel.
The
following method of checking their alignment is simple, always applicable, and can be performed in a few minutes:
Explanation. With a pin-type coupling, insert a coupling pin, without its bushing, through both halves of the coupling and leave this in while measuring. During all of the following measurements see that the couplings are pushed as far apart as the thrust bearings will permit. Make two marks, and Y, one On each coupling, as shown in Fig. 177. With these points up, as shown in Fig. 177, measure distance A using a feeler
or thickness gage.
as
Measure also distance B using a steel straightedge, and a feeler gage. Record these distances as shown in Fig. 177. Then turn the points to the right-hand side and repeat the measurements at the marked points. Repeat the measurements with the points in the down- and left-hand positions. If all of the dimensions
shown
in Fig. 174,
Sec. 167]
171
A are the same, the two shafts are parallel. If all of the measurements B are the same, then the two shafts are not out of line sideways. If both
of these conditions are not fulfilled, the shafts should be adjusted byshifting or shimming the bearing pedestals or linings until the shafts are
perfectly aligned.
With a claw-type
coupling, a test rod,
(Fig. 178)
should be clamped
Down
Itnportani No+e: T/ie Two Shafts Must Always 5e Turned Over Together While Measuring 5oThaf Points And On Each Of The Couplings Are Always Opposite Each Other
STANDARD TABLE OF DIMENSIONS TO BE OBTAINED EACH TIME ALIGNMENT BETWEEN TWO SHAFTS IS CHECKED
172

7
[Div. 7
Explain the function and purpose of reduction gears. Name 2. What classes of machines are frequently driven without reduction gears? some with which gears are necessary. 3. Name and distinguish between the three principal types of reduction gears.
1.
What are the principal uses of single-reduction gears and give their limitations. What are the principal uses of double-reduction gears and what two types are there? What determines largely which type is required?
4.
6.
6.
floating
Describe the Explain, with a sketch, the usual construction of reduction gears. frame construction. What is a usual value and what may lower it? 7. Define transmission efficiency. 8. Explain what care reduction gears require and what troubles must be guarded
9.
against.
Describe
fully,
using sketches, the method of aligning the teeth of a pair of reduc-
tion gears.
10. Explain, with a sketch, the operation of epicyclic reduction gears.
their
What
lire
advantages?
what two types of couplings are employed on steam turbines? kinds of machines are rigid couplings employed? What are the advantages of such drives? 13. Give three reasons for employing flexible couplings. Which 14. Describe, using sketches, the three principal types of flexible couplings.
11. In general, 12.
On what
types require lubrication? 16. What can you say regarding the "flexibility" of the so-called flexible couplings? 16. What care do steam-turbine couphngs require, if any? 17. What harmful results are occasioned by poorly aligned turbine shafts? 18. Explain, with sketches, methods of aligning pin and claw couplings.
DIVISION
STEAM-TURBINE REGENERATORS AND CONDENSERS

Steam-turbine Regenerator Or Accumulator (Fig. W, which absorbs heat from exhaust steam when the steam is brought to it and which gives up heat by evaporation when required. A regenerator is
168.
179) consists of a large mass of water,
High-Pressure
5feam From Boifer
Low-Pressure
5feam From engine
Fig. 179.
4-SidV Elcvrt+ion Showing Piplnoj Arrangement A typical Rateau regenerator or accumulator for use with
low-pressure
turbines.
generally necessary
when exhaust steam from an
intermit-
tently used non-condensing steam engine, such as a rolUngmill engine or a steam hammer, is used to drive a low-pressm-e
turbine (Div.
9).
regenerator will insure a steady flow of

for a short time (about four minutes,
steam to the turbine
usually) after the engine has been stopped.

jacket.
Regenerators should always be enclosed in an effective heat-insulating

173
174
[Div. 8
Explanation. The regenerator of Fig. 179 consists of a shell, A, which is kept about two-thirds full of water and which contains two mixing tubes, B. Exhaust steam from the engine is led, first through an oil separator (not shown), and then through a check valve, F, into A slight steam pressure in B forces the water down in their tubes, B. in. in vertical legs which have a large number of holes (usually about diameter) as shown. The steam then issues through these holes and bubbles upward or condenses, depending upon the temperature of the
water, causing a circulation as

tion
is
assisted
by
baffle plates, P.
shown by the arrows in II. The circulaAs soon as the water in, A reaches its
fill with steam which then passes outward through cross, C, and pipe, T, to the low-pressure The baffle plate, D, prevents small drops of water from passing turbine.
boiling point, the space above the water level will
out through C. If, now, the turbine does not require as much low-pressure steam as is furnished by the engine exhaust, the steam will not be permitted by the Hence, it will accumulate in A turbine governor to flow through T. and raise the pressure. But, as the pressure in A increases, the boiling Hence the water will now absorb point of the water also increases. more heat. Thus more and more heat is stored in the water until, finally, the pressure in A reaches a value at which the back-pressure valve O is set to open. Then all steam which is not needed by the turbine will
be discharged into the atmosphere. will close and the turbine will If, now, the engine should be stopped, draw steam from A. Thus the pressure in A will be gradually decreased. But, as the pressure is decreased, the boiling point of the water in A will be lowered and some of the water will be evaporated. Thus, steam will continue to be supplied to the turbine, but at a gradually decreasing Sometimes, however, a highpressure, until the engine is again started. pressure steam pipe, S, is arranged with a reducing valve, R, to admit steam to C when the pressure in A falls below a predetermined value for which R is set. If the turbine is equipped with a bypass or high-pressure valve, the reducing valve, R, is not necessary at the regenerator.
Note.
Piping Accessories Which Should Be

are: (1)
Installed With
Regenerator
passages.
(2)
An
it
oil
separator; oil
is
generally undesirable in
tends to adhere to the blading and clog the V Fig. 179, to prevent water from passing from the regenerator back to the engine cyHnder when the engine is stopped. (3) A safety or hack-pressure valve, O Fig. 179, to prevent an excessive pressure in the regenerator which might be destructive to the turbine or the regenerator itself. (4) A float-valve water-level control, not shown in Fig. 179, to prevent an excessively high water level in the regenerator; the water level will gradually rise as steam is condensed by the
a steam turbine because
check valve,
loss of
heat from the regenerator shell by radiation.
The water
level
may
also rise because of the moisture
which
is
carried into the regenerator
with the exhaust steam. The water discharged by the float valve may be led to the hot well or permitted to flow into the sewer, whichever is
most
feasible.
Sec. 169]
REGENERATORS AND CONDENSERS
175
169. Regenerators Are Practical Only When the noncondensing engine which supplies the exhaust steam has shortperiod shut-downs. If the usual shutdown period exceeds three or four minutes, it is generally better to use a mixed-
pressure turbine (Div. 9) than to attempt to use a regenerator.
But
in cases
or two minutes, a regenerator
where the shutdown period seldom exceeds one is very useful.
Note.
Use Of A Regenerator.
Boiler-pressure Variations May Be Conducive To The \^Tien a large reciprocating engine suddenly
is
stopped, the boiler which supplied the engine continues to produce steam The steam pressure immediately increases at the same rate as before. and very soon the safety valves are blowing off steam. The regenerator
boilers.
High- Pressure Header,
High-Pressure 5feam For

Auxiliary Supply
To Turbine-.
Generator
Fig. 180.
Typical layout
of
tor,
a power plant with a non-condensing engine, E, regeneraR, and low-pressure turbine, T
can be arranged to receive the steam, which would thus go to waste, in one of two ways: (1) The blowoff can be piped to the regenerator, R, Fig. 180. (2) A relief valve may be provided to discharge steam from the boiler at 1 or 2 lb. per sq. in. less than that for which the safety valves are set, the discharged steam being piped to the regenerator.
170.
is
The Normal Operating Pressure For A Regenerator

and 15
lb.
generally between atmospheric pressure
per sq.
in.
gage.
A small vacuum could be used but would make
difficult
the exclusion of air from the system. The relief or backpressure valve (0, Fig. 179) should be set to open at about 2 lb. per sq. in. above the normal operating pressure. The reducing
valve or regulator (R, Fig. 179) should be set for about 1 lb. per sq. in. below the operating pressure. Hence, the pressure variation in the regenerator should not exceed 3 lb. per sq. in.
For economical operation neither the back-pressure valve, 0, nor the regulator, R, should open except when unusual condi-
176
[Div. 8
tions arise.
This necessitates the use of a regenerator which
contains the proper mass of water (Sec. 171). Note.
Adjustment Of Regenerator Operating Pressure should

if
be so made,
possible, that the non-condensing engine will
supply the
increasing
same amount
of
steam as the low-pressure turbine
uses.
By
the regenerator pressure the non-condensing engine can be made to use more steam and the low-pressure turbine less. This, then, is the remedy when the -regenerator pressure always is low. By decreasing the regenerator pressure the turbine can be made to use more steam and the noncondensing engine less. Obviously, when the regenerator pressure is always too high (indicated by blowing off), the blowoff valve should be
set for a lower pressure.
171.
To Compute The Necessary Weight Of Water In A
Regenerator, the following formulas
may
be used.
For. (28)
gives the weight necessary to insure that the regenerator
pressure will not drop too low while the steam supply to
it is
For. (29) gives the weight necessary to insure that a sudden supply to it will not cause a discharge
cut off for a short time.
from the back-pressure valve. That formula which gives the greater weight should govern the installation. The
formulas are:
(28)
w,.i= ^Y(r?i"rS'^
(P^')
(pounds)
(29)
W..=
=
MLd_^
fall
Wherein: Wpri
the weight of water, in pounds, necessary
below a predetermined point while the turbine is using steam but no steam is supplied to the regenerator. Wtf2 = the weight of water, in pounds,
to insure that the pressure will not to absorb a
momentary rush
of steam,
the
maximum
time, in minutes, during which steam is being taken from the regenerator while no steam is supplied to it. Wî = the total steam consumption of the turbine in pounds per minute.
Ws2 = the weight in pounds of a momentary supply of steam which must be absorbed. Li and L2 = the latents heats of
steam, in B.t.u. per pound, at the maximum and minimum pressures in the regenerator. Ti and T2 = the temperatures, in degrees Fahrenheit, at the maximum and minimum pressures in the regenerator.
Sec. 172]
177
Example.
Determine the weight of water to be stored in a regenera
tor which operates a 1,000-hp. low-pressure turbine for 4 min. while no steam enters the regenerator. The regenerator pressure may vary
between 20 and 17 lb. per sq. in. abs. The turbine uses 30 lb. of steam Solution. From steam tables, Ti = 228 F. T2 = per hp-hr. 219.4 F. L2 = 965.6 B.t.u. per lb. Li = 960 B-t.u. per lb. Hence, by
For. (28),
Wwi =
^Wsi(L,
+ L2)/2(T, 219.4)]
lb. of
of the above problem is to absorb 3,000 exhaust steam during a short period of sudden supply, how much water should it hold? Solution. By For. (29), Ww2 = W82(Li L2)/2{T, - T2) = 3,000 X (960 + 965.6) -r [2 X (228 - 219.4)] =
X(960 + 965.6) -^ [2 X (228 Example. If the regenerator
T2) = 4 X (1,000 X 30 = 223,900 lb.
h-
60)
335,850
lb.
Condenser, As Used In Connection With A Steam a vessel into which the exhaust steam from the turbine is led and wherein the steam is condensed into water or ''condensate." The purpose in so doing is to create
172.
Turbine,
is
as high a
vacuum
as possible in the
turbine exhausts.
The vacuum
is
chamber into which the formed by causing the
steam to come into contact with cold surfaces, give up some of its heat, and thus change from the vapor to the liquid state. The degree of vacuum formed depends on how rapidly heat can be carried away from the steam. The effect of high vacuum is to greatly increase the amount of heat which is liberated by each pound of steam and which may be converted into work by the turbine. See Sec. 10 for methods of computing the liberated heat at various vacua.
the effects of
See also Div. 13 for
vacuum on steam-turbine economy.
Explanation. The turbine, T, (Fig. 181) exhausts steam at S. This steam comes immediately into contact with the tubes inside of the condenser, C. Cold water is circulated from E to F through the tubes. Heat is conducted from the steam through the tube walls to the circulating water. Sufficient heat is thus abstracted from the exhaust steam (about 950 B.t.u. per lb.) so that the steam changes to the liquid state and becomes water. The change from steam vapor to liquid water is accompanied by a great decrease in volume (about 20,000 to 1, at an absolute pressure of 2 in. of mercury) and a corresponding reduction
in pressure.
Note. Surface Condensers Are Generally Used With Steam Turbines. A surface-condenser installation is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 181. Jet condensers (Figs. 182 and 183), in which the water comes
12
178

T
[Div. 8
wwMi^4w^ Fig, Arrangement

181.
':
of
equipment
in a turbine-driven plant showing surface condenser and auxiliaries.
Baromefric
Overflow' i] Cold YâferSucIfoiv^
uuu..^
Entminer Circulafinq
Hof Water 5ucfion
Pump
Varui'im ûm, Pum, vacuum Pump
Fig. 182.
Steam-turbine
tower, T.
installation with barometric-jet condenser,
C,
and cooling
(Worthington
Pump
and Machinery Corp.)
Sec. 173]

may
also
179
in direct contact with the steam,
be used.
denser
is
better adapted to maintaining a high
The surface convacuum than is the jet
form.
condenser; also, the surface condenser recovers the feed water in pure Therefore, in most cases, the surface condenser is the more econ-
'Turbine
Generator.
-"!:'-:
'^:
.-'^V^
^-:''-^
.^^^":V'^^-:"î;"y->^^-:)
-Wafer Discharge From
Mulfi-Jet Condenser-
Pump
-
To
Condenser
'Centrifugal Circulating-
Water Pump
n>,M.>w^w^m^w~-^w.~WA^>>
Overflory
Pipe-''
-...'
.' '.".''.,
'';iZw/$m:mm r
Fig. Arrangement of a steam turbine, T, with a jet condenser, C (Schutte Koerting Co., "Multi-jet" condenser with which no air pump or condensate pump
183.
.
&
is
required.)
omical for turbine service. For economic comparison between the two types and also for their construction, care, and operation, see the author's
Steam Power Plant Auxiliaries And Accessories.

173. To Compute The Necessary Condenser Surface And Cooling-water Requirements For A Steam Turbine, the chart of Fig. 184 may be useful. To use the chart, however, certain assumptions must be made and certain desirable values must be known, as explained below.
Explanation Of Use Of Chart Of Fig. 184. The average temperature of the cooling-water supply should be first found, either by experi-
180
[Div. 8
ment, from the weather bureau, or by assumption. This determines, to some extent, what vacuum can be profitably maintained. The temperature of saturated steam at the absolute exhaust pressure must be from 25 to 50 F. higher than the cold circulating water the lower value for high-vacuum work (low absolute pressure, say about 2 in. of mercury) and the higher value for low-vacuum work, say about 4 in. abs. exhaust In the chart of Fig. 184 the temperatures of exhaust steam pressure. The are plotted with the absolute pressures along the horizontal axis. temperature rise of the circulating water should next be computed. The water should not be heated in the condenser to within less than 10F. The rate of heat transfer should of the exhaust-steam temperature. next be assumed. This may be assumed at 300 B.t.u. per sq. ft. per hr. per degree difference for 4 in. absolute pressure and 350-400 for 2-in.
absolute pressure.
The use
of the chart
is
illustrated in the following
example.
Example. Assume that it is desired to condense 10,000 lb. of steam per hr. at 2 in. of mercury absolute pressure. Water is available at 70 F. Since steam at 2-in. absolute pressure has a temperature (Fig. 184) of 101 F., the cold circulating water will be 101 - 70 = 31 F. colder than the steam. This (see above) is allowable for a 2-in. pressure. The Hence, a 20 F. circulating water may be heated to 101 - 10 = 91 F. The tubes of the rise in the temperature of the water is permissible. condenser are assumed to transmit 350 B.t.u. per sq. ft. per hr, per degree What is the necessary capacity of the condifference in temperature. denser in square feet? How much water will be required? Solution. Find the point A (Fig. 184) corresponding to the desired
pressure and trace vertically to the 70 F. line at B.

zontally to the 20 degree rise line at C.
rise is
Then
trace hori-
The quantity
of water for this
95 gal. per min. for each 1,000 lb. of steam (as read on the diagonal 20 line) or 950 gal. per 7nin. total for 10,000 lb. of steam per hr. Now trace vertically to the 350 B.t.u. line at D, and thence horizontally to the
The capacity of the condenser may now be read at F. curve at E. size of the condenser is 127 sq. ft. for each 1,000 lb. of steam per 1,270 sq. ft. for the 10,000 lb. of steam per hr. of this example.
The
hr. or
174. In Installing A Condenser To Serve A Turbine, it is customary to locate the condenser below the turbine as shown A short connection between the turbine in Figs. 181 and 183. and condenser serves to minimize the pressure drop between the two and also minimizes the possibility of air leaks. Where space limitations demand it, however, the condenser may be Figure 182 shows placed on the same floor with the turbine. a desirable arrangement of apparatus where a barometric jet condenser, C, is used with a steam turbine, E, and is supplied Dy water which is recooled in a tower, T. All turbine installa-
Sec. 174]

100
181
Square Feet Surface 100 F
Per
500
1000 Lb. 5 + 400
cam
500
182

Lever for
[Div. 8
Sfeam
Inlet-.
Opening Valve By
Hand
Supporting
Webs
Vacuum Breaker, Operated By Float,

In
Case Water Rhes
In Condensing
Thermometer
Connection
Chamber
Water And
To
Atmosphere
Air
Discharge
Fig. 185. Schutte automatic free exhaust (atmospheric relief) valve. Valve disc, C, is raised when the pressure in A exceeds the pressure of the atmosphere. This pressure is transmitted through the small hole, B, in the damping piston, D, to the bottom side of valve disc, C, which
it raises.
Fig. 186. Sectional view of the condenser of Fig. 183 showing the vacuum breaker at B. If, when the turbine and pump are stopped the water should rise
into the condensing

float
chamber. A, then be thereby raised. This will open the valve B which will permit air to flow through D into A,
will
H-Expansion Joint Comple+e

Fia. 187.
Copper expansion
joint for low-pressure service-
Sec. 174]

K
6^~
183
r/angre
.Wafer
/Inlet
Conofensif rianffe
I-Vertica\ Section
Showing General Assembly
Fig. 188. Westinghouse rubber expansion joint. The sheet-metal baflBe, <S, provides a smooth passageway for the steam. The rubber member, R, is provided with the middle support shown in II. Thus, the stresses in R, due to the pressure of the atmosphere on the outside of the joint, are small. Member R, can be replaced without disturbing any piping or equipment. The spaces, A and B, between R and <S are so arranged that they may be kept full of water and so protect the rubber against the high-
temperature steam whenever the turbine is exhausting against atmospheric pressure as when starting. Connections are also provided for admitting make-up water to these chambers.
184

an atmospheric reHef
[Div. 8
tions should be piped with
exhaust valve, (Figs. 182 and 185) in the exhaust line. This value is provided so that, should the condenser fail to All function, the turbine may exhaust to the atmosphere.
low-level jet condensers should be fitted with a
for free
vacuum breaker
{B, Fig. 186) to prevent the possibility of water being sucked
up
into the turbine at
any time.
Note.
The
Methods Of Connecting Condensers To Turbines
With expansion joints; it is customary for units smaller than 10,000 kw., and sometimes for larger units, to take care of the upward and downward movement of the condenser by using a flexible expansion Copper joints (Fig. 187) have been joint between it and the turbine. widely used in the past but, due to their short life, they are being replaced
are two: (1)
by telescoping steel or by rubber joints; see the author's Machinery Foundations and Erection. Fig. 188 shows a rubber expansion joint. (2) Direct connections between turbine flange and condenser flange, or
with a short nozzle between, are often used on the larger units; the condenser is then mounted on springs so designed that the maximum limits ^will ^that is, high vacuum and non-condensing of operating conditions not cause a strain on the turbine casing flange which is in excess of the value specified by the turbine manufacturer. Condenser supports are described in the author's Machinery Foundations and Erection.
What plant 1. What is the function of a regenerator as used with steam turbines? conditions usually call for a regenerator? 2. Draw a sketch to show the construction and operation of a Rateau regenerator. Explain its operation. 3. List the piping accessories with which a regenerator should be equipped and give
the reason for each. 4. State briefly under what conditions a regenerator is practical. 5. Describe how boiler-pressure variations may be utilized with a regenerator. Draw sketches to show two methods of utilizing the boiler blowdown in a regenerator. How much above 6. What operating pressure is usually employed in a regenerator? and below this pressure should the pressure be permitted to vary? What is the objection to employing a slight vacuum in the regenerator? 7. Describe the process of equalizing the steam requirements of non-condensing
engine and low-pressure turbine. 8. How may the necessary weight of water in a regenerator be computed? State the formulas. 9. What is the purpose of employing a condenser in connection with a turbine? How does the condenser accomplish this purpose? Why? 10. What type of condenser is most generally employed with steam turbines? 11. Explain the process of determining the cooling surface and circulating water requirements for a condenser. What values are considered satisfactory for the temperature difference between the exhaust steam and cold water? Exhaust steam and hot water? For the rate of heat transfer? 12. What are the customary methods of connecting turbines to their condeuser.s?
Sec. 174]

8
185
weight of water should be stored in a regenerator which is to serve a 1,500-hp. low-pressure turbine which uses 25 lb. of steam per hp.-hr. if the regenerator pressure may vary between 22 and 25 lb. per sq. in. abs.? The steam supply may be cut off from the regenerator for 3 min. or there may be a momentary supply of 2,000 lb. of steam. 2. If the turbine of Prob. 1 is situated where a liberal supply of cold water is available at an average temperature of 60 F., will it be feasible to operate it at an absolute exhaust pressure of 1.5 in. of mercury column and, if so, what condenser surface and how much circulating water will be required?
1.
What
DIVISION
HIGH-PRESSURE, BLEEDER, MIXED -PRESSURE AND EXHAUST-STEAM TURBINES

175.
Industry Is
ditions.
The Extensive Use Of The Steam Turbine In Modem Due Partly To Its AdaptibiUty To All Steam Con(See Table 29 for classification of turbines according The relations of the different kinds
to steam conditions.)
ically in Fig. 189.
of turbines to the power-plant
steam pressures
is
shown graph-
Steam turbines
are used not only for the
['High- Preêure steam
LineFrom Boiler;
'
Sec. 176]
SPECIAL-SERVICE TURBINES
187
it through a relativelynon-condensing engine or turbine before it is delivered to the heating system. When this is done the power thus secured from the noncondensing engine or turbine is a sort of byproduct; and only a small amount of fuel is burned, in addition to that which would be required for heating alone, for its production. On the other hand, if more power is required than can be thus obtained, this additional power can, in most instances, be most economically obtained with a condensing steam turbine. The "special" turbine is particularly useful in improving the combined economy of a heating and power plant.
required for heating) at high pressure and run
inefficient
176. Table
Showing
Set Of Steam Conditions

Exhaust steam
able
avail-
How The Requirements Of Any Given May Be Fulfilled By A Turbine Unit.

Exhaust steam needed
Turbine used
Case
188
[Div. 9
equipment in the plant which will supply what is needed none is needed from the turbine under consideration. Note. A Condenser Is Always Necessary For ''Condensing," *'Low-PRESsuRE," AND "Bleeder Turbines." See Fig. 189. The operation of turbines of these types without a condenser would be an Condensers are generally used also with mixed-pressure impossibility.
turbines.
177.
The
Relative
Theoretically
Available
1254
Amounts Of Heat Energy Which Are For Turbines Operating Under

175 Lb. Per Sq. In.
Mu.
Abe.-IOOt Superheat.
906 B.tu
Amounts of heat available (given up by adiabatic expansion) from each steam for conversion into work by turbines of various types operating under lb. (It is assumed that, in the mixed-pressure turbine, E, typical steam conditions. lb. is run through a non-condensing of steam is admitted at boiler pressure; the other engine and admitted to the turbine at 20 lb. per sq. in. absolute. In the bleeder turbine, lb. of steam is bled at 20 lb. per sq. in. absolute.) F,
Fig. 190.
of
pound
Different
Steam Conditions may be understood by a study

These values
of
Fig. 190; see also Fig. 261.
of the heat available
hold only for the steam conditions indicated, but these conThe amount of heat which is actually ditions are typical. converted into work is about one-half to three-fourths (depending on the sixe of the unit; see Fig. 20) of the values given in Fig. 190. It is assumed in Fig. 190 that the low-pressure
turbine
turbine.
operates
on the exhaust from the high-pressure Therefore the low-pressure turbine does not receive
Sec. 178]
of
189
full
pound
to the high-pressure turbine.

B.t.u. per lb. but,
dry steam for each pound of steam admitted If dry steam is used by the low-
pressure turbine, the available heat at this

if
vacuum
is
171
the moisture were removed from the
steam by using a separator, practically nothing would be gained or lost. In actual practice a large condensing turbine develops about twice as much power from the same steam as does a non-condensing turbine, or as much as does a combination of a high- and low-pressure turbine together, in which the
high-pressure turbine exhausts into the low-pressure turbine.
For methods of calculating the available energy, efficiency, etc. under different steam conditions, see Sees. 10 and 13. 178. A High-pressure Non-condensing Turbine Is Especially Useful under the following conditions, see Sec. 34 for
definition: (1)
When
used in conjuriction with a low-pressure
or exhaust-steam turbine as part of a
compound
(3)
unit.
(2)
is
When
there is usually a
demand for
all the
exhaust steam which
produced by
infeasible.
the turbine in driving its load.
When
lack of
space, water, or other considerations render condensing operation
Non-condensing turbines find extensive applicaand B Fig. 206) and small power purposes where the steam consumption is of minor importance or where the exhaust may be used Atmospheric, 1-'^^ High-Pressure \<= -Exhaust for feed- water heating. The Steam 5upp/^---\ non-condensing turbine is seldom, except in small capacities, used alone as a pnme mover because it develops only about one-half of the power which a
tion for auxiliary drives (A
,
,,.
condensing turbine
will
develop
To Low-Pressure
on the same amount of steam. y^-- Separator 179. Turbines Of The Simpler Fig. 191. A high-pressure non-conTypes Are Usually Used For densing turbine, T, piped for service Non-condensing Service Where where there is demand for more lowAll Of The Exhaust Steam Is pressure steam, S, than is suppUed by the turbine. Useful For Heating (Fig. 191). Under these conditions, the steam consumption is of comparatively little importance.
bines (Sec. 61) having one or
Steam Load
Velocity-and-pressure-staged tur-
two pressure stages are widely
190

this
[Div. 9
used for
sort
of
service.
Bucket-wheel and
impulse
re-entry turbines of the axial-flow type are also widely used.
Turbines of these types are relatively inexpensive in proportion to the power which they develop but have relatively high water rates; see Div. 14. Condensing Turbines Are Useful 180. High-pressure Whenever A Single Unit Is Desired Solely For The Development Of Power. They (Fig. 192) are built in sizes up to about
Live-Sfeam
Heaafer-
high-pressure condensing turbine piped for service. Usually, the most desirable location for the condenser is directly under the turbine rather than at some distant location, which is indicated by the above illustration.
Fig. 192.
1-5 d e A small
I
lev
a'+
on
II-5 e c"t
6 n
"
A-A."
35,000 kw. as single-cylinder units and up to 70,000 kw. as compound units. The condensing turbine has become the
accepted prime mover for
all large modern electric generating and low-head pumping stations where steam power is used. The reason for this is the high efficiency and large power output of these turbines in proportion to their size and cost. See Div.
14 for economies.
Note.
The Construction Of Condensing Turbines varies greatly
with the conditions. Single-stage impulse turbines of the single entry and re-entry types are sometimes operated condensing. Large condensing turbines for central stations are multi-stage turbines of impulse, reaction, or impulse-and-reaction types.
181.
may
A Bleeder Turbine (Sec. 37 and Figs. 193 and 194) be considered as a high-pressure turbine which can
Sec. 181
Condensing,
(2)
191
or
(3)
operate: (1)
non-condensing,
partly
condensing and
partly non-condensing at the
same
time.
Under
bleeder Valve
'
Oovernon
Exhaust
HighPressure
To
Condenser
Througt) Base
i.\y
Generator
Steam
Inlet
Fig. 193.
Westinghouse
automatic bleeder turbine

is
single-flow
type.
vertical
section of a similar turbine
shown
in Fig. 194.
lEnd VievY
Fig. 194.
To
Condenser'''
II-LonojitucJinl
Section
Vertical section and end elevation

turbine.
of a 1,500-kw.
WestingliousehX&eêv
some conditions
unit;
it will
operate almost wholly as a condensing
under others, almost wholly as a non-condensing unit.
192

turbine
is
[Div. 9
The
so automatically controlled that
it
will: (1)
Utilize and exhaust into the heating system all steam which is admitted by its governor and which is required in the heating
system; if enough steam for the heating-system requirements is not admitted by the turbine governor, high-pressure steam may be automatically bypassed into the heating system
through a reducing valve, R Fig. 191. (2) Utilize and condense all of the steam which is admitted by its governor in
excess of that required
by the heating system.

that the bleeder turbine {T, Fig. 195) is all the year for lights and small
Explanation.
Consider
installed in a plant
which requires power
Mtposphenc Relief
âlye--
To Condenser.
-''
To
Heating System- -
'
Separator-
Fig. 195.
A bleeder turbine
installed to supply a low-pressure main with steam and condense the exhaust which is not needed for heating.
motors and requires an amount of heat which varies greatly with the changes in the weather. The bleeder turbine is supplied with live steam The steam, at A. Low-pressure steam for heating is withdrawn at B. in passing from A to B in the turbine, does work which is useful in generating power. The steam which is not needed for heating passes on through C to the condenser, thus doing more work. In this way the heating and power requirements of the plant are satisfied and all of the steam is used as economically as is reasonably possible.
The Governing Of A Bleeder Turbine And The Proper Distribution Of Steam In It require a regular speed governor and a bleeder valve. The turbine and governor
182.
(see Div. 6) are
and governor.
very similar to an ordinary condensing turbine A bleeder valve (7, Fig. 194 and Fig. 196)
Sec. 182]
193
18
194
[Drv. 9
Sec. 182]
195
must however be provided
in order to bleed or extract suffici-
ent steam to maintain a desired pressure in the heating system.

Explanation. In the Westinghouse turbine shown in Fig. 194, the steam is admitted through governor valve, A, and flows through impulse blading, B, and high-pressure reaction blading, Bu Then, if the pressure is low in the low-pressure line connected at 0, low-pressure steam is
Fig. 1965. Bleeder diaphragm of the Terry turbine which completely stops the steam flow through the turbine, diverting it to the bleeder line. Steam returned through the bleeder valve (Fig. 196A) enters the nozzles in the upper half of this diaphragm and then passes on through the turbine.
withdrawn through that passage. If the steam pressure increases in 0, the valve, V, which is similar in its action to a weight-loaded safety valve, opens and allows low-pressure steam to flow through the low-pressure
5 2, to the condenser. A check or non-return valve is always provided in the low-pressure steam line to prevent flow of steam back to the turbine.
blading,
Note.
The Genebal Electric Co. Bleeder Mechanism

The bleeder or
is
shown
extraction valve consists of a diaphragm, D, placed across the turbine cylinder at the point where it is desired to bleed the turbine, and a valve disc, V. The diaphragm and disc are so
in Fig. 196.
196
[Div. 9
arranged that, as the disc is rotated part of a revolution, the slots, S, diaphragm (through which steam is admitted to various nozzle That is, a slight rotation will sections) are uncovered successively. uncover one slot; a larger rotation will uncover two, three, or all of the The rotation of the disc is controlled by the piston and relay slots. mechanism, PRX. Steam from the low-pressure line is admitted behind the spring-opposed diaphragm, X. The movement of this diaphragm operates the piston, P, through the oil-relay valve, R. In this way the opening of the relay valve is controlled by the steam pressure in the
in the
low-pressure
line.
By
adjusting spring, L, this pressure
may
be main-
tained at any reasonable desired value. The advantage claimed for this method of extraction over that of Fig. 194 is that with the Fig. 196
-Low-PresSure Reacf'on Blading-. ^^
High -Pressure Impulse Blading-
Fig. 197.
Vertical
section of a mixed-pressure tu
method there
the
is little
slots, S^ are
Note. The Bleeder Mechanism Of The Terry Turbine is shown in Fig. 196A. It differs from the bleeder mechanisms just described in that the steam flow through the turbine is completely stopped The steam, after flowing through off by a special diaphragm, Fig. 196B. the first stages of the turbine, is diverted by this diaphragm (D, Fig.
pipe become too great,
throttling action in the bleeder valve since most of always either wide open or tightly closed.
196A) into the low-pressure steam pipe, L. Should the pressure in this it will displace a diaphragm in the regulator, R, Oil will then flow through the and thereby open an oil-relay valve. relay valve to a piston on the same rod as the bleeder valve, F, thus opening Y, Steam will then flow through F, again into the turbine now through the low pressure stages. Should the pressure in L become
too low, the reverse action takes place valve Y is closed. The valve, F, is so proportioned that, should its operating mechanism become in-
Sec. 183]
active,
197
it will automatically open at a predetermined pressm-e in L, thus avoiding dangers due to excess pressure.
183. A Mixed-pressure Turbine (Sec. 36 and Fig. 197) may be considered as a combination, in a single machine, of a highA mixedpressure and a low-pressure condensing turbine. pressure turbine is so controlled that no high-pressure steam will be used unless the low-pressure steam supply is inadequate
for the
power requirements
of the turbine at that instant.

{T,
Explanation.
198)
is
Consider
installed to utilize the exhaust
that the mixed-pressure turbine steam from the engine, E.

l/ve' High-Pressure
Fig.
Exhaust
f/^~^
Sfeam Main \
tlixed Pressure Turbine_
j^//f
yy//^/^
/^// v/^/
y/// /yf/^ //y /w //^^ /y/ //// y/M
/^-/\
Fig. 198.
Mixed-pressure turbine installed for service in connection with a reciprocating engine.
admitted to the turbine at A and flows through it to condenser, the load on the engine is heavy and that on the turbine is light, the turbine runs as a low-pressure turbine, and the surplus exhaust steam from the engine is condensed. Now suppose that the load on the engine becomes very light and that on the turbine becomes very heavy. The turbine will then derive little power from the engine exhaust and would But the governor of the stop if no other source of power were available.
steam
C.
is
If
turbine then admits high-pressure steam at B which flow^s through all of the stages of the turbine. The turbine will then derive most of its power from the high-pressure "live" steam just as does a high-pressure con-
densing turbine.
184.
The Functions Of A Governor For A Mixed-pressure

(see Div. 6) are: (1)
Turbine
To admit
all available loio-pressure
198

it is all
[Div. 9
steam provided
load.
(2)
required by the turbine in delivering
its
for
shut off the low-pressure steam if more than sufficient the load. (3) To admit just sufficient additional high-
To
pressure steam
to
carry the load
when
the low-pressure
steam
supply
is
inadequate.
Explanation.
These functions may

is
all
be accomplished very simply
by the arrangement shown diagrammatically in Fig. 199. The governor is shown in I (Fig. 199) in the no-load position, with the weights or balls
raised.
When
load
applied to the turbine and
its
speed decreases, the
Governor Adjustable Limif :0f Tra\/el

High-Pressure Valve
Low-Pressure
1-No
M Load, Speed
L
Y' Valve
^Hl
Hfgh.
(Both Hicjh And Low Pressure Valves Closed.)
E-Normoil Load, Normal Speed. (low Pressure Valve Open To I+s Liml+.The High Pressure Valve Remaining Closed Because Of The Weight)
^L ^
"mm
Aufomafic
Travel
m-FulI Load, Speed Low. (More Power Is Required
E-Same Load And Speed

As In
lE.(Fai lure Of
Than Can Be Supplied By LowPressure S+eam, Consecien-rly High Pressure Valve Open^
Diagrammatic representation
pressure turbine.
Low-
Pressure 5+eoim Closes Low-Pressure Valve And In Turn Opens The High Pressure Valvej
governor for a mixed{Terry Turbine Co.)
Fig. 199.-
of the operation of a
balls drop, as in II,
and
lift
pivot, P.
Due
to the weight,
W, the move-
the low-pressure valve, L, but high-pressure valve, H, After the low-pressure valve has is held on its seat as in II (Fig. 199). traveled as much as the adjustable stop, S, will permit, as in ///, further movement of the governor lifts high-pressure valve, H, against the downward force of W. If it is desired to maintain a certain back pressure
ment
of
lifts
in the low-pressure
199,
steam line, an automatic travel regulator, T (Fig. 77) must be employed. This consists of a cylinder containing a
If
spring-loaded piston.
travel of the low-pressure valve
no pressure in the lower part of T, no permitted and the turbine runs on highpressure steam. But if a pressure is produced in the lower part of T, the lifting of L is permitted so that low-pressure steam is admitted to the
there
is is
Sec. 184]
turbine.
199
An actual mixed-pressure governor valve is shown in Fig. 200. This arrangement never closes the low-pressure valve when there is load on the turbine. If it is desired to maintain a back pressure, a constantThis valve also acts as a check pressure valve (Fig. 201) must be used. to prevent a flow of steam from the turbine to the low-pressure line in
Adjusting-
.Block
'
Opera fin^
Piston Rod..
5econo/arL/
Valve-5fem
\
Link.
To
Turbine
Fig. 200. Governing valves of a mixed-pressure turbine. As oil is admitted from the relay valve (not shown) to the under side of the piston, P, lever A is rotated upward and to the left with the link, C, which is pivoted at B. This raises and opens the lowpressure valve, L. At a certain point in the upward motion of P, the lost motion in link D is taken up. Further upward motion of P will also open the high-pressure valve, H. No provision is made in this governing mechanism for keeping L closed when the
pressure in the low-pressure steam supply-pipe becomes abnormally low.
case the low-pressure steam supply
Note. ^Low-pressure Steam Is Sometimes Supplied To The Later Stages Of An Ordinary Condensing Turbine Through Only A Flow Valve (Fig. 201). Turbines which are so arranged are not
fails.
See also Fig. 202.
generally called mixed-pressure turbines although they really function as such. The low-pressure steam is admitted by the flow valve whenever
the pressure in the supply pipe (the exhaust pipe of the non-condensing
200
[Div. 9
equipment) exceeds a predetermined value. There is no speed-governor valve to control the admission of the low-pressure steam. Hence, should such a turbine be run under very light load at a time when the low-pressure supply is plentiful, the turbine may run at a speed well
Hand-Wheel For Lowering Or
Ro/i's/ngr
Pressure Plate
Indicator
Piston Chambers
"null
':
Peciprocatin^
Lnîne
Fig. 201. Cochrane "constant-pressure" multiport flow valve (reducing valve) used at the low-pressure inlet of a low- or mixed-pressure turbine. This valve is used to maintain a constant back pressure on a non-condensing unit. This valve may be set to maintain the desired constant pressure by turning //, which changes the 'compresIf the pressure in A falls below that for which the valve is set, sion of the springs, <S. steam pressure in B lowers valve discs, Y and shuts off steam from B. If the pressure in A increases above the pressure for which the valve is set, the pressure in A lifts the At Z) is a dashpot which prevents chattering and valves, V against the springs, &.
,
above
it is
a buffer spring.
above normal.
low-pressure supply
To prevent such overspeed damage to the turbine, the is shut off by the automatic overspeed governor
emergency
when the
governor
turbine's speed reaches the value at which this

set to operate.
Hence, such turbines should be used only where there is very little likelyhood that the low-pressure steam supply u^ll ever exceed the requirements of the minimum load on the turbine.
is
Sec. 185]
201
Mixed-pressure Turbines Are Sometimes Used For Drives. Figure 203 shows mixed-pressure main turbine, T, and auxiliary turbine, A, so connected that they may derive steam from the receiver, R^ of a compound engine. These turbines running condensing are considerably more
185.
Auxiliary
,^Weights-
Lever-
Koerting automatic flow regulating valve. This valve is, in This valve will, however, maintain a constant pressure on its supply side regardless of the pressure on its discharge side and without manual adjustment. On the other hand, this valve does not serve as a check valve whereas that of Fig. 201 does. The rubber diaphragm, R, is supported by plate, B, and is submerged in water to protect it from the hot steam. Multiplying levers connect B with the valve spindle, S. The valve is shown in the closed position, which it normally occupies when the pressure above R is less than about 16 lb. per sq. in. abs. A greater pressure above R will cause it to lower the valve discs, D, and raise the weights, W, on levers, L. Steam may then pass through the valve to the turbine. Should the pressure above R fall below 16 lb. per sq. in. gage the valve will be closed by the weights, W. The valve may be blocked in the closed position by screwing up wheel A.
Fig. 202.
Schutte
&
function, similar to that of Fig. 201.
economical than the low-pressure cylinder, L, of the engine.
Thus
for
most loads on the engine, auxiliary power
is
secured
is
with a negligible amount of extra steam. overload on the engine or when the engine
When
is
there
an
not running, live
steam
may be
admitted, through
M and N, to the main and the
auxiliary turbines.
186. There Are ANumber Of Automatic Or Partly-automatic Methods Of Balancing The Heat And Power Requirements Of A Steam-turbine Power Plant. In some of these, (Sec. 184)
202
[Div. 9
is accomplished by employing valves which are sensitive to variations in the pressure of the lowIn others, the balancing is accomplished by pressure steam. electrical or mechanical means. See examples below.
the automatic balancing
Note. "Heat Balance" Or A Balance Between The Power Required For Auxiliary Drives And Heat Required For Feedwater And Other Heating is an important consideration in most
Hot-Well Pump-'
"-Circulating
Pump'
Fig. 203.
Mixed-pressure turbines,
A, arranged to operate on steam from the receiver, R, of a cross-compound condensing engine.
T and
plants.
boiler
is
From about 2 to 10 per cent, of the steam generated by the generally required, directly or indirectly, to drive the auxiliaries
of the
boiler
to 8 per cent of the steam generated by the has been used in some non-condensing engine or turbine be profitably used for heating the feed water. Sometimes, therefore, if all the auxiliaries are steam driven, they will supply enough exhaust steam for feed-water heating. For or more than enough maximum economy, there should, theoretically, be just enough exhaust steam available for feed-water heating but there should be no waste of The temperature to which the feed water should be heated exhaust.
power
may
plant.
after
About 5
it
Sec. 186]
203
'
'
circulating' Pump-
-Hof-Well
Pump'
Fig. 204.
Heat-balance system with bleeder turbine prime mover and back-pressure-
turbine driven auxiliaries. {De Laval Steam Turbine Co.) The back-pressure turbines, B and B, operate on live steam from the boilers. They exhaust into the feed-water heater, H, against a back-pressure. The flow valve, V, permits steam to flow from the extraction chamber of main turbine, T, into the heating system whenever the difference between the pressures in the two exceeds the value for which V is set. Thus as the load on T varies, the pressure in the heating system may also vary unless V is adjusted by the operator. For periods when the load on T is very small, a reducing valve (not shown) may be necessary to admit live steam to S.
To
Atmosphere'
ÛUUULIUUUU
nnnnF^rrnr::
v///
'OA
::]nnnnnnnnc:,
Hot-Well
Pump-
Fig. 205.
one
is
Heat balance system in which two bleeder prime-mover turbines, T, (only shown) are used and in which the auxiliary drive turbines, A, are of the mixed-
pressure type.
204
[Div. 9
with exhaust steam is about 210 F. where no economizer is used. Where an economizer is used, the feed-water temperature should vary from about 210 to 150 F. as the water flows from the exhaust-steam heater. See the author's Steam Power Plant Auxiliaries and Accessories. Example 1. In the arrangement of Fig. 204, both the bleeder turbine, T, and the back-pressure-turbine (Sec. 34) driven auxiliaries, B and B, are connected to supply steam to the feed-water heater, H, and to the steam-heating system, S. When the steam from the auxiliaries is ample for all steam-heating requirements, no steam will flow from the bleeder All of the steam which the turbine, turbine, T, to the heating system. Thus the bleeder turbine itself T, then uses will be condensed in C. furnishes an automatic means of keeping the heating requirements and the low-pressure steam supply balanced. Example 2. Figure 205 shows an arrangement in which the main turbine, T, is a bleeder and the auxiliary drives. A, are mixed-pressure turbines. For very heavy heating loads, the main turbine is run entirely non-condensing and exhausts to the heating system, S. When there is no heating load, the main and auxiliary turbines are both run entirely condensing. When there is a moderate heating load, steam is bled from the main turbine to supply both the heating system and the mixed-pressure If the power load is increased auxiliary turbine with low-pressure steam. so that it cannot all be handled thus, the auxiliary turbine may run This entirely on high-pressure steam and exhaust to the heating system. will permit condensing all of the exhaust from the main turbine so that its
maximum power
will
be developed.
187. An Electrical Method Of Effecting An Exhaust-steam Heat Balance In A Power Plant is shown in Fig. 206 (from Power, Sept. 6, 1921). This method is applicable either for
plants which are used for developing electrical energy only

or for
combined heating and power
plants.
is
operated condensing. In may not be affected by trouble in the main electric system, a non-condensing house turboalternator, H, is employed to generate the necessary electrical energy which is used in the power plant itself. The motors, M, form part of the is piped to the baroelectrical load on H. The exhaust steam from cannot metric feed-water heater F. But, since the electrical load on readily be varied, it is obvious that the amount of exhaust steam for
turbine,
T,
Explanation.
The
main
order that the power-plant lighting and motor drives
feed-water heating will be nearly constant unless some variable load is connected to H. If were paralleled with the main generator (by could be varied connecting it to the main bus bars), then the load on by varying its governor-spring tension (Div. 6) thus causing it to furnish
or less power to the main bus bars But this would place the powerplant lighting and motor drives subject to shut down due to trouble on
more
Sec. 187]
205
the main lines. To obviate this possibility, the motor-generator G is and the main lines. introduced as a connecting link between is recorded by a remote-reading The temperature in the feed tank thermometer on the switchboard. The switchboard operator, by to may then cause manipulating the synchronizing motor on
-^
C5
ft
M O
ft
03
IN .2
power to or the house system to take power from the main bus (through G) and thus exhaust more or less steam as required for feedwater heating. A definite feed-water temperature, which has been found most economical, may thus be maintained. The exhaust steam from the non-condensing turbines, A and B, which drive the auxiliaries, Any exhaust which is not thus is used for distilling make-up water.
deliver
used flows through the
relief valve, R, to
the heater, F.
206
[Dtv. 9
188. The First Costs Of Mixed -pressure And Bleeder Turbines Are Relatively Low compared to those of separate equipment for the functions which these turbines perform. A bleeder turbine takes the place of a condensing and a noncondensing turbine. It also furnishes automatic means of
conserving steam.
mixed-pressure turbine
may
take the
place of an exhaust-steam turbine and a high-pressure turbine.
Considered in another way, the mixed-pressure turbine develops power from exhaust steam and obviates the necessity for a regenerator by drawing live steam when the supply of exhaust The cost of this live steam may often be neglected is low.
because the times when it is used are those intervals just after the non-condensing equipment has been shut down at such times there is likely to be a surplus of steam and the safety valves of the boilers would blow if no steam were drawn from
the boilers.
Note.
The Speed Regulation Of Mixed-pressuke Turbines And

(see
is
note under Sec. 125 for definition of "speed much greater than that of other turbines. In bleeder turbines, the governor valve must open somewhat wider than in ordinary turbines to admit sufficient steam to develop the full power
Bleeder Turbines
regulation")
ordinarily
bleeding is heavy. This necessitates more travel and valve and more variation in speed. In mixedpressure turbines, the governor gear must travel far enough to open the low-pressure valve and far enough in addition to open the high-pressure
of the unit
when the
of the governor
valve when there is little exhaust steam. This travel requires a greater governor movement than would be required to admit steam from a single source. Also the speed regulation of mixed-pressure and of bleeder turbines is Ukely to be slightly different when considerable low-pressure steam is being used or extracted from that when little low-pressure steam is being used or extracted.
189.
The Economies Of Bleeder And Mixed -pressure

are
Turbines
(1)
calculated
from two
different
standpoints:
technical standpoint.
From
a technical standpoint, the
economies of mixed pressure and bleeder turbines are most conveniently calculated on a basis of available heat and
efficiency ratio as in Sec. 15.
The
efficiency ratio of these
turbines and of low-pressure turbines when operating near the capacity for which they are designed is about the same as
that of high-pressure condensing and non-condensing turbines
Sec. 189]
207
of the same capacities. An (2) A commercial standpoint. example of how the steam consumption of a bleeder turbine may be considered commercially is shown in Fig. 207; the turbine is, from this standpoint considered to consume only that steam which it condenses. The consumption is con-
sidered to be the net consumption, or that fed to the turbine

30
208
[Div. 9
be charged with only the live steam which it used. Then its steam consumption, from a commercial standpoint, might be zero most of the time. 190. To Compute The Approximate Rate At Which A Mixed-pressure Or Bleeder Turbine Consumes Highpressure Or Live Steam, use the following formula
(30)
Wbi =
^^^}cw ~ '^''^^'
Wherein: Wsi
stages
of
^''^]
^^^-
p^'^p-
^'-^
the weight of high-pressure steam, in pounds

all of
per brake horsepower-hour, which passes through

the turbine.
the
Wb2 =
the weight of low-pressure
steam which is admitted to a mixed-pressure turbine or which is extracted from a bleeder turbine, in pounds per brake horsepower-hour. Hi and H2 = respectively, the inijbial and final total heats per pound of steam before and after
adiabatic expansions, of the high-pressure steam, corresponding to the weight Wî.
H/
and H2'
respectively, the initial
and
Er
20.
final
heats per pound of steam, corresponding to Wb2. the efficiency ratio, or ratio of the actual efficiency to
that of the ideal
Rankine
cycle; this is
the value plotted in Fig.

regular high-pressure
The heat values
are found on the graphs of Fig. 15,

Sec.
exactly as explained in
turbines.
15
for
Example. A 2,000 hp. mixed-pressure turbine consumes at full load, 9 lb. of steam per horsepower-hour at atmospheric pressure. The condenser maintains 28.5 in. of vacuum. How much high-pressure steam at 175 lb. per sq. in. gage and 100 F. superheat will it also consume at full load? Solution. From Fig. 20, E^ = 0.65. Also, from Fig. 15, Hi = 1,256; H2 = 888; H/ = 1,150; Ho' = 965. Hence, by For. (30):
Wbi =
- H2)][(2,545/E,) - Wb^CHi' - H2')] = [1 - (1,256 888)] X {(2,545 ^ 0.65) - [9 X (1,150 - 965)]} = 6.12 Ih. per hp. hr. Example. A bleeder turbine, which operates on saturated steam at
[l/(Hi
165
lb.
per sq.
hp.
in.
gage, supplies a heating system which requires 12,000
lb. of
The turbine is rated at lb. per sq. in. gage. condenser maintains a 29-in. vacuum at full load. What will be the total steam consumption of the turbine in pounds per hour at full load? Solution. From Fig. 20, Er = 0.60. From Fig. 15, Hi = 1,196; Ho = 835; H'l = 1,196; H2' = 1,034. From the given data, Wb2 = 12,000 -r- 1,000 = 12 lb. per hp.-hr. Hence, by
steam per hour at 5
1,000
The
For.
(30):
Wbi =
[l/(Hi
H2)] [(2,545/E.)
- Wb2(Ri' -
H2O] =
Sec. 191]
[1
-^
835)] X-i(2,545
209
(1,196
lb.
0.60)
[12
(1,196
1,034)]}
6.37
per hp. hr.
Hence,
the total
steam consumption of the turbine

per hr.
6.37
1,000
12,000
18,370
lb.
191. To Compute The Steam Consumption Of A Bleeder Turbine At Any Load And Any Rate Of Bleeding when its consumption at various loads with no bleeding is known, use the graphs of Fig. 208 (Joseph Gershberg in Power, Oct. 11, It may be safely assumed that the economies of a 1921). bleeder turbine which is not bled are very nearly the same as those of a high-pressure condensing turbine of the same size and type. The diagram is limited in its application to turbines of 300 to 2,500 kw. capacity using steam at 125 to 150 lb. per sq. in. gage, bleeding at to 20 lb. per sq. in. gage and condensing at 26 to 283-^ in. of mercury.
Explanation.
The fraction B/Fiqo, which

is first
is
laid
out on the horizontal
B/Fioo = {the rate of bleeding of the steam, in pounds per hour) -=- {the steam consumption of the turbine at no bleeding in pounds per hour). This value is then found full load on the scale and followed vertically until the inclined-line graph is intersected which corresponds to the percentage of full load at which the consumption is to be calculated. The point of intersection is then projected and a value of the fraction Fb/Fc is read on the vertical scale. Fb/Ec = {the consumption with bleeding at the rate B) -^ {the consumption without bleeding at the same load). The consumption without bleeding, multiplied by this Fb/Fc ratio, will give the consumption at the given rate of bleeding. See the following example. Example. A turbine uses 10,000 lb. of steam per hour at full load and 6,000 lb. at half load, when there is no bleeding. What will be the consumption at load when bleeding 5,000 lb. per hr.? Solution. Calculate B/Fioo = 5,000 -^ 10,000 = 0.5. Find 0.5 on the horizontal scale as indicated by the dotted line and trace up to where the 50-per cent.-load graph is intersected at A. Then move to the left and read the value of Fb/Fc, which is found to be 1.56. The consumption at half load with this rate of bleeding is then 6,000 X 1.56 = 9,360 lb. per hr.
scale of the diagram,
calculated.
192.
Exhaust-steam Or Low-pressure Turbines Are Applithe
cable under several conditions (see Sec. 35 for definition):

(1)
To improve
engine plant.
(2)
To
economies of a condensing reciprocatingutilize the exhaust steam from non-con(3)
densing reciprocating machinery.

unit,
to
14
As
a
part of a
compound
turbine.
run from
the
exhaust
of
high-pressure
210
[Div. 9
3.5
3.0
Fc
2.5
2Q
!.5
1.0
Sec. 193]
211
Exhaust-steam turbines are usually either

reaction type (Fig. 209)
is
is
of the double-flow
reaction (Fig. 79) or the Rateau type, although the single-flow

also used.
The
double-flow feature
used in the reaction type because of the large volume of steam which must be accommodated at the low pressure.
The large volume is accommodated in turbines of the Rateau type by making the nozzle area proportionally large.
Note. ^Low-pressure Turbines Always Operate Condensing. There is so little power available between the usual pressure of lowpressure steam (0 to 15 lb. per sq. in. gage) and atmospheric pressure that
Thrusf
BcilancQ Pisfon
i^âr/n^
Fig. 209.
Allis-Chalmers single-flow low-pressure turbine.
no turbine would be
Note. Irregular Supplies Of Exhaust Steam Cannot Be Utilized Satisfactorily By A Low-pressure Turbine Alone. When the supply of exhaust steam on which the turbine is to operate is irregular some as when the source is a steam hammer or a rolling mill engine means, such as a regenerator, of storing or accumulating a supply of this steam is sometimes used, (see Div. 8). Another method is to employ a mixed-pressure turbine; then the deficiency in exhaust steam is made up by drawing live steam from the high-pressure steam line.
justified for low-pressure
non-condensing service.
193. The Addition Of A Low-pressure Turbine Usually Improves Both The Capacity And Economy Of An Existing Non-condensing Reciprocating-engine Installation (Fig. 210).
The increase in capacity
is
usually 75 to 100 per cent.
That
is,
212
if

may
The
[Div. 9
the non-condensing engines develop 1,000 hp., the engine-
and-turbine combination
in
develop 2,000 hp.

of the
increase
water rate is usually 30 to 50 per cent. That is if the engine operating non-condensing consumes 30-lb. steam per brake horsepowerhour, the engine-and-turbine combination may consume only
15
lb.
economy, expressed as a percentage
per b.hp.-hr
The
first
cost of a low-pressure turbine
To Atmosphere-,
Mulfiporf
-^
Relief Yalre
Pump
Fig. 210.
Exhoiu$y
''
'^
Sfeani
Trap'''
'
'^Feed-Wafer Heater Anol' Receirer"
".
"
Low-pressure turbine,
T, installed to operate on the exhaust from a non-
condensing reciprocating engine, E.
is
high-pressure unit for the same
very low compared to the cost of an additional boiler and amount of additional power.
Note.
It Is Generally Well To So Arrange That Each Engine

Its
Will Supply
Own
Separate Low-pressure Turbine And Con-
denser, principally because, if one turbine and condenser served several engines, condenser or turbine trouble would render the entire outfit ineffective. Where there are a number of very small units, it may be better to provide but one turbine-and-condenser for a group of two or
three engines to insure
In cost per kilowatt capacity. be more than one complete low-pressure-turbine-condenser unit in each plant so that the danger of a complete breakdown will be a minimum. If several engines exhaust to one turbineand-condenser, each engine should always in starting be run non-condensing a few strokes. This is to avoid impairing the condenser vacuum with the air which was in the engine cylinder when it was lying idle.
first
minimum
any
case, there should, preferably,
Sec. 194]
213
Note. Receivers And Steam-and-oil Separators Should Ordinarily Be Installed Between Engines And Mixed- Or Lowpressure Turbines; see S, Fig. 210. The water and oil which is present
in the engine exhaust
if
may
the
oil is
pure except
blading. But if the oil mechanically from the boilers, it may form deposits on the turbine blades and thus seriously interfere with the operation of the turbine. A receiver is usually necessary to equalize the pulsations in the steam supply which result from the intermittent exhaust from the engine. In Fig. 210, the open feed-water heater, W, acts as a receiver.
do comparatively little damage to the turbine that they increase the friction of the turbine is impure and contaminated with matter taken
Three PhaseAlfernafing Current Bus
Non-Condensing Rec iproca fing Engine,
PSI
h=^
Alfernafirig Current Generator
'Zxhaust From Engine

Fig. 211. Diagram showing method of operating reciprocating-engine and low-pressure-turbine generating units on the same alternating-current line without, governing
the turbine.
194. Several Methods Of Balancing The Load Between A Non-condensing Reciprocating Engine And A Low-pressure Turbine are shown in Figs. 211, 212, 213 and 214. It is desirable to have the engine in such installations produce Then, exactly as much exhaust steam as the turbine requires. all of the steam will be used with maximum economy.
Example 1. When (Fig. 211) both the low-pressure turbine, T", and the non-condensing engine, E, drive alternating-current generators, Gi
214
and

(72,
[Div. 9
which are both connected to the same alternating-current Hne, The two units are automatically is self-balancing. by electrical interaction between the generators, kept at the same synchronous speed. If their load characteristics are similar, the steam from the engine will always be just sufficient for the turbine when once the loads have been balanced. There will not be any excessive variation The turbine may then be of the exhaust steam pressure in receiver, R. run without a speed governor. The engine governor and the turbine emergency governor serve to control the speed and provide protection.
the arrangement
Example
2.
When
(Fig.
212)
the engine drives a direct-current
Fig. 212. Method of supplying both alternating and direct current from turbine and reciprocating-engine generators, using synchronous converter for balancing the
loads.
generator and the turbine an alternating-current generator or vice versa, the conditions are essentially the same as in Example 1 above except that a synchronous converter, S, must be employed to balance the alternatingand direct-current loads. There will be voltage fluctuations when the converter changes its function from maintaining the alternating-current voltage at the expense of the direct-current to the reverse operation but this fluctuation may be corrected at the switchboard. Example 3. Where (Fig. 213) the mechanical load, Lm, on the engine, E, and the electrical load, Ljj, on the turbine, T, are balanced by means of a synchronous motor, M, the two units may be controlled by one governor as in Examples 1 and 2. Some adjustment at the switchboard is necessary when the motor changes over from acting as a motor to
acting as a generator.
Sec. 194]
..
_
215
Non-Conofensi'ngr Engine
Flywheel-
- . ^
Line
5haft-
Motor-.
Belt-.
Three-Phase Alfernafing-
Current L'me5\
Fig. 213. Showing how mechanical and electrical loads may be interconnected so that the power requirements of a mechanical-drive engine and the low-pressure turbogenerator which it supplies with steam will be balanced.
'
f\\
Operating
Pisfon
Auxiliary HighPressure
Fig. 214.
Transverse
section
Steam
Valve
showing the governing valve of a low-pressure turbine. Exhaust steam is admitted through valve X which is controlled as the operating piston P is actuated by oil from the governor relay valve. When X is wide open, further
movement
sure
of
admits high-presV.
steam through the valve
216 STEAM-TURBINE PRINCIPLES

Example
4.
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 9
Where
separate, both units,

engine, E, will
T, requires.
the two loads, Li and L2, are entirelyand T, must be governed independently. The then furnish much more steam at times than the turbine,
(Fig. 215)
The
excess
is
automatically passed through the flow valve,
Three-phase A.C.
Une--^ L2
-Loyr- Pressure
Turbine
l^mnoi
'^Separating Receiver
Flow
/a/ye
^"Non-Condensing Engine
Condenser-'
--Belf
Fig. 215. Application of a low-pressure turbine where a reciprocating engine drives a line shaft and always furnishes enough exhaust steam for the power requirements of the low-pressure turbine. The excess steam from the engine which is not needed by the turbine is condensed.
(see Fig. 201),
and
is
condensed.
If
the engine exhaust
is
occasionally
on the turbine will open and permit the deficiency to be made up; the low-pressure turbine then performs the function of a mixed-pressure turbine in a way
insufficient for the turbine, a live-steam valve (F, Fig. 214)
but has, of course, no high-pressure blading.
1. Name three special applications of steam turbines in power plants for which steam engines cannot be economically used. Two for which engines can also be used. 2. Why is a non-condensing turbine useful when much low-pressure steam is needed
for heating?
Sec. 194]
3.
is
217
of turbine is
Where no exhaust steam
available and none needed,
what kind
ordinarily used?
4. If a condensing steam turbine develops 2,000 kw. on a given supply of steam, approximately how much power would a non-condensing turbine develop from the same steam supply under typical conditions? What types 5. Name two applications of a high-pressure non-condensing turbine. of turbines are preferred for each application? 6. A bleeder turbine combines the functions of what two other kinds of turbines? What 7. What two devices are necessary for the governing of a bleeder turbine? function must these two devices perform besides that of keeping the turbine speed constant? 8. A mixed-pressure turbine combines the functions of what two other kinds of
turbines?
9.
10.
What What
is
are the functions of a mixed-pressure turbine governor? the purpose of an automatic travel regulator for a mixed-pressure turbine
governor?
11.
What
is
the purpose of maintaining an automatic exhaust-steam heat balance in
a power plant?
12. Show by a sketch how a mixed-pressure turbine may be connected to other powerplant equipment for maintaining an exhaust-steam heat balance. 13. Show by a sketch how a bleeder turbine may be connected to other equipment for maintaining an automatic exhaust-steam heat balance. 14. How do the costs of mixed pressure and bleeder turbines ordinarily compare with
those of the other equipment which they can replace? 15. How do the speed regulations of mixed pressure and bleeder turbines ordinarily compare with those of other turbines? 16. On what two bases are the economies of mixed pressure and bleeder turbines considered? Explain how their steam consumptions may sometimes be practically zero
on one
17.
basis.
When is a low-pressure turbine useful? Why is it sometimes economical to install
one in a condensing reciprocating engine plant?

18. How much improvement in economy and capacity may usually be expected from the installation of a low-pressure turbine in a non-condensing reciprocating-engine plant? 19. What is the disadvantage of having all the engines in a plant exhaust to one lowpressure turbine and condenser? 20. Why are a steam separator and receiver advisable between an engine and a lowpressure turbine? 21. Show by a sketch how a low-pressure turbo-alternator is connected for parallel operation with an engine-driven alternator. 22. How may the load be balanced between an engine-driven direct-current generator and a low-pressure turbo-alternator? Explain with a sketch. 23. How may the load on a low-pressure turbo-alternator be balanced with that of an engine which is used for a line-shaft drive?
1. In a power plant where the boilers deliver stean, dt 150 lb. per sq. in. gage and 50 F. superheat, the non-condensing steam engines consume 6,000 lb. of steam per hour and exhaust at a back pressure of 5 lb. per sq. in. gage. It is desired to utilize this exhaust steam in a 500-hp. mixed-pressure turbine which will exhaust into a vacuum of 28.5 in. About how much high-pressure steam will this turbine require of mercury column.
per hour
2.
at full load? bleeder turbine is to take steam at 180 lb. per sq. in. gage and 100 F. superheat. It will exhaust into a surface condenser where the vacuum will be maintained at 29 in. of mercury when the barometer stands at 30 in. It will also be required to supply 22,500 lb. of steam per hour for manufacturing purposes at a pressure of 10 lb. per sq. in. gage. Approximately how much steam will the turbine require from
when operating
1, 500-hp.
the boilers
when
it is
operating under
full
load?
DIVISION
10
STEAM-TURBINE LUBRICATION
195. The Importance Of Steam-turbine Lubrication cannot be overemphasized because steam turbines operate at such high speeds and are constructed with such small clearances that
a slight amount of wear may Percause disastrous results. haps no other phase of steamturbine operation
is more difficult and has given more trouble in the past than has lubrication. To
secure
satisfactory
lubrication,
three fundamental
Fig. 216.
requirements
{!)
Showing how an
as, for
must be observed:
oil film,
suitable
L, maintains the position of a shaft in a bearing. The oil is assumed to di-
and high-grade
see Sec.
oil
198.
vide into layers
example
AB
(2)
must be used; The oil must
and BC.
be properly supplied to the bear-
ings;
Sec.
196.
(3)
The purity
and quality
Note.
of the oil
must
be maintained; Sec. 199.

are: (1)
The Functions Of An Oil In A Bearing

the
To form
journal and hearing, Fig. 216, and thus to provide sliding between layers of the oil rather than between the metallic surfaces. See the author's Steam-engine Principles And Practice for a
discussion of the theory of lubrication. (2) To carry from the bearing such heat as is generated by friction in the bearing and as may flow to the
a film between
bearing through the shaft.

is
Sometimes, with ring-oiled bearings, water
circulated through the lower half of the bearing to assist in carrying

this heat, see Fig. 101.
away
Oil To Turbine Bearings two: (1) Ring oiling, Figs. 75 and 217 in which a ring (sometimes an endless chain) is supported on the journal
196.
are, briefly,
The Methods Of Supplying
and dips
at its lower part into a small reservoir of
oil in
the
218
Sec. 196]
As the shaft
turns,
it
219
pedestal.
turns the ring which thus
carries oil to the
upper part
of the journal
whence
it is
carried,
-A djustin^
Scren
'^"\\- Lock Nut
Oil Ring-
'
'Bearing lining (L o wer)
There is an adjusting This screw when tightened down, causes the spherical seat, B, to grip the linings, C. The locknut, D, locks A in position.
Fig. 217.
of the
Bearing
Type-6 Sturtevant steam turbine.
screw, A, in the bearing-casing cover,
M.
Electrical Connecfion To (Pongr
From
Oil floaf-^
Wafer
Fig. 218.
Gravity
oiling
system used on marine turbines.
{General Electric Company.)
by the
rotation of the journal, over the bearing surface.

is
Cool-
ing of the bearing
effected principally
bearing and reservoir.
Ring
oiling is
by radiation from the generally employed only
220

.--Auxiliary
'^
[Div. 10
Urn
Fro
Turbo
Pump
(Startin g)
^f
^^^^Clieck
Turbo
Oil
Pump
"
^'"^
Valve- '-^yf^ ~*t Relief Valve-(]H
""^
3%"
^
='''-'
'
{Starting Only)-
' ---^-^
A//?
c-
Suction
-/.//7e
-J/'o/?
Coc/f
Fig. 219.
oil
Piping diagram
made
in
of the lubricating
pump
is
two parts
one to supply the governor,

The
system
of the
Kerr turbine.
The main
bearings.
lines
Hence, it is called a compound pump. which are below the floor.
the other to supply the dash-dot lines indicate pipe
{///('// ////{-l
Crease
Grease^
lubrication of ball bearings.
through Coppus turbo-blower type B, showing grease (The grease is forced down into the cavity beside the ball bearings by turning the handle on the grease caps to the right, thereby forcing
Fig. 220.
Cross-section
down
a plunger in the cup.)
Sec. 197]
221
on small turbines, up to about 300 hp. (2) Circulation oiling, which oil is conducted through pipes to and from the bearings. Circulation oihng is sometimes classified as, (1) gravity circulation, Fig. 218 and (2) force-feed circulation Fig. 219, but these two classes differ only in the method of forcing the oil through the bearings it flowing in one case bySec. 197, in
gravity, in the other
it
is
forced
by a pump
the actual
oil
pressure at the bearings being small in either case.
Note. The Lubrication Of Ball Bearings is attained sometimes with grease which is supplied to them from compression cups (Fig. 220), and sometimes with oil which is supplied by rings as explained above Grease provides poor lubrication and should, generally, not (Fig. 50). be used except where a ball-bearing turbine is placed in a very dusty atmosphere the grease then serves to keep impurities out of the bearings.
System Of Turbine -bearing Lubricaemployed on nearly all turbines of sizes larger than 300 hp. and sometimes on smaller ones. The oil reservoir, D, and the cooler, C, are generally provided in the bedplate
197.
The
Circulation
is
tion, Fig.
221
of the turbine.
discharges into an overhead tank.
system
is
In the gravity systems the reducing valve, R, The operation of the explained below.
Explanation. In Normal Operation the main rotary oil pump, P, which is mounted on the turbine and driven from the turbine spindle, draws oil from the reservoir, D, through a strainer, S, and delivers it through the cooler, C, into a main feed pipe, M, at a pressure of 40 to This pressure is generally required to operate the 60 lb. per sq. in. gage. governor. A reducing valve, R, admits oil from to N. In N the pressure is maintained at some value from 5 to 15 lb. per sq. in. gage by valves R and A which are adjustable for different pressures. If the pump supplies more oil than is needed by the governor and the bearings, the excess is bypassed through the relief valve B into D. The oil in N passes as shown, to the several bearings where it is admitted into grooves at or near the tops of the bearings and is drawn between the bearing surfaces.
Oil vents, V, prevent the accumulation of air in pockets at the bearings
and provide a convenient means

sufficient oil.
for viewing
From the
bearings, the used
whether a bearing is receiving and excess oil flow as shown
by the arrows back to D. Should The Oil Pressure In Fail because of clogging of the strainer, S, or for any other reason, the throttle valve would, in most turbines, be thereby automatically closed by the governor and the
222
[Div. 10
Oil
To
Return Tank-
Auxi'li'ary-Pump Oil Strainer-
Fig. 221.
Diagram
illustrating the flow of oil in a circulation oiling system. {Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co.) bearing construction see Fig. 94.
For
Cover--
Noxxle^ Casing)
lialn-Turbine
Steam Chest
Hoinci-
Operated
bypass Valve
Connecfed
Oil
To
Pressure
5 ystem
-Casing
Spindle Bushing
Spindle Collar
Steam
..-Impeller
To
Step Bearing
aring Discs
Steam Valve
Fig. 223.
Auxiliary
Oil-Pump
Turbine
Pressure-operated valve
Strainer
Submerged
In
Oil
Tank
steam supply to auxiliary-oil-pump turbine on Allis-Chalmers turbines. This valve automatically opens the steam supply to the
for controlling
-Turbine-driven auxiliary (Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co.)
auxiliary-oil-pump turbine and starts whenever the pressure in the oil system falls below the normal value.
it
Sec. 197]
223
turbine would thus be stopped.

oil
Hence, in starting the turbine the working pressure must he attained before the turbine can be supplied ivith steam. For this reason, an auxiliary oil pump, T, (see also Fig. 222), driven by
a small individual steam turbine, is supplied on each large turbine and is to be used in starting until the large turbine's speed is such that P can
ffi-Governor
End
Fig. 224. Oiling system of Ridgway turbines. Pumps A deliver oil into the overhead tank B. Valve C is left open until the oil level reaches D; then C is closed and the air above D is compressed. When the pressure in B exceeds that for which relief valve, F, is set (about 30 lb.), the oil flows through it and overflows at G into the lower tank, E. The oil which is not bypassed at F flows through the strainer, H, and thence through the feed-adjusting valves, /, to the bearings or through the strainer, K, to the governor. Sights, M, indicate the oil flow from the bearings into the return pipe, L. The used oil is filtered at N. Cooling water enters at O and leaves at P. A low oil pressure will allow F to close, which rings the alarm bell. If the oil pressure fails, the turbine should be stopped; the bearings will be supplied, while the rotor is stopping, by the oil in tank, B. The check valve, R, permits air to enter the tank in this event. The valve, F, should be opened only to drain the system.
supply sufficient oil. In the smtdler turbines which are circulationoiled and which do not employ oil-relay governors, oil rings are sometimes furnished to provide the necessary lubrication until the main pump attains a working speed. Some manufacturers equip their auxiliary-pump turbines with a throttle valve which is automatically controlled by the oil pressure in the main pipe (Fig. 223). This prevents the main turbine from coming to
224
rest

sufficient
is
[Div. 10
which may take a half-hour or morewithout a

the bearings.
oil in
Where the auxiliary-pump

it
turbine
supply of only handoil
controlled, however,
failure,
should be started at the least indication of
and the main-turbine throttle valve should be closed as soon as
possible.
the main
Other manufacturers employ different schemes for supplying oil when pump fails. Figure 224 shows how an overhead tank may
serve this purpose.
198.
An
Oil For Turbine -bearing Lubrication

;
Certain Properties
is
since the oil
Must Possess consumption of steam turbines
very low because the oil does not mix with or pass out with the steam or condensate but instead is largely used over and over again in a circulation system, it is always economical to use a high-grade mineral oil: (1) The viscosity should be such
that the
layers
oil does not offer much resistance to dividing into produce much friction and yet the viscosity must be sufficiently high to insure an ample factor of safety against breaking down of the oil film in the bearing. An oil of high
viscosity will cause excessive heating in the bearings
and a
consequent loss of power. Recommended viscosities are from 130 to 310 sec. Saybolt at 100 F., although viscosities above 200 sec. are seldom advisable; see the authors Steam-engine Principles and Practice for method of measuring viscosity. Generally, the oil of the lowest viscosity (between the limits
given above) that will give the desired
governor, should be used.
(2)
oil
pressure for the
Emulsification should be small;
that
is
it.
the
oil
with
of
good comparative
(3) It
should separate rapidly from water when mixed test is to shake like quantities
in a bottle
two oils with water which they separate.

is
and observe the rates at

oil
should he non-corrosive; a piece of
clean polished copper inserted for 5 hr. in the
while the
oil
kept in a bath of boiling water should show no darkening or diminution of the polish. (4) It should have a flash-point which is not below 325 F.; oils with lower flash points are likely to suffer a partial evaporation in the turbine bearings
and gradually acquire a higher viscosity. (5) It should not form deposits; this property can, generally, only be determined
after a trial of the
oil.
And Corrosive Oils Are Particularly Undesirable For Turbine-bearing LuBRiCATiOtN because such oils are
Note. Emulsifying
Sec. 199]
225
almost certain to form a sludge or sticky compound which will clog the and oil passages thus impairing the lubrication and the cooling. Note. The Following Oils Are Recommended By Various Turbine Manufacturers: Vacuum Oil Company's D.T.E. Light; Texas Company's Cetus; Atlantic Refining Company's Atlantic Turbine Oil, Light or Medium; Sinclair Refining Company's Cordymo; Standard Oil Company's Superla; Gulf Refining Company's Paramount Turbine Medium; Tide Water Oil Company's Turbol; Pierce Petroleum Corporation Turbine Oils. For turbines which are subject to excessive vibration or which use the same oil in reduction-gear and turbine bearings (see Sec. 203), a heavier grade should be used.
strainers, cooler tubes,
(X?// Pump'-
Arrangement of apparatus in a "batch" system of oil purification. The withdrawn through valve A into the dirty oil tank below the turbine. The valve A is then closed and the reservoir, R, cleaned. Then valve B is opened and a supply of clean oil flows from the upper tank to the reservoir. Valve B is then closed and the turbine is ready for operation. The dirty oil is passed through the purifier and {De Laval Separator Company.) is pumped back to the clean-oil supply tank.
Fig. 225.
oil is
dirty
199. The Practical Methods Of Maintaining The Purity And QuaUty Of The Oil Are: (1) Make-up treatment, wherein
the
maintained by adding to that in the system, monthly or weekly, only as much oil as has been lost by leakage and evaporation. This, treatment is satisfactory for ring-oiled bearings and is sometimes employed in circulation systems.
oil is
15
226
(Div. 10
With this treatment, the oil should all be removed from the system every 3 to 6 mo. and replaced with fresh clean oil. If properly filtered, the oil may again be used in the bearings. (2) Sweetening treatment, wherein a small fraction of the oil in the system (3-6 gal.) is removed at regular intervals and replaced by fresh clean oil. During the intervals the oil which has been removed is thoroughly filtered and is later returned If sweetening is done daily, this treatment is to the system. very satisfactory. However, if the sweetening intervals are
long or the amount of replenished
4-
oil
too small the
oil
gradually
Sec. 199]
this
227
treatment seems to be the best and gives good results. (5) Continuous treatment, wherein the entire quantity of oil in the system is filtered each time it is handled by the main oil pump. Although this treatment is ideal, the necessary
For turbines
because
it
method
of
requires Uttle attention
equipment is costly and requires much space. seldom employed.

Slghf OêrflotY^
Turbjne Oil ReseryoiP-i^
Hence
it is
Outlet Td:;^\
Sight Overflow
*"
Bypass For
oil
Pump
pî^j^g
Discharge
Delivering
Filtered
oil To
TUrblne, Reservoir
Duplex
Steam
Oil
Pumpy
Oil
Pump
Suction
From
Fllten
Fig. 227.
Illustrating one
arrangement system of
of
oil
apparatus for the treatment.
continuous bypass'
Note.
The Methods Of Purifying Oils are:

wherein the
oil is
(1) Precipitation
and
filtration,
heated, run slowly over trays, in which the water and heavier impurities settle out by gravity, and then is passed
Many of filter surfaces which remove the finer impurities. the successful oil "filters," which are on the market, operate upon this principle. Their construction and operation are explained in the author's Steam-engine Principles And Practice. (2) Mechanical separation, wherein the oil is separated from the water and heavier
through cloth
entrained particles in purifiers (Fig. 228) which operate on the principle of the well-known cream separator wherein centrifugal force is employed
to effect the separation.
Good
results are reported with these purifiers.
228
They

are
[Div. 10
and require power for their operation. (3) Chemical purification is generally necessary whenever an oil becomes acidified through use. A chemist should be supplied a sample of the oil end asked to recommend
in different sizes to afford various capacities
made
comparatively
little
the proper treatment and,
if
possible, to
determine the cause of the acidi-
Sfrcf/nen
^l^---DirfL/-Oi/ In let
Pure-Oil
Compar-f-menf-'^
Helicai-Gear Dri've
Note-
\:
i
The Spouts May Readily Be Turned To The Mo5i
Convenient
.Position
Fig. 228.
motor-driven centrifugal oil purifier. These purifiers are also made for belt or steam-turbine drive. (De Laval Separator Company.)
fication.
It should, in
most
cases,
be possible to eliminate the trouble
which started the

200.
(1)
acidification.
The
Principal Causes
Of Impurity Deposits In Oils are

oil takes on a yellowfound that a sludge or a spongy
Water.
Where
considerable quantities of water leak into
the system, emulsion takes place, and the

ish color.
Furthermore
it is
Sec. 201]
is
229
formation
evolved which,
oil
if
system, will tend to clog the passages.

leaks into the
cooler.
permitted to remain in the The water generally
at the packing glands, Div. 5, or in the oil
Water of condensation from a priming boiler wherein compounds are used and ''hard" cooling water are particusuch as fine particles have a marked disintegrating effect on oil. Where they -are present the oil assumes a dark color, and a ''burnt" odor. A slimy dark deposit lodges on the surFurthermore, in the presence faces, particularly in the cooler. of solid impurities, the oil will emulsify with very slight quantities of water which may collect in the system and will form sludge. (3) Air is usually present in the oil in greater or less amount and will, especially if the oil temperature is permitted to rise above normal say 140 F. tend to oxidize the oil. The oil darkens in color, increases in acidity, and in extreme cases a black carbonaceous deposit develops, which may choke the
larly troublesome.
(2) Solid impurities,
of rust or moulders' sand,
inlet
to
the bearings or cause sluggish
movement
(4)
of
the
governor gear or
currents, in
may
cases,
even cause
it
to stick.
Electric
some
may
pass
down through one bearing

oil,
pedestal, through the bedplate,
pedestal
a
its
and up through the other

acidity,
portion of the current passes through the

color,
darkens
increases
all
deposit which coats

in the cooler.
and throws down a contact surfaces and lodges particularly

its
deposit is of a fairly hard, brittle nature dark chocolate color; it is very difficult to remove. The remedy is to completely insulate one bearing from the bedplate; consult the turbine manufacturer. (5) Adding new oil sometimes causes deposits, especially where high-viscosity oils are employed. 201. Because One Function Of The Oil In Turbine Bearings Is To Carry Away Heat, The Oil Must Be Cooled, otherwise it would become too hot, lose its viscosity and become unsafe. Most of the heat is developed in the bearing by the friction between the layers of oil. Some heat also flows to the bearings from the steam inside the turbine casing.
The
and
of a
Note. Oil Coolers, C, (Figs. 221 and 229), are generally constructed of U-shaped copper tubes through which the oil (or water) is circulated while the outside of the tubes extends into the water space
230

It
[Div. 10
would be preferable to have straight tubes as these Although most manufacturers place the cooler in the turbine bedplate, it is better, if possible to have it separately mounted so that any vibration of the turbine would not be likely to produce
(or oil reservoir).
are
more
easily cleaned.
leaks at the joints.
The
^pressure of the oil in the cooler should he greater
than that of the water. This will cause leakage to occur into the water rather than into the oil. The oil pump should, therefore, discharge through the cooler rather than draw oil through it by suction. Where
only scale-forming (hard) water is available for cooling it may give trouble due to deposits on the tubes. In such event it is advisable to use the
Path ofOif?
Circulaflng ^frif>
Coo/er Tubes'
Fig. 229. The essential parts of an oil cooler. Circulating strips, as shown, are (Kerr Turbine placed in the tubes to give the oil a whirling motion through the tubes.
Company.)
same water over and over again by using a small

cool the water.
cooling
pond or tower to
202.
are: (1)
The Most Desirable

In
circulation systems the oil
temperature of However, no trouble is usually experienced if the oil enters at a higher temperature and leaves at a temperature not in excess of 160 F. Thermometers should be fitted to indicate the temperature of the water entering and leaving the cooler and, if possible, of the oil entering and leaving each bearing. These thermometers should be read once every hour and the temperatures recorded on an engine-room log sheet. (2) In ring-oiled hearings the temperature of the oil in the bearings, if of good grade, may safely be permitted to reach 200 F. or even a little higher temperature. 203. The Lubrication Of Geared Turbines (Fig. 169), since the service imposed on an oil in gear teeth is somewhat different
Temperatures For Bearings comes to the bearing at a about 100 F. and leaves at 130 to 140 F.
Oil
Sec. 204]
231
from that imposed
in bearings, is a distinct problem. As long as the reduction gears are perfect and run noiselessly,
the desirable bearing

lubrication.
oil
would
also be satisfactory for their
But, should the gears become noisy, as they are likely to do, a heavier oil would then be needed in the gears.
The
heavier oil would, however, not be most desirable if the same oil is to be used in the turbine bearings because there it would almost certainly be contaminated with gland water which would not readily separate from the oil and would give
trouble in the gears.
For these reasons, separate
oil
systems
should be provided for the turbine and for the gears. 204. The Lubrication Of A New Turbine Requires Special Attention because it is almost impossible to thoroughly clean the oiling system of all solid impurities. The impurities are
very likely to cause deposits and hence cause trouble.

following procedure
is
The
therefore recommended for a new turbine.
Explanation. Before starting the turbine all oil tanks, pipes, the and the like should be thoroughly cleaned to remove such solid particles as dust, grit, moulder's sand, rusty scale, and cotton waste. Cotton waste must never be used for cleaning oiled surfaces, as it leaves behind small particles which tend to clog the oil pipes and the small spaces in the governor mechanism. A smooth, lintless cloth or a sponge should preferably be used. The parts should be washed first with kerosene and finally with clean gasoline which should be wiped dry. The oil should then be poured into the reservoir not directly but through the sieve and the air should be expelled from the piping with the auxiliary
cooler,
if
oil
pump.
After the turbine
is
started the strainers should be examined daily
and,
necessary, cleaned.
After a month's operation, the whole charge
of oil should be
removed from the system.
The
oil
tanks, pipes, cooler
and bearings should then be again thoroughly washed and cleaned.
The system should then be filled with a complete charge of new oil. The oil which has been removed should be thoroughly purified and filtered before it is again put into the system. (It may be used as "make-up"
oil.)
This first change of oil may seem unnecessary but it will be found in the long run; this is because a turbine requires the most care and attention in its early life. Later on, troubles should be rare if the oil is well looked after, frequently purified, and the strainers kept clean.
to
pay
205.
The
Care
Lubrication System
to see that
And Operation
see also Sec. 204
involve:
Of
Steam-turbine
(1) Attention
oil
each bearing is receiving
oil.
(2) Observation of
232

in Sec. 202.
[Div. 10
and water temperatures, as given
Abnormal tem-
peratures will readily disclose that something has gone wrong in the system and will usually give an indication as to the cause
In case of abnormal temperatures the unit of the trouble. should be watched very carefully and shut down as soon as Until the machine can be stopped, more oil should possible.
be fed to the bearings by increasing the discharge pressure on the pump or by starting the auxiliary pump if necessary. (3)
Regular treatment of the oil, according to the method (Sec. 199) which is employed. With regular and proper treatment a
good turbine oil should have a life, under favorable conditions, of 10,000 working hours or more, or of 3,000 working hours under very unfavorable conditions.
Note.
The
Signs
Of "Breaking Down" Of An Oil

(2)
are: (1)
Darkening in
color.
Increased specific gravity. (3) Increased viscosity. (5) The (4) Increased acidity.
throwing
posits.
down
Although
of various kinds of deall oils are affected

oils
in time, unsuitable
will
break
down much sooner than will suitable oils. The best oil for a system is
therefore the one which will last the
longest without breaking down.
Useful Operating Steam-turbine Lubrication are given below:

206.
Some
Hints
On
E- Strainer RemovedOil
Bypassed
Do Not Pour Oil Into The ResERVoiR Except Through The

Strainer. It saves time in the long run to pour it through the strainer. Furthermore, since the strainer had to be bought, make it pay for itself.
Fig. 230. Oil strainer which is used on General Electric Company's 500kw. turbo-alternators. View I shows the normal operation. To clean the
strainer,
nut
is
unscrewed.
Spring
E then
seat
forces the valve
against the
thus permitting the oil to flow directly to the outlet as shown in II. After cleaning, the strainer can be replaced in like manner.
230 and 231)

If
Take Out The Strainers (Figs. Anl Clean Them Often.

the strainer
is
on the pressure side
see that the oil is bypassed around the strainer before removing it.
of the oil
pump
Remember That Nearly All Turbines Have Some Parts Which Require Hand Oiling. See that these parts get a few drops of oil
every day.
Also keep the
oil
cups or drop-feed
oilers filled.
Sec. 206]
is
233
generallyoil level is
The Proper Oil-level For A Ring-oiled Bearing

indicated
by a scratch on the
oil
gage
glass.
See that the
maintained.
Watch Ring-oiled Bearings To See That The Rings Revolve. Sometimes a ring will wear eccentric and fail to supply oil. Pressure Gages On The Oil System Should Be Throttled so that
very
little
or no vibration
is
visible.
Oil
vibrating gage wears rapidly.

Frame Supporting
'
Inlet
Try To Have The Water And Oil Flow Through The Cooler In
Opposite
("Counterflow"). In this way less water is needed to cool the oil than otherwise.
e-Mi
Directions
A Convenient Way To Clean The Oil Tubes Of A Cooler is to

first
''-Oil
Out let
Strainer dody.-'^
oil
blow them out with compressed Fig. air, then push through a flexible wire, fasten a clean cloth to one end of the wire, and pull the cloth through the tube.
231.
Section through
strainer
used on Kerr turbines.
If this
does not remove
all
f
Cylinder.
Inlet-
Va/ve 5tem Oil Cup
234
[Div. 10
Provide Oil Shields, where the governor relay cylinder is located above the throttle valve (Fig. 232), to prevent oil which may leak out of the cylinder from flowing to the throttle-valve stem. If not prevented, the oil will ''bake" on and impair the operation of the throttle valve. Let The Price Of An Oil Be Your Last Consideration in making a
selection.
"cheap"
oil is
expensive in the long run.
Always Draw Off From The Bottom Of The Reservoir And, If Possible, After The Turbine Has Stood Idle A Few Hours. The
water and impurities will thus be removed. Take Oil Samples From The Reservoir Once A Week. bottle should be filled, labeled, and placed away in a safe place, parison of these samples will often reveal troubles.
4-oz.
k com-
1.
10
the lubrication of steam-turbine bearings of such vital importance? What three requirements are fundamental in steam-turbine lubrication? 2. What are the two functions of an oil in steam-turbine bearings? 3. Describe the ring-oiled method of bearing lubrication. What kind of turbines are most generally ring oiled? 4. What are the two principal classes of circulation-oiUng systems? Wherein do they
is
Why
differ?
5.
How
are ball bearings generally lubricated?
Show with a sketch how
to keep
grit out of ball bearings.

6. Describe fully, using a diagrammatic sketch, the operation of a circulation oiling system. What provisions are made, in circulation systems, for supplying oil to the bearings in case the main oil pump should fail? 7. State the five principal properties which an oil must possess if it is to be satisfactory for turbine-bearing lubrication and tell the reason for each property. Why? 8. What kinds of oils are particularly undesirable for turbine lubrication? 9. State the five methods of maintaining the purity and quality of an oil, describe each fully, and where possible draw a sketch of the apparatus required. 10. Describe the three methods of purifying oils and give the usefulness of each. 11. What are the five principal causes of deposit formations in oils? Explain the
term
sludge.
12. Discuss, the construction
and operation
of oil coolers.
How
can the leakage of
water into the

13.
oils?
oil
be most easily prevented?
What
are the desirable and permissible working temperatures of turbine-bearing

fully
14. Explain
the
distinctive
features
of
geared-turbine
lubrication.
What
method
of lubrication is best
adapted?
15. Why is the lubrication of a new turbine such an important matter? State what procedure and what precautions should be exercised. 16. What are the three important phases of the care of a steam-turbine lubrication system during operation? 17. What physical signs indicate that an oil is losing its lubricating value? 18. State a number of lubrication "pointers" which should be observed in operating
a steam turbine.
DIVISION
11
STEAM-TURBINE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

207.
The Three Fundamentals Of Steam-turbine Operation

importance:
(1) Safetij.
are, in the order of their

(3)
(2) Service.
Economy. In other words, the operator should, above all, endeavor to make the operation of a turbine as nearly free from the possibility of accident as he reasonably can; his next consideration should be toward eliminating the likelihood of a necessary shut-down; then, after these first two elements have been attended to, he should aim to so operate the machine that the economy of the plant in its use of steam is the best that can be attained. Safety should never be sacrificed for Operating methods which the sake of service or economy. will tend to comply with the above fundamentals are given in
following sections.
Note. Some General Precautions Should Be Observed In Operating Steam Turbines. The most important ones are given below. These precautions must be taken seriously to heart if one desires
to obtain satisfactory operation of the turbines under his care.
The preceding divisions 1, Understand Your Turbine Perfectly. were intended to familiarize the reader with the principles and usual
Make sure construction of turbines of various types and their parts. that you also have the manufacturers' instructions for the turbine which you are to operate. Read them carefully and be sure that you
understand them. Watch or supervise the installation of the turbine and be certain that you know the purpose of every piece, bolt, or nut. Know what is inside and out. The reasons that manufacturers have for doing certain things in certain ways may not always be apparent, but it is safe to assume that each piece has a purpose, and that the directions which they give have a sound basis. If a man is sent from the factory to acquaint you with the turbine (as is usually done with large turbines) ask lots of questions he will be glad to answer them. If no man is sent, or if he is already gone when a question arises, write to the factory it may save your life. It should always be remembered that the builders of the turbine know more than anyone else about the way in which that particular turbine should be operated. 235
236
[Div. 11
Concerned With The Care And 2. Be Sure That Everyone Operation Of The Turbine Understands It Perfectly. If the turbine room must be left to someone else, be sure that he is competent.
you
"get onto " your business. Remember that anything goes wrong. The fact that you 3. Don't Think That All Turbines Are Alike. understand one turbine does not signify that you are competent to go into another plant and immediately take charge of different turbines even Every turbine has its own pecuif they are made by the same builder.
Don't be afraid that he

will get the
will
blame
if
liarities
4.
Do Not Change The Operating Conditions steam
which must be determined by careful study.
pressure,
superheat and vacuum without first consulting your instruction book If it and, if the point is not covered there, writing to the manufacturer. is necessary or if you deem it advisable to change the steam pressure, back pressure or vacuum, extract steam, or admit steam at mixed pressures, be sure that you know what the manufacturer has to say about such a change. There may be small but vital details of such operation which you would not think of, or it may not be advisable to make such a change but the manufacturer will know and will be glad to advise you.
208. To Insure Safety In Steam-turbine Operation it is necessary always to observe the following points: (1) Be
sure that the
possible
main governor
its
is
operates satisfactorily.
Whenever
examine
parts for wear, lost motion, and sticking.
When
the unit
shut
down
it
see that the governor valve or its

off
seat are not
worn
so that
cannot shut
the steam.
(2)
Be
sure that the emergency governor operates satisfactorily.
At
least
once every week or two the turbine should be speeded up to 10 or 15 per cent, over its rated speed (according to the manufacturers instructions) to insure that the emergency governor is Also, the turbine should always be shut down in good order.
by tripping the emergency.

turbine,
(3)
Keep a
oil
careful watch of the
examining
it
every hour for

(4)
temperatures, hot
sure that the autois
bearings and vibration (Sec. 212).
Be
matic vacuum breaker operates satisfactorily, if one equipment. It is well to have a hand-operated
in the
vacuum
breaker located near the throttle valve so that, if the automatic valve fails, the vacuum can be quickly broken by hand. (5) Be sure that the atmospheric-exhaust valve works properly
and does not

209.
stick.
To Insure Uninterrupted
Service In Steam-turbine
is
Operation the following attention
quite essential: (1) Provide
Sec. 210]
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
237
adequate and proper lubrication, see Div. 10.
a spare unit ready,
if
possible, to start
is
(2) Always have on a moment's notice.
When
a main or spare unit
shut
down
for inspection or
done as quicklj^ as possible so that The repairs it will be available in case something goes wrong. should be so planned that any interruption of service due to forced shut-downs will be a minimum. (3) Make an inspection the complete unit and auxiliaries at least once a year. The of unit should be completely dismantled and every part inspected In reassembling, the worn parts for wear and cleaned. should be carefully adjusted or even replaced where necessary 210. To Insure Maximum Economy In Steam-turbine Operation, try to: (1) Maintain the nameplate steam pressure and superheat, see Div. 13; this can be done by cooperating with the boiler-room force. (2) Maintain the nameplate vacuum, see Div. 13; the condenser may need frequent attention to see that the tubes or jet nozzles are not fouled and that air is not leaking in. (3) Maintain the nameplate speed; remember that turbines are designed to operate with the best
repairs, see that the
is
work
economy
at their rated speed.

if
(4)
Operate the turbine at
its
most economical load,

to have
possible.
If
more than one turbine
must be operated to carry the total load it is sometimes best some machines run at their most economical loads and one to take the fluctuations whereas sometimes it is best to run all the machines somewhat below their most economical The most economical arrangement should be deterload. mined by test or by reference to the individual performances of the several turbines and this arrangement should then be
followed.
211. The Principal Troubles Which Arise In Steam-turbine Operation and which must be guarded against are: (1) Unequal expansion of different parts during starting; see method of starting in Sees. 213 to 215. (2) Water in the casing; slugs of water may be prevented from entering the casing by making the piping free of pockets and employing a separator ahead of
the throttle valve.
(3)
Overspeeding ; this
tests of the
by
periodic inspection
(4)
and
is guarded against governor and overspeed

is
tripping device.
Excessive pressure in the casing; this
prevented by the atmospheric-relief valve, which should there-
238
fore
[Div. 11
be kept in satisfactory condition. (5) Vibration; see Table 212. It is a peculiar fact that nearly all troubles which are experienced with steam-turbines excepting (3) will manifest themselves sooner or later as and (4) above Hence, the chief duties of a turbine operator, vibrations.
while a turbine
is
in operation, are to carefully
guard against
overspeeding, excessive pressure, and vibrations.
212. Table
Of Vibration Causes, Remedies, and Identifying

in Electric World, vol. 74, p. 1004)
Symptoms.
(Adapted from E. V. Amy,
Cause
How
identified
Probable reason
What
to do
Unbalance
Sec. 213]
239
Cause
240
[Div. 11
engineer from the turbine manufacturer to erect and start

all
moderate- and large-capacity turbines.
214.
To
Start
A Non-condensing
any
set of directions
Turbine
which
will
(Fig.
It is
233),
follow the manufacturer's operating instructions.

sible to here give
imposapply to all
turbines.
-From Boilers
^'-Separator
The
following pro-
cedure, will, however, apply

in nearly all cases.
Start the auxthe turbine has one. If the auxihary oil pump is turbine driven, first start the pump turbine by following instructions 2 When the oil pump to 10 below. is delivering the required pressure, proceed with the starting of the main turbines as directed below. 2. Open all valves in the drain pipes from the steam piping and turbine casing; for example, valves S, A, B, and C, Fig. 233. 3. Inspect piping to see that the exhaust is clear and see that
(1)
^-Separator Drain
To
Atmosphere Or LowPressure System-^
iliary oil
Procedure. pump,
if
-Throttle Valve
^Gland Drain
V\o\z'.
Pipe Drains A,&,C, An Open 5eiver
And D
To
there
4.
is
ample
oil
flowing to all
7",
non-condensing steam turbine. All drain pipes should lead from the lowest point of the chambers which they are to drain.
a
Fig. 233. The principal drain piping and valves of
bearings.
steam and
Open the
throttle valve,
Fig. 233, quickly
but just enough
to start the rotor spinning.

5.
Immediately, as soon as the
rotor starts turning, trip the auto-
matic overspeed valve by operating the hand trip lever (not shown in This is to insure that the overspeed valve is not sticking and Fig. 233). that it shuts off the steam. See that the rotor comes to rest. 6. Reset the emergency overspeed valve. 7. Again open the throttle valve, T, Fig. 233, to start the rotor and adjust the valve to give a turbine speed of about 200 r.p.m. Let the rotor turn at this speed long enough to insure that the turbine is thoroughly warmed (3 or 4 min. on small turbines to 10 or 15 min. on large
ones).
8.
See that
all
bearings are receiving the proper
amount
of oil or that
the
oil
9.
rings are turning
on the
shaft.
Start water flow through the cooler and bearings (if water-cooled). open the throttle valve, T, Fig. 233, to increase the speed of the turbine. See that, at the proper speed, the governor takes con10. Gradvxilly
Sec. 215]
trol.
241
Then open T to its limit and close it one-half turn to prevent it from locking open. 11. Shut down the auxiliary oil pump and see that the main pump
keeps up the pressure. If wet 12. Close the valves in the drain pipes (A, B, and C, Fig. 233). steam is used by the turbine, the drains should be left "cracked." 13. Apply the load to the turbine gradually; see Sec. 219.
Spinning When It Is Being steam is admitted to the casing than is sufficient to turn the rotor, the steam will flow through the casing at the top, heat the upper part of the rotor and casing, and thus cause unequal expansion of the rotor and casing. Later, then, when
Note.
Warmed.
The Rotor Should Be This very important.

is
If less
the rotor is permitted to turn, the distorted rotor is very likely to cause rubbing of the blades or a sprung spindle. But, by allowing the rotor to turn slowly while starting, it is warmed evenly on all sides and the cold air is quickly drawn from the casing. Thus unequal expansion is prevented.
215.
To
any
start
Condensing Turbine
which
will
(Fig. 234), follow the
manufacturer's operating instructions.

to give
set of rules
It
is
impossible here
turbines.
Some recommend starting their turbines under full vacuum, some under a partial vacuum (24 to 26 in.) and some recommend starting under non-condensing conditions. Whichever method is recommended by the manufacturer should be followed. The following procedure will be satisapply to
all
manufacturers
factory in most cases.
cooling-coils
Procedure. 1. Start water flow through the oil cooler and bearing and be sure that there is sufficient oil in the system. 2. Open all drains valves S, A,G, and D, Fig. 234 and the turbine stop valve X. 3. Start the condenser pumps; W, C, and V, Fig. 234. The dry
pump may be run slowly so as to produce no vacuum in the Turbines with steam sealed glands may be started condensing by opening the sealing valves, K, E, and F, Fig. 234, but the vacuum during starting should not exceed about 25 in. 4. Start the auxiliary oil pumps and adjust oil flow to all bearings. 5. Open the throttle valve, T, Fig. 234, quickly to start the rotor into motion. 6. Immediately, as soon as the rotor starts turning, trip the automatic overspeed valve by operating the hand trip lever (not shown in Fig. This is to insure that the overspeed valve is not sticking and that 234). it shuts off the steam. See that the rotor comes to rest. 7. Reset the emergency overspeed valve.
vacuum
or air
condenser.
16
242

,
[Div. 11
8. Again open the throttle valve, T (Fig. 234) to start the rotor and so adjust the valve that the rotor turns at about 200 r.p.m. Let the rotor turn at this speed long enough to insure that the turbine is thoroughly-
warmed
9.
(about
minute per 1,000 kw.
of turbine capacity
but
in
no
case less than 10 minutes).
See that
all
bearings are receiving the proper

Stop Valye,''Pop Valve
amount
of oil or that
Low-Pressure
.'
6/ancf
'//////////////////////////////////A
To Hotrêll-
^^Concfensafe
Pump
condensing
Fig. 234.
-Typical arrangement of piping, valves and auxiliaries for a turbine.
the
rings are turning on the shaft. Gradually open the throttle valve, T (Fig. 234), to increase the speed See that the governor takes control at the proper speed. of the turbine. Then open T to its limit and close it one-half turn to prevent it from
oil
10.
locking open.
11. Water sealing glands may now be put into effect by turning on the water gradually. Then the vacuum may be raised to about 25 in. of mercury. 12. Shut down the auxiliary oil pump and see that the main pump keeps up the pressure.
Sec. 216]
13.
243
steam
14. 15. 16.
Close the valves in the drain pipes {A, G, and D, Fig. 234). If wet is used by the turbine, the drains should be left "cracked."
Apply the load to the turbine gradually; see Sec. 219. Build up the proper vacuum by regulating the condenser pumps. F, Fig. 234 If a steam seal is used on the glands, close the valve
in the pipe leading to the high-pressure gland.
Note.
To Start A Bleeder Or A Mixed-pressure Turbine, close
the low-pressure steam valve and start as directed above for a condensing turbine. After the turbine is running under full load, gradually open the low-pressure valve.
216.
The Care Of A Turbine While

is
It Is
Running involves
only a periodic (about hourly
generally sufficient) inspection
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 11
As a
rule, it will
be found that the condenser and
its auxiliaries
itself.
will require
much more
attention than will the turbine
Note. Keeping Up The Vacuum On A Condensing Turbine is one of the most difficult tasks in connection with the operation of the turbine. A decreased vacuum is generally due to one of two causes: To determine which of these (2) Fouled tubes or nozzles. (1) Air leaks. factors has been the cause in any particular case is usually quite difficult. A scheme which is sometimes employed for finding the cause is to arrange some simple means for measuring the quantity of air discharged by the For this purpose either a gas meter may be used or a -pilot air pump.
Pump
Air
Sharp-Edged Opening
Discharge.,
_^
Rece!.k?"^l^^^^^%
-Draff
Gage-.
âge
t
;,..
Board uuuru
f/
i^///////////////////////^
Dry Vacuum Pump-'
from Condenser
E-Detail
1-Gencral
Fig. 236.
Arrangement
Of
Pi+o+
Tube
measuring the quantity The difference between the pressures in of air discharged by a dry-vacuum pump. pipes A and 5 is a measure of the velocity of flow through the pipe C and hence indicates
detail of pitot tube for
General arrangement and

An
the volume of air discharged.

draft gage, indicates air leaks.
increase in the pressure difference, as read
by the
tuhe (Fig. 236)
draft gage.
may be inserted into the discharge pipe and connected to a An increase in the quantity of air discharged will indicate
new
air leaks.
217. Shifting
they are operating in
Loads From One Turbine To Another, when parallel, is generally effected by varying
If it is desired to
the governor-spring tension.
cause a certain
is it
turbine to take more load, the governor spring

as for greater speed; (see Div. 6).
adjusted
to take a
This
will
cause
greater fraction of the total load.
Likewise, to cause a certain

is
turbine to take less loads,
its
governor
adjusted just as
it
would be
for lesser speed.

is
sion of the load
In electric-power plants, the divigenerally effected by the switchboard
operator by his operation, from the switchboard, of the motor-
operated governor-spring adjusting device (Sec. 151).

Note. Working Its Field Rheostat Does Not Change The Power Load On An Alternator Which Is Operating In Parallel
Sec. 218]
245
with another alternator; it merely changes the valve of the cross-current between the two machines. To adjust for minimum cross-current,
adjust the
field
rheostats so that the
readings for the two machines will be a
sum of the line-current-ammeter minimum.
218. To Stop A Turbine which is operating under load, it is customary to gradually decrease the load on the turbine, before shutting off the steam supply. This procedure is not essential, however, as no harm will result to the turbine if the steam supply is shut off while the machine is under load harm may, however, result under some conditions to the machine which the turbine drives. The following procedure in stopping a turbine will apply in nearly all cases.
Procedure.
2.
1.
Start the auxiliary
oil
pump.
Gradually decrease the load on the turbine by varying the governorspring tension; (Sec. 151). When the load is reduced to about one-tenth of full load, reduce the vacuum to 24-26 in. by opening the vacuum breaker valve. Remove the entire load if possible. 3. Pull the trip lever to close the emergency-governor valve and allow
the turbine rotor to
while the rotor
4. 5.
is
come
to rest.
See that the bearings are receiving
oil
stopping.
Stop the auxiliary oil pump. After about 15 minutes stop the condenser pumps. insure that all water vapor is drawn from the turbine casing.
6.
This will
is
Open
all
drains and leave
them open
until the turbine
started
again.
7. Close the turbine stop valve, X(Fig. 234), and open a drain between and the throttle valve, T. This will prevent steam from blowing past the throttle valve and tending to cause leakage.
it
219.
To Apply The
Electrical
Or Mechanical Load When
will be found assumed that the turbine which drives the load has been started as outlined in Sees. 214 and 215.
Starting
Turbine, the following instructions

is
of value.
It
1.
for
To Start A Single Alternator. (a) Start the exciter and adjust normal voltage. (6) Turn the generator field rheostat so that all of
Close the field switch, its resistance is in the field circuit. (c) Adjust the rheostat of the exciter for normal voltage. Slowly increase the voltage to normal by cutting out the resistance of the field rheostat.
{d)
Close the
2.
To Start An Alternator To Run In Parallel With Others.

field switch,
main
switch.
(a)
Adjust the exciter voltage and close the
the resistance
246
being

all in,
[Div. 11
Adjust the generator field resistance (c) the same as the bus-bar voltage, Synchronize the generator with the bus-bars see the author's American Electrician's Handbook. Close the main switch, {d) Adjust the field rheostat until cross currents are a minimum and adjust the governor of the turbine so that the load will be distributed, as desired, among the
as described above,
(6)
so that the generator voltage
is
operating generators.
(a) Before starting 3. To Start A Direct-current Generator. the turbine close the field switch and see that the entire rheostat resistance Then bring the machine up to speed. (6) Cut out is in the field circuit. field resistance to raise the voltage to the rated value or, if parallel (c) Close the main operation is desired, to the voltage of the bus-bars, {d) Adjust the load on the generator by varying its field line switch,
resistance.
(a) Before starting the turbine 4. To Start A Centrifugal Pump. prime the pump and close its discharge valve. This will permit starting under fractional load. Then bring the machine up to speed. (6) Open the discharge valve gradually to put load on the pump. See also the author's Steam Power Plant Auxiliaries And Accessories.
220.
To Take The Load

is
Off Of
A Turbine
in stopping
is
it,
the
procedure
generally the reverse of that which
in starting
up and applying the load. To standing the following instructions are given
1.
performed avoid misunder-
To Stop A Single Alternator.

(c)
(a)
by turning
(Sec. 218).
2.
in all of the field-rheostat resistance.
Decrease the field current (6) Stop the turbine,
Open
all
switches and stop the exciter.
To Cut Out An Alternator Which Is Running In Parallel With Others. (a) Partly close the turbine throttle valve so that the Do not (6) Open the main switch. load on the generator is reduced.
open the
turbine,
field
{d)
Open
switch before opening the main switch, the field switch and stop the exciter.
(c)
Stop the
(a) See that all 3. To Stop A Single Direct-current Generator. motors are disconnected from the fines. (6) Stop the turbine, (Sec. 218).
(c)
Turn
all
rheostat resistance into the field circuit,
{d)
Open
the main
switch.
4. To Stop A Direct-current Generator Operating In Parallel With Others. (a) Reduce the load as much as possible by throwing all
(6) Throw off the resistance into the field circuit with the field rheostat. load by opening the circuit-breaker, if one is used; otherwise open the
main switch, 5. To Stop

parallel
(Sec. 218).
(c)
Stop the turbine, (Sec. 218).
A Centrifugal
Pump.
(a) If
the
pump
(6)
with others, close the discharge valve.
is operating in Stop the turbine,
Sec. 221]
247
221. Regular Inspections
Made.
some
Since
The object
Of Steam Turbines Should Be

is
of
such inspections
to find the source of
possible trouble before the trouble actually

all
shows
itself.
turbines operate at high speeds and with only rotating
motions, slight amounts of wear will not give warning as
by
knocks or the like, but will increase until some serious damage occurs such as the rubbing of blades or the burning out of a bearing. To forestall such damage, the following inspections
are
recommended.
Hourly readings should be taken of the 1. Hourly Inspections. temperatures and pressures of the oil at various points in the system, the temperatures of the circulating water and condensate, the vacuum in the condenser, the pressure and superheat of the supply steam, steam pressures in various stages of the turbine, load on the turbine, and other These readings, together with any unusual noise or cirlike quantities. cumstances, should be recorded on a log sheet (Fig. 235) which is kept for Irregularities in any of these readings will immediately disthe purpose. close some approaching trouble. At least as often as once a month, a test 2. Monthly Inspections. should be made on the emergency governor by gradually increasing the speed of the turbine above normal rated speed to that at which the governor should shut off the steam supply. If the governor operates, the speed should be recorded. If the governor does not operate it should be adjusted or repaired. The steam strainer should be inspected, cleaned if necessary, or if in poor condition it should be replaced. The alignment In some installations, of the unit should be checked very carefully. measurements are made each month for possible settling of the foundation. The adjustment of the thrust bearing should also be checked,
(Div. 5).
Once each year the entire unit should 3. Yearly Inspections. be dismantled, cleaned, and all parts inspected for wear. The steam passages should be carefully examined for erosion. Badly worn valves, It is to be expected that, nozzles, or blades should be replaced if possible. after a number of years of service, the parts which are subjected to the In such cases, new parts action of steam flow will be worn quite badly. should be obtained from the manufacturer. When the parts are again assembled, all bearings should be adjusted (see Div. 5) so as to obtain the proper clearances and ahgnment.
222.
The Maintenance Of Steam Turbines,

and quality of
aside
periodic inspections. Sec. 221, involves only: (1) Keeping

the purity
from the up
Div. 10.
the oil; this is treated fully in
(2j
Making adjustments and
replacements; the bearings should
248
[Div. 11
always be so adjusted that the ahgnment and clearances are correct; worn bearings, which will scarcely ever be found if the lubrication and alignment are carefully attended to, may be rebabbitted (Sec. 97) or replaced; badly worn nozzles, blades, or valves should be replaced.
Note. The Repair Of Broken Blading should not be atten pted by the turbine operator. Such repairs should be made by the manufacturer of the turbine, because it is essential that the repaired blading bg tested Sometimes, if a for strength and balanced before being put to service. unit on which some blades have broken cannot be spared from service for some time, a temporary repair can be effected by cutting out all of the blades which remain in the rows from which some have been los.*:. This will restore the balance of the rotor and will permit running the turbine at
Later,
a slightly reduced capacity and with but a slight loss of efficiency. when the unit can be spared and the manufacturer is ready to make the repairs, the rotor may be shipped to his factory.
Should, the cause
Turbine Will Not Carry The Load Which It is most probable one of the following {Terry Instruction Book)
223. If
:
More (a) Overloaded driven machine. (6) 1. Excessive Load. power required than the turbine was built to develop, (c) Wear of driven machine has lowered efficiency, requiring more power. (a) Steam pressure at the throttle less than 2. Plant Conditions. that stamped on the nameplate. (6) Turbine designed for superheat but run on saturated steam, (c) Turbine designed for dry steam, but very wet steam used, {d) Back pressure in casing greater than specified,
(e)
On
condensing turbine,
(6)
vacuum
valves closed that should be normal speed is reached, (c) Valve improperly set, (see Div. 6). (rf) One or more jets plugged, (e) Clogged strainer in steam line. (/) "Lap" or "Clearance" wrong, (see If so, describe Div. 5). ig) Buckets worn by wet steam or otherwise. ih) Parts binding or conditions to manufacturers and they will advise, rubbing. {%) If turbine has been taken apart the wheel may be on backwards or, in a multi-stage turbine diaphragms or wheels interchanged.
3.
Turbine Adjustments.
Governor
is
low.
(a)
Hand
open.
closes valve before
224. If The Steam Consumption Of A Turbine Becomes High, the probable causes {Terry Instruction Book) are:
1.
2.
The Same Causes As For Insufficient Power, (Sec. 223). Hand Valve Control. (a) Keep as many hand valves closed
as
load conditions will allow, and thus keep the pressure in the steam ring as high as possible, to get the best use of the steam pressure available.
Sec. 225]
(6)
249
Do
shut,
(c)
not run with hand valves "cracked." Keep them either open or Inspect hand valve seats. Leakage here will cause loss when
the water rate will be In the case of pumps running from a pressure governor, however, the overall efficiency of the unit is benefited by running at reduced speed when lightly loaded, on account of reduced pump losses.
valves are closed. 3. If The Turbine
Runs Below Speed,
increased and the capacity decreased.
225.
When
Writing To The Factory For Advice, the follow-
ing information should be given {Terry Instruction Book):

1.
When
to the
(Sees.
writing to the Terry Steam Turbine Company, in regard power or economy of a turbine, please read the above tabulation 223 and 224) and so far as possible advise us on the various points
as follows with the turbine running under load,
covered.
2.
Take readings
line
if possible: (a) Steam pressure in the steam between the throttle valve and the turbine. (6) Superheat or moisture in the steam, (c) Steam pressure in the steam ring, (d) Num(e) R.p.m. of turbine. ber and position of hand valves open and closed, Back pressure at the turbine exhaust, {g) Load on driven (/)
repeating for several loads
machine,
3.
if
measurable.
of the
Give all information on the name plate serial number.
machine especially the
1.
11
State the three fundamentals of steam-turbine operation in the order of their
importance.
2.
What
precautions should be observed
if
successful operation of a turbine
is
to be
attained?
about 5 points which affect the safety of a turbine's operation. factors tend for uninterrupted service in turbine operation? 6. How should a turbine be operated to insure maximum economy? 6. State the five principal troubles which are likely to arise in the operation of a turbine. How are they guarded against? How would you dis7. What are the eight principal causes of turbine vibrations? tinguish which is the cause in any particular case? 8. What special precautions should be exercised in starting a newly installed turbine
3. List
4.
What
for the first time.

9.
Give the steps required in starting a non-condensing turbine.

Should the turbine rotor be turning when the steam
is
Illustrate with a
sketch.
10.
turned on to
warm
it?
Why?
11. State the procedure of starting a condensing turbine.
Is the turbine started
12.
What What What
Illustrate with a sketch. under a vacuum or non-condensing? special procedure should be followed in starting a bleeder or a mixed-
pressure turbine?
13. 14.
care does a turbine require while
it is
running?
are the
two principal causes
of a gradual decrease in the
vacuum on a
turbinfi?
How may
an operator distinguish the actual cause
in a given case?

15. 16.
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 11
Make a sketch of and describe the pitot-tube method of measuring air discharge. Should a turbine be stopped with the load on or after removing the load? Why? 17. State the usual procedure of stopping a turbine. 18. Describe the methods of applying the load to a turbine with (o) a single alternator, (6) an alternator which is to run in parallel with others, (c) a direct-current
generator, {d) a centrifugal
19.
pump.
is
Explain
(fe)
how
to take off the load from a turbine which

is
driving (a)
a single
alternator,
an alternator which
current generator, (d)

centrifugal
20.
22.
running in parallel with others, (c) a single directa direct-current generator in parallel operation with others, (e) a
pump.
are the purposes of
21. Explain 23. 24.
making regular inspections of a turbine? what should be done at each hourly inspection. Explain what should be done at each monthly inspection. Explain what should be done at each yearly inspection.
What
What
are the essential points in the maintenance of a steam turbine?
DIVISION
12
STEAM-TURBINE TESTING
226. The Purpose Of Testing A Steam Turbine For Performance is to obtain data whereby the performance values, The performor heat economy, may be computed (Sec. 240). ance values which are computed from the results of the test
be used in determining: (1) How nearly the 'performance approaches or exceed0hat which was guaranteed hy the manufacturer. A test for this purpose is called an acceptance test. (2) Whether or not an old turbine is operating at
may
of the turbine
its
maximum
two or more prime movers.

plant.
The comparative performance of The overall economy of the power Various methods of testing steam turbines are described
efficiencii.^
(3)
(4)
hereinafter in this division.
Note. The Conditions Under Which A Test Is Made Should Be Governed By The Object Of The Test. Turbines are usually sold
under a guarantee (Sec. 285) which is based upon certain operating conditions, such as the initial and final conditions of the steam, speed of rotation, and load. Consequently, if the results of a test are to be used in comparing the actual operating performance with the guaranteed performance, the conditions under which the test is made should conform as nearly as possible to those specified in the guarantee. However, if the object of the test is to compare the performances of two prime movers on an economic basis, the test of each should be made under the conditions for which it was designed. Then, a correction (Sec. 268) should be made to reduce both performances to the same, comparable, basis. In testing a turbine to determine the overall economy of a power plant, the conditions under which the test is made should, as nearly as is possible, conform to the conditions under which the plant normally
operates.
227. The More Important Data Obtained In Testing A Steam Turbine are: (1) Condition of the steam entering the
turbine.
(3) (2)
Power output
Condition of the steam at the turbine exhaust. of the turbine. (4) The quantity of steam
251
252

(5)
[Div. 12
shaft.
consumed hy the turbine. Various methods

228.
of obtaining these
The speed of rotation of the turbine data are described

ordi-
in following sections of this division.
The Duration Of A Steam-turbine Test should

However, the object
narily be from 3 to 5 hr.

(Sec. 226)
of the test
may
render
it
desirable to extend the test period
over a longer time.

3 hr. cannot be relied
of
test over a period of less
than about
upon
for accurate results.
The readings
the various instruments should be

245) at intervals of not
made and recorded
''Fig.
more than 30 min.
Note. The Duration Of A Steam-turbine Test As Specified By The A.S.M.E. Code is quoted below. Where practicable, this speciconsumption, with may be necessary to obtain a number of successive hourly records, during which For a test involving the measurethe results are reasonably uniform. ment of feed water for this purpose, 5-hr. duration is sufficient. Where a surf ace_condenser Js used, and the measurement is that of the water discharged by the condensate pump, the duration may be somewhat In this case, successive half-hourly records may be compared shorter. and the time correspondingly reduced. | When the load varies widely at different times of the day, the duration should be such as to cover
fication should
be followed:
"A test for steam or heat
substantially constant load, should be continued for such time as
the entire period of variation."
229.
For Testing
The Apparatus And Instruments Which Are Required A Steam Turbine depend upon the object of the
and upon the local conditions and arrangement In general, however, those instruments which are Hsted in the A.S.M.E. Code (Sec. 248) should be available. All instruments which are used should be accurately calibrated
test (Sec. 226),
of the plant.
according to the rules of the A.S.M.E. Code before and after each test. Then, the observations should be corrected for any errors which may be noted in the instrument readings. 230. The Condition Of The Steam Entering The Turbine
Is
inch,
Determined by: (1) The pressure, in pounds per square which is read from a pressure gage, P, Fig. 237. (2) The temperature of superheat or the quality. The temperature of the gteam is determined by a thermometer (Fig. 238 and Then, from a steam table, determine the T, Fig. 237). temperature of saturated steam at the pressure indicated by
Sec. 230]
,;W
In
Two Waffmefers For Measuring PoYV&r A yPhase System
253
.Live Steam From Boiler
Fig. 237.
Illustrating arrangement of apparatus for testing a small-capacity steam turbine driving a three-phase generator and exhausting into a surface condenser.
-Thermomefer
in a pipe.
of obtaining the temperature of steam which is flowing (The length of the well should be such that the bulb of the thermometer will be at about the center of the pipe.) Unless the thermometer which is used is one that is graduated for the specific "immersion," its readings should be corrected for "stem exposure; ' see ine author s I'ractical Heat.
Fig. 238.
Showing method
254

Sfeam Fbw
Mefer-
[Div. 12
->
Thermomefer.
Calonmefen
^w^^^^^^?^^^^^^^^^^^!^m^^^^?5^^^^^^^^^:^^^
Fig. 239.
Illustrating location of apparatus for testing a

jet
back-pressure-turbine-driven
condenser,
by a steam
flow meter, 5, or
by water meters,
The steam consumption M.
steam turbine which has a is determined
Sec. 231]
255
If the temperature as read from the thermometer {T, Fig. 237) Js^noreJ^han^^bout^lO^R^^^^ that found in the steam table corresponding to the reading of J^jt is reasonably certain that the steam is superheated.l The temperature of the superheat will then be the difference between the temperature as read on the thermomet er and^tbgi temperature of the steam as obtained from tjie stea m table. If_the^ difference between the thermometer reading and the temperature of saturated steam as obtained from the steam table is less than 10 F., the steam may be wet, and its quality sEould be determined jDy a calorimeter, C, Fig^_237.
the pressure gage, P.
Note. The Location Of The Instruments For Determining The Condition Of The Steam Entering The Turbine should be as near to The the steam-inlet flange as is practicable (see Figs. 237 and 239). throttle, V, Fig. 237, should be wide open during the test.
231. The Property Of The Steam At The Turbine Exhaust Which Must Be Determined Is The Temperature. However,
as stated below, both the temperature and the pressure of the exhaust steam are usually noted. The temperature of the steam is determined by inserting a thermometer (Fig. 238) in the exhaust pipe of the turbine. This thermometer (E, Figs.
237 and 239) should be located as near as the turbine exhaust flange.
Note.
Is
is
practicable to
If The Exhaust Pressure Or The Condenser Pressure Determined By A Pressure Gage of either the Boudon-tube or
reading of this gage should be recorded That is, as referred to a barometric pressure of 30 in. of mercury. if during the test the barometric pressure is 29.5 in. of mercury, and the
mercury-column type
the
pressure gage indicates a condenser pressure of 27.5 in. of mercury, the condenser pressure referred to a SO-in. barometer = 30 (29.5 27.5) = 30 2 = 28 in. of mercury. Thus, the condenser pressure as referred
to a 30-in. barometer results in the pressure which would be indicated by the vacuum gage if the atmospheric pressure were 30 in. of
mercury-column pressure gage should and condenser pressures. The barometric pressure should be determined by a barometer which is located near the pressure gage. If no barometer is available for reference, the barometric reading may be obtained from the local Weather Bureau.
mercury.
For accurate
results, a
be used
for determining the exhaust
232.
mined
The Power Output Of The Turbine May Be Deter(1) Mechanically, by a brake, such as a prony brake, or
256

For methods
[Div. 12
a water brake.
by a brake
see the author's
Electrically, Practice. (2) energy or the power output of the driven generator. This method, which is described in the following sections, is practically always employed in testing turbo-generators.
of obtaining the power output Steam-engine Principles and by measuring the electrical
233.
Determined
The Power Output Of A Turbo -generator May Be Electrically At The Generator Terminals by
wattmeters, ammeters and voltmeters, or watt-hour meters.
Whichever instruments are used should be of the portable type, and should be so screened that they will not be affected by any
If the load remains practically constant stray magnetic fields. throughout the test, the use of wattmeters (TF, Fig. 237) will generally result in greater accuracy than will the use of a watthour meter. However, if during the test, the load fluctuates materially, a watt-hour meter should be used. Then, the average power output, in kilowatts, may be determined by
dividing the
number of kilowatt-hours, as indicated by the watt-hour meter, by the number of hours duration of the
is:
test.
That
(31)
Av. kw. power output
=
test
., .,
v
Kw.-hr. generated during
Hours duration
Example.
of
test
during a certain test, of 4-hr. duration, 4,876 kw.-hr. of energy are generated, what is the average power developed during the Solution. Substitute in For. (31): Av. kw. power output = test? (Kw.-hr. generated during test) /{Hours duration of test) = 4,876 -^-4 =
If
1,219 kw.
Note. In Measuring The Power Output Of A Turbo-alternator Electrically, it is preferable that the load on the alternator be The reason for this is, that if as near unity power factor as is possible. the power factor of the load is unity, the error which would otherwise be caused by phase displacement in the instrument transformers will be obviated. A load at practically unity power factor may be obtained by connecting the generator to a water rheostat. If a three-phase
operating under an inductive load power factor less than proper balancing of the load on each of the three phases should be checked by the station ammeters and voltmeters. For detailed instructions for measuring the electrical output of generators, see the author's Steam-engine Principles and Practice.
alternator
is
unity
the
Sec. 234]
257
234. The Power Output Of A Generator Should Be Determined As The *'Net Watts" Output. That is, the power
required for excitation should be recognized in determining the power-output value of the generator. Thus, if the generator is self-excited (direct-current generator) or if
the exciter
(as it
is
is
direct-connected to the turbo-generator shaft
on some turbo-alternators) the energy for excitation need not necessarily be considered. However, if the generator is separately excited, the power, in watts, which is supplied to the generator for excitation must be measured. Then, to obtain the net power output of the generator subtract the power input required for excitation from the power output as measured at the generator terminals, see colums 5, 6 and 7
(Fig. 245).
That
is,
for a separately-excited generator:
(32)
Net kw. output
(Kiv.
output at terminals)
excitation)
(kilowatts)
(Kw.
235.
Generally Determined
(1)
The Quantity Of Steam Consumed By The Turbine Is By One Of The Following Methods
(2)
By measuring the condensate. water. (3) By a steam-flow meter.
By measuring
The first method that of weighing the condensate will, generally, result in greater accuracy than will anj^ of the other methods. Consequently,
the feed
where practicable,
236.
it
should
be
used.
Each method
is
described in a following section.
A A
To Determine The Quantity Of Steam Consumed By Turbine By Measuring The Condensate Discharged From Surface Condenser, the water which is discharged by the condensate pump is generally piped (Fig. 237) to tanks, R, which set on weighing scale platforms and is there weighed. Thus, by weighing the condensed steam which is discharged durin^â certain number of hours, and dividing the total weight by the number of hours,Jthe total steam consumption^
in
pounds per hour,

Total
lb.
results.
That
is:
(33)
per hr. steam consumption
=
test
Lh. condensate discharged during
Hours duration
17
(pounds)
is
of
test
This method of determining the steam consumption
only
258

is
[Div. 12
practicable where the turbine
operated (Fig. 237) in con-
junction with a surface condenser.
The arrangement
of tanks,
'Scale Platforms-
--; ^.r^rVerfical
Sump
-A
fmmM/M/MM^Mkm
H
Fig. 240.
E.
e
of
A convenient arrangement
tanks and piping for weighing the condensate
from a surface condenser.
and scales for weighing the water, and corrections which must be made are treated in the notes below.
piping,
Note. A Tank And Piping Layout For Weighing The Condensed Steam Which Is Discharged From The Surface Condenser
Sec. 237]
is
259
shown in Fig. 240. The discharge pipe from the condensate pump is tapped at T (Fig. 240-7) and an arrangement is made as shown for bypassing the water through the tanks A and B. After one tank, A, has filled, the water from the condensate pump may, by means of the quickopening three-way valve, D, be diverted into the other tank, B. Then while B is filling, the water in A may be weighed. After it has been weighed the quick-opening valve in the large outlet pipe, C, is opened, so that by the time B is full, all of the water that was in A has been weighed and discharged into the reservoir tank, E. The water is removed from E by the vertical motor-driven centrifugal pump, P. The dimensions of
the tanks as shown in Fig. 240-7/ should provide sufficient capacity for In the event that scales are not available testing a 5,000-kva. turbine. for weighing the water which is discharged from the condenser, its weight may be computed by the following formula:
(34)
= AhD
(pounds)
the weight, in pounds, of the water in the tank. A = Wherein: the cross-sectional area of the tank, in square feet, h = depth, in feet, D = the density of the water, in pounds per of the water in the tank. To obtain D, cubic foot, at the temperature of the water in the tank.
it is
Then from a
temperature.
necessary to measure the temperature of the water in the tank. table of densities of water (this is given in most steam
tables), find the density in
pounds per cubic foot at the measured
Note. In Measuring The Condensate From A Surface Condenser, The Amount Of Leakage Of Either From The Condensercirculating-water Passages Or From Other Sources (Sec. 248)
Must Be Determined And Proper Corrections Made.

of determining the condenser leakage
is
to raise the
One method vacuum in the
condenser to the operating value and, with the throttle (F, Fig. 237) amount of water which is discharged by the condensate pump. This test of condenser leakage should be continued for a If the leakage test results in an appreciable period of at least 2 hr. amount of water being discharged from the condensate pump, the leaks in the condenser should be located and repaired before proceeding with the turbine test. This is because that, when the turbine is operated at full load, the leakage will be much greater than it was when the leakage
closed, determine the
test
was made with the throttle closed. There are other methods of determining the condenser leakage at full load, such as by chemical titration or by electrical resistance, but they will not be described herein. Any water leakage into or out of the condenser from the turbine or pump glands must be determined and proper correction made therefor.
To Determine The Quantity Of Steam Consumed By A Turbine By Measuring The Boiler Feed Water (F g. 241),
237.
the water
may
be piped from the feed-water heater, H, to
260
[Div. 12
tanks
and B, which are supported on weighing-scale

it is
plat-
forms, where
boiler
boiler,
weighed.
The water
is,
after weighing,
emptied into the reservoir, R.
by the
boiler feed
pump, P.
From R it is pumped The water level
to the
in the
by the water gage thereon, should be the same at the end of the test as it was at the beginning. Then, by deducting the leakage (see note below) from the
as indicated
total weight of the water
test,
pumped
into the boiler during the
the steam consumption for the duration of the test results.
Note. In Determining The Steam Consumption By Measuring The Boiler Feed Water, The Leakages For Which Corrections
From Boiler
,
Turbine-
Generator po
^- -Live
Steam
Thro-tfle
Open Feed' loafer

Heater- ,
,
Back- Pressure TurbineBoiler-Feed
Drlyen
Pump
Plat Form Scales-^ H-->;nng
V^/^j///
^^^^
'''^
V'^^'''
'^'/
^^^^/^/7////
Circulating J
^Condensate
^^^^
v^^^m^^Mm. Fig. 241. Showing arrangement

~
'
:
Pump
--'
Pump
-Reservoir
of
tanks for weighing boiler feed water.
The leakage of water which occurs in the 241) and The amount of this leakage may be determined by closing the boiler. off all the feed valves at the boiler, "running the pump, P, for about 15 min., and noting the quantity of water which has disappeared from the supply tank, R. In making this test, a pressure gage should be placed in the pump discharge to guard against a dangerous water pressure in the During this leakage test, the reading of this pressure gage should pipe. be approximately that of normal operation when the feed valves are open. (2) The leakage of steam from the boiler, and from the connections and valves between the boiler and the turbine. This leakage may be determined by shutting off the feed-water supply, and by breaking and blanking off all branch connections to the steam line which connects the boiler to the turbine. Then, by means of a slow fire, maintain the steam pressure at This pressure the same pressure which is to obtain during the test.
(
Must Usually Be Made Are

pump, and in
boiler feed
the pipes between the reservoir {R, Fig.
Sec. 238]
261
should be maintained for a period of at least 2 hr., and the water level in The amount the gage glass should be noted at about 15-min. intervals. of steam which has leaked out may be computed by the amount of the For more decrease in the water level as shown by the water gage. detailed instructions concerning these leakage tests, see the A. S. M. E.
Test Code
(Sec. 248).
238. A Steam-flow Meter May Be Used To Determine The Steam Consumption Of A Turbine. The meter should be
connected into the high-pressure steam line (S, Fig. 239) near the turbine. It should be calibrated in that place with
approximately the same temperature, pressure and steam flow A steamas will obtain during the subsequent turbine test. flow meter cannot generally be depended upon for an accuracy Where accurate test results of more than about 2 per cent. are desired it should not be used.
Note. Water Meters May Be Used To Measure The Water For Determining Steam Consumption, either in the boiler feed-water The condensate in a jet line or in the condensate-pump discharge. condenser, J, may be determined (Fig. 239) by metering the injection water ^nd the discharge water, and then taking their difference. Water They meters, M, when used, should be frequently calibrated in place.
cannot be depended upon for accurate
results.
The Speed Of Rotation Of A Turbine Rotor Is GenDetermined By A Tachometer (Figs. 242 and 243). If the power output is to be deter'''''^''"' mined electrically (Sec. 233), the
239.
erally
only purpose of the tachometer

is is
to insure that the rated speed
maintained constant through^^^^'' ^.'"'For a turbo-alter- ^ test. ^ ^ ^ i*iG. 242. Vibrating-reed tachomnator which is equipped with a eter. {Jas. g. Biddu Co.) frequency meter, the tachometer may be dispensed with. However, if the power output is to be determined by the brake method (Sec. 232) an accuratelycalibrated tachometer is essential. 240. The Various Terms And Efficiencies Which Are Generally Used To Express Steam-turbine Performance Values (Sec. 226) are discussed and explained in following
out the
262
[Div. 12
Sees. 241 to 245.
expressed as the
The terms are: (1) The water rate, which is number of pounds of steam required to
generate a kilowatt-hour or a horsepower-hour of energy.
water rate graph is shown in Fig. 244. If the turbine is used to drive a generator, the water rate is usually expressed in pounds of steam per kilowatt-hour. If used to drive a pump, compressor, or the like, the water rate is usually expressed in
pounds
of
water rate of a turbine
steam per brake horsepower-hour. Whenever the is given as its performance value, the
Inofi'cafoP
baseplate--''
Pulley-'
chiefly of a direct-current
Fig. 243.
Electric tachometer.
(The tachometer consists
magneto, M, and a voltmeter, V. The pulley, P, is driven by belt from the shaft the is produced by perspeed of which is to be measured. Since the magnetic field of manent magnets, the voltage which it generates will be proportional to its speed. Hence, the scale of F can be calibrated to indicate revolutions per minute directly.)
steam conditions at
inlet
and exhaust should

(2)
also be given;
is
unless the steam conditions, are stated, the water rate
very indefinite performance value.

units required
to
is
The number
of British
of heat
develop one unit of mechanical or electrical
energy,
which
expressed as the
number
thermal
(3)
is
units per kilowatt-hour or per brake horsepower-hour.
The net mechanical work developed by one heat
unit,
which
expressed in foot-pounds of net work per British thermal unit. (5) (4) The thermal efficiency, expressed as a percentage.
The Rankine cycle ratio expressed as a pe rcen tag^,^ The example given below is merely to illustrate the method of computing the above performance values from assumed test data of a turbo-alternator, and is not intended to represent the performance of any particular machine.
Sec. 240]
263
Example. The half-hourly observations of a full-load test on a Compute the 10,000-kva. turbo-alternator are as recorded in Fig. 245. (6) The number of following performance values: (a) The water rate.
British thermal units
18,000
\t^
consumed
-per
kilowatt-hour,
(c)
The number
of foot-
16,000
HfiOO
u
3 o
12,000
10,000
Zl i^
Xfuafferi
8,000
.91
Q. 6,000
o o
E 3 P C
4,000
16a:
E o
Tuirioaol
15^
^diffLohbL
_
o
2,000
ZOO
400
600
600
1,000
Load, In
Kilowatts
Graph showing total steam consumption and the water rate of a 1,000-kw. Fig. 244. steam turbine. (Dotted lines show the guaranteed consumption. Full hues show consumption, as determined by official test. The graphs are for a 1,000-kw., 3,600-r.p.m., steam turbine, for the City of Grand Rapids, Michigan, operating under the following vacuum conditions: Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 140 lb. per sq. in., gage, and a
of
28
in. of
mercury, referred to a 30-in. barometric pressure.
Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co.)
pounds of net work developed per British thermal unit, (d) The thermal (e) The Rankine cycle ratio. efficiency, Solution. The averages of the half -hourly data readings, as recorded,
computed and entered in the last line of Fig. 245. The values of Hi and H2 (at bottom of Fig. 245) are 1,252 and 894 B.t.u. respectively,
are
determined from a steam chart
(Fig. 15)
on the basis of the supply steam
264

lb.
[Div. 12
at a pressure of 150.8
92.8 F.
is
100.4 F. at the throttle,
the
(a)
The value of number of British thermal
sq. in. gage and a superheat (Sec. 230) of and the exhaust steam at a temperature of ha, 61 B.t.u., as determined from a steam table,
per
units in
1 lb.
of water at the temperature
(92.8 F.) of the exhaust.
The Water Rate May Be Determined by the following formula

y^K =
W
t^K
(lb.
(35)
per kw.-hr.)
Wherein:
1
Wk
the total weight of steam, in pounds, consumed by the turbine for the duration of the test, t = the duration of test, in hours. Px = average net power, in kilowatts, developed by the turbine. From
kw.-hr.
= =
the weight of steam, in pounds, required to develop
Column
9,
Fig. 245,
436,800
Ih.
From Column
1,
Fig. 245,
TIME
Sec. 240]
(c)
265
British
(37)
The Number Of Foot-pounds Of Net Work Developed Per Thermal Unit may be computed by the following formula:
?J355,000
^^^ _,^
^^^
^^^^
Wherein:
the work, in foot-pounds, developed
heat, in British thermal units,
by 1 B.t.u. Q = consumed per kilowatt-hour. 2,655,000 =
the mechanical equivalent, in foot-pounds, of 1 kw.-hr. From the solution under For. (36), Q = 17,626 B.t.u. per kw.-hr. Therefore, by For.
(37), the
unit,
number
of foot-pounds of net
work developed per British thermal
= 2,655,000/Q = 2,655,000 17,626 = 150 ft.-lb. per B.t.u. (d) The Thermal Efficiency Based On Net Generator Output (at generator terminals) may be computed by the following formula
-r-
(38)
Er =
^^
1
Q 41
(decimal)
Wherein: Et
the thermal efficiency, exjDressed decimally.
Q =
the
heat, in British thermal units,
consumed per kilowatt-hour.

kw.-hr.
3,413
the heat equivalent, in British thermal units, of
From solution
by
For. (38),
0.193, or 19.3
under For.
per cent.
(e)
(36),
Q =
17,626 B.t.u. per kw.-hr.
Therefore,
the thermal efficiency,
Er = 3,413/Q = 3,413 ^ 17,626 =
The Rankine-cycle Ratio May Be Determined by the following

Er = ^,w"^' ~~J^^^ (Ml 2)
(decimal)
formula
(39)
Wherein: Er = the Rankine-cycle ratio, expressed decimally. Er = thermal efficiency, expressed decimally. Hi, H2, and h2 are as specified in Fig. 245. From solution under For. (38), Er = 0.193. From Fig. 245, Therefore, by Hi, H2, and h2 = 1,252, 894 and 61 B.t.u., respectively. For. (39), the Rankine cycle ratio, E^ = [Er(Hi - h2)]/(Hi - H2) = [0.193(1,252 - 61)] ^ (1,252 - 894) = 0.193 X 1,191 ^ 358 = 0.642, or
64.2 per cent.
Note. The Computation Of The Performance Values Of A Turbine On The Basis Of The Brake Horsepower Output may be made in a manner which is substantially the same as that indicated in the The brake horsepower is found by means solution of the above example. of a brake (see the author's Steam-engine Principles and Practice).
Then, the value of the brake horsepower or
following formulas
(40) (41)
(42)
its
equivalent
is
used in the
and For.
(39).
w
Qh
^ =
=
(lb.
per hp.-hr.)
W^(Hi -
ha)
(B.t.u. per hp.-hr.)
^^M80^0
Er =
(ft..lb.perB.t.u.)
(43)
-^
(decimal)
266
[Div. 12
the weight of steam, in pounds, required to develop the total weight of steam, in pounds, consumed by the turbine during the test, t = the duration of the test, in hours. Vh = average net power, in horsepower, developed by the turbine.
Wherein:
1
W^
hp.-hr.
= =
Qjj
= the heat, = the work,
efficiency,
thermal units, consumed per horsepower-hour. developed by 1 B.t.u. Et = the thermal expressed decimally. Hi and hi are as specified under Fig. 245.
in British in foot-pounds,
The Reason Why The Five Different Methods Of Expressing The Performance Values Of Steam Turbines (Sec. 240) are used in the A.S.M.E. Test Code (Sec. 248) is that each method has a somewhat different significance. Each is discussed below. No one method has been adopted
241.
Furthermore, various engineers prefer differcomparing the performance values of heat ent bases for Also an internal combustion engine does not have a engines. water rate or a Rankine-cycle ratio. Hence, methods (2), (3) and (4) of Sec. 240 provide the only basis for comparing the thermal performance of a steam engine or a steam turbine with that of an internal combustion engine. Consequently,
as a standard.
to provide for every contingency, a complete turbine test
report should
show each
performance values.
Note.
initial
of the above mentioned (Sec. 240) See notes below and Sees. 242 to 245.
is
The Water Rate

final
generally used
by turbine manufacturers
However, unless the steam conditions are known the water rate is meaningless. The reason is that the water rate for a given turbine will vary considerably with the steam conditions. It is used principally because all of the other performance values are determined from it; see Fors. (35) to (39). Furthermore, the average turbine purchaser has, through ''handeddown" practice, learned to think of steam prime mover economies in terms of water rate. Where two turbines operate under the same steam conditions, their water rates form an absolute basis for comparison of their economies. However, it should be remembered that a low water rate does not necessarily indicate a low fuel consumption. Note. The Foot-pounds Per British Thermal Unit And The British Thermal Units Per Kilowatt-hour Or Per Brake Horseas the basis of their performance guarantees.
and
power-hour
which
is
are merely different
ways
of expressing thermal efficiency
discussed in Sec. 245.
242.
The
Definitions Of
And
"Available
The Terms "Total Heat Input" Heat" should be thoroughly understood
Sec. 242]
267
before one attempts to study the significance of the different
methods
of
expressing steam
turbine
performance values.
Consequently, these terms are defined and explained in the

following notes:
Note.
The
Total Heat Input
to the turbine per
pound
of
steam
defined as the difference between the heat content, Hi, in British thermal units, in 1 lb. of steam at conditions existing at the throttle, and
may be
the heat content, h2, in British thermal units in perature of the turbine exhaust. That is,
(44)
1 lb.
of
water at the tem(B.t.u. per lb.)
Total heat in-put
-per lb.
(Hi
h2)
Under the steam conditions tabulated in Fig. 245 (150.8 lb. per sq. in., gage, and 100 F. superheat at the throttle, and 92.8 F. at the exhaust), the total heat input per pound (Fig. 245) = Hi h2 = 1,252 61 = (The values of Hi and h2 are taken from steam 1,191 B.t.u. per lb. That is, in considering the total heat input per lb., the temtables.)
taken as the starting or datum point. of steam may be defined as the difference between the heat content per pound of the steam under the steam conditions existing at the throttle. Hi, and the heat content per pound of the steam. Ha, after adiabatic expansion to the exhaust pressure. The amount of the "available" heat per pound of steam may be most conveniently obtained by using a steam chart as follows: Find, by the chart (Fig. 15) the heat, Hi, in 1 lb. of steam at the initial conditions. Next, find the heat, H2, in 1 lb. of steam after adiabatic expansion
perature of the exhaust
Note.
The Available Heat per pound
is
to the final condition.
The
difference
between these two values
is
the
"available" heat in British thermal units per pound. formula

(45)
Expressed as a
(B.t.u.
The available heat per
lb.
= Hi H2
per
lb.)
steam at the initial steam_ conditions. H2 = the heat, in British thermal units, in 1 lb. ol steam after it has expanded adiabatically down to the final temperature (at the exhaust). Under the steam conditions outlined in Fig. 245, values being obtained from the steam chart, Fig. 15, the available heat per lb. = Hi - H2 = 1,252 - 894 = 358 B.t.u. per lb. The reason this "358 B.t.u. per lb." is called the "available" heat for these conditions is because that, with the stated initial and final conditions, it is all of the heat that is available for conversion into mechanical work. It is absolutely all of the heat that could for these conditions be converted into work, even in a theoretically perfect or ideal engine. Why this is true is explained in the author's Practical Heat. That is, if a steam engine could be constructed which was an ideal or theoretically perfect engine, it could, under the steam conditions outlined in Fig. 245, convert into work only 358 of the 1,252 B.t.u. per lb. which are supplied to it; the other (1,252 - 358) = 894 B.t.u. being exhausted.
Wherein: Hi
the heat, in British thermal units, in
1 lb. of
268
[Div. 12
243. A Rankine -cycle Efficiency value for a certain set of steam conditions indicates the maxiyniun percentage of the total heat input (Sec. 242) which a theoretically-perfect ideal vapor engine steam engine or steam turbine could, when operating between these steam conditions, convert into mechanical work. That is,
(46)
Rankine-cycle efficiency
=
lb.
available heat per

total heat
input per
XT
(decimal)
lb.
or,
using symbols;
Rankine-cycle efficiency
is
(47)
= :^ Ml
~
XT
112
(decimal)
This efficiency
tions.
It constitutes
conditions.
determined solely by the given steam condian index of the excellence of the steam Certain large electric central station companies
keep a record of how this efficiency varies from day to day and from month to month for their steam prime movers. Such a record enables the chief engineers to keep check on and to maintain at maximum effectiveness the steam conAs indicated ditions under which the prime movers operate. by For. (46) it is based on the available heat per pound of steam (Sec. 242). Note particularly the example below and the comments which follow it.
Example.
What
the
-^
is
the Rankine-cycle efficiency for the steam condi-
tions outlined in Fig. 245?
Solution.
input
is
By the notes under preceding

245
is
Sec. 242, the available heat for the steam conditions of Fig.
358
B.t.u.
per
Ih.,
and
the total heat
1,191 B.t.u. per
lb.
Therefore,
heat) /(total
by
heat
(For.
46),
Rankine-cycle
1,191
efficiency
(available
input)
in
cent. Note that the values used any manner dependent upon tho operation of the turbine, but only upon the stated initial and final conditions of the steam. Consequently any old kind of a turbine or engine operating under the steam conditions outHned in Fig. 245 would have this same Rankine-cycle efficiency of 30 per cent.
= 358 computing
0.30, or
30 per
this efficiency are not in
244. A Rankine-cycle Ratio value for a given vapor^ngine steam engine or steam turbine indicates for the given steam
conditions, the percentage of the available heat that the g iven engine converts into mechanical work.\ It can be determined
accurately for a given turbine only
by
testing the
turMoe
for
Sec. 245]
269
work output and observing simultaneously the supply and exhaust steam conditions. Expressed as a formula:
'
(48)
Rankine-cycle ratio Work output in B.t.u. per A T^J-^T / T, Available heat per Uh.
lb.
.,
,.
(decimal)
or,
using symbols;
(49)
Rankine-cycle ratio = Work output in B.t.u. per ^

== Jll
^
2
lb.
of steam
,,
,.
(decimal)
This efficiency is an index of the excellence of design and mechanical condition of the turbine. Consequently, a comparison of the Rankine-cycle ratios of different vapor engines provides a measure of the excellence of design of the engines
for the
its
steam conditions under which each is operating and of mechanical condition. Thus even though a turbine be excellently designed, if its mechanical condition is permitted
to deteriorate
if
Rankine-cycle ratio will be low. Conconstructed mechanically and be in excellent mechanical condition, but if it is poorly designed its Rankine-cycle ratio will be low.
clogged or broken
its
bearings become scored and blading becomes
versely, a turbine
may be well
Explanation. Consider the turbine, the test results of which are tabulated in Fig. 245. Since from the solution under For. (35), 14.8 Ih. of steam produce 1 kw.-hr., or 2,655,000 ft.-lb., 1 lb. of steam produces Since there are 778 ft.-lb. in 1 (2,655,000 4- 14.8) = 179,392 ft.-lb. B.t.u., the nutnber of British thermal units which are, from each pound of
= 179,392 -^ 778 = 230 B.t.u. per lb. of steam. work output is 230 B.t.u. per lb. of steam. This means that in each pound of steam only 230 B.t.u. were actually converted into work; whereas (Sec. 242), there were originally, in each pound, 358 B.t.u. which were available for conversion into work. By For. (48), (the Rankinecycle ratio) = (Work output in B .t.u.) / (Available heat) = 230 -^ 358 = 0.642 or 64.2 per cent. This may be explained as follows: If the turbine had been "perfectly" designed and was in perfect mechanical condition a theoretically-perfect ideal vapor engine all of the available 358 B.t.u. per lb. would have been converted into work. But since the turbine only converts 230 B.t.u. per lb. into work, the design and mechansteam, converted into work
That
is,
the
ical condition is
only 64.2 per cent, "perfect."
245.
The Thermal
Efficiency expresses the percentage of the
total heat
input of the steam consumed
by the turbine which
is
270
[Div.
12
efficiency
converted into work. It is the product of the Rankine-cycle and the Rankine-cycle ratio. Thus, it is a sort of an
overall efficiency
which combines into one value an index of
the excellence of the heat conditions (Sec. 243) and of the

excellence of the design
and mechanical condition
(Sec. 244).
This combining, into one value, of the expressions for the excellence of heat conditions and of design and mechanical condition may be understood from the following:
(50)
or,
Thermal
eff.
{Rankine-cycle eff.) X {Rankine-cycle ratio)
(decimal)
using symbols;
(51)
Thermal
eff.
=
B.t.u. per
lb.
Hi
hT^.x
Ho
Work output in
of steam
hT^^h^
eff.
^^"""^^'^
i\
then, simplifying:
(52)
Thermal
=
of steam ^
,,
.
Work output in B.t.u. per lb. "^ ^ rf 112

Xll
,.
(decimal)
It
is
shown
in Sec. 243
how
the Rankine-cycle efficiency indi-
and in Sec. 244 how the Rankine-cycle ratio indicates the excellence of design and mechanical condition. Therefore, since the ''thermal efficates the excellence of heat conditions,
ciency formula" (For. 51) contains both of these values, it is evident that the thermal efficiency value must provide an index of the excellence of both heat conditions and design and
mechanical condition.
of different designs
Hence the
heat consumptio7i of turbines
be intelligently compared on the basis of their thermal efficiencies even when the turbines are operating under different steam conditions.// pThe onewhich has the highest
may
>
thermal efficiency will require the least heat for its operationbut the one having the highest thermal efficiency may not be^ the cheapest to operate because it may cost much more to produce a pound of steam for the steam conditions of the high-thermal-efficiency turbine than it will for the steam conditions of the low-thermal-efficiency turbine ;/see Div. 14.
Explanation.
Again considering the turbine

= 30
test results of Fig. 245:
From
Sec. 243, the Rankine-cycle efficiency
per cent.
From
Sec. 244,
Sec. 246]
271
the Rankine-cycle ratio
ciency
0.642
= 64.2 per cent. By For. (51), the thermal effi= {Rankine-cycle efficiency) X (Rankine-cycle ratio) = 0.30 X = 0.1926, or 19.3 per cent. That is, of the total heat input per
of steam (1,191 B.t.u., Sec. 242), only 30 per cent. (358 B.t.u.) could have, by a theoretically-perfect engine, been converted into work. Furthermore, this particular turbine (Fig. 245) only converted into work 64.2 per cent, of the 30 per cent, which could, under ideal conditions, possibly have been so converted or, it converted into work only 19.3 per cent., of the total heat input.
pound
246. Graphs Which Show The Total Steam Consumption And The Wate r Rate OjLA Turbin e At Vânous Loads {Fig;. 244)
are very conveniejit^for^comparing (Sec. 249) the operations of two^~orlnore turbines; also for comparing test results with the manufacturer's guarantee. Such graphs are obtained as
follows:
complete test of the turbine
various loads.
ing example.
The
total
is made at each of the steam consumption and the water
rate for each of the several loads are
computed
as in the preced-
Then, the total steam consumption, in pounds, and the water rate, in pounds of steam per kilowatt-hour or per brake horsepower-hour, are plotted (Fig. 244) against the load in kilowatts or in brake horsepower. To obtain the data for plotting these curves, tests are usually made at each
of the following percentages of full rated load: 50, 75, 100,
and sometimes 125 per

247. In
cent.
able
Making A Test On A Steam Turbine It is DesirThat Certain Data Be Taken Whereby Any Operating
May be Located. For example, by observing the steam pressure in the various stages (Item 10c Sec. 248) information may be obtained as to whether or not the blading is fouled or whether the diaphragm glands are leaking. Also, by comparing the pressure in the exhaust pipe near the turbine with that in the condenser, it will be evident whether or not the pressure drop in the exhaust pipe is excessive. Ordinarily, this pressure drop should not exceed 0.25 to 0.5 lb. per s qT in Other observations which"are not directly essential in determining the performance values (Sec. 240) but which may be used in locating operating faults are tabulated under the fqirgwing
Faults
.
section.
248.
A Data Form
in the
embodied
For A Complete Steam Turbine Test is A.S.M.E. Test Code, which is given below:
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 12
OBJECT AND PREPARATIONS

Determine the object of the test (Sec. 226), take the dimensions and note the physical conditions not only of the turbine but of the entire plant concerned, examine for leakages, install the testing appliances, etc., as pointed out in the general instructions given in Pars. 1 to 33 (preceding sections of this division) and prepare for the test accordingly.
APPARATUS AND INSTRUMENTS

The apparatus and instruments required for a performance test of a steam turbine or turbo-generator, are: (a) Tanks and platform scales for weighing water (or water meters
calibrated in place).
(6)
(c)
Graduated
scales attached to the
water glasses of the
boilers.
Pressure gages,
vacuum
gages,
and thermometers.
{d)
(e)
Steam
calorimeter.
Barometer. (J) Tachometer, revolution-counter, or other similar speed-measuring apparatus or equipment. {g) Friction brake or dynamometer. Qi) Voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, and watt-hour meters for the
electrical
measurements in the case of a turbo-generator. Directions regarding the use and calibration of these appliances are
given in Pars. 7 to 9, and in Pars. 24 to 33 (A. S. M. E. Test Code, 1915). The determination of the heat and steam consumption of a turbine or turbo-generator should conform to the same methods as those described in the Steam Engine Code, Part V. {See exam-pie under Sec. 240; If the also the author's Steam-engine Principles and Practice.)
determined from the water discharged by the wet correction should be made for water drawn in through the packing glands of the turbine shaft, for condenser leakage, and for any other foreign supply of water.
steam consump>:ion
is
vacuum
or hot-well
pump,
The
rules pertaining to the subjects Operating Conditions, Duration,
Starting
and Stopping, Records, and Calculation of Results, are identically the same as those given under the respective headings in the {A. S. M. E.) Steam Engine Code, Pars. 71 to 77, with the single exception of the matter relating to indicator diagrams and results computed therefrom;
and reference may be made

these particulars.
to that code for the directions required in
DATA AND RESULTS

The data and results should be reported in accordance with the form (Table 11) given herewith, adding lines for data not provided for, or omitting those not required, as may conform to the object (Sec. 226) in view. If a shorter form of report is desired, the items in fine print designated by letters of the alphabet, may be omitted; or if only the prin-
Sec. 248]
cipal
273
data and results are desired, the subjoined abbreviated table (Table 12) may be used. Unless otherwise indicated, the items should be the averages of the data.
Table
11.
Data And Results Of Steam Turbine Or Turbo -generator Test
Code
1.
of 1915
Test of
turbine located at
2.
To determine Test conducted by Type of turbine (impulse, reaction, or combination)

(a)
(6)
(c)
Number
of stages
{d)
(e) (/)
Condensing or non-condensing Diameter of rotors Number and type of nozzles Area of nozzles Type of governor
3.
4.
Class of service (electric, pumping, compressor, etc.)

Auxiliaries (steam or electric driven) (a) Type and make of condensing equipment (6) Rated capacity of condensing equipment
5.
Type of oil pumps (direct or independently driven) Type of exciter (direct or independently driven) (e) Type of ventilating fan, if separately driven Rated capacity of turbine
(c)
(d)
(a)
Name
of builders
6.
Capacity
of
generator
or other apparatus consuming
power
of
turbine
Date And Duration

7.
8.
Date
Duration
hr.
Average Pressures And Temperatures

9.
Pressure in steam pipe near throttle by gage
lb.
per sq.
in.
10.
Barometric pressure
(o) Pressure at boiler
(6)
(c)
in. of
lb. lb. lb.
mercury
per sq. in. per sq. in. per sq. in.
in.
by gage Pressure in steam chest by gage Pressure in various stages
11.
Pressure in exhaust pipe near turbine,
by gage
lb.
per sq.
per sq. per sq.
12.
Vacuum
in condenser (o) Corresponding absolute pressure (6) Absolute pressure in exhaust chamber
of
in. of
lb.
mercury
in.
in.
of turbine
lb.
13.
Temperature
(a)
(6)
steam near throttle

of saturated
of
deg.
deg. deg.
if
Temperature Temperature
of
steam at throttle pressure

superheated
steam
in various stages,
14.
Temperature
(a)
(6)
(c)
steam in exhaust pipe near turbine

of circulating
deg.
deg,
deg.
Temperature Temperature Temperature
of circulating
water entering condenser water leaving condenser
of air in tuybine
18
-^/^
^'"
room
'"'*
i,--
deg-
'
:STERN UNIVERSITY
\^^/ly
ni\/ic\OH
274

Quality Of Steam
[Div. 12
15.
16.
Percentage of moisture in steam near throttle, or number of degrees per cent, or deg. of superheating Total water fed to boilers lb.
Total condensate from surface condenser (corrected for condenser lb. leakage and leakage of shaft and pump glands) Total dry steam consumed (Item 16 or 17 less moisture in steam)
lb.
17.
18.
Hourly Quantities
Total water fed to boilers or drawn from surface condenser per lb. hour 20. Total dry steam consumed for all purposes per hour (Item 18 -^
19.
21.
22.
lb. Item 8) Steam consumed per hour for all purposes foreign to the turbine lb. (including drips and leakage of plant) Dry steam consumed by turbine per hour (Item 20 Item 21) ...
lb.
(o) Circulating
water supplied to condenser per hour
lb.
Hourly Heat Data

23.
Heat
consumed by turbine per hour [Item 22 X (total heat steam per pound at pressure of Item 9 less heat in 1 lb. of water at temperature of Item 14)] B.t.u.
units
of
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
Heat converted into work per hour Heat rejected to condenser per hour [Item 22a X ( Item 146 Item 14a)] (approximate) Heat rejected in the form of steam withdrawn from the turbine. Heat lost by radiation from turbine, and unaccounted for
B.t.u.
B.t.u
. .
.B.t.u
B.t.u
Electrical Data
24.
25.
26. 27. 28. 29.

30.
Average volts, each phase Average amperes, each phase Average kilowatts, first meter Average kilowatts, second meter Total kilowatts output
volts
amperes kw. kw. kw.
Power
factor
Kilowatts used for excitation, and for separately driven ventilating kw. fan 31. Net kilowatt output kw.
Speed
r.p.m. Revolutions per minute r.p.m. 33. Variation of speed between no load and full load 34. Momentary fluctuation of speed on suddenly changing from full
32.
k>ad to half-load
r.p.m.
Sec. 249]
Power
275
35.
36. Electrical
Brake horsepower, if determined horsepower
b.hp.
e.hp.
Economy Results
37.
38. 39.
Dry steam consumed by turbine per b,hp.-hr Dry steam consumed per net kw.-hr Heat units consumed by turbine per b.hp.-hr. (Item 23
Heat units consumed per net kw.-hr
Efficiency Results
lb. lb.
-h
Item 35)
B.t.u. B.t.u.
40.
41.
Thermal
efficiency of turbine (2,546.5
Item 39)
X
of
100
per cent.
42.
Efficiency of
Rankine cycle between temperatures

ratio (Item 41
-r-
Items 13 and
per cent.
14
43.
Rankine cycle
Item 42)
Work Done Per Heat Unit

44.
Net work per

Table
B.t.u.
consumed by turbine (1,980,000
-r-
Item 39).
ft.-lb.
12. Principal
Data And Results Of Turbine Test
1.
Dimensions
2.
3.
Date
Duration
Pressure in steam pipe near throttle by gage
lb.
hr.
4. 5.
6.
per
sq. in.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12. 13.
14.
in. of mercury in condenser Percentage of moisture in steam near throttle or number of degrees per cent, or deg. of superheating lb. Net steam consumed per hour r.p.m. Revolutions per minute b.hp. Brake horsepower developed kw. Kw, output lb. Steam consumed per b.hp.-hr B.t.u. Heat consumed per b.hp.-hr lb. Steam consumed per kw.-hr B.t.u. Heat consumed per kw.-hr
Vacuum
249. A Comparison Of The Performances Of Different Steam Turbines, or of the same turbine at different times,
cannot be intelligently made if the computations of the performance values are based on different steam conditions, such as different initial pressures and temperatures, and differ-
276
ent

exhaust
pressures
[Drv. 12
and
temperatures.
Usually,
it
is
same turbine, or tests of different turbines under the same steam conditions. Consequently, to make a fair comparison between two or more
impractical to
tests of the
make two
performance values, it is usually necessary to apply corrections. Such corrections should be applied which will convert the performance values which are made under one set of steam conditions to those which would obtain under some other set of steam conditions. The amount of
sets of
certain
the
corrections
and the method
of
their
application
are
treated in Div. 13.
1.
12
is the purpose of testing a steam turbine? For what purposes may the performance values as computed from the results of a turbine test be used? 3. What should govern the conditions under which a test is made? If the object of the test is to determine how nearly the actual operating performance complies with the guaranteed performance, what are the conditions which should obtain? 4. Name five of the more important data items which should be observed in testing a steam turbine. 5. Over how long a period of time should a turbine test be extended? At what time intervals should the instrument readings be noted and recorded? 6. Why should all instruments used in a turbine test be calibrated both before and
What
2.
after the test?

7.
What
properties determine the condition of the steam entering the
8.
Explain
how
turbine? the properties which determine the condition of the steam entering
the turbine are measured.

9.
What
property of the steam at the exhaust must be known?
10.
Why is it generally desirable to determine the pressure at the exhaust flange of the
What
is
turbine?
to a 30-in. barometer?" determining the power output of a turbine. 13. What instruments may be used to determine the power output of a turbine electrically? Which instruments are preferable if the load remains constant? If the
11.
12.
meant by "referred
of
Name two methods
load fluctuates? 14. In testing a turbo-alternator, why is it desirable that the power factor be unity? What kind of a load will give a unity power factor? 16. How is the net power output in watts of a turbo-alternator determined if the exciter is mounted on the generator shaft? If the alternator is excited from a separately driven exciter? 16. Name three methods of determining the quantity of steam consumed by a turbine. 17. Make a sketch of the apparatus required for determining the steam consumption of a turbine which is operated in conjunction with a surface condenser by weighing the
condensate.
18. Explain
is
how
the condenser leakage
may
be determined.
If
the condenser leakage
excessive,
19.
what should be done before proceeding with the

boiler feed water.
test of the turbine?
Make
a sketch of the apparatus for determining the steam consumption of a turbine
by weighing the
water,
20. In determining the
steam consumption of a turbine by weighing the boiler feed what leakages must be determined? Explain how the amount of this leakage may
be measured.
Sec. 249]
277
21. Why is it usually undesirable to use a steam flow meter to determine the total steam consumption of a turbine?
22. How may the quantity of the condensate of a jet condenser be measured? 23. How is the speed of rotation of a turbine rotor determined? 24. In what five ways are steam turbine performance values frequently expressed? 25. Explain how each is computed from the test data. 26. Why are the five different methods of expressing a turbine performance included in a test report? 27. Why is the water rate used to express turbine performance? 28. For what purpose may the ft. -lb. per B.t.u. and the B.t.u. per kw.-hr. be used? 29. Define the terms, total heat input and available heat. 30. What is indicated by a Rankine cycle efficiency value? 31. What is indicated by a Rankine cycle ratio value? To what is it an index? 32. What is indicated by the thermal efficiency? To what is it an index? 33. For what purposes may graphs, which show the total steam consumption and the water rate of a turbine at various loads, be conveniently used? Explain how such graphs
'
'
may
be obtained.
two or more turbines have been tested under different steam conditions, what must be done before their performance values can be intelligently compared? 35. Make a sketch showing location of all instruments used in testing a turbo-alternator which is operated in conjunction with a surface condenser.
34. If
DIVISION
13
EFFECT OF STEAM PRESSURE, SUPERHEAT, AND VACUUM ON STEAM-TURBINE ECONOMY

250.
Are Dependent Exhaust Steam.

is
The Water Rate And Thermal Efficiency Of A Turbine On The Conditions Of The Supply And
In general,
it
may
be said that the greater

is
the heat content of the supplied steam and the smaller
the heat content of the exhaust steam, the higher will be the
thermal efficiency of the turbine and the lower will be its water rate. Hence, those factors which produce great heat content in steam high pressure, high quality, and high superheat are to be desired as properties of the supply steam. Also, those factors which produce small heat content
exhaust pressure (high vacuum) steam friction and leakage within the turbine are very desirable. Unfortunately, however, it always costs more to produce supply steam of great heat content high pressure and superheat than it does to produce supply
in the exhaust
steam
low
and
little
steam
cost
of
small
heat
for
content.
Likewise,
the
condensers,
cooling water, and auxiliary power for high-vacuum service
more than
low-vacuum
service.
Hence,
it
is
the
object of this division to study the several effects of the above
and on their most economical conditions for any given turbine may be determined. Figs. 245A and 2455 illustrate the steam conditions in a large turbine.
steam conditions on the
efficiency of turbines
cost of operation so that the
Note. The Effects Of Pressure, Superheat, And Vacuum On The Water Rate And Thermal Efficiency Of A Theoretically
Perfect Turbine
will first
be discussed because the
effects in
a theoretic-
ally perfect turbine are explanatory of the effects in
an actual or com-
mercial turbine. Wherever the effects in an actual turbine are different from those in the theoretical, these differences will be explained at a
later point in this text.
Explanation.
The water rate

is
of a theoretically perfect turbine is
restated below as For. (53). The thermal eflBciency of a theoretically perfect turbine, which is the same as its
given in For. (19) which
278
Sec. 251]
PRESSURE, SUPERHEAT,
cijcle
AND VACUUM
is
279
Rankine
efficiency,
is
given by For. (54) which
derived in the
author's Practical Heat.

(53)
WH=
hiT
:
^' Z^
Hi
H2
(lb.
per hp.-hr.)
(decimal)
H1-H2
(54)
Hi - ha
Wherein
Wh
the turbine water rate, in pounds per horsepower-hour.
Er = the
turbine's thermal efficiency, expressed decimally.
total heat of 1 lb. of supply steam, in British thermal units. total of 1 lb. of
in British
Hi = the H2 = the
steam after adiabatic expansion to the exhaust pressure, thermal units, ha = the heat of 1 lb. of water at the temperature which is the boiling point at the exhaust pressure, in British thermal units. Hi and H2 may, as explained in Div. i, be found from a totalheat-entropy chart (Fig. 15); ha is found from the steam tables.
Inspection of For. (53) shows that the greater is the difference between for a given turbine, the smaller will be the water rate of the Hence, changes in the steam conditions which increase Hi or turbine.
Hi and Ho,
which decrease H2, will enable the turbine to operate with a lower water rate and vice-versa. With regard to For. (54), however, it is not evident by inspection just what effects on the thermal efficiency will be produced by changes in the steam conditions. To illustrate the effects of changing the quality, pressure, and superheat of the supply steam and of changing the exhaust pressure (vacuum), the specific examples
following Table 251 are here given.
Showing The Effect Of Different Steam CondiRate And Thermal Efficiency Of A Theoretically Perfect Steam Turbine. The method of computing these values is shown in the following examples.
251. Table
tions
On The Water
280

600
[Div. 13
Fig. 245A.
Steam
is
delivering 28,000 kw.
secondary valve
conditions in a 40,000 kw. Westinghouse turbine when it is The is admitting steam at 250 lb. per sq. in. The tertiary valve is closed. {Power, just beginning to open,
The primary valve
August
8, 1922.)
Sec. 251]
AND VACUUM
281
Fig. 24oJB.
Continuation
of Fig. 245J..

Example.
sq. in.
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 13
First
Condition.'
Supplied
steam pressure, 150
Ih.
per
gage; quality, 90 per cent.; vacuum, 28-in. mercury column.
What
are the water rate
and the
efficiency of this perfect turbine?
Solution.
the total-heat-entropy chart of Fig. 15, the value of Hi is found at the intersection of the 90 per cent, quahty Hne and the 150-lb. pressure line to be 1,100 B.t.u. Following (on Fig. 15) vertically downward to
From
vacuum line, H2 is found to be 813 B.t.u. From a steam table, found to be 94 B.t.u. Hence, by For. (53): the water rate = W^ = 2,545/(Hi - H2) = 2,545 ^ (1,100 - 813) = 8.58 lb. per hp.-hr. This result could also have been read from the scale A at the top of Fig. 15. Also, by For. (54): The thermal efficiency = Et = (Hi H2)/(Hi ha) =
the 28-in.
is
hi
(1,100
sq. in.
813)
Example.
Second Condition. Supplied steam
-^
(1,100
94)
0.292 or 29.2 percent.

pressure, 150
lb.
per
gage; quality, dry saturated; vacuum, 28-in. mercury column.
What
and thermal efficiency of the turbine under these conand how much have they been improved? Solution. In the same manner as in the first condition, the water rate is found to be 7.84 lb. per hp.-hr., and the thermal efficiency to be 29.5 per cerit. Hence, the
are the water rate
ditions
decrease in water rate
8.58
7.84
0.74
lb.
or 8.6 per cent.

cent.,
Also, the increase in efficiency
or an improvement of (0.3 -rExample. Third Condition.
Supplied steam
29.2)
0.01
or (0.74 ^ 8.58) = 0.086 = 29.5 29.2 =0.3 per = 1 per cent.

pressure, 175
lb.
per
sq. in.
gage; quality, dry saturated; vacuum, 28-in. mercury column.
What
and thermal efficiency of the turbine under these conand how much have they been improved? Solution. In the same manner as for the first condition, the water rate is found to be 7.60 lb. per hp.-hr., and the thermal efficiency to be 30.3 per cent. Hence, the
are the water rate
ditions
decrease in water
7.84
7.60
0.24
lb.
or (0.24
30.3
7.84)
0.03 or 3
per cent.

-h
29.5
=0.8
per cent.,
or an improvement of (0.8
Example.
sq. in.
Fourth Condition. Supplied steam
29.5)
0.027 or 2.7 per
cent.
lb.
pressure, 175
per
gage; superheat, 150 F.; vacuum, 28-in. mercury column.
What
are
the water rate and thermal efficiency of the turbine under these conditions
and how much have they been improved? Solution. In the same manner as for the first condition, the tvater rate is found to be 6.98 lb. per hp.-hr., and the thermal efficiency to be 30.7 per cent. Hence, the decrease
in water rate
7.60
6.98
0.62
lb.
.or (0.62
per cent.
30.7
7.60)
30.3
= 0.081 or 8.1 =0.4 per cent.,
Condition. Supplied steam pressure, 175 lb. per sq. in. gage; superheat, 150 F.; vacuum, 29-in. mercury column. What are the water rate and thermal efficiency of the turbine under these conditions and how much have they been improved? Solution. In the same manner as for the first conditions, the water rate is found to be 6.38 lb. per hp.-hr., and the thermal efficiency to be 32.9 per cent. Hence, the
Example.
Fifth
-i-
30.3)
0.013 or 1.3 per cent.
decrease in water rate

or 8.6 per cent.
cent.,
6.98
6.38
0.60
lb.
or (0.60
H-
6.98)
0.086

-4-
32.9
30.7
2.2 per
30.7)
0.071 or 7.1 per cent.
Sec. 252]
PRESSURE, SUPERHEAT, AND
VACUUM
283
The Water Rate And Thermal EffiTurbine Depend Only On The State Of The Supply Steam And On The Exhaust Pressure Or Vacuum. How the initial steam pressure and quality or superheat and the vacuum affect the water rate and efficiency is shown by the preceding typical examples. It is to be noted from the examples and from Table 251 that the increase in efficiency with changed conditions is not of the same magnitude as is These examples show clearly that the decrease in water rate. the water rate alone should not be taken as a measure of a turbine's thermal performance as a measure of the fuel that
252. Theoretically,
ciency Of
must be consumed
to insure its operation.
253. Actually, The Water Rate And Thermal Efficiency Depend Also On The Amount Of The Losses Within The Turbine. As stated in Sec. 15, losses occur within a turbine
casing due to several causes, the principal ones being steam

friction,
steam leakage, eddy currents, radiation, and the

All of these losses except that
velocity of the exhaust steam.
due to radiation tend to increase the value of H2 in Fors. (53) and (54) hence, they tend to increase the water rate and decrease the efficiency. Furthermore, all of these losses are dependent on the quality of the steam in the various passages
;
of the turbine (as explained further hereinafter)
the
drier
any turbine, the quality of the steam decreases rapidly as the steam flows through its passages. Hence, any change, so made in the condition of the supply steam as to increase the quahty of the steam in
the steam, the less are the losses.
in
Now,
the turbine passages,

its
is
certain to reduce the losses within the

its
turbine and to thereby decrease
water rate and increase
thermal
efficiency.
Note. The Percentage Losses Are Greater In Turbines Of Small Than In Those Of Large Capacity. That this is true is shown by the variation of the efficiency ratio, E^, in Fig. 20. The explanation
of the variation in losses lies in the fact that the interior-surface areas of
a turbine and the places of possible leakage are greater (in proportion to the amount of steam used by the turbine) in small-capacity turbines than in large-capacity turbines.
254.
Every
Conditions and
Turbine Is Designed For Specific Steam will perform most efficiently when operated
284
[Div. 13
under those conditions. The actual conditions under which a turbine will operate most efficiently may or may not be the same as those conditions for which the turbine was furnished by its manufacturer and which are stamped on its name plate this is because some shop standardization is necessary in turbine building and each turbine cannot be specially
designed for the purchaser. It follows that, in general, a turbine should always be operated under the steam conditions for which it was designed. Hence, the efficiency of turbines will
not always be increased by increasing the supplied steam presIn fact, if too great a sure, superheat, or the vacuum. departure is made from the conditions for which the turbine is
designed, the efficiency
as explained below.
may be decreased instead of increased, Hence, the manufacturer of a turbine should always be consulted as to the effects of condition changes before any material changes are made. The manufacturer can advise definitely as to whether or not your contemplated change is feasible and also as to the economies which will
thereby be effected.
Explanation. Why A Turbine Should Be Operated Only Under The Steam Conditions For Which It Was Designed may be explained thus Any change in the steam conditions will, as shown below, increase
:
the losses in the turbine. If the steam pressure at the throttle is increased and the amount of the superheat and vacuum are unchanged, or if the vacuum is increased and the amount of superheat and pressure are unchanged, the pressure range of the turbine, or the pressure drop through Consequently the pressure drop in each stage is increased it, is increased. causing the steam to strike the blades with a greater velocity than that Any change in the value of this velocity for which they were designed. causes the steam to hit the blades at an angle instead of tangentially thereby increasing the loss due to impact. There is also a loss due to the increase in the amount of moisture in the steam near the exhaust but this loss also occurs in a turbine designed for the improved conditions. Increasing the vacuum has the further disadvantage of increasing the volume of the exhaust steam. This means that the velocity of the steam in the passages near the exhaust end of the turbine must be increased, and produces a loss due to exit velocity and to the increased friction. An increase in the amount of superheat, with the amount of the vacuum and pressure unchanged, increases the volume of the steam that must pass through the turbine per unit of time. The only manner in which this greater volume of steam can be forced through the passages
is
by increased
velocity.
greater velocity
means
larger friction
and
Sec. 255]
The capacity
is
AND VACUUM
may
even be reduced
resulting losses
if
285
the
impact
losses.
of the turbine
amount
then
of superheat
increased too much.
The
may
offset,
to a greater or less degree, the increase in efficiency which the
improved steam conditions should theoretically provide.

255. The Capacity Of Any Existing Turbine May Be Increased By Increasing The Supply Pressure, Superheat,
any one, two or all three. But while the capacity of the machine will be thereby increased, it will usually be at the expense of efficiency. Just what will be the effect on economy of such an increase in capacity is determined
And Vacuum
by the design and construction
of the turbine.
The manu-
facturer can furnish exact information.

256. Table Showing Factors For Computing The Approximate Change In The Water Rate Of A Turbme With Changed Steam-supply Pressure, Superheat, And Vacuum. The application of these factors is explained and illustrated in following
Change
in
steam condition
Change
in
water rate
Supply-steam Pressure.
(Increasing the supply-steam pressure decreases the water rate and vice
versa.)
Turbines up to 1,000 kw. 1.5 per cent, for each 10 lb. per sq. in. change in pressure Turbines over 1,000 kw. 1.0 per cent, for each 10 lb. per sq. in. change in pressure.
Up
SUPPLT-STEAM SuPERHEAT.
(Increasing the superheat decreases the
to 100 F. superheat 1.0 per cent, for each 10 F. of change in superheat.
water rate and vice versa.)
100 to 150 F. superheat 0.8 per cent, for each 10 F. of change in superheat.
150 F. to 250 F. superheat 0.6 per cent, for each 10 F. of change in superheat.
Back
pressure.
Up
to 15 lb. per sq.

251).
(Increasing back pressure
for
in. gage 2 to 3.5 per cent, each pound of back-pressure increase
increases the water rate
(see Fig.
and
vice versa.)
Exhaust
Pressure.
Between 25 and 27 of vacuum.
in.
5 per cent, per inch
Vacuum.
(Increasing
the
vacuum
decreases the water rate
Between 27 and 28 of vacuum. Between 28 and 29 of vacuum.
in.
6 per cent, per inch
and vice
versa.)
in.
10 per
cent, per inch
286

The preceding
is
[Div. 13
sections.
factors
are approximately correct
for condition changes within reasonable limits,
whether or not
the tm'bine
changed to
suit the
new
conditions; see note
below.
Note. Exact Values Indicating The Effects Of Changing Steam Conditions cannot be given because the exact values depend on
the design and construction of the turbine under consideration and upon
the steam conditions
pressure, superheat, and vacuumprior to chang-
ing the steam conditions.
form
For any given turbine, exact factors, in the graphs similar to Figs. 252, 253, and 254, may be obtained from the manufacturer.
of
257. Turbines Are More Efficient When, Other Things Being Equal, They Are SuppUed With Steam At High Pressure. As suggested by Fig. 246 and also by Fig. 15, the 5400
5200
higher the pressure of steam,

the more heat per
is
55000
O2800
pound there
the higher
Fors.
in
it.
That
is,
-Am
in2000
fcl&OO
the pressure, the greater will
be the value of Hi in
(53)
and
(54).
-,1600
the value of
being equal
Hi other things the smaller
The
greater
will
be the water rate and (generally) the greater will be the thermal efficiency. This is
brought out by Table 251 and by the examples which follow

it.
But
if
the turbine
use
it
is
to
efficiently
the
high-pres-
sure steam,
must have been
designed (Sec. 254) for that pressure. 258. The Effect Of Increasing The Supply-steam Pressure Of An Existing Turbine is generally to increase, to some extent,
the efficiency of the turbine.
But, the turbine

if
may
require
is
new
it is
nozzles for the higher pressure and,

designed, or
the turbine
already operating on steam at a pressure near that for which

if
the turbine
is
operated most of the time
at fractional loads, the efficiency
may
be increased but slightly
Sec. 259]
AND VACUUM
287
it even may be decreased by increasing the supply pressure. Furthermore, steam at higher pressures costs more to produce than does steam at lower pressures the boiler losses are greater, and more expensive boilers must be used. Hence,
or
to
determine whether a change to a considerably higher

is
steam-pressure
advisable,
it is
best to consult the turbine
builder's engineering department.
Note. The Steam Pressures Which Are Advisable For Turbine Operation are as follows For small turbines, say up to 200-kw. capacity,
:
about 150 to 175 lb. per sq. in. gage. For medium-capacity turbines, say 200 to 5,000 kw., about 200 to 250 lb. per sq. in. gage. For large capacity turbines, as in the large central stations the tendency is continually toward higher pressures some now use pressures as high as 350 lb. per sq. in. gage. It is doubtful whether pressures higher than 400 lb. will be used, however, because of the high cost and maintenance expense of boilers for these high pressures and because the thermal gains from further pressure increase are very small. Note from Fig. 246 that the steam temperature ^which determines, somewhat, the value of Hi in For. (53) increases very slowly with the pressure for pressures exceeding 400 lb, per sq. in.
259. To Compute The Effept On A Turbine's Water Rate Of Changing Its Supply Pressure, the factors given in Table 256 may be used whenever manufacturers' correction curves The factors in Table 256 are (Sec. 268) are not obtainable. to be used only for computing the effect of changes which do not exceed 10 to 15 per cent, of the rated steam pressure.
Example.
generator
is
The
175
rated steam-supply pressure for a 2,000-kw. turbo-
per sq. in. gage (the superheat and vacuum may, within reason, be any whatsoever). The water rate of the machine is 17 lb. per kw.-hr. What water rate may be expected if the steam presSolution. The sure is raised from 175 to 200 lb. per sq. in. gage? increase in pressure is: 200-175 = 25 lb. per sq. in. Now, 25 4- 10 = 2.5. Since, from Table 256, a 1 per cent, decrease in water rate may be expected for each 10 lb. per sq. in. pressure increase, the decrease in this case will be 2.5 per cent. YiQjiQQ, VaQ luater-rate decrease = 0.025 X 17 = 0.43 lb. per kw.-hr. Therefore, at 200 lb. per sq. in. pressure, the water
lb.
rate
17
0.43
16.57
lb.
per kw.-hr.
260. Turbines Are More Efficient When, Other Things Being Equal, They Are Supplied With Highly Superheated Steam. For a given pressure, the value of Hi, Fors. (53) and

(54),
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 13
increases with the superheat.
Hence the water
rate
decreases with the superheat and (usually) the thermal efficiency

increases.
In using high superheat, however, one must be it causes the exhaust steam to be superheated this would result in a In general, it may be said that high pressures with loss.
careful that the superheat is not so high that
moderate superheat
are
more economical than moderate
pressures with high superheats.
STEAM CONDITIONS
Sec. 261]
AND VACUUM
289
through (the more heat it can give up in) a given turbine without condensation without its becoming saturated. Hence, even a little superAlso, superheating, of the supply steam for a turbine is very valuable. heating has the added advantage of minimizing blade and nozzle erosion
in a turbine.
261. The Effect Of Increasing The Supply-steam Superheat Of An Existing Turbine is generally to increase, to some extent, The principal effect of increasing the efficiency of the turbine. the superheat is to decrease the amount of moisture (water)
in the
steam
in the several passages of the turbine (see preceding
note)
hence, superheating decreases the
amount
of the losses
within the turbine.
The
principal objection to the use of highly
10
20
1)0
40
50
60
70
60
90
100
110
120
ITiO
140
150
160
170
160
190
200>
Superhecit, Degrees
Fig. 247.
Fothrenhelt
Graph showing the

is
effect of superheat on steam consumption of non-con{Sturtevant Company.) densing steam turbines.
superheated steam
that, especially in
some types
of turbines
(those which have
many rows
of blades), the high-pressure
end of the turbine becomes heated to such a high temperature that the casing is severely strained. Because turbines have no rubbing surfaces which are exposed to the high-pressure steam (as have steam engines), there are no lubrication difficulties occasioned by the use of superheated steam in turbines. In any case, however, the cost of superheating the steam (see Fig. 248, which is explained hereinafter) must be balanced against the gain in efficiency which is produced. The net economic value of superheating is thus determined.
Note.
The
Superheats Which Are Most Advisable For Tur-
bine Operation
19
may
pressure in pounds per square inch gage.
roughly be taken as two-thirds of the steam-supply Thus, about 125 to 150 F. of
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 13
superheat is advisable for medium-sized plants whereas superheats of about 200 F. are used in large central stations. Furthermore, non-condensing turbines generally require more superheat and are benefited more thereby than condensing turbines. However, unusual local conditions such as very-high or very-low fuel cost may render the above values
inapplicable.
The
effect of
Each case should be considered individually on its merits. superheat on a non-condensing turbine is shown in Fig. 247.
'0^ 20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
f.
200 220 240
Superheat, Degrees
Fig. 248.
is
Showing typical relation of power-production cost to superheat. This plotted for certain conditions (175 lb. per sq. in. pressure and 210 F. feed water For in a certain plant) but the general principle which it illustrates is characteristic. these conditions, the greatest decrease in net cost at F, due to superheating occurs with
graph
a superheat of 160 F. The net decrease in cost, EF = {Decrease in fuel and water cost, EG) {The increase fixed charge and maintenance cost, ED). That is, to determine the locations of the points along in OB, for each different superheat, the corresponding vertical distance between OC and OH is laid off vertically downward, that is subtracted,
from OA.
262.
The Actual Net Fuel Saving Due To Superheating A

is
Turbine's Supply Steam

practical limits.
(Fig. 248)
usually about 2 to 5 per cent, per
100 F. of superheat increase, the superheating to be within
Excessive superheating is not economical because the increased cost of the fuel required and the additional expense of equipment for producing and transmitting the superheated steam, more than offsets the decreased
Sec. 263]
its use.
AND VACUUM
291
fuel
consumption due to
Advisable superheats are
given in the preceding note.

In the plant and for the conditions for which Fig. 248 was most economical superheat (at F) is 160 F. With this superheat the net cost of power production is 4 per cent, less than if no superWith less superheat than 160 F., as shown by FO, heat were employed. or with more superheat than 160 F., as shown by FB, the net cost of power is greater.
Example.
plotted, the
263. To Compute The Effect On A Turbine's Water Rate Of Changing The Superheat, the factors given in Table 256 may be used whenever manufacturer's correction curves The method of computing the (Sec. 268) are not obtainable.
effects
of superheat
changes
is
illustrated
by the
following
example.
A certain turbine (the supply-steam pressure and the vacbe any within reason) shows a water rate at full load of 14 lb. per hp.-hr. when supplied with steam of 50 F. superheat. What would be its water rate if the superheat were raised to 150 F.? Solution. By Table 256 each 10 F. of superheat increase between 0F. and 100 F. decreases the water rate by 1 per cent., and each 10 F. of superheat increase between 100 F. and 150 F. decreases the water rate by 0.8 per cent. Hence, for this turbine, the percentage decrease in water rate = [(100 - 50) X 1] ^ 10+ [(150 - 100) X 0.8] ^ 10 = 5 + 4 = 9 per cent. Hence, the pounds decrease in water rate = 0.09 X 14 = 1.23 lb. per hp.-hr.
Example.
uum may
Therefore, the water rate with 150 F. superheat

per hp.-hr.
14
1.26
12.74
lb.
264.
High Vacuum
Is
The Most Essential Requirement
For Economical Steam-turbine Operation; see Table 251 and the examples which follow it. Maintaining a high vacuum provides the most effective method of insuring good economy of condensing turbines. Condensing turbines are, in general, more economical often much more; see Div. 14 than are condensing reciprocating engines, principally because the turbine is inherently better adapted to the useof high vacuums; see below. As a general rule, it pays to keep the vacuum in a
turbine's exhaust pipe at as high a value as the plant conditions
and water supply will permit. However, it may not always pay to circulate all the water which the condenser pumps can

handle
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 13
vacuum the cost of pumping addibe greater than the fuel saving due thereto. This is particularly true when the turbine is operating under partial load, or in winter when the circulating water is very cold.
a certain
tional water
above
may
Here again, each turbine is deserving of a separate economic study to determine the most economical vacuum in different
seasons.
Note. Turbines Can Effectively Utilize Higher Vacuums Than Engines For Two Reasons: (1) Turbine parts are always subjected to
at the same pressure; the low temperatures of the exhaust pressure cannot reach back into the hotter parts of the machine whereas in steam engines the cylinders are exposed alternately to wide differences of temperature this causes cylinder condensation. (2) The steam expansion is not limited in the turbine whereas, in the engine, expansion is limited by
steam
Sec. 2661
it
AND VACUUM
great distances:
293
very yleniiful or where
must
he
pumped
to 28 in.
(2)
Where
circulating water is plentiful
27 and always in
large-capacity stations: 28 to 29 in.
The
smaller values are, in
each case, the vacuums carried in the summer months; the lower values are those which are carried in the winter months. Although the values given above are quite commonly observed, the most economical vacuum should be determined for every plant before adopting a standard. This is done by a comparison of operating costs with different vacuums. Higher average vacuums, and consequently more economical operation,
u
Fig. 250.
15
16
.27
30
Vacuum Referred
To 30-In.
Daromeier
graph
is
Showing typical relations of power-production cost to vacuum. This plotted for specific conditions but the general principle which it illustrates is
For these conditions, the greatest decrease in net cost, at A, occurs The net decrease in cost, BA, = (Decrease in. mercury column. in fuel and feed-water cost, BD) {Increase in fixed charges, maintenance, and circulatingwater cost, BC). That is, to determine the locations of points along EK for each different vacuum, the corresponding vertical distance between EF and EH is subtracted from the vertical distance between EG and EH.
characteristic.
with a vacuum of 28.6
are always possible in the northern than in the central and southern states. This is because of the lower temperatures of the cooling water in the northern states.
Example. In the plant and for the conditions for which Fig. 250 was plotted, the most economical vacuum (at A) is 28.6 in. of mercury. With this vacuum the net cost of power production is 6.6 per cent, less than if only a 26-in. vacuum were carried. With more or less vacuum than 28.6 in., the net power cost would be greater, as shown by AK and EA.
266. To Compute The Effect On A Turbine's Water Rate Of Changing The Vacuum, the factors given in Table 256 may be used whenever manufacturer's correction curves (Sec. 268)
294

up
[Div. 13
are not available.

cable only
to be
to the
most
efficient
The values given in Table 256 are applivacuum at which the turbine was designed generally 28.5 to 29 in. The method of
is
applying these factors
illustrated in the following example.
Example. A certain turbine, when operating under a 27-in. vacuum, has a water rate of 12 lb. per kw.-hr. (The supply-steam pressure and What water the superheat if any may be any reasonable values.) rate may be expected from this turbine when operating under a 28.5-in. vacuum? Solution. By Table 256 the water rate will be decreased 6 per cent, by raising the vacuum to 28 in., and will be further decreased Hence, 0.5 X 10 = 5 per cent, by raising the vacuum from 28 to 28.5 in.

= =
the
-per cent,
decrease
6+5
1.31
11 per cent.
or,
Therefore, the water rate
decrease
0.11
water rate
12
12
lb.,
with a 28.5-in. vacuum, the actual
1.31
10.69
lb.
per kw.-hr.
6
Fig. 251.
10
II
14
16
16
lb
Back-Pressure On Turbine,
21 14 26 IB 30 32 34 36 56 40 Lb. Per 5q.ln.0age
Graphs showing
of
effects of increasing the

(-B.
back pressure on the water rates
non-condensing turbines.
F. Sturtevant Co.)
267. Increasing
Turbine
Increases
The Back Pressure On A Non-condensing The Water Rate And Decreases The
Thermal
Efficiency (Fig. 251).
Since
the back pressure on
a non-condensing turbine corresponds exactly to the vacuum on a condensing turbine, all of the previous discussion concerning
vacuums
applies, to a greater or less degree, to back-
pressures
effect of
the
chief difference being in the
magnitude
of the
a given pressure change in the two cases.
The graphs
Sec. 268]
AND VACUUM
295
of Fig. 251 illustrate the effects
on the water rates
of increasing
the back-pressure from atmospheric to different values and
shows how these steam pressures.
effects
vary with different
initial
(supply)
Note. To Compute The Effect On A Non-condensing Turbine's Water Rate Of Changing The Back Pressure, the factors given in Table 256 or the graphs of Fig. 251 (which are more accurate) may be
used.
The method
of using these
graphs
is
illustrated in the following
example.
pressure of 150
is operating with a supply per sq. in. gage (any reasonable superheat or no superheat) and a back pressure of 10 lb. per sq. in. gage, shows a water rate, by test, of 44.8 lb. per hp.-hr. What water rate might the turbine be expected to have if the back pressure were raised to 25 lb. per sq. in. gage? Solution. From Fig. 251, the water rate with 10-lb. back pressure and 150 lb. per sq. in. supply pressure, is 25.5 per cent, higher than it would be with atmospheric exhaust. Hence, with atmospheric exhaust, the water
Example.
A non-condensing turbine which

lb.
rate
44.8
(1.00
0.255)
35.7
lb.
per hp.-hr.
Also,
from
Fig. 251,
the water rate with 25-lb. back pressure is 60 per cent, higher than with atmospheric exhaust. Hence, with 25-lb. back pressure, the water rate =
35.7
(0.60
35.7)
35.7
21 A
57.1
lb.
per hp.-hr.
268. Manufacturers
Sometimes
Supply
Performance
"Correction Graphs" With Turbines (Figs. 252, 253 and 254). The purpose of such graphs is to provide the purchaser with
more accurate means, than the
factors of Table 256, for
com-
puting the probable effects on the turbine's water rate of changing the supply pressure, superheat, and vacuum. A very
important application of such curves is for making " corrections to the results of an acceptance test (Sec. 226) in which the exact steam conditions of the manufacturer's guarantee did not prevail. The use of performance correction graphs for verifying guarantees is explained in following Sec. 269. 269. The Water Rates At The Steam Conditions Of An Acceptance Test May Be Corrected To The Water Rates Which Would Have Obtained If The Acceptance Test Had Been Made Under The Steam Conditions Of The Guarantee
"
by the following formulas

(^^)
(56)
= + (i-w;) + (i-|;)('^--'^') (lb. per kw.-hr.) Wc = Wr - CWt

<^
(i-

Wherein: C
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 13
the net correction factor, expressed as a decimal.

in
Wg =
the full-load water rate of the turbine at the steam

specified
conditions
the
guarantee.
Wf =
the full-load
water rate at the steam pressure of the acceptance test as determined from the pressure correction graph (Fig. 252). Ws
the full-load water rate at the temperature of the superheat of the acceptance test as determined from the superheat correc= the full-load water rate at the tion graph (Fig. 253).
Wy
acceptance test as determined from the vacuum graph (Fig. 254). Wc = the corrected water rate; correction that is, the water rate after correction from the acceptance-test
vacuum
of the
steam conditions to the steam conditions of the guarantee. Wt- = the water rate as determined by the acceptance test. All water rates are expressed either in pounds per kilowatt hour or per brake horsepower hour.
Note.
The
Net Correction Factor,
C, For. (55),
is
the algebraic
sum
(see
example below)
of the individual correction factors that
must
be applied to correct for the change in the water rate which will be caused by a change in the steam pressure, superheat, or vacuum. In applying For. (56), it is assumed that the steam consumption at fractional loads will be changed by the same percentage as at full load for the same change This assumption is, for all practical in pressure, superheat, and vacuum. purposes, true within the range of from 50 to 125 per cent, of full-rated
load.
The method
of application of these
formulas
is
explained by the
example below.
Example. A 500-kw., 3,600-r.p.m., turbo-generator was sold under the guarantee (Sec. 285) that when operating at rated speed at a steam pressure of 150 lb. per sq. in., gage, 50 F. superheat, and a 28-in. referred vacuum (Sec. 231), it will have the following water rates at the various
loads
CONDITIONS = 150 lb. per sq.-in. gage; 50 F.

Load
in
superheat; 28-in. vacuum.
kw
Sec. 269]
175
lb.
AND VACUUM
297
CONDITIONS =
per
sq.-in.
gage;
100 F. superheat; 27-in.
vacuum.
Load
in
kw
by-
Per cent, of rated load Water rate in lb. per kw.-hr. acceptance test
500.0 100.0
16.5
The
full-load correction
graphs
(Figs. 252, 253,
superheat, and
vacuum
corrections, are furnished
and 254) for pressure, by the turbine manu-
Z5
298
175
254,

per sq.
in.,
[Div. 13
lb.
From
Fig. 253,
W^ at
gage (189.7 lb. per sq. in., abs.) = 16.5 lb. per kw.-hr. 100F. superheat = 16.7 lb. per kw.-hr. From Fig.
18.5
lb.
Wv at 27-in.
25
vacuum =
per kw.-hr.
Therefore,
tion in For. (55), the net correction factor, C,
(1
by substituWc?/Wp) + (1
Sec. 270]
50 per
cent, full
AND VACUUM
=
18.9
299
corrected water rate at
load
(0.036
18.9)
19.6
lb.
per kw.-hr.
The
following table shows the tabulation of the cor-
rected water rates:
Load
in
kw
lb.
Per cent, of rated load Corrected water rate in

hr
500.0 100.0
per kw.17.1
By comparing the corrected water rates at the various loads with the guaranteed water rates at the corresponding loads, it is found that the water rates as determined by the acceptance test are lower than those which are guaranteed by the manufacturer. The water rates as determined by test and those which are guaranteed by the manufacturer may be readily compared by plotting a graph of each, against the load in kilowatts or brake horsepower. In Fig. 255, the graphs of the corrected water rates and the guaranteed water rates of this 500-kw. turbine are
plotted against the loads in kilowatts.
270. Water-rate Correction Graphs For Changed Pressure, Superheat Or Vacuum Applying To Any High -efficiency, Multi-
-40
-20
Fig. 256
'Graph
Change
ZO
In
Superheat
-"F.
Supply steam
for superheat correction for turbine water rates.
"This correction does not apply are assumed to be constant. for superheats below 40 F." (Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., June 6, 1922.)
pressure and
vacuum
stage,
Impulse Or
Reaction Turbine
are
given in
Figs.
256, 257
will
and
258.
not be affected
The accuracy of the results given by them by the system of speed regulation which is
employed on the turbine. These graphs are used in essentially the same manner as are those of Figs. 252, 253 and 254 except that these are more general in their application.
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 13
of the graphs of Figs. 256, 257 and 258, as quoted from the AUis-Chalmers Co. of June 8, 1922 is: "The graphs show the percentage change in steam consumption with changes They do not in the steam conditions of an actual turbine installation. apply if the turbine is altered in a way to render it more suitable for the changed conditions. These correction graphs apply only to the fixed ranges of steam conditions and loads which are, where necessary, speciThis matter of limitations is important. It is not believed fied on them. that it would be feasible to plot a set of usable correction graphs which
An Explanation
letter
from a
+lb|
1
1
I 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1
rI
1
Sec. 270]
AND VACUUM
301
apparent that the correction of test results to performance guarantee conditions has led to distortion in listing the performances of actual
installations."
Example. Showing the Application Of Pressure Correction Graph Fig. 258. This example is based on information furnished by E. H. Brown of the AlHs-Chalmers Company. A 5,000-kw. turbine unit
which has
tee that
its
most economical load
at 4,500
when operating
75P00
at rated speed at a
kw. was sold under a guaransteam pressure of 200 lb.
70.000
65,000
60,000
u 5^000
54000
E
;^4Woo
5
i2 40,000
^5i000
^0.000
302
[Dw. 13
uJKTd+s
j-o
aniioA
uq paiiddv ^g 01 uoipajJOD
4.033 jad
Sec. 270]
AND VACUUM
lb.
303
Table 270A.
Guarantee Conditions 200

in
per sq.
in.,
gage; 100 F.
superheat; 28-in. vacuum.
Load
kw.
304
(2)

and 111 per
[Div. 13
in
Since the most economical load at the base steam pressure
is,
this example, 4,500 kw., the 50, 75, 100

3,375, 4,500
cent, loads are 2,250
be used as the loads at which steam consumptions per hour at guarantee conditions for these loads can then be read from graph A, Fig. 257 A, as tabulated in Table 2705. (3) The water rates at the base steam pressure for these loads must then be calculated by dividing the total steam consumption in pounds per hour by the loads in kilowatts. These values are given in line 3 of Table 270B. (4) By following up vertically the 50 lb. change-in-steam-pressure line on the pressure-correction diagram (Fig. 258), the correction factors for the four loads may be obtained. Note that the first part of all of the correction curves for loads less than the most economical load coincide along the line marked ^^For loads less than the most economicaV^ and then they branch off from this line, the larger-load curves branching off first. The branching of the 50 per cent, load curve from this line is not shown on Fig. 258 as the diagram is not large enough. The values of these corrections as taken from Fig. 258 are given in Table 270B. (5) The water rates for these loads are then found by multiplying the base water rate by 1 plus the correction factor expressed as decimal.
will
and 5,000 kw.
These
corrections will be made.
The
total
Thus for the load of 2,250 kw., the water rate at 150 lb. 'per sq. in., gage, steam pressure = 15.11 X [1 (0.85 -^ 100)] = 15.11 X 1.0085 = 15.23 From lb. per kw.-hr., which checks with the value given in Table 2705. the water rates thus obtained, the total steam consumption per hour at 150 lb. per sq. in. gage pressure can be calculated by multiplying the water rate per kilowatt-hour at each load by the load in kilowatts. The values given in the last line of Table 2705 will result. (6) These steam consumptions per hour at 150 lb. per sq. in, gage, steam pressure should then be plotted against their respective loads in kilowatts. The graph B, Fig. 257 A, will result. (7) The steam consumptions per hour at test conditions for the given loads can then be read from the graph, by following up the vertical line corresponding to the load. The values of these consumptions are tabulated in the Table 270C, line 1. (8) By dividing the total steam consumption in pounds, per hour at 150 lb. per sq. in., gage, steam pressure, for each given load by the load in kilowatts, the water rates in pounds per kilowatt-hour can be obtained. These are listed in line 2 Table 270C. (9) A comparison of the two water rates should be made to show the
increase, in per cent., in the
water
rate.
This can be done as follows:

in.,
The water
pressure,
is
rate for a load of 2,500 kw. at 150 lb. per sq.
gage, steam
14.92 lb. per kw.-hr. (from Table 270C) and that for a steam
pressure of 200
The change from a

per
sq. in.,
per sq. in., gage, was guaranteed as 14.8 lb. per kw.-hr. pressure of 200 lb. per sq. in., gage, to one of 150 lb. gage, causes, an increase in the water, in per cent. = 100
lb.
Sec. 270]
(14.92
PRESSURE, SUPERHEAT, AND

14.8) -^ 14.8
VACUUM
305
12
h-
14.8
0.85 per cent.
These values are
listed in line 3 of
Table 270C.
Conditions
270B. Table Showing Values Obtained During Correction To of 150 lb. per sq. in., gage; 100 F. superheat; 28-in. vacuum.
Load
in
kw.
2,250
3,375
4,500
5,000
Load
in per cent,
of
most eco50
nomical at base steam pressure. Total steam, lb. per hr. at 200 lb. per sq. in., gage Lb. per kw.-hr. at 200 lb. per sq. in., gage Correction, in per cent., on 2001b. per sq. in. gage, steam pressure values (read from Fig. 258 at 501b. change in steam pressure) Lb. per kw.-hr. corrected to 1501b. per sq. in., gage, steam pressure. Total steam at 150 lb. per sq. in.,
gage, steam pressure
306
[Div.
13
quotation then the pressure and superheat values which are stated in the guarantee are the "base" values. If, however, the test results are to be corrected to guarantee conditions as is done in the example under
Sec.
269
then the pressure and superheat values which obtained during

13
State the
the test become the "base" values.
1.
Upon what do
the water rates and efficiency of a turbine depend?
relation in general terms.

2. State the formulas which give the theoretical water rate and thermal efficiency of any turbine. 3. Does the thermal efficiency of a turbine increase in the same proportion as the water decreases when the supply conditions are varied? Give some values to prove this. 4. State what factors determine the theoretical water rate and thermal efficiency What other factor affects the actual water rate and thermal efficiency? of a turbine. 5. State the principal forms in which losses occur in steam turbines. What property of the steam largely affects the amount of the losses?
6.
7.
Why
are the percentage losses greater in small turbines than in large ones?
How does this fact affect for specific steam conditions? Explain fully. 8. What would be the action of the steam in a turbine if it were operated under steam conditions much different from those for which it was designed? Explain fully. 9. What effect is produced on the capacity of an existing turbine by increasing its supply steam pressure, superheat, or vacuum? 10. State the approximate factors for calculating the change in water rate due to changes of supply pressure. Superheat. Exhaust pressure. 11. What is the effect on a turbine's efficiency of increasing the supply pressure? Explain fully. 12. What steam pressures are most advisable for turbine operation? 13. How would you compute the effect on a turbine's water rate of changing the supply pressure? 14. What is the effect on a turbine's efficiency of increasing the superheat of its supply steam? Explain why. 15. What superheats are most advisable for turbine operation? Why is very high super16. What fuel saving may be expected from superheating? heat not economical? Draw a 17. How is the most economical superheat for a given plant determined? typical set of graphs to illustrate the principle. 18. How would you compute the effect on a turbine's water rate of changing the superheat of the supply steam? Are there any 19. What effect has the vacuum on the efficiency of a steam turbine?
Are turbines designed
their operation?
practical limits?
20. Explain
engines.
21.
22. 23.
why turbines can more effectively utilize high vacuums than can steam Draw the pressure-volume diagrams for the two classes of machines. What are the usual vacuums that are carried in turbine plants? How is the most economical vacuum for a given plant determined? Draw a
typical set of graphs to illustrate the principle.
How
would you compute the
effect
on a turbine's water rate
of
changing the
vacuum?
of
What is the effect on a non-condensing turbine's water rate and thermal efficiency changing the back pressure in the exhaust pipe? How would you compute the effect? For what are they used? 25. What are performance correction curves? 26. Explain how you would correct the results of an acceptance test to the conditions of the guarantee? Explain fully.
24.
DIVISION
14
STEAM-TURBINE ECONOMICS AND SELECTION

271. Steam-turbine
Economics
of
Is
To Be Understood To
Mean
mine
it
the study of the operating costs (see note below) of steam
turbines.
The purpose
such studies
it
may
be: (1)
To
deter-
the cost of energy, so
that
may
be known at what price
may
be profitably sold or that the management
may know
what the energy is costing. (2) To determine the most desirable turbine for a new plant or for addition to an existing plant. (3) To determine whether a turbine is more desirable than a
prime mover of some other type.
Note. The Operating Costs Of Any Machine are generally grouped into two classes: (1) The Fixed Charges, Sec. 272, which are those expenses that are incidental to the oivning of the machine; the fixed (c) charges include: (a) /nêres^ on invested capital. (6) Depreciation, Taxes and insurance, (d) Rental and office expense. (2) The Operating Charges, Sec. 273, which are those expenses that arise when the machine is operated; they include: (a) Labor and attendance, (b) Fuel and water, (c) Repairs and maintenance, (d) Supplies, such as waste, oil, and the like. For a more thorough treatment of operating costs, see the author's Steam-engine Principles and Practice.
272. The Annual Amount Of The Fixed Charges For Turbines varies from about 11 to 15 per cent, of the first cost
of the turbine
and
auxiliaries (installed).
The
(2)
exact percent-
age to be used in any given case can be determined by taking

the
sum
of:
(1)
is
The current
interest rate.
rate,
which
generally assumed as 5
(4) The insurance rate. (5) which are chargeable to the turbine, expressed as expenses percentage of the first cost of the turbine. For the purpose of good bookkeeping, the interest and rental should, rightfully, always be charged against the operation of the turbine whether In this way only, can the turit is actually paid out or not.
tax rate.
The depreciation (3) The The rental and office

per cent.
307
308

amount
[Div. 14
bine be properly compared with other equipment which
is
more
is
costly or which occupies a greater
of space.
Note. The Fixed Charges Are So Called Because their amount same regardless of whether the machine is in operation or not. In this way they differ, as will be shown, from the operating charges which
the
increase with the output of the machine.
Example. A turbine installation cost $20,000. If money can be borrowed at 6 per cent., the tax rate is 13^ per cent., the insurance rate is I'i per cent., and if the rental and office expenses amount to $400 per Solution. The year, what is the annual amount of the fixed charges? amount of the rental and office expense is 400 -h 20,000 = 0.02 = 2 per cent. Assume that depreciation is 5 per cent. Hence, the annual fixed
charges $3,000.
=
it,
$20,000
(6
+5+
it is
1.5
0.5
+ 2)
-^
100
Hence
it
costs the
owner
of this turbine $3,000 a
20,000 X 0.15 = year merely
to
own
whether or not
operated.
273. The Unit Operating Charges Of Turbines Vary Widely And Depend On Many Things see following note and
;
Table 274. Reviewing the items (note under Sec. 271) which constitute the operating charges to note how these items may vary, it follows that: (1) The unit labor and attendance expense will vary with the size of the plant and the load which the plant carries because one attendant can generally care for the generating unit whether it has large or small capacity or whether it runs at full or partial load; also, very frequently one attendant can just as easily care for several machines as for only one. (2) The unit fuel and water expense depends upon the efficiency of the boiler, the cost of the coal and the method of handling and firing it, the water rate of the turbine, the quantity of cooling water required if any, the cost of water or the distance it must be pumped. (3) The unit maintenance and repair expense depends on the amount of repairs or maintenance which are
necessary and upon the output of the machine. (4) The cost of supplies varies somewhat but, since this item is always
small,
it is
unnecessary to dwell upon
it
at this point.
Note. The
Unit Charges For Turbines Are found by dividing
the total charges over a certain period of time by the number of energy Unit charges are generally units which are produced during that period. computed on a yearly or monthly basis and on the basis of kilowatt-hours The sum of the several unit charges is or horsepower-hours produced.
called the unit operating cost.
Sec. 274]
ECONOMICS AND SELECTION

month
309
274. Table Showing Operating Charges For
Two Power
of the
Plants in a given
as taken
from the records
operating company; station
consisted of ten 500-hp. boilers
Station
Station
Kw.-hr. generated
of ash Lb. water evaporated Lb. water evaporated per
Tons Tons
of coal
lb. coal.
Lb. coal per kw.-hr Lb. water per kw.-hr Gal. engine oil per 1,000 kw.-hr. Gal. cylinder oil per 10,000 kw.-hr
. .
1,061,000.00 2,775.00 555 00 40,600,000.00 7.32 5.23

.
3.62 1.74
1,210,750.00 2,437.37 322 10 35,359,500.00 7.25 4.03 29.20 0.59 0.39

.
Total operating charges, in dollars, and operating charges per kw.-hr.,

in cents
Total
Per
kw.-hr.
Total
Per
kw.-hr.
Superintendence Repairs
$122.42
appliances ....
0.014
0.019
$250.10
10.84
0.020
0.001
Dynamos and
Engines
Boilers
171.33
1,017.48
pipes,
fittings,
0.115
0.001 0.100 0.079
299.81
22 392 390 44 99 42
15
13
0.024
0.002 0.033 0.032 0.004 0.008 0.004 0.005 0.133 0.180 0.009 0.322
Pumps,
and
8.80 880.92 693 66 5.47 482.21 220 12 291.24 3,893.65 2,635.75 198 62
.
miscellaneous Operating boilers Operating engines and dynamos

Supplies
Water
Lubricants and waste Miscellaneous expense Total, except fuel Coal Coal labor, car to boiler room
Total cost
0.055 0.025 0.033 0.441 0.298 0.022

0.761
00 80 75 50 60. 08
1,612. 16 2,177. 44 114. 62
$6,728.02
on
floor of
$3,904.22
$0.94
Average cost
boiler
of coal
room
$1.0214
310
[Div. 14
Illinois screenings,
with hand-fired furnaces, no coal-handUng apparatus, burning and having 5,000 hp. of reciprocating engines;
station
was a modern steam-turbine plant with
coal-
and
ash -handling apparatus, economizers, superheaters, and also
(From Gebhardt's Steam Power Illinois screenings. Plant Engineering.) 275. The Unit Operating Cost For A Turbine Depends On The "Load Factor" (Fig. 259). The load factor is the ratio
burning
of the average
power delivered by the turbine over a certain

32aooo
280,000
50
60
70
Yearly Load
Fac-tor- Per
SO Cent
Fig. 259. Graphs showing how load factor influences the cost of generating energy. Costs at switchboard for a 7,500-kw. steam electric central station. This is from Gebharts, Steam Power Plant Engineering.
time period to the maximum power-demand imposed on the turbine during that tinie period. That is:
(57)
Load factor
^
Maximum demand
^^
Average power
.
(decimal)
(2)
Iôad factors are expressed as: (1) Daily load factors.
In Fig. 259, the yearly load factor is used. As is shown by Fig. 259, the total yearly amount of the fixed charges is independent of the load factor whereas the total operating charges increase as the load
Weekly load factors.
(3)
Yearly load factors.
factor increases, but not directly.
Also, the unit fixed charges
Sec. 276]
311
factor
is
and unit operating charges decrease as the load

increased.
Hence, the unit operating cost varies very widely with different load factors. For a more complete discussion
of load factor,
author's
demand factor and Central Stations.
similar quantities see the
Example.
If
period and the
maximum demand
a plant generates 2,400 kw.-lir. of energy during a 24-hr. during that period is 150 kw., what is
the load factor for this period?
= 2,400/24 =
mum
Solution. Average power = kw.-hr./hr. 100 kw. Hence the load factor = Average power /Maxidemand = 100/150 = 0.675 or 67.5 per cent.
Note. The Lower The Load Factor, The Greater Will Be The Required Capacity Of The Generating Equipment, For A Given Average Load. If the probable energy required of a plant during a given period is known and the probable load factor is also known, then the probable maximum demand which will be imposed on the generating equipment can be computed thus: Example. A plant must generate 500,000 kw.-hr. each month. The
probable monthly load factor is 60 per cent. What will be the maximum demand on the plant? In other words what maximum power output must the generating equipment be capable of handhng? Solution. Maximum demand = Average power/Load factor = 500,000 -J-
(24
30)/0.60
1,116 kw.
276. The Operating Costs Of Turbines Are Generally Computed And Included Together With Those Of The
done because it would be very difficult, if not determine specifically the fuel expense which is properly chargeable to the turbine. Hence, no attempt is generally made to separately determine the costs of the
Boilers.
is
This
impossible, to
turbine.
Instead, the operating cost of the entire plant
is
generally
computed by adding together the boiler-room and
turbine-room operating costs. The unit operating cost is then determined for the entire plant. This unit operating cost is then useful for comparison between the turbine plant and a
steam-engine
consideration
plant or an internal-combustion-engine plant.
A Prime Mover For Any Given Service, must be given to the following factors: (1) Adaptability; that is consideration must be given to the distinctive advantages and disadvantages, see Table 287, of the
277. In Selecting
various plants which are being investigated.
(2) Reliability.
312
(3)

Economics; that
is,
[Div. 14
various plants must
the operating costs (Sec. 271) of the be studied. In the following sections,
the above factors will be discussed principally as they apply to steam-turbine selection. Also, since the selection of a steam turbine generally involves a decision between a steam engine
and a turbine, the following discussion wiU treat principally of the relative merits of these two prime movers. 278. To Render The Steam Turbine Adaptable To Various Services has been the aim of turbine engineers during recent Formerly turbines were only designed to run at very years. high rotative speeds (several thousand revolutions per minute)
and hence could be used only with reduction gears to drive relatively high-speed machinery such as electric generators.
Today, however, turbines are designed for rotor speeds as low as 1,200 r.p.m. and, with reduction gears, are being used to drive even the slowest-speed machinery. Inherently, however, the turbine is best adapted for driving high-speed machinery which must operate at a constant rotative speed.
most extensive use is for driving electric generators, pumps, blowers, and like high-speed machinery. Furthermore, as has been shown in Div. 9, the turbine is adapted for almost any steam pressures and can be operated condensing or to exhaust against back pressures.
Hence,
its
centrifugal
Note. The Steam Turbine Is Not Reversible And Cannot Be Efficiently Operated At Variable Speeds. These two limitations are practically the only ones which need ever rule out the turbine from the viewpoint of adaptability. However, even these have been somewhat overcome in marine practice where, for reversing, a separate turbine is employed and, to secure maximum efficiency, full speed is maintained whenever possible.
279.
Modem
Turbines Are Very Reliable.
Because
of the of
small
its
number
of bearing surfaces in a turbine
and because
purely rotational motion, the lubrication of the bearings can be made very positive, Div. 10, and the wear is inappreciIf kept in proper alignment and carefully operated, a able.
steam turbine
kind.
is
more reUable than a prime mover
of
any other
Sec. 280]
cc
313
314
[Div. 14
The Efficiency Or Steam Economy Of A Turbine Depends Principally On Its Size And Steam Conditions. The effect of size is partially illustrated in Figs. 264 and 265;
281.
turbines of larger capacity than those represented in these
graphs show even better efficiencies the very large condensing turbines have water rates of about 11 lb. of steam per kw.-hr.; The effects of steam conditions pressure, see Table 280. vacuum, and superheat have been discussed in Div. 13. There seems to be little difference, if any, between the efficiencies of impulse and reaction turbines of equal capacity; reaction turbines, however, are not practicable in sizes smaller than about 125 kw. 282. The Efficiency Or Steam Economy Of Turbines At Fractional Loads (Fig. 260) is very much better than that of engines. Figure 260 shows that the steam rate increases more as the load is decreased with small turbines than with
large ones.
The high
efficiency
is
of turbines at light loads
par-
ticularly advantageous in electric
power stations where turbines must frequently be operated at

fractional loads so as to be ready
for a
S;
sudden increase in station
"
25
50
75
Full
lOO
125
'^
Per Cent Of
Rated
Load
Fig. 260. Graphs showing approximate variation of the steam consumption of turbines
NoTE.
ThE CAPACITY RATING Of
^ TURBINE GENERALLY MeaNS VeRY
LiTTLE.-Turbines often are most efficient at loads which are considerably less than their rated capacity and are usually capable of supplying considerably more power than their rating. Large turbines are often rated at the maximum load which their generators are capable of developing continuously (see Fig. 273). But this, too, is not always the basis of the rating. Hence, the meaning of a turbine rating is often quite
indefinite.
with
variations
of
Sec. 284]
315
steam from non-condensing engines, pumps, or other equipment, the capacity of a plant can often be increased by 80 to 100 per cent, without any increase of the boiler capacity. Where condensing engines are in use, these may be run noncondensing and their exhaust then utilized in a turbine an increase in capacity of 40 to 50 per cent, may thus be obtained with but a slightly greater amount of steam consumed. See Div. 9 on low- and mixed-pressure turbines.
Note. The Use Of Separate High-pressure Non-condensing And Low-pressure Turbines Is Not Advisable; the very-large capacity
ITo+a Heat Energy
I
To-tal
Energy In A Given Quantity Of 5+eatn Available For Heating And Power
UNonCondenÎng Operation
Power,
Available
For
Heating
JZCondensinoj
Operation
Converted Info Power

legends-
Bearing Fricfion
And
^Consumed
by
Auxiliaries
^^^= Lost
Radiation To Condenser
mm
Fig. 261.
Energy Available for Heating
of the heat energy in a given quantity of steam when it is used in turbines of different types. The bleeder turbine operation {III), can, on a moment's notice, be changed to either that of the non-condensing {IV) turbine or any condition intermediate between II and IV as power and heat requirements may demand.
Chart showing approximately the disposition
compound
Such an units, Sec. 68, are considered as being single units. arrangement, although efficient in its use of steam, is not commercially economical because it necessitates a duplication of turbine and generator units it is usually found that one high- pressure condensing turbine is better. Exhaust-steam turbines should, therefore, only be employed where profitable use can be made of the exhaust steam from existing steam-using equipment.
284.
The Economy Of Bleeder Turbines,
Fig.
261,
(see
also Div. 9) lies in the fact that,
by them, low-pressure steam is
made
available for heating or industrial services after the
steam has been first used very efficiently to generate electrical energy in the bleeder turbine unit. By so arranging the load
AND PRACTICE
[Div. 14
on a bleeder turbine that the turbine always consumes (receives) considerably more steam than is extracted from it the turbine can thereby be made more efficient in its use of steam than would be a non-condensing turbine which consumed only the amount of steam that is necessary for low-pressure
heating or the like. Bleeder turbines are, therefore, being used more and more as house turbines in large power stations the auxiliaries being driven largely by electric motors which are supplied with energy from the generator which the bleeder
turbine drives.
The Most Economical Application Of A Bleeder an electrical generating station, it should be operated in conjunction with another (condensing) turbine. The total load is divided between the two units. The load on the bleeder turbine can then be changed, from time to time, as is necessary to insure that this turbine will always ''bleed" sufficient low-pressure steam to satisfy
Note, Turbine
in
For
feed-water or other heating requirements.
285.
To Predict The Steam Rate Of A Contemplated

or
it
may be used for the first estiTable 280. The exact water rate, however, can best be determined by applying to various manufacturers for their guarantees. Manufacturers generally specify steam economies which their turbines will actually exceed by a slight amount. This they do to be on the safe side. Having the builders' guarantees one may then make
Turbine, the method of Sec. 15
mate
may be read from
his final calculations.
When
bleeder or mixed-pressure tur-
bines are contemplated, their low-pressure steam rates
must
very often be estimated; hence, undue accuracy in their waterrate calculations should be avoided. 286. The Relative Economies Of Steam Turbines And Steam Engines depend, to a great extent, upon local conditions. Because they generally operate under different conditions it is often difficult to make reasonable comparisons between the two. Certain items of economy, however, are quite general in that they hold for nearly all comparisons these items have been included in Table 287. Since the ffi'st cost of turbines is less than that of engines of equal capacity, the interest, taxes,
insurance and depreciation charges are correspondingly
less.
The
rental charges are also less, because of the fact that the
Sec. 287]
317
turbine occupies less space; see Figs. 262 and 263. Likewise with the other economy items given in Table 287. Practically the only item of
economy which
is
not given in Table 287
is
Horizontal Corliss'
Fig. 262. 'Comparative floor space occupied by steam engines
Fig.
263.
^Comparative
for
head
room necessary
and turbines.
steam engines
and
turbines.
that of operating efficiency or steam

treated in Sees. 288 and 289.
287. Table
economy;
this item
is
Of Advantages And Disadvantages Of Steam Turbines And Steam Engines.

STEAM TURBINE
318
[Div. 14
288. The Relative Steam Economies Of Non-condensing Turbines And Engines are illustrated in Fig. 264 for full-load operation; see also Table 280. It is well to note that the noncondensing turbine is not as efficient as the non-condensing engine. However, at fractional loads (Sec. 282), the turbine's
efficiency
is
more nearly equal
to the engine's.
As
is
shown by
is
Fig. 264, the efficiency of the turbine in the larger sizes
also
more nearly equal
to that of the engine than in the smaller
Sec. 289]
319
288A. Turbine Steam Rates Are Also Less Likely To Increase With Years Of Service Than Are Engine Steam Rates. This is because the only wearing parts of the turbine The nozzles and bladare the bearings, nozzles, and blading.
ing do not
even when the turbine is new. A small due to steam erosion, of these nozzles and blades will not produce excessive steam leakage as will a small amount of wear on engine valves or cylinders.
''fit
tight,"
amount
of wear,
lA
320
[Div. 14
Showing Applicability Of Steam Turbines And Engines In Units Of Small Capacity. This table is based on a paper by J. S. Barstow before the A.S.M.E. in Dec, 1915 and
290. Table
applies chiefly to units of 500-hp. or less capacity.
Turbines
Engines
Condensing Units, Direct-connected

For:
(a) 60-cj/cZe generators in all sizes,
(fe)
1.
Non-condensing Units, Direct-connected Or Belted For:

(a) Electric generators of all classes, ex-
25-cycle generators
above 1,000-kw.
capacity.
(c)
Centrifugal
pumping machinery oper(b)
ating under substantially constant head and quantity conditions and

at moderately high head, say
from
100 ft. up, depending on the size of the unit.

(d)
cepting exciter sets of small capacunless belted from the main engine. Centrifugal pumping machinery operating under variable head and quantity conditions and at relatively low heads, say up to 100 ft., depending on the capacity of the
ity
unit.
Fans and blowers for delivering air at pressures from 13^^ -in. water col-
(c)
Pumps and
compressors for deliver-
umn
to 30
lb.
per sq.
in.
ing water or gases in relatively small quantities and at relatively high pressures in the case of pumps at pressures above 100 lb.
per sq. per sq.

(d)
in.,
compressors above
1 lb.
in.
Fans and blowers (inchiding induceddraft fans) for handling air in variable quantities and at relatively
pressures, say not over 5-in. water column. Line shafts of mills, where the driven apparatus is closely grouped and the load factor is good. All apparatus requiring reversal in
low
(e)
(/)
direction of rotation, as in hoisting
Non-condensing Units, Direct-connected For All The Above, Purposes, In Those Cases Where:
(a)
2.
and the like. Condensing Units, Direct-connected OR belted, for all the above
engines,
(o)
Steam economy
(b)
not the prime factor or the exhaust steam can be completely utilized. Oil-free exhaust steam is desirable or
is
purposes, particularly where: The condensing water supply

limited.
is
(6)
The water must

circulated.
be recooled
and
re-
essential.
Geared Units, Either Condensing

OR Non-condensing,
for all the
above
applications and, in addition, many others which would otherwise fall in
the category of the steam engine, on account of the relatively slow speed of the apparatus to be driven.
Sec. 291]

First Costs
321
291.
ties
The
Of Steam Turbines
of different capaci-
Table 280 and Fig. 266. The values given here must be understood to be only indicaare given approximately in
and subject to the influence of local Conditions and market fluctuations as it is impossible to give prices which will be even nearly correct for any length of time due to the rapid change of prices. These prices are not intended to be accurate at any future date but, they may, however, be used for pretions
liminary estimates of power-plant cost as they show

price
how
the
varies
with the size of the unit.
This
relationship
remains practically the same regardless of the change in price. If at any future date the percentage change of the average
322

very
[Div. 14
decrease
constant.
much
for
an increase
price
in
capacity.
is
Above
30,000 kw.
292.
capacity the
per kilowatt
practically
For
The Steps To Be Taken In Selecting A Prime Mover Given Service are: (1) Determine the load factor, Sec. 275, and the hourly load variation if possible; if it is not possible
to accurately determine the load variation, then try to obtain
the probable load variation from some similar plant.
(2)
Determine
the
7naximum
load; in
new
(3)
plants, the
maximum
load must often be estimated.
Select the
most desirable
capacities of units; this should be
done with a view toward always operating each unit at its most economical load.
Generally speaking, the fewer units in a plant the better, provided always that there is sufficient generating capacity to
carry the
maximum peak
with the largest unit out of service.
(4) Get costs and performance guarantees (Sec. 294) for the different units of each type which is being considered; this
usually requires the making of tentative building and machinery layout drawings of the arrangements which are under
consideration.
(5)
Calculate the unit operating costs for each

;
type over a yearly period to do this, estimates of the operating
charges must be made.
(6)
Tabulate the estimates and decide

the smallest unit operating
on
the type of
equipment which shows

of selecting a
cost,
or
is
otherwise most desirable.

illustrative
The method
following
example,
prime mover is explained by the which is taken from the
National Electric Light Association Prime

tee's
Movers Commit-
Report
for 1921.
Note. The Values In The Following Example, As It Is Here Used, Are Intended To Illustrate A Method Of Procedure rather than to "prove in" or "prove out" any certain type or class of powergenerating equipment. Obviously, the values of the different elements which comprise the total cost will vary in different localities. The costs
shown are for the vicinity of New York City in the year 1921. It is only by thus preparing an accurate tabular comparison of the costs of energy, as developed by different types of equipment and under different conditions, that the most economical equipment and steam conditions
for a given location can be determined.
In the N.E.L.A. report, above is also given for 200-kw. plants which operate at load factors of 25 and 75 per cent.
referred to, an energy-cost comparative analysis
Sec. 292]
323
Example.
It is desired to select the

is
most economical equipment for
a generating station which

is
to furnish electrical energy at the average
power-output rates stated in Table I below. The following equipment to be considered: (a) Uniflow engines, (6) high-speed counterfiow
engines,
(c)
turbines, (d) Corliss engines,

oil
(e)
Diesel
oil
engines and
(/)
semi-Diesel
engines.
The most adaptable steam

in. for all
pressures
may be
assumed as 175 lb. per sq. which 150 lb. is to be used.
units except the Corliss engines for Costs are to be determined for non-condensing (atmospheric exhaust) and for condensing operation both with satuThe condensing rated steam and with steam of 100 F. superheat. engines are to operate with 26-in. vacuum; the turbines with 28-in.
vacuum.
The cost of coal is to be taken at $7.00 per ton, delivered. The heating value of the coal is 13,500 B.t.u. per lb. The oil engines are to be supplied with an oil of 18,500 B.t.u. per lb. heating value which will cost about $3.00 per bbl., delivered. The maximum peak load, assumed to occur only occasionally, is 200 kw. The average 24-hr, daily demand is assumed to vary as follows
Table
Load, in kw.
I.
The Loads and Their Duration

2.
Duration of
load, hours
1.
3. Kw.-hr. of energy generated
324
2.

Determine The Maximum Load.
is
[Div. 14
in
the problem as 200 kw.

3.
The maximum load given Select The Most Desirable Capacities Of Units. To provide
Turbine Unit
%. Foundation î_
Condenser
of the 300-kw. and also of the 400-kw. (total capacity) steam turbine generating stations the plan views of which are shown in following illus(N.E.L.A., 1921, Prime Movers Report.) trations.
Fig. 267.
Sectional elevation
T^"""1
^'^.'.'Circulatinq-wafer pipes
u
Fig.
u
kw. units) steam turbine See preceding illustration for section.
268. Plan view
of the 400-kw., total capacity (2-200
generating station.
sufficient generating capacity with the largest unit out of service and yet to have only a small number of units, it is thought advisable to con-
Sec. 292]
sider

for (a)
325
(6)
and make calculations
two 200-kw. and
three 100-kw
generating units of each type.

4.
Units. The
Get Costs And Performance Guarantees For The Different

building in
all
cases
is
assumed
to be of brick construction.
stack.
Cjrculafing-water pipes
Fig.
269.-Plan view
of the 300-kw., total capacity
generating station.
(3-100 kw. units), steam turbine See preceding illustration, Fig. 267, for section.
Load
Fig.
In
Kilowatts
for
270. Average steam consumptions per kilowatt-hour

steam
units.
200-kw. condensing
In
all
steel.
cases except for the belted Corliss engines, the roof trusses are of The station to house the belted Corliss engines is designed
wooden
roof trusses
and a central
line of posts
with on account of the long
span required.
The layouts of the buildings and principal equipment for the turbine plants are given in Figs. 267, 268, and 269. In the N.E.L.A. report
326

this
[Div. 14
from which
example
is
taken, layouts are
shown
for all of the differ-
ent plants which are considered.
From such
layouts, contractors can
make estimates. The investment costs are tabulated in Table IV below. The steam equipment is found to require boiler capacities as follows: (a)
For the non-condensing turbines and for the Corliss engines (both con(6) For all other Proposals and performance specifications cases, two 150-hp. boilers. were obtained from 65 manufacturers and averaged by classes. The average steam (or oil) consumptions were plotted into curves of which Fig. 270 is typical. 5. Calculate The Unit Operating Cost For Each Type. To do this, the yearly operating costs are first found and later, from these, the The annual fixed charge is assumed to unit operating costs are found. be 15 per cent, of the total investment cost for all plants, this figure including interest, taxes, depreciation and both liability and fire insurance. The fuel costs are thus determined: (a) For the oil-engine -plants. The oil consumed per 24-hr. day was computed by multiplying each item of column 3, Table I, by the fuel rate at the load shown in column 1. (The fuel rate is read from the guarantee curve.) From the daily oil consumption, the animal fuel-oil cost can readily be obtained. (6) For the steam plants. The steam consumed per 24-hr. day was computed by multiplying each item in column 3 of Table I by the steam rate at the load shown in column 1. Thus, for the 200-kw. condensing turbine plant:
densing and non-condensing), two 200-hp. boilers.
Table
II.
Steam Consumption, 200-kw. Condensing Turbine Plant

Water
lb.
Load, in kfv^., from Table I
rate,
Kw.-hr.
generated,
per kw.-hr..
Fig.
Steam
I
conlb.
from
270
from Table
sumed,
180
Sec. 292
327
heat of dry saturated steam at 175 lb. per sq. in. gage is 1,198 B.t.u. per If a feed-water temperature of 200 F. is assumed, the heat of the liquid (from steam table) is 168 B.t.u. per lb. Hence, the B.t.u. absorbed per pound of steam = 1,198 168 = 1,030 B.t.u. Therefore, with coal of 13,500 B.t.u. per lb. heating value, and a boiler efficiency of 64 per
lb.
cent., the evaporation
=
the
0.64
13,500
coal
1,030
8.39
lb.
steam per
-^
lb.
of
coal.
Therefore,
daily
co7isumption
86,050
(8.39
Hence, at $7.00 per ton, the annual coal cost = 5.13 X 365 X $7.00 = $3,100. (See Table IV.) The annual labor cost is computed by assuming the required attendants and their probable salaries, thus
2,000)
5.13 tons per day.
Table
III.
Attendants Required and Salaries
Number
Class of employee
required
Salary, each,
Steam
plant
Oil-engine
per
month
plant
Chief engineer
Watch
Oilers
engineers
175 125 110
Firemen
110
Thus, for the 200-kw. condensing plant the annual

superintendence
to the
cost of labor
and
12
[175
(2
125)
(3
110)]
$9,060.
Now,
since the regular power-plant force of attendants can, ordinarily, attend

of repairs about the plant, $1,000 of the annual salaries charged to repairs leaving the annual charge for labor and superintendence = $9,060 - $1,000 = $8,060; see Table IV. The annual costs of lubricants, miscellaneous supplies, and pumping cooling water (for the oil engines) were estimated; the estimated values are given in Table IV. The annual costs of repairs were figured at 4 per cent, of the investment costs of the engine plants and at 3 per cent. in the case of turbine plants. Thus, for the 200-kw. condensing-turbine plants the annual repair cost was figured as 3 per cent, of the investment cost for the generating units, condensing equipment, boilers, and feed pumps. The investment cost for this equipment = $19,460 + 7,000 + Therefore, the annual repair cost = 0.03 X 13,000 + 1,500 = $40,960. $40,960 = $1,229; see Table IV. Thus, the total annual cost of operation is the sum of annual fixed
making
may be
charges, fuel, labor

plies,
and repair
costs.
and superintendence, lubricant, miscellaneous supThis sum gives a value of $38,228 as shown in
Table IV.
Therefore, the unit operating costs
(58)
may
be computed by the formula:
Annual operating
Unit operating or energy
cost
cost
Energy units
delivered per year
328

Load Factor 50 Per Cent.
Engines.
[Div. 14
Table IV. Showino Investment and Operatino Steam Pressure 175 Lb. per Sq. In. Gage for All
Cost of 13,500 B.T.U. Coal $7.00 Per Net
Non-condensing steam prime movers Back-pressure atmospheric
Counter-flow engines
3-100 kw.
2-200 kw.
a-100 kw.
A Steam
Investment:
Real estate Brick building Generating units, delivered and erected. Switchboards and street lighting transformers Electric wiring and ducts Piping complete Condensing equipment ioundations, exclusive of building Oil filters and tanks
Railroad siding.
Boilers, delivered and bricked Feed w'ater heater Feed pumps Steel stack and flues
in
Equipment Desioned
2,500 43,000 23,380
2,500 35,200 31,954 6,500 3,500 6,500
2,500 35,200 25,504 7,000 4,000 6,500
2,500 26,000 16,750
2,500 45,000 24,450

7,000 4,000 6,500
3,500 6,500
3,200 13,000 900 1,500 1,800
13,000 900 1,500
4,200 1,800 3,200 13,000
2,800 1,800
3,200 13,000
3,200 15,400
3,200 15,400 900 1,500 1,800
4,200 1,800 3,200 15,400 900 1,500 1,800
Motor-driven
pump for cooling water
10,000 gal. fuel oil storage tank Air compressor and tanks
Intake for circulating water
Total investment.
Cost op Operation:
Fixed charges 15 per cent, on investment Fuel
Labor and superintendent

'Lubricants
15,915 16,290 8,060
13,328 20,974 8,060
Miscellaneous supplies
Repairs Cost pumping cooling water

Total operating cost
40,861
(41,105
2.74 1.95 4.69 570.75
3.21 2.03 5.24 591.25
Cost Cost Cost Cost
per kw.-hr. operation (cents). per kw.-hr. fixed charges (units)

. .
2.74
1.93
per kw.-hr. total (cents)
per kw.-peak (dollars)
4.67 562.77
1.52 5.00 444.25
1.62 5.11
474.25
BStâm
Investment:
Real estate Brick building Generating units, delivered and erected. Switchboards and street lighting transElectric wiring
Equipment Designed
$
2,500 t 2,500 35,800 35,200 32,250 31,954 7,000 4,000 7,000 3,900 1,800 3,200 15,100 900 1,500 1,800
2,500 S
25,504
2,500 35,800 26,634

7,000 4,000 7,000
2,500 26,000 16,750
28,000 19,449
7,000 4,000 7,000
2,500 S 2,500 43,000 45,000 24,450 23,380

7,000 4,000 7,000
and ducts
Piping complete
3,500 7,000
Condensing equipment
Foundations, exclusive of building.
Oil filters
and
tanks.'
Railroad siding.
and bricked in Feed water heater Feed pumps Steel stack and flues Motor-driven pump for cooling water-. 10,000 gal. fuel oil storage tank Air compressor and tanks
Boilers, delivered
.
3,200 15,100
2,800 1,800 3,200 18,200 900 1,500 1,800
4,200 1,800
18,200 900 1,500
1,500 1,800
Intake for circulating water
Total investment
Cost of Operation:
Fixed charges 15 per cent, on Fuel
i
t 17,273 $ 17,513 12,725 12,660
$ 16,670 14,820
i 14,722 19,900
S 18,232 17,300
Labor and superintendent.

Lubricants
Miscellaneous supplies
8,060 400 350

1,942
8,060
8,060
8,060
8,060 400 350 1,766
Cost pumping cooling water.

Total operation cost.
t 42,200
.
f 46,108
2.89 1.90 4.79 556.67
Cost Cost Cost Cost
per kw.-hr. operation (cents). per kw.-hr. fixed charges (cents).

.
2.96
1.97
per kw.-hr. total (cents) per kw.-peak (dollars). >
4.65 575.77
3.18 2.08 6.26 607.75
Sec 293]
329
CoBT or A 200 Kw. Centbal Station

Steam Pressure ISO Lb. per Sq. In. Gage for Corliss Units Except Corliss Engines. Ton Delivered. Cost of 18,500 B.T.U. OU 3.00 Per Bbl. Delivered
330
[Div. 14
cost
Thus, for the 200-kw. condensing-turbine plant, the unit operating = $38,228 H- (365 X 2,400) = $0.0437 or 4.37 ct. per kw.-hr.; see
Table IV. For comparison, the investment cost per kilowatt of peak load was Thus, for the 200-kw. condensing also computed for each type of unit. turbine plant, the cost per kilowatt of peak load = (total investment cost) -^ (kilowatts peak-load capacity) = $102,260 ^ 200 = $511.30. 6. Tabulate The Estimates And Decide On The Type Of EquipMENT.^The estimates are here tabulated in Table IV. From the preceding tabulation (Table IV) it is evident that the plant with three 100-kw. semi-Diesel engines shows the least unit energy cost (4.34 ct. per kw.-hr.) which is but slightly less than that of the plant with two 200-kw. condensing turbines when supplied with saturated steam Because of the lesser investment cost of the tur(4.37 ct. per kw.-hr.). bine plant and because of its greater reliabiUty, it would probably, for the stated conditions, be chosen in preference to the oil-engine plant. " Contrary to what seems to be the general belief, the lower steam rate
which obtains with superheated steam
higher fixed charges
is,
in practically
all cases, offset
by
net gain
is
and fuel costs; and, except in the case realized by operating the plants condensing."
of turbines,
no
293.
The Information Which Should Be Given The Turbine
Manufacturer
(1)
When
Requesting
(2)
Quotation
is
as follows:
What
is
wanted; turbine, turbo-generator, turbine-driven
centrifugal
pumps,
etc.
Capacity; horsepower, kilovolt-
amperes, kilowatts, or gallons per minute; always, if possible, for an alternating-current generator, state the power factor. (3) Speed; this need not generally be given if the driven
(4) Steam condiand back-pressure or vacuum. If a mixed-pressure or bleeder turbine is wanted give also the quantity and pressure of the low-pressure steam which is available or to be extracted. (5) Output conditions; whether
machine
is
to be included in the quotation.
tions; boiler pressure, superheat,
alternating-current
voltage,
or
direct-current
generator
is
wanted,
number of phases and frequency or head against which pump must discharge, etc. If an a.-c. generator is required
is wanted direct-connected on the main-turbine shaft or whether separate turbine-driven exciter is wanted. (6) Nature of load on driven-machine or on
state whether the exciter
is composed largely of motors or whether it is principally a lighting load and also whether the load is steady or variable.
turbine; state whether load
Sec. 293]
331
AUIS-CHALMERS MANUFACTURING COMPANY

PROPOSAL
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.
S.
'^.^.A.
To
Brswn...ftna...Bl8.c.lc.M8m8.e.tuxlng..Cpmpftny.
Jdduss
St
louls. Mo.
Allis-Chalnurs Manufacturing Company, hfrfinafur calUd the Company, proposes to furnish tht Purchaser, on the lollowing conditions, the machinery described below, or in the Company*! specifications attacked, which are made a part of this proposal, t. o. b. cars point of shipment.
One
(l_)___750-k;w.
at 80 per cent^
maxitmira
rated
turbo-alternator urtltoomi^
expansion Joint bnt not
Including _exolter, as per attaohed specifications pages 5 to 9

InoluslTo.
_
..
All
machinery
(hall
be insuUed by and at the expense of the Purchaser, unless otherwise expressly
stipulated herein.
The Company
will repair
f.
o. b.
works where made, or furnish without charge

of its
it
f.
o. b, its
works, a
is
similar part to replace
any material
own manufacture which,
within one year after shipment,
proven to have been defective at the time

mediate written notice of such alleged
was shipped, provided the Purchaser gives the Company Imdelects. The Company shall not be held liable for any damages
or delays caused by defective material, and no allowance will be
made
for repairs or alterations, unless
made with
its
written consent or approval.
machinery ncrein specified, ret all payments hereunder, (including deferred payments and any notes or rer have been fully made in cash, and it is agreed that the said machinery shall i
The
title
and
right of possession to the
in
s
the
Company
it
until
thereof,
any), shall
n the personal property

;e,
of the
cash.
Company whatever may be the mode of its attachment to realty Upon failure to make payments, or any of them, as herein specified,
(
until fully paid (or in
the
Company may
retain
any
payments which have been made, as liquidated damages, and shall be entitled to take immediate possession of said property, and be free to enter the premises where said machinery may be located, and to remove the same as its property without prejudice to any further claims on account of damage which the Company may suffer from any cause. The company may pursue all legal remedies
and
all
partial
to enforce
payment hereunder, but

agrees that
it
if
unable to collect
may
thereafter repossess the property.

suits that
The Company
shall at its
own eipense defend any
may
be instituted by
its
any'party against the Purchaser,
(or alleged infringement of patents relating to
machinery of
own
manufacture furnished tinder

Purchaser shall have
this proposal,
provided such alleged infringement shall consist

this contract,
in the
use of
said machinery, or parts thereof, in the regular course of the Purchaser's business,
and provided the

its
made
all
payments then due under

gives
all
and gives to the Company
immediate notice
in
writing of the institution of such suits, and permits the
Company, through
needed information, assistance and authority to enable the Company to do so, and thereupon in case of a final award of damage." in such suit the Company will pay such award, but it shall not be responsible for any compromise made without its written consent, nor shall it be bound to defend any suit or to pay any damages therein when the same shall arise by reason
Counsel, to defend the same,
and
of the use of parts not furnished

notified of,
The Company shall also be by the Company under this proposal. and reserves the right to be represented at any tests which the Purchaser may make, iu
delayed by any cause for which
relation to guarantees of operation.

If
shipment of the machinery herein specified, or any part thereof,
is
the Company is not directly or indirectly responsible, the date of completion of said machinery by the Company shall be regarded as the date of shipment in determining when payments for said machinery storage; are to be made, and the Company shall be enutled to receive reasonable compensation for
such storage to be at the risk of the Purchaser.
If all
same
the
date, pro-rata
payments
shall
be
made
for partial shipments.

in
the machinery should not be forwarded on the All notes and securities given to
Company by Purchaser
are taken
by the Company, not
payment, but as evidence only of Pur-
chaser's indebtedness.
This contract
is
contingent upon strikes,
fires,
accidents or other delays unavoidable or beyond

shall not
the reasonable control of the

loss,
Company.
The Company
be held responsible or liable for any
damage, detention or delay, from any cause beyond its control; and the receipt of the machinery by and all claims (or lost or the Purchaser shall constitute acceptance of iu delivery and * waiver of any damage due to any delay.
Fig. 271.
Typical manufacturer's proposal
(part
I;
this constitutes pages
and 2
of
this particular proposal).
332

PRICE:
[Div. 14
The prut of said machintry

Twenty ..Eight Thousand
is..
Dollars,
(*...
28,000.00
),
payable in
New
York, Chicago or Milwaukee Exekanie.
TERMS. Terms ol
payment are as follows:
60 ./o, Cash upon jiresentation of
BlU
of lading
20./o.Ca9h 50. aay 3 thereafter

2Q
.."/ft
C88h_60dsy3.thereafter
SHIPMENT:-The
machinery herein specified will be shipped
^.Ô
4ayS
..
from
the date of the receipt of th^
Anal information from the Purchaser, at the Company's works.
The services of engineers, millwrights or mechanics furnished by the Compiny for ihe purpose of superintending the erection or operation of the machinery covered by this proposal, shall be paid for by the Purchaser, monthly and independent of the contract account, at the rate of Fifteen Dollars
per eight hour day and regular overtime rates plus all traveling and hotel expenses, including all time the said parties are absent from the Company's works on the Purchaser's business; it being understood and agreed that during the term ol such service the said engineers, millwrights and mechanics shall be All labor and the Purchaser's employees, for whose acts the Company shall assume no responsibility. material required in connection with these services, will be furnished by the Purchaser.
In the event it is elsewhere herein agreed that the Company shall erect the machinery herein sped6ed, the Purchaser shall reimburse the Company for all expenses in connection with the erection of the machinery occasioned by delays, lack of facilities or apparatus to be furnished by the Purchaser or any acts for which the Company is not responsible.
In the event the
Company
furnishes
oil,
vire,
cable or other material requiring special carriers,
under this proposal, (such as oil barrels, reels, < tc), the Purchaser will pay to the Company, under the' terms of this agreement, the value of such Carrie s in addition to the contract price. Vpon return of such carriers, in good condition, to the proper receivir g point, to be designated by the Company, the Company will credit the Purchaser the full amount previc usly charged; provided, however, that invoice or memorandum and necessary shipping documents are promptly forwarded to the Company and return shipnths from the date of shii ment is made, charges prepaid, within
1
provide and machinery herein specified, aga and the -Purchaser shall assume
shall
The Purchaser
of the
Company adequate
insurance for the
in an amount fully protecting the Company, n case of failure to effect such insurance.
All the terms and provisions of the contract between the parties hereto, are fully set out herein, and no agent, salesman or othei party is authorized to bind the Company by any agreement, warranty, statement, promise or understanding not herein expressed, and no modifications of the contract shall be binding on either party unless the same are in writing, accepted by the Purchaser and approved in writing by an Executive Officer of the Company.
ALLIS-CHALMERS MANUFACTURING COMPANY,
ACCEPTANCE.
The
this
foregolag proposal
hereby accepted
day of
-.J92_
(SSK)
Fig. 272.
Typical manufacturer's proposal (part
II; this constitutus
pages 3 and 4 of
Sec. 293]

ALLIS
333
CHALMERS MAN LFACTL RING COMPANY

MILWAUIBB. WISCONSIN, U
S.
A.
STEAM TURBINE PRESSURE MIXED rh. ^^^ CONDENSING UNIT ALTERNATOR

Company. St. Louis. Mo. Brow^ and BlaoH Manufacturing
These guai
and specifications (orm part
of proposal
dated
J*"..
'
STEAM CONSUMPTIONS
The s.eam
pages, turbine unit- described in the following
when
erected and properly adjusted
below at ._ true energy steady loads as given the Purchaser's power house, w,ll carry
8Q
per
,u
power
(actor
as and under constant operating conditions
set forth
on page 6
of these specification,,
exceeding: with a consumption of dry steam not
M One-half load
A,
Full load
(viz.:.375.
K.
W). .41.6
lbs per IC
W. W.
W.
hour,
a. 2. lbs
per IC
W. hour
AtThreeûartersIoad (vi..56e.5K.
(vi..
W). 36.6
..lbs.
per K.
hour...ie. 8..1bs. hour...!'.
K.
W.
hour
:.m
K. W.)...M...2...1bs. per IC
include
:
lbs
per K,
W. hour
auxiliary
The above steam consumptions

ies.
power used by
linals
and
and
i
output at the general Tlie above loads are the true electrical
field tor excitation.
energy re-
quired in the
When
the proposal
an exciter direct connected to this steam
drive turbine unit the steam required to
same
is
included.
When
steam turbine
is
operating on low
pressure stean, provision will
amount of high pressure steam to keep be made for admitting a small
high pressure blading cool
Rated capacity of unit
at
9Q
per cent
powe
factor
750
K.
W. Maximum.
Rated current per terminal
28.0...
Amperes.
Normal Voltage
Normal speed -
?3Q0-
Cycles.._.e<>.
Phase_
_..a
:;
^^
throttle
revolutions per
Turbine to be operated condensing.
Steam pressure at turbine high pressure Steam pressure

at turbine
low pressure throttle
throttle Superheat in steam at turbine high pressure
Superheat
in
steam
at turbine
low pressure throttle
Vacuum Ther
IC
at turbine
exhaust nozzle
2&
W
7
780
BQ
^^'''^
Appro:
Excitation voltage
125
required with rated curre

will
hundred per cent power
(actor.
Approximately
70
per cent power factor. be required with the same current at eight
Insulation
for one minute:

inlet
Field-.ISOQ
volts; Armature...
^600
volts.
Diameter of H. P. steam
Diameter
of L. P.
5
urbine...l4
floor
inches
steam
inlet
.inches
exhaust nozzle
feet.
.
inches. inches.
inches.
Approximate overall length of unit above Approximate additional length below

overall width of Approximate (
unit
IB
..,11
floor..
3
"
_ feet.
11
feet.
inches.
Approx. height of highest point of
above floor
Approximate shipping weight Approximate weight Approximate weight

Approximate amount
of unit
46&00
:t.ng
pounds,
of heaviest piece to
be handled
in ei
3360
3180
pounds.
of heaviest piece to be handled afte of air required
erection
by generator per mil

Kunes hanwna
I
lount ol local COI
(NOTE U
I
more loom
no
t
.ith sublrtteri.
prêdence over Ihf fnnui
SiS.V
FiQ.
273. Typical manufacturer's proposal
(part III; this constitutes pages 5
and 6 of
334

UIXED PRESSURE CONDENSING STEAM TURBINE AND ALTERATOR
UNIT.
[Div. 14
GENERAL DESCRIPTIONThe
steam turbine
will
type, connecltfd lo the generator by a flexible coupling. The rotors of turbine be earned in two bearings, so that either rotor may be handled separately.
be of the Iiorizonial, Allis-Chalmers reaction and generator will each
BLADINGThe
cially
adapted to
resist corrosion, erosion
blading will be of the Company's patented construction, and steam temperature specified
made
of materials espe.
GLANDSAn
adequate supply of clear water, free from scale forming impurities, and steady pressure ol fifteen pounds by gauge at the glands, shall be furnished by the Pijrchaser.
;
GOVERNORThe
the
governor
will
mean speed
ol the unit
may
be provided with a hand operated synchronizer, arranged so that be varied approximately three per cent above or below the normal.
REGULATION The
tions, will be ly five
variation in speed from half load to full load under ordinary operating condiapproximately three per cent great or sudden variations ol load may cause approximateper cent momentary speed variation.
;
SAFETY STOPA
separate safety stop governor will be supplied, which will automatically shut off the steam if unii reaches a predetermined speed in excess ol the normal. lever for tripping safety stop by hand is conveniently located on unit.
THROTTLE VALVE Screw-operated
high pressure and low pressure throttle valves will be provided. Unit will be arranged so that high pressure steam will be automatically admitted m case low pressure steam supply is not sufficient to carry the load. Unit may be operated entirely with low pressure steam or entirely with high pressure steam.
GAUGESThe
Company's standard equipment
of
gauges and gauge board
will
be provided on unit
practice.
HAND OF TURBINEThe
ARMATUREThe
frame.
turbine will be according to the
Company's standard
armature core will be built up of laminated steel held in slots in the cast iron Ventilating spaces will be provided through which air will be forced. The coils, thoroughly insulated, will be firmly held in slots in the laminated core. supply of clean cool air for generator shall be arranged lor and supplied by Purchaser.
core of the revolving field will be made of steel with slots to receive the windings. The windings will be ol copper securely held in the slots by wedges. The ends of the coils will be substantially supported The alternator will be ventilated by air forced through all parts by means of fans attached to the field.
FIELDThe
EXCITERThe exciter is not

When
exciter
is
included unless so specified. Connections to sam included Purchaser shall promptly advise winding desired for !
are not included.
RHEOSTATThe alternator will be
regulating rheostat, arranged for installation behind the switchboard; rheostat include; face-plate and means lor operating by hand from front
field
provided with a
TERMINALSNo
ing to the cables leading to the switchboard.
terminals for armature leads are indnded, these leads will be arranged for solderNo cables or wiring is included.
PARALLEL OPERATION^This
also with other units which
similar to that of this unit
fulfill
the requirements tor parallel operation,
turbo-generator unit will operate in parallel with similar units; and have a speed regulation
LUBRICATIONA
self-contained oiling^system will be supplied. The Purchaser shall furnish adequate clear cool water, free from acid or scale-forming impurities for oil cooler. The Purchaser shall provide lubricating oil of proper quality and suitable character.
PAINTING All
ping.
No
exposed unfinished parts will be painted with one coat of black paint before shipornamental painting or painting after shipment is included.
TOOLSThe
than one turbine
Company's standard equipment of wrenches and tools will be furiiished. When more is included in the contract, only one set ol wrenches and tools will be furnished.
FOUNDATIONSThe
for
Purchaser shall provide suitable foundations, including material and labor grouting under the unit alter same has been lined up and leveled by Company's engineer, also such sub-loundalions, air cleanser and air ducts, for which the Company does not furnish drawings,
The foundations and sub-foundations must be so constructed that or transmit vibrations from or to the adjacent flooring or structure. The Comstandard outline and foundation plan drawings of apparatus furnished under Purchaser shall furnish drawings of foundations, air ducts, etc., and shall submit same to Company before any work is done. The Purchaser shall furnish foundation template aifd foundation bolts and washers.
as the local conditions necessitate.
they
will not receive
pany
will furnish its
these specifications.
PIPING The
turbine.
Purchaser
shall furnish all
steam and exhaust
pipir
3t
ample
size to give contract con-
and shall arrange same so that no strains or vi The exhaust pipe must be securely anchored under exha construction, and must be provided with a suitable expansion joir
ditions at turbine
itions will be transmitted to the
nozzle, laid out to avoid a the turbine exhaust nozzle.
stilT
The
Purchaser shall provide suitable size exhaust free to atmosphere provided with a water sealed automatic relief valve, if a gate valve is located in the turbine exhaust line, this atmospheric connection must be placed on the turbine side of same. Purchaser shall provide proper relief valve in low pressure line to turbine also proper drains and traps for all piping and shall furnish an efficient steam and oil separator near turbine P. throttle also an efficient steam separator near turbine H. P. throttle. The arrangement ol all steam and exhaust piping shall be submitted by the Purchaser to the Company belore any work is done. Purchaser shall furnish all water piping to and from uniL
OPERATION^Tbe
justed, provided
it
steam turbine unit will operate successfully alter being properly erected and adreceives such care and attention as is necessary and usual for units of this type
and
size; this includes the proper operation ol the condenser and ol the boiler plant, avoiding slugs of water and unduly wet steam also great or sudden fluctuations ol temperature or pressure. It is uiTderstood that the usual operating conditions will be as specified herein.
FiQ. 274.
Typical manufacturer's proposal (part IV;
this constitutes pages 7
and 8
cf
Sec. 294]
335
294. Turbine Specifications And Guarantees (Figs. 273, 274 and 275) are sent with the manufacturer's proposal (Figs. 271, and 272) and form a part of the proposal. Although the proposal which is here shown is for a mixed-pressure turbo-
alternator unit,
turbines.
it is
typical of those furnished for
all classes
of
The
proposal,
when accepted and
signed,
UNIT.
by both
MIXED PRESSURE CONDENSING STEAM TURBINE AND ALTERATOR

PACKING FOR SHIPMENTThe
manner
for domestic rail shipment. included unless sp specified.
turbine and generator will be prepared Packing for foreign shipment or
These specifications cover the Company's standard turbine-generator unit with standard equipment complete as described, beginning at the mlet Hange of the throttle valves, and ending at the Hange of the exhaust nozzle and at the generator terminals. It is advisable that the PurCompany promptly with drawings of the power house in the vicinity of the turbine location, showing other machinery, columns and foundations, existing and proposed piping, proposed arrangement of condensing apparatus, etc Purchaser shall provide proper space for installing unit and for removal of generator rotor.
chaser provide the
desired to determine that the unit fulfills the guarantees set forth in these made at Purchaser's plartt by and at the expense of Purchaser, and within ions. The Purchaser shall give the Company of his intention to make tests, and shall permit the Company at its expense in the power plant pîor to and during tests; and to furnish and couple up such to haverepresei instruments as the Company may desire. Pri' to the tests the Company shall have reasonable access to the unit for examination and the Purch; r shall make necessary preliminary tests. The ditions under which tests will be made, calibration of instruments, methods shall be mutually agreed upon between the Purchaser and the Company; general the rules of the A. S M. E. and the A. I. E. E. will be followed. Insulation tests will be made according to the rules of the A. I. E. E.
specifications sa thirty days aftei
!
IN
GENERAL
TESTSWhen
two weeks'
writ
readv
:e
GENERATOR TEMPERATURESGenerator
temperatures will be measured in accordance with the Standardization Rules of the A. I. E. E. as foHows: Stator: For units 500 or smaller, by Ihcunometer applied to the hottest accessible part of the completed machine; to the temperature so determined will be added 15C. correction. For units over 500 the temperature will be measured by embedded resistance coils placed as nearly as possible at the hottest part of the winding; to this temperature will be added 5C. correction. Resistance temperature coils are included, but no instrument will be furnished. Rotor- will be measured by increase of resistance of the winding; to the temperature so determined will be added 10*C. correction.
KVA
KVA
the purpose of superintending the erection and starting of the machinery described herein, the Purchaser agrees to and will engage and p^y for the services of such erecting engineers to be furnished by the Company as may be necessary, as provided in attached proposal. If, however, this proposal requires the Company to furnish engineers at its expense, the Purchaser shall place machinery in power house adjacent to turbine foundation and the erection of the machinery shall commence immediately upon engineer's arrival at Purcliaser's plant and proceed to completion without delay. The turbine engineer will remain at the Purchaser's plant, for operation, not longer than one week after the machinery is erected, it being understood and agreed that Purchaser's part of the work will be completed when erection of steam turbine unit is complete. The Purchaser shall pay the Company for the time and expenses of the engineer beyond this period also all time and expenses caused by delays which occur in the erection, starting, or operation of the machinery, provided the Company is not responsible for such delays. It is understood that the erecting engineers will not work more than ten hours per working day Overtime and night work also work on Sundays and Legal holidays, must be especially arranged for between the Purchaser and the Company. The Purchaser shall give the Company at least one week's written notice of the date when he will be ready for the erecting engineer.
;
ERECTION For
ALJ.IS-CHALMERS MANUFACTURING COMPANY,
Fig. 275.-
Typical manufacturer's proposal (part V; this constitutes page 9 of this

particular proposal).
the purchaser and manufacturer, forms a binding contract between the two. By the contract, the manufacturer can be
held to the fulfillment of the specifications and the guarantees. If the turbine in an acceptance test (see Fig. 275) does not peris stipulated in the guarantee, the purchaser has the right to reject the machine or to receive a liberal reduction in the specified purchase price. 295. In Selecting The Best Steam Conditions Under Which To Operate A Contemplated Turbine, as must be done when
form as well as
336

is
[Div.
14
an entire plant
271)
is
being designed, the unit operating cost (Sec.
again the deciding factor.
By computing
cost.
the unit
operating cost for various steam conditions, those conditions
can be found which afford the least unit

with higher
initial pressures,
Generally
speaking, the operating costs of turbines decrease (see Div. 13)
higher superheats, and lower back
pressures; but the operating costs of the boilers
and condensers
go up as those of the turbines go down. Hence, the selection of the best operating conditions is again a matter of economics and must be executed with a view toward attaining the mini-
mum
unit operating cost.
Note.
The
lb.
Most Usual Steam Conditions In Turbine Plants

about 1,000 kw.)
initial
are: (1) For small plants (up to
pressures of
superheats up to about 125 F., and vacuums of 27.5 to 28 in. (2) For large plants initial pressures of 200 to 300 lb. per sq. in. gage, superheats up to about 200 F., and vacuums of 28.5 to 29 in.
150 to 200
per
sq. in. gage,
The tendency
have been
is
toward the use
of higher
steam pressures; several plants
built for 350 lb. boiler pressure.
1.
14
What
are the three principal objects of studying turbine operating costs?
Enumerate eight factors which are usually considered as items of operating cost and arrange them into two groups. What are the names of the two groups? How is the 3. What is the usual annual amount of the fixed charges for turbines? amount determined in any given case?
2.
4.
5. 6.
Why
are the fixed charges so called?
Unit operating cost. Explain the meaning of the term U7iit charges. State as many factors as you can that affect the unit operating charges of a plant
their effect.
and show
7.
Define load factor and show how it affects the unit operating costs and the annual operating and fixed charges. 8. What other operating costs are generally included with those of a turbine?
Why?
9.
What
three factors must be considered

of service is the
when
selecting the type of prime
mover
for a given service?
steam turbine best adapted? Why? beyond the field of the steam turbine? Why? 12. State what you can regarding the reliability of steam turbines. 13. Upon what does the efficiency or steam economy of a turbine depend? 14. About what steam rates may be expected from each of the following-sized turbines when operating condensing and when operating non-condensing: 50-kw.? 200-kw.?
10.
For what classes
11.
What
classes of services are quite
500-kw.?
1,000-kw.? 2,000-kw.? 3,500-kw.? how the efficiency of a turbine varies with the load which it delivers. 16. What is the meaning of a turbine's capacity rating? 17. What can you say of the economy, in dollars and cents, of low- and mixed-pressure turbines? Explain. 18. Is it advisable, usually, to employ separate high- and low-pressure turbines?
15. State
Why?
Sec. 294
19.
337
Wherein does the economy of bleeder turbines he? Explain. How would you predict the steam rate of a contemplated turbine? 21. Upon what do the relative economies of steam turbines and steam engines depend? 22. State several advantages which, in general, the steam turbine has over the steam engine and vice versa. 23. What can you say, in general, of the relative steam economies of non-condensing engines and turbines? 24. In general, which has the better steam economy, a condensing engine or a condens20.
ing turbine?
25. State the principal services for which turbines and engines of small capacity are each adapted. 26. How do the prices of steam turbines vary with their capacities? Give some
typical prices.
27. Enumerate the steps which should be taken in selecting a prime mover for a given service, explaining each step as fully as possible. 28. State briefly what information should be given to the turbine maiiufacturer when a quotation is requested. 29. What is the purpose of performance specifications and quarantees in steam-turbine proposals? How are they enforced? 30. How are the best steam conditions for a proposed turbine plant determined? What are the most usual steam conditions in practice?
SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS ON DIVISION

From
STEAM-TURBINE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

1.
H2 =
188
2.
1,022 B.t.u.
lb.
the total-heat-entropy chart of Fig. 15, Hi = 1,210 B.t.u. Hence, heat liberated = Hi - H2 = 1,210 - 1,022 =
B.t.u. per
From
H2 = 887
302
3.
the total-heat-entropy chart of Fig. 15, Hi = 1,189 B.t.u. B.t.u. Hence, heat liberated = Hi - H2 = 1,189 - 887 =
lb.
B.t.u. per
= 223.7VHi - H2 = 223.7Vl88 = 223.7 X 13.7 = v = 3,065 X 60 ^ 5,280 = 34.8 mi. per min. By charts B and C, Fig. 15, v = 3,050 ft. per sec. 4. By For. (17): W = 778W(Hi - H2) = 778 X 1 X 302 = 235,000
By
ft.
For. (2): y
3,065
per
sec.
Or
ft.-lb.
H2)/2,545 = 2,000 X 302 -^ 2,545 = = 2,545/(Hi - H2) = 2,545 ^ 302 = 8.43 From AB, Fig. 15: Wh = 8.4 lb. per hp.-hr. lb. per hp.-hr. 6. From Fig. 20, for a 2,000-hp. turbine: E^ = 65 per cent = 0.65. Hence, by For. (26): Wb = 2,545/[Er X (Hi - H2)] = 2,545 - [0.65 X = Pb X Wb = Hence, at full load, 188] = 20.8 lb. per b.hp-hr. 2,000 X 2a8 = 41,600 lb. per hr. 7. By Sec. 16, for maximum work: Vb = t',/2 = 3,065 ^ 2 = 1,532ft.
5.
By
For. (18):
P = W(Hi -
237 hp.
By
For. (19):
Wh
per
sec.
1.
REGENERATORS AND CONDENSERS By For. (28): Wwi = tWsi(Li + L2) 72(^1 - T2). Now
tables, Ti
from
956.7.
steam
240.1 F.
T2
233.1 F.
Li
952.
L2
338

=
3
[Drv. 14
Hence, Wpri
X
625
(1,500
25
-^
60)
(952
956.7)
-^ [2
X
^
(240.1
233.1)]
1,908.7
^
T2)
14
=
14
262,772
Ih.
Also,
by
For. (29):
[2
Wtf2
(240.1
2.
hr.
= Ws2(Lx
+
=
U)/2{T,
2,000
=
-^
2,000
X
=
(952
+
lb.
956.7)
X
per
233.1)]
1,908.7
272,671
The condenser must handle
1,500
25
37,500
lb.
of steam
By
Sec. 173, the
85 F.
From
Fig.
steam temperature should be at least 60 + 25 = 184, the temperature at 1.5 in. pressure is 92 F.
Hence, it is feasible to operate with this condenser pressure. The discharge circulating water temperature should not exceed 92 10 = 82 F. Assume a 20 F. rise through the condenser. The rate of heat transfer with this pressure may be assumed at 350 B.t.u. per sq. ft. per hr. per Hence, using Fig. 184, and beginning at 1.5 in. presdegree difference. sure on the lower scale and following upward to the 60 F. line, to the left to the 20 F. rise line, upward to the 350 B.t.u. line, to the left to the curve and upward to the surface scale, there results a value of 125 sq.ft. The condenser surface = 37.5 X 125 = 4,687.5 sg. per 1,000 lb. steam. The circulating water required = 37.5 X 95 = 3,562.5 gal. per min. ft.
HIGH-PRESSURE, BLEEDER, MIXED-PRESSURE,
AND
EXHAUST-STEAM TURBINES
By Fig. 20, the efficiency ratio = 0.55 = E^. The low-pressure steam = Wb2 = 6,000 ^ 500 = 12 lb. per hp.-hr. From the total-heatentropy chart of Fig. 15, Hi = 1,225 B.t.u. per lb. H2 = 877. H/ = Hence, by For. (30): H2' = 952. 1,156.
1.
rate
^^^ = Hi - H.
{(2,545
204)]
-h
0.55)
[^ [12
W^=^(H/
- H2') ] =
=
(1 4-
[1
(1.225
877)]
(1,156
-^
952)]}
348)
[4,630
(12
X X
Hence,
^ 348 = 6.3 lb. per hp.-hr. = 500 X 6.3 = 3,150 lb. per hr. The extraction rate = 2. By Fig. 20, the efficiency ratio = Er = 0.63. Wb2 = 22,500 ^ 1,500 = 15 lb. per hp.-hr. From Fig. 15, Hi = 1,257 H2 = 868. Hi' = 1,257. H2' = 1,091. Hence, by For. B.t.u. per lb.
=
(4,630
2,448)
348
2,182
total
high-pressure steam required
(30):
^^^ = Hi-H2 [^7^ ~ ^^^(H^' ((2,545

(15
hr.
^''^
0.63)
[15'
(1,257
1,091)]}
]^b^ ^^'^^^ ~ ^^^^] ^ =(1
-^
389)
[4,040
166)]
(4,040
2,490)
389
1,550
-^
389
3.99
lb.
per hp.-
Hence, total steam required 22,500 = 28,480^6. per hr.
1,500
3.99
22,500
5,980
INDEX
Acceptance test, water rate correction, 295 Accumulator, see Regenerator
Base pressure and superheat, 305 Batch treatment, oil, 225 Bearing, bearings, 87-102
alignment, 81 BALL, lubrication, 220-222
use, 92 classification, 88 flexible, action, 61 operation, 90 tubular, 91
Adjustment,
ment.
see also Clearance,
Align-
axial, rotor, 100 speed, see Governor. Air leak, 244 Air-pressure governor, Ridgway, 148 Alberger Pump & Condenser Co., 69 Alignment, see also Clearance, Adjustment. axial, bucket-wheel turbine, 82 checking, 84 coupling, 171 Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., bearing, 89
lubrication, circulation oiling, 221 main, care, 93

OIL,
coohng, 229
functions, 218 properties, 224
claw-type flexible couphng, 169 correction graphs, 301 fixed blades, 25 gland, 105 governor, 135 half-cyhnder, 27 lubrication system, 222 oil cup on valve stem, 233 spindle, 87 turbine. Parsons type, 25 single-flow reaction type, 63 Alternator, load shifting, 244 starting, 245 stopping, 246
Electricians' Handbook" T. Croft, on load division, 153 Ammeter for turbine test, 272 Amy, E. V., in "Electrical World" on vibration, 238 Ashton Valve Co. relief valve, 156
temperature, desirable, 230 low, maintaining, 92 plain flexible, 88 radial pressure, 88 repair, 94
rigid,
91
ring-oiled, 233
Sturtevant turbine, 219 thrust, adjustment, 102 function, 95
Gurney,98
Kingsbury, 98 97 96 simple collar, 97 types, 96 types, 87 water-cooled, 93 wear, 94 Bedplate alignment, 83 Biddle, J. G. Co., reed tachometer, 261 Blades, 24 Blading, impulse, reaction, difference, 33 impulse turbine, 31 reaction turbine, 32 relation to cylindrical section, 33 repair, 248
multi-collar,
roller,
"American
"A.
E. Test Code" on leakage 261 performance values, 266

S.
M.
tests,
testing,
252
turbine test data form, 271
Atmospheric-relief VALVE, 156

Schutte, 182 Auxiliary oil pump, Allis-Chalmers, 222 Available heat, 266 Axial adjustment, see Adjustment. Axial-flow turbine, adjustment, 101
definition, 38 single-stage, re-entry,
Blast governor, steam-relay, 134 Bleeder diaphragm, Terry turbine, 195 mechanism. General Electric Co., 195 Terry turbine, 194
47
B
Backlash, reduction-gears, 166 Back pressure, decreases thermal eflBciency, 294 increases water rate, 294 turbine, see also Non-condensing turbine, 34 water-rate effect, 295 Balance, load, engine and turbine, 216 Balancing load, see Heat balance. Load. Ball bearing, see Bearing. Barometer for turbine test, 272 Barrel, definition, 27 Barstow, J. S., on applicabiUty of turbines and engines, 320
turbine, 186-217 control, steam distribution, 192 cost, 206 definition, 35 economy, calculation, 206 reasons, 315
governing, 192 heat balance system, 203 speed regulation, 206 starting, 243
calculation, 208 210 190 VALVE, General Electric Co., 193 Terry Turbine, 194 Blower turbine, 44 Boiler feed water, measurement, 259 weighing, 260 Brake output, 265 Branca's impulse turbine, 2 Bucket, 24
STEAM CONSUMPTION,
chart,
use,
339
340
Bucket-wheel turbine, 24
definition, 38 illustration, 28
INDEX
Cost, operating, 307 inclusion with boiler cost, 311 load factor efifect, 310 Cost, turbines, graph, 321 turbo-generator, table, 313 unit operating, 308 Coupling, couplings, 160-172 aligning shafts, 170
Bypass governor, see Governor,

valve, see Valve.
Capacity, generating, 311 how increased, 285
eflfect of
load factor,
ALIGNMENT, 171
Sturtevant, 168
care, 170 FLEXIBLE, 167
Carbon
gland, see Gland.
ring, 114 Carling turbine-driven fan, 54 Case, casing, 26 protection, piping strains, 83 "Central Stations" T. Croft on load and demand factors, 311 Centrifugal governor, see Governor, pump, starting, stopping, 246 water-packed gland, see Gland.
claw, pin,
and jaw
types, 169
"flexibihty," 170 purpose, 168 rubber-bushing type, 168 RIGID, 167 Critical speed, 87 Croft, T. in:
"American
Charges,
fixed,
307
operating, 309 Circular section, 34
Electricians' Handbook" on load division, 153 "Central Stations" on load and demand factor, 311
"Machinery Foundations And Erection " on alignment and leveling, 77 bedplate leveling, 78 condenser supports, 184 planning turbine foundation, 74 "Practical Heat" on entropy, 11 heat and work, forms of energy, 1 kinetic energy, 9
perfect engine, 257
Circulation oiling systems, 230

Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., 222 Circumferential section, 34 Claw coupling, 169 Clearance, see also Adjustment, Alignment. axial, checking, 82 blade, testing, 81 carbon gland, 114 reduction-gear teeth, 166 rotor, axial adjustment, 99 Cochrane constant-pressure valve, 200 Coil, cooling, installation, 81 Composite-staged TrRsiNE, construction, 60
definition,
Rankine-cycle efficiency, 279
steam liberating heat, 8 temperature, 253 "Steam-engine Principles And Practice" on dash-pots, 152 governors, 84
leaf-spring governors, 125 lubrication, 218 measuring output, generators, 256
oil filters,
38
Kerr, 62
Moore, 59 Composite staging, 60
227
224
Compound
turbine, 66
operating costs, 307 rebabitting bearings, 94

viscosity,
Condensate, weighing, 258
Condenser, CONDENSERS, 177-184

connection to turbine, 184 cooling water, formula, 179 definition, 177 graph, surface, water volume, 181 installation, 180 jet, 182 pressure, determination, 255 surface, formula, 179 turbines which require, 188 vacuum breaker, purpose, 184 Condensing engines, water-rate, 325 TURBINE, 34 economics vs. engine, 319 high-pressure, use, 190 piping, 242 starting, 241 vacuum, 244 water rates, graph, 325 Continuous bypass oil treatment, 226 Cooler, oil, cleaning, 233
"Steam Power Plant Auxiliaries And Accessories" on condensers, 179

high turbine vacuum, 292 valves, 156
Cross-compound turbine, 67 Curtis nozzle, 24

stage, 60
turbine, see also General Electric Co. checking clearance, 82 illustration, 43 TYPE TURBINE, 59 definition, 44 Cylinder, definition, 26 half, illustration, 27 Cylindrical section, 34
Dash-pot, governor, 151 Data form, turbine test, 271

turbine governor, 119
De Laval Separator Co., oil purifier, 228 De Laval Steam Turbine

Co., governor, vacuum breaker, 126 heat-balance system, 203 marine turbine with reduction gears, 161 nozzle, 23 nozzle and valve, 156 pressure-staged turbine, 56
shaft, 86 single-stage turbine, 5,
Cooling
coil, installation,
81
water, formula, 179
CoppiTS engineering & equipment Co., turbine construction, 47 turbine, illustration, 45 turbo-blower, lubrication, 220 Correction graphs, see Graphs. performance, 295 pressure, application, 302 Correction, test, base pressure and superheat, 305
46
De Laval
turbine type, 43
INDEX
Diaphragm, 56 Direct-current
246
stopping, 246 Disc, 25
341
General Electric Co.

generator,
starting,
bearing, 90 bleeder valve, 193 carbon gland, 112 composite-staged turbine, 60 governor, centrifugal, 146
inertia,
Double reduction
gears.
gears,
see
Reduction
148
Double-flow turbine, 40 Drains, installation, 83 Drum, 25
inertia and centrifugal, 147 lubrication, 154 multi-valve, 145 valve, multi-ported, 144
test,
Dynamometer, turbine
272
installation, 81
E
Economics, 307-334
bleeder turbine, 206 comparison, 305 mixed-pressure turbine, 192 relative, engine and turbine, 316 Eddy losses, 17 Efficiency, calculation, 268 values, 314 "Electrical World" E. V. Amy on vibration, 238 Emergency governor, see Governor.
valve, see Valve, safety stop. Emulsification, oil, 224
Economy,
marine turbine oiling system, 210 on checking alignment, 84 receiving and unpacking, 75 spring-opposed governors, 145 Rice mechanical valve gear, 150
synchronizing device, 152 throttle valve, 155 velocity-and-pressure-staged turbine, 58 water-cooled bearing, 93 "General Electric Review" on steam con-
Generator,
ditions, turbine, 288 direct-current, starting
and
stopping, 246 output, determination, 256 thermal efficiency, 265
Energy
losses,
17
Entropy
chart, steam, 10 definition, 11 Energy, heat, see Heat energy. kinetic, see Kinetic energy. Engine and turbine, floor space, 317
head room, 317

load, balance, 216 relative economy, 316 Engine, heat, 1 steam, advantages, disadvantages, 317 Epicyclic gear, see Reduction gears. Erection, turbo-generators, 78 Exhaust steam, balance, 202 properties, dettirmination, 255
Gershberg, Joseph, in "Power" on steam consumption of bleeder turbine, 209 Gland, 103-117 carbon-packed. 111 centrifugal water-packed, 108 definition, 27, 103 labyrinth, 105 metallic-packed, 103 steam-seal leakage, 114 types, 103
Governor, 119-154 adjustment in synchronizing, 152

Westinghouse, 139
air-pressure, Ridgway turbine, 148 bleeder turbine, 192 care, 153 centrifugal-and-inertia, 147 centrifugal, direct throttling, 123 cent-rifugal. General Electric Co., 146 oil-relay intermittent, Westinghouse,
superheated, loss, 288 velocity loss, 17
Exhaust-steam turbine, see Low-pressura

turbine.
Expansion joint, low-pressure, 182

Westinghouse rubber, 183
Extraction turbine, see Bleeder turbine.
136
classification,
123
Curtis turbine, lubrication, 154 De Laval oil-purifier turbine, 119

direct,
Feed water,
boiler,
measurement, 259
Fixed blades, 25 Fixed charge, see Charge. Flexible coupling, see also Coupling. purpose, 168 Float-valve water-level control, 174 Floor space, engine and turbine, 317 Flow valve, use, 199 Fluid stream, forces produced, 3
velocity reduction, 12 Force-feed lubrication, see Circulation
ing.
oil-
27 DIRECT throttling, 120 adjustment and troubles, 126 emergency, adjustment, 132 definition, 27
illustrations, 128-131, 142
Forces due to fluid streams, 4 Foundations, turbine, 75 Frictional losses, 17 Fuel saving due to superheat, 290
Gages, turbine test, 272 Gear, reduction, see Reduction gear.
Geared turbine, lubrication, 230 Gebhardt "Steam Power Plant Engineering " on operating-charge comparison,
310
maintainance, 132 testing, method, 131 frequency, 154 function and operation, 120 hunting prevention, 151 indirect, 27 inertia, 148 inspection after installation, 84 intermittent, 134 Westinghouse, 138 mechanical indirect, 150 mechanism, 121 mixed-pressure turbine, 197 oiling, 155 oil-pressure, 122 oil-relay, throttling, 133 relay, definition, 27, 122 spring-opposed, adjustment, 145 steam-pressure, 122 Sturtevant, adjustment, 124 throttling, direct centrifugal, 123
342
Governor, vacuum breaker, 125
VALVE, definition, 155
INDEX
Jet impulse
effect,
low-pressure turbine, transverse section,
impulsive, 18 reaction, 19
216
mixed-pressure turbine, 199 Terry turbine, 127 Westinghouse centrifugal, adjustment, 139 Graphs, water rate correction, pressure, superheat, vacuum change, 300 Gravity circulation, see Circulation oiling.
K
Kerr Turbine
Co., turbine, 62 lubricating system, 220
oil cooler, 230 sentinel valve, 157 Kerr tubo-generator bearing, 90 Kinetic energy, acquired by steam, 8
Guarantees and specifications, 335 Guide blades, 25 Gurney thrust bearing, 98
work conversion, 14 Kingsbury thrust bearing, 98-99
H
Head room, engine and turbine, 317 Heat and load, available, 267
balance, 202
consumption, turbine, 270

conversion, perfect turbine, 15 energy chart, 315 conversion into work, 2 relation to kinetic, 9 engine, 1 input, total, 267 liberated by steam, 8 Heat-entropy chart, steam, 10 Hero's turbine, 1
definition, 34 diagram, 205 uses, 189 Horizontal turbine, 43 Horsepower, commercial turbine, 17
Labyrinth gland, see Gland. Leakage losses, 17 Ljungstrom turbine, 39 Load, alternator, shifting, 244 and heat balance, 202
application, starting turbine, 245 balance, engine and low-pressure turbine, 213
factor, determination, 323

generating capacity effect, 311 operating cost effect, 310
fractional, efl5ciency, shifting, 244
314
High-pressure turbine,
steam consumption, 271 taking off, 246

turbine, insufficient power, 249 Losses, causes, 283 energy, 17
Low-pressure turbine, 186-217

cost, 212 definition,
perfect turbine, 15
Hunting, 151 Housing, 26
34
Impulse blading, 33 Impulse, definition, 2 turbine and reaction,

Branca's, 2
characteristics, 31
differences,
32
flow valve, 199 function, 209 governor, 216 load balance, 213 piping, 213 regenerator, 173
steam economy, 314

uses, 211
composite-staged, 60
definition,
30
glands, 107 pressure-staged, 55

single-stage, 45 staging, terminology, 37
Lubrication, see also Oil, Oiling, 218-234 ball bearings, 220 circulation oiling, 221 geared turbine, 230
governor, Curtis turbine, 154
types, 43 velocity staged, 52 velocity-and-pressure staged, 58
Kerr turbine, 220 224 system, care and operation, 231

oil,
Impulse-and-reaction
struction, 67 definition, 34
turbine,
con-
M
"Machinery Foundations And Erection" T. Croft on alignment and
leveling, 77 condenser supports, 184 expansion joints, 184 planning turbine foundation, 74 Main bearing, see also Bearifig, 87 Maintenance, 247 Manufacturer's proposal, 331-335 Manufacturers, turbines, table, 69-71 Marine turbine reduction gears, 161 Marks, "Mechanical Engineers' Handbook" on water rates, 313 Marks and Davis, "Tables and Diagrams of The Thermal Properties of Saturated and Superheated Steam," 12 Metal packing rings, 104 MetalUc-packed gland, see Gland.
Impulsive
jet,
force, 3
18
Inertia governor, 148 Ingersoll-Rand Co., composite-staged turbine, 61 Input, heat, definition, 266 Inspection, turbine, 247
Installation, 74-85 condenser, 180

Curtis turbine, 81 procedure, 74 Insulating shims, 81 Instruments, turbine test, 272 Intermittent governor, 134
Jaw
coupling, 169
Midwest Engine Company, turbine, 48-50 Mixed-flow turbine, see Mixed-pressure

turbine.
Jet condenser, 177
INDEX
Mixed-pressure turbine, construction,
197
343
Operation and maintenance, 235-250

fundamentals, 235
general precautions, 235 safety rules, 236 steam conditions, 284 troubles, 237 Operating charge, see Charge. cost, see Cost. faults, location by test, 271 Output, power, determination, 255 Overspeed governor, see Governor, emergency.
35 economy, 206 flow valve, 199 governor, 197 202 speed regulation, 206 starting, 243 steam consumption, 208 steam economy, 314 uses, 201 Moore Steam Turbine Corp., compositestaged turbine, 59 construction, 55
illustration, 196,
cost, 206 definition,
Overload valve, 157
GOVERNOR,
direct, 121
emergency, 130 relay, 132

reduction gears, 160
velocity-staged turbine, 30 blades, 24 J. A., in "Steam Turbines" on definition of "impulse" and "reaction," 3 Multi-ported governor valve, 144
Packing gland,
see Gland. ring, see Ring. Parsons, as turbine developer, 2
Moving
Moyer,
N
National
Electric
Light
Association
"Prime Movers Committee's Report" on selecting prime movers, 322 Net output, generator, 257 Non-condensing turbine, definition, 34
economy
relative to engine, 318 high-pressure, use, 189 piping, 240
plant diagram, 205
Nozzle,
starting, 240 definition, 23
De
Laval, 156
fouled, 244
maximum work, 19 shape, effect on velocity, 11 steam action in, 8 Sturtevant, 51 Terry, 53
moving,
valve, see Valve.
Oil, breaking down, 232 cooler, cleaning, 233 construction, 229 corrosive, 224 emulsification, 224
filters, 227 function in bearing, 218 impurity deposits, causes, 228 level, ring-oiled bearing, 233 manufacturers' recommendations, 225 method of supplying, 218-221 pump, auxiliary, AUis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., 222 properties, 224 purification, 225 shield, 234 temperatures, 92, 230 treatment, 225 viscosity, 224
Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Co., turbine and reduction gears, 162 Parsons turbine, see Reaction turbine. Pelton water wheel, 4 Performance, comparison, 275 values, formulas, 265 terms, 261 Pin couphng, 169 Piping, centrifugal water-packed eland, 110 condensing turbine, 242 lubricating system, 220 layout, testing, 258 non-condensing turbine, 240 precautions, 82 regenerator accessories, 174 steam-seal, 112 strains, protection, 83 turbine, 74 Pitot tube. 244 Plain bearing, 88 "Power" E. H. Thompson on erection, 78 fitting carbon ring, 116 J. Gershberg, on steam consumption of bleeder turbine, 209 on exhaust-steam heat balance, 204 on steam conditions, Westinghouse turbine, 280 Power output, determination, 255 plant, heat balance, 201 Power "Turbo-Blower Co., turbine, 44 "Practical Heat," Croft, T. on
entropy, 11
forms of energy,
kinetic energy, 9
on Rankine-cycle efficiency, 279 perfect engine, 267 steam liberating heat, 8 temperature reading, 253
Pressure change, condenser, determination, 255 correction graph, 300 operating, regenerator, 175 stage, definition, 37 STAGING, definition, 19
Oil-relay governor, see Governor. Oiling, see also Lubrication. circulation, see Circulation oiling.
gravity system, 219
218-221 system, Ridgway turbine, 223

ring,
purpose, 57 STEAM, advisable, 287 effect of change, 286 governor system, 122 Pressure-staged turbine, definition, 37 hydrauhc, 20 Poole Engineering and Machine Co. reducing gears, 166 Prime-mover selection, factors, 311 procedure, 322 Proposal, turbine, 331-335 Pump, centrifugal, operation, 246
344
Quotation, requesting, 330
INDEX
Ring, carbon, refitting, 115 oihng, 218-221
packing, metal, 104
R
Radial-flow turbine, 38 Radial-pressure bearing, 88 Radiation losses, 17
Rotor, see also Shafts Spindle.

assembled, rigid coupling, 168 axial adjustment, 99 definition, 25 reaction turbine, 87 speed determination, 261 Runner, 25
Rankine-cycle
efficiency,
268
RATIO, as performance value, 262 determination, 265
Rateau
significance, 268 nozzle, 24
S
Safety stop, see Governor, emergency. Safety-stop valve, see Valve.
regenerator, 173 stage, 60 turbine, 43 Rating of turbines, 314 Reaction, definition, 2 jet, 19 stage, 37 staging, 21 turbine, and impulse, blading, 32
characteristics, 23 cross-compound, 66 definition, 31 differences, 32 double-flow, 65
forces, 7
Schutte
& Koerting
automatic flow
regulating valve, 201

free exhaust valve, 182 jet condenser, 179
glands, 106
half cyhnder, 27
Hero's,
operation explained, 63 radial-flow, 39 single-and-double-flow, 65 single-flow, 64
Seal, steam, operation, 107 piping, 112 Section, cyhndrical, 34 Selection, prime mover, 322 turbine, 307-334 Semi-double-flow turbine, 40 Sentinel valve, 157 Shaft, see also Rotor, Spindle. ahgning at coupling, 170 construction, 86 critical speed, 87 definition, 25 flexible, 87 stiff, 87 Shims, axial adjustment, 102
insulating, 81 Single-and-double-flow turbine, 40 Single-entry turbine, 44 Single-flow turbine, 39 Single reduction gear, see Reduction gear. Single-stage turbine, 37 Sludge, 225
Specifications, 335 Speed, adjustment, see Governor. control by governor, 120 critical, 87
tandem-compound, 66
types, 64 Reactive force, 5
Reducing valve,
use, 199
Reduction gears, 160-172

alignment, 164 classification, 161 construction, 163
definition, 29 efficiency, 164 epicyclic, 166
function, 160 lubrication, 164 purpose, 161 tooth clearance, 166 troubles, 164 uses, 161 Re-entry type, definition, 45
governor, see Governor. reducer. Turbo-gear, 166-167 regulation, bleeder turbine, 206 formula, 121 mixed-pressure turbine, 206 Spindle, see also Shaft, Rotor.
definition, 86 Stage, definition, 35
valve, see Valve, bypass.
Regenerator, 173-177
definition, 173 formula, 176 operating pressure, 175 piping accessories, 174 practicability, 175 Rateau, 173 Regulation, speed, 121 Relay governor, 27, 122 Relief VALVE, Ashton, 156 function, 156 Schutte, 182 Sturtevant, 26 Repulsive force, definition, 5 Reversing chamber, axial-flow turbine,
Staging, definition, 19 impulse turbine, 37

pressure, 57 Stationary blades, 25 Stator, 26 Steam, action in turbine, 2 chest, 122
49 buckets, tangential-flow turbine, 51 Rice mechanical valve gear, 150 Ridgway Dynamo & Engine Co., governor, 148 high-pressure turbine, 57 clearances, 56 oiling system, 223 Rigid coupUng, see Coupling.
CONDITIONS, determination, 252 EFFECT ON thermal efficiency, table, 279 water rate, 285 selection, 335 table by manufacturers, 70 turbines, for different, 186 Westinghouse turbine, 280 CONSUMPTION, bleeder turbine, 208 determination, 257 graph, 263 high, causes, 248 metering, 261 mixed-pressure, turbine, 208 various loads, 271 distribution, bleeder turbine control, 192 economy, 314
INDEX
Steam engine, see Engine. "Steam-engine Principles And Practice BY T. Croft, on dash-pots, 152
governors, 84
leaf-spring governors, 125 lubrication, 218
345
Steam
Turbine
Co.,
Terry
bleeder
mechanism, 194 carbon-ring gland, 113
composite-staged turbine, 61
blade clearances, 53
emergency governor, 131

governor, 127
measuring generator output, 256 oil filters, 227 operating costs, 307
rebabbitting bearings, 94
viscosity, 224
tangential-flow turbine, 51
lap, 100 mixed-pressure turbine, governor diagram, 198 ON steam consumption, 248 turbine load, 248 writing for advice, 249 Test, acceptance, water rate correction, 295 correction, values, 305 turbine, data form, 271 Testing, 251-276 apparatus and instruments, 252 data required, 251 duration of tests, 252 log sheet form, 264 purpose, 251 Thermal efficiency, as performance value, 262
Steam, expansion in nozzle, 8

exhaust, see Exhaust. heat-entropy chart, 10
Steam Motors Co. two-bearing turbine, 55 assembled rotor, 168 casing, 55
emergency governor, 131 gland, 106 governor, 128
"Steam Power Plant Auxiliaries And Accessories" by T. Croft on condensers, 179 turbine vacuum, 292 valves, 156 "Steam Power Plant Engineering" by Gebhardt, on operating-charge comparison, 310 Steam pressure, see Pressure. rate, turbine, 316 reaction wheel, 1 relay governor, see Governor. seal, see Seal.
strainers, 157
dependent conditions, 278-306 decreased by back pressure, 294 effect of steam conditions, 279 generator output, 265
significance, 269 for turbine test, 272 H., on erection, 78-80 fitting carbon ring, 116 Throttle valve, see Valve, 143 Throttling governor, see Governor. Thrust bearing, see also Bearing, 88
Thermometers Thompson, E.
superheated economy, 288 temperature, determination, 255
turbine, see Turbine.
"Steam Turbines" by Moyer on definition of "impulse" and "reaction," 3

Steam, velocity, 9
Steam-sealed gland, see Gland. Strainer, installation, 83 purpose, 157 Stuffing-box gland, 103 Sturtevant, B. F. Co., turbine, bearing, 219 coupling alignment, 168 emergency governor, 128 exterior view, 52 governor adjustment, 124 main governor, 123
nozzle and reversing buckets, 51 relief valve, 26
section, 28
Kingsbury, 96 Total heat input, 266

Troubles, operating, location by test, 271 Tube, condenser, fouled, 244 Turbine, adaptabiUty, 312 advantages and disadvantages, 317 ahgnment, 81 and engine, applicability, 320
floor space, 317 head room, 317 approximate horsepower and water rate,
17 axial-flow, see also Axial-flow turbine.
back-pressure, 34 bearing, see Bearing. bleeder, see Bleeder turbine. Branca's, 2
bucket-wheel,
illustration,
definition, 38
Superheat, advisable, 289

change, water-rate correction graph, 300
effect,
28
to increase, 285
capacity,
how
278-306
increase,
effect,
fuel saving, 290 increase, eflFect, 284 Supply-steam pressure,
286
Surface condenser, 177 Sweetening oil treatment, 226 Synchronizing, governor adjustment, 152
rating, 314 care while running, 243 classification, 23-41 table, 29, 42 composite-staged, 38 compound, 66 condenser, see Condenser. condensing, see Condensing turbine. cost, graph, 321
table,
313
Tachometer,
for turbine
electric, test, 272
262
coupling, see Coupling. Curtis, 59 double-flow, 40
vibrating-reed, 261
economics, 307
Tandem-compound turbine, 66 Tangential-flow turbine, axial

ment, 101
definition, 38 single stage, re-entry, 51 Tanks for turbine test, 272
ECONOMY,
adjust-
effect
of
steam conditions,
278-306
relative to engine efficiency, 314 efficiency ratio, 17
economy, 316
energy
losses, 17
346
Turbine, equal-pressure, 30
INDEX
Turbine, telocitt-staged,
vertical, 43 water rates, 313 Turbine-room, log sheet,
definition,
37
exhaust-steam, see Low-pressure turbine.

extraction, see Bleeder turbine.
foundations, 75 geared, lubrication, 230 gland, see Gland. governor, see Governor. heat consumption, 270
Hero's, 1 high-pressure, see High pressure turbine. history, 1 horizontal, 43 hydraulic, pressure-staged, 20 IMPULSE, see Impulse turbine. and reaction, diflferences, 32 inspection, 247 installation, see Installation. LOAD balance, 201
insufficient power,
243
Turbo-alternator, power output, 256 Turbo-gear speed reducer, 166-167
Turbo-generator, cost, 313 power output determination, 256

sets, erection, 78 water rates, 313
U
Unit
cost, see Cost.
248
Vacuum breaker,
governor-operated, 126
low-pressure, see Low-pressure turbine. lubrication, see Lubrication.
in condenser, 182
Vacuum
CHANGE,
effect,
maintenance, 247
effect
on water
rate,
293
maximum economy,
bine.
operation, 237
water-rate correction graph, 300
mixed-flow, see Mixed-pressure turbine. mixed-pressure, see Mixed-pressure tur-
278-306
maintaining, 244 usual, turbine practice, 292
manufacturers, table, 69-71 nomenclature, 23-41 non-condensing see Non-condensing turbine, 34, 189
nozzle, see Nozzle. operation, see Operation. Parsons, see Reaction turbine.
Valves, 155-158 flow, see Flow valve.

free exhaust, 182 gear, Rice mechanical, 150 governor, see Governor. nozzle, 51, 156 reducing, see Flow valve. reUef, 26 throttle, Westinghouse, 143 Vanes, 24 Velocity, acquired by steam, 9 energy, 2 moving nozzle, maximum work, 19 stage, 36 staging, 20 steam, effect of change, 284 Velocity- and pressure-staged turbine, 38 Velocity-staged turbine, 37 Vertical turbine, 43 Vibration, 238 Viscosity, oil, 224 Voltmeter for turbine test, 272
PERFOKMANCE, Comparison, 275 values, terms and efficiencies, 261

Piping
for small,
74
precautions, 82 placing on foundation, 76 power output, determination, 255 pressure-staged, 37

principles, 1-22
proposal, 331-335 quotation, requesting, 330 radial-flow, 38 reaction, see Reaction turbine. receiving and unpacking, 76 reduction gear, see Reduction gear. regenerator, see Regenerator.
reliability,
reversibility,
312 312
W
Water, condenser, determination, 181
rigid-coupHng, two-bearing, 167

rotor, see Rotor. selecting steam conditions, selection, 307-334
335
Water
semi-double-flow, 40
shaft, see Shaft.
Water-packed gland, see Gland. rate, as performance value, 266 approximate formula, 17 condensing turbines and engines, graph,
325
single-and-double-flow, 40
single-flow, 39 single-stage, 37 specifications and guarantees, speed, see Speed. stage, 35 starting, 239
CORRECTION
335
of test valucs,
295
graph, pressure, change, 300
superheat,
vacuum
EFFECT OF back pressure change, 295 steam conditions, table, 279

superheat change, 291 supply-steam pressure change, 287 vacuum change, 293 formula, 264 graph, 263
perfect turbine, 15 turbo-generator, table, 313
STEAM
conditions, 186 consumption, 248 economy, 314 stopping, 245

tangential-flow, see also Tangential-flow
turbine. testing, see Testing.
various loads, 271
types and construction, 42-73 unequal-pressure, 31 usual steam conditions, 334

valve, see Valve. velocity, 30 velocity- and pressure-staged, 38 VELOCITY-STAGED, application, 54
Water, regenerator formula, 176 Waterwheel, Pelton, 4 Wattmeter for turbine test, 272 Wedges, for turbine alignment, 76
Westinghouse Electric & Mfg.

automatic throttle valve, 143
bearing, 89
Co.,
INDEX
WestinGhottse Electric
347
Co.,
& Mfg.
Co.,
bleeder turbine, 191 coupling, 169 emergency governor, 142 expansion joint, 183 geared-turbine and generator, 165 GOVERNOR, 136 adjustment, 139
Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. ON reduction gear alignment, 164

thrust bearings, 99
single-double-flow, 65 double-flow, 65
reaction turbine, cross-compound, 66

steam conditions,
in
Windage
"Power," 280
impulse turbine, 48, 84
losses, 17
TURBINE nozzles, 50 IMPULSE-AND-REACTION TURBINE, double-flow, 69 single- and double-flow, 68 single-flow, 67
Wing, L. J. Mfg. Co.. 72 Wheel, 25 Work, perfect turbine, 15
WORTHINGTON PuMP AND MACHINERY

Corp., condenser graph, 181
installation with barometric-jet condenser, 178
ON governor hunting, 128
-^^^^^^^
'mk.
^Y OlVISJOfi
\\
DUE DATE
SEPlTTBgZ"
Printed
in
USA
miiii' 00012962
3 9358
735
5
Croftf Terrell Williamst 1880ed Steam- turbine principles and prac tlce New York / Terrell Croft, editor. McGraw Hill, cl923 xi, 347 p. : ill. ; 21 cm. (Library of power plant practice)
12962

Steamturbineprin 00 Crof

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Steamturbineprin 00 Crof

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Steamturbineprin 00 Crof

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

STEAM-TURBINE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Terrell Croft Engineering

Conduit Wiring Machinery Electrical

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY Inc.

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc. NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE

PKINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMEBICA

been written to provide the operating engineer, the

plant superintendent, or manager with such steam-turbine

he familiar to insure the successful

of arithmetic will enable

not treated one to

read the book intelligently.

for nearly all of the

especially for this work.

the problems are printed

in the appendix in the back of the book.

turbine operation are

presented so as to provide a knowlnecessary for the understanding of

edge of the theory which

turbine classifications and nomenclature.

Next, the principal

turbine types and constructions are described and discussed.

follows a division on steam-turbine installation.

selected for a given installation.

interpret the effects

If these things are to

suggestions and criticisms from the readers.

small, in the United

cases where such data have been used,

accorded in the text.

particularly indebted to the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing

Fundamental Principles 1 Nomenclature and Classification. 23 Types and Construction 42

STEAM-TURBINE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

abstracts from the steam and which

Turbine Operates By Virtue Of Heat which it it converts into mechanical

Heat and mechaniwork are both forms of

Practical Heat) and can,

apparatus which can convert heat e n e r g y into mechanical

work, as will be_explained.

the oldest as well as the newest form of heat engine.

STEAM-TURBINE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

turbine patent in the United States was issued in 1831 and

several turbines were built.

The commercially successful

due, however, to the inven-

De Laval and Parsons, who worked

Branca's impulse turbine (1629).

Into Velocity Energy

into mechanical work.

siderable velocity through

passes through the opening.

explain fundamental principles of turbine operation, will not be treated herein.

Must Forcibly Moid If

the "impulse" effect of a jet of water stationary object (window pane).

the specific turbine-engineering definition;

can shatter a pane of glass (Fig. 3) or even

Jet Of Water ''

Household Scale Secured To Wall'