GIFT OF

/~/ I// //'/fan

Library

JUST PUBLISHED
Their Design, Construction, Operation and Repair. By Lieut. VICTOR W. PAGE, Aviation Section, S.C.U.S.R. A practical work containing valuable instructions for aviation students, mechanicians, squadron engineering officers and all interested in the "construction and upkeep of airplane power plants.
576 octavo pages. 250
illustrations.

AVIATION ENGINES.

Price $3.00.

AVIATION CHART,

or the Location of Airplane

Power

Plant Troubles Made Easy. By Lieut. VICTOR W. PAGE, A.S., &C.U.S.R.

i

A large chart outlining all parts of

showing the points where trouble
is

typical airplane power plant,

apt to occur and suggesting remedies for the common defects. Intended especially for aviators and aviation mechanics on school and field duty. Price 50 cents.

GLOSSARY OF AVIATION TERMS.

Compiled by Lieuts. VICTOR W. PAGE, A.S., S.C.U.S.R. and PAUL MONTARIOL of the French Flying Corps on duty at Signal Corps Aviation School, Mineola, L. I.

A complete glossary of practically all terms used in aviation, having lists in both French and English, with equivalents in either language. A very valuable book for all who are about to leave for duty overseas. Price, cloth, $1.00.

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY 2 WEST 45TH ST., NEW YORK

Fulcrum

^Regulating Screw

Rocker Lever

Cam ShaftOil

s'Key
",

-Valve Spring Collar

'

,-

Jacket

Valve Spring
Valve Stem

Inlet Pipe

""
'->.

Valve Stem Guide

'"-Exhaust Pipe

Contact Breaker

Safety

Gas-'''

Wrist Pin-"''

Connecting Rod

"
****
*"

CrankShaft-''

Crank Pin

'"
;

^Upper Half Case

-Lower Half Case

Bearing Box-'"'

Sump-*'''
"'

Drain Plug orNuf

Drain
A.6.HA6STROM N.Y.

Cock--"'

Part Sectional View of Hall-Scott Airplane Motor, Showing

Principal Parts.

AVIATION ENGINES
Design
Construction

Operation and Repair

A COMPLETE, PRACTICAL TREATISE OUTLINING CLEARLY

THE ELEMENTS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINEERING WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND REPAIR OF AIRPLANE POWER PLANTS; ALSO THE AUXILIARY ENGINE SYSTEMS, SUCH
AS LUBRICATION, CARBURETION, IGNITION AND COOLING.

INCLUDES COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS FOR ENGINE REPAIRING AND SYSTEMATIC LOCATION OF TROUBLES, TOOL EQUIPMENT AND USE OF TOOLS, ALSO OUTLINES THE LATEST MECHANICAL PROCESSES.
IT

BY

FIRST LIEUT.

VICTOR W. PAGE,
M

A. S. S.

C.,

U.

S.

R.

Assistant Engineering Officer, Signal Corps Aviation School, Mineola, L. I. Author of "The Modern Gasoline Automobile," Etc.

CONTAINS VALUABLE INSTRUCTIONS FOR ALL AVIATION STUDENTS, MECHANICIANS, SQUADRON ENGINEERING OFFICERS AND ALL INTERESTED IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND UPKEEP OF AIRPLANE POWER PLANTS.

NEW YORK

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

2

WEST 45th STREET

1918

P3
Engineering Library

COPYRIGHTED, 1917

BY

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

Co.

PRINTED IN U.

S. A.

THIRD IMPRESSION

ALL ILLUSTRATIONS IN THIS BOOK HAVE BEEN

SPECIALLY MADE BY THE PUBLISHERS, AND THEIR
USE,

WITHOUT PERMISSION, IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED

PRESS OF

BRAUNWORTH & CO. BOOK MANUFACTURERS

BROOKLYN.
N,

Yo

PREFACE
IN presenting
it

this treatise

on "Aviation Engines,"

the writer realizes that the rapidly developing art

difficult

makes
all

to

outline

all

latest

forms or describe

This exposition has been current engineering practice. prepared primarily for instruction purposes and is adapted
for

men

in

the

students
anicians.

who

Signal Corps, and wish to become aviators or aviation mech-

Aviation

Section,

has been made to have the engineering information accurate, but owing to the diversity of authorities consulted and use of data translated from

Every

effort

foreign language periodicals, it is expected that some The writer wishes to acslight errors will be present. knowledge his indebtedness to such firms as the Curtiss

Aeroplane and Motor

Company, ThomasMorse Aircraft Corporation and General Vehicle Company for photographs and helpful descriptive matter.
Co., Hall-Scott

Special attention has been paid to instructions on tool equipment, use of tools, trouble "shooting" and -engine
repairs, as

student

is

on these points that the average aviation weakest. Only such theoretical consideration
it is

of thermo-dynamics as

was deemed absolutely necessary

is

to secure a proper understanding of engine action after

consulting
efforts

several instructors

included,

the

writer's

having been confined to the preparation of a practical series of instructions that would be of the
greatest value to those

who need
9

a diversified knowledge

of internal-combustion engine operation

and

repair,

and

398185

10

Preface

who must

acquire it quickly. The engines, described and illustrated are all practical forms that have been fitted to airplanes capable of making flights and may be considered
fairly representative of the present state of the art.

VICTOR W. PAGE, 1st Lieut. A. S. S. C., U. S. R.

MlNEOLA, L.
I.,

March, 1918.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I
PAGES

Brief Consideration of Aircraft Types Essential Requirements of Aerial Motors Aviation Engines Must Be Light Factors Influencing Power Needed Why Explosive Motors Are Best Historical Main

Types of Internal Combustion Engines

17-36

CHAPTER

II

Operating Principles of Two- and Four-Stroke Engines Four-cycle Action Two-cycle Action Comparing Two- and Four-cycle Types Theory of Gas and Gasoline Engine Early Gas-Engine Forms Isothermal Law Adiabatic Law Temperature Computations Heat and Its Work Conversion of Heat to Power Requisites for Best Power Effect 37-59

CHAPTER
Efficiency of Internal Combustion Engines

III

Various Measures of Efficiency Temperatures and Pressures Factors Governing Economy Losses in Wall Cooling "Value of Indicator Cards Compression
Explosive Motors
Inefficiency

in

Heat Losses and

Factors Limiting Compression Causes Heat Losses to Cooling Water

of

60-79

CHAPTER IV
Engine Parts and Functions Why Multiple Cylinder Engines Are Best Describing Sequence of Operations Simple Engines Four and Six Cylinder Vertical Tandem Engines Eight and Twelve Cylinder V Engines Radial Cylinder Arrangement Rotary Cylinder

Forms

80-109

CHAPTER V
Properties of Liquid Fuels Distillates of Crude Petroleum Principles of Carburetion Outlined Air Needed to Burn Gasoline What a

Carburetor Should Do Liquid Fuel Storage and Supply Vacuum Fuel Feed Early Vaporizer Forms Development of Float
11

12

Contents
PAGES Concentric Float and Carburetor Stewart

Feed Carburetor
Jet

Maybach's Early Design

Carburetor
Claudel

Type

Sehebler

Metering Pin Type Multiple Nozzle Vaporizers Two-Stage Carburetor Master Multiple Jet Type Compound Nozzle Zenith Carburetor

Construction

Utility of Gasoline Strainers Intake Manifold Design and Compensating for Various Atmospheric Conditions

How High

Altitude Affects Power

Carburetor Installation

The Diesel System Notes on Notes on Carburetor Adjustment 110-154

.

CHAPTER VI
Early Ignition

Systems Electrical Ignition Best Fundamentals of Magnetism Outlined Forms of Magneto Zones of Magnetic Influence How Magnets are Made Electricity and Magnetism Belated Basic Principles of Magneto Action Essential Parts of Magneto and Functions Transformer Coil Systems True High Tension Type -The Berling Magneto Timing and Care The Dixie Magneto Spark-Plug Design and Application Two-Spark Ignition
Airplane

Special

Plug

155-200

CHAPTER
Why
tion

VII

Lubrication Is Necessary Friction Defined Theory of LubricaDerivation of Lubricants Properties of Cylinder Oils Factors Influencing Lubrication System Selection Gnome Type Engines Use Castor Oil Hall-Scott Lubrication System Oil Supply by Constant Level Splash System Dry Crank-Case System Best for

Airplane Engines Why Cooling Systems Are Necessary Cooling Systems Generally Applied Cooling by Positive Pump Circulation Direct Air-Cooling Methods AirThermo-Syphon System Cooled Engine Design Considerations 201-232

CHAPTER

VIII

Methods of Cylinder Construction Block Castings Influence on CrankShaft Design Combustion Chamber Design Bore and Stroke Eatio

Meaning of Piston Speed Advantage of Off-Set Cylinders Valve Location of Vital Import Valve Installation Practice Valve Design and Construction Valve Operation Methods of Driving Cam-Shaft Valve Springs Valve Timing Blowing Back Lead Given Exhaust Valve Exhaust Closing, Inlet Opening Closing the Inlet Valve Time of Ignition How an Engine is Timed Gnome "Monosoupape" Valve Timing Springless .Valves Four Valves
per Cylinder

233-286

Contents

13

CHAPTER IX
PACES Constructional Details of Pistons Aluminum Cylinders and Pistons Piston Eing Construction Leak Proof Piston Eings Keeping Oil

Out of Combustion Chamber Connecting Eod Forms Connecting Eods for Vee Engines Cam-Shaft and Crank-Shaft Designs Ball 287-323 Bearing Crank-Shafts Engine Base Construction

....

CHAPTER X
Power Plant
Eules
Installation

Curtiss

OX-2 Engine Mounting and Operating

Bed Dimensions Hall-Scott 1 Engine Installation and Operation- Fuel System Eules Ignition System Water System Preparations to Start Engine Mounting Practical Hints to Locate Engine Eadial and Eotary Engines Troubles All Engine Troubles Summarized Location of Engine Troubles Made Easy 324-375
Standard
S.

A. E. Engine

CHAPTER XI
Tools for Adjusting and Erecting
of Files
Split

Forms of Wrenches Use and Care Pin Eemoval and Installation Complete Chisel Set Drilling Machines Drills, Eeamers, Taps and Dies Measuring Tools Micrometer Calipers and Their Use Typical Tool Outfits
Overhauling Airplane Engines Taking Defects in Cylinders Carbon Deposits, Cause and Prevention Use of Carbon Scrapers Burning Out Carbon with Oxygen Eepairing Scored Cylinders^ Valve Eemoval and Inspection Eeseating and Truing Valves Valve Grinding Processes
Special Hall-Scott Tools

Engine

Down

Depreciation in Valve Operating System Piston Troubles Piston Eing Manipulation Fitting Piston Eings Wrist-Pin Wear Inspection and Eefitting of Engine Bearings Scraping Brasses to Fit Fitting Connecting Eods Testing for Bearing Parallelism CamShafts and Timing Gears Precautions in Eeassembling Parts 376-456
.

CHAPTER
Aviation Engine Types
' ' f ' ' '

XII

Division in Classes Anzani Engines Canton and Unne Engine Construction of Gnome Engines "MonosouGnome Gnome German Type Le' Ehone Engine pape Eenault Air-Cooled Engine Simplex Model "A" Hispano-Suiza Curtiss Aviation Motors Thomas-Morse Model 88 Engine DuesenAeromarine Six-Cylinder Wisconsin Aviation berg Engine Hall-Scott Engines Mercedes Motor Benz Motor Engines Austro-Daimler Engine Sunbeam-Coatalen Indicating and Meas-

uring Instruments tery Ignition

Air Starting Systems

Electric Starting

Bat-

457-571
573

INDEX

AVIATION ENGINES
DESIGN CONSTRUCTION REPAIR

CHAPTER
fluencing
torical

Essential Requirements of Brief Consideration of Aircraft Types Aviation Engines Must Be Light Factors InAerial Motors

Power Needed Why Explosive Motors Are. Best Main Types of Internal Combustion Engines.

His-

BRIEF CONSIDERATION OF AIRCRAFT TYPES

conquest of the air is one of the most stupendous achievements of the ages. Human flight opens the sky to man as a new road, and because it is a road free of all obstructions and leads everywhere, affording the shortest
distance to

THE

any

unlimited freedom.

place, it offers to man the prospect of The aircraft promises to span con-

mountains and forests

tinents like railroads, to bridge seas like ships, to go over like birds, and to quicken and

simplify the problems of transportation. While the actual conquest of the air is an accomplishment just being realized in our days, the idea and yearning to conquer the air are old, possibly as old as intellect itself. The myths of
different races tell of

winged gods and flying men, and

the sublime.

was the highest conception of other agent is more responsible for sustained flight than the internal combustion motor, and it was only when this form of prime mover had been fully
to fly

show that for ages

No

developed that

it was possible for man to leave the ground and alight at will, not depending upon the caprices of the winds or lifting power of gases as with the balloon.

It is safe to say that the solution of the problem of flight would have been attained many years ago if the proper source of power had been available as all the essential
17

18

Aviation Engines

elements of the modern aeroplane and dirigible balloon, other than the power plant, were known to early philosophers and scientists. Aeronautics is divided into two fundamentally differThe first coment branches aviatics and aerostatics. all types of aeroplanes and heavier than air flying prises machines such as the helicopters, kites, etc. the second includes dirigible balloons, passive balloons and all craft
;

which

rise in the air

by

utilizing the lifting force of gases.

Aeroplanes are the only practical form of heavier-than-air machines, as the helicopters (machines intended to be lifted directly into the air by propellers, without the sustaining effect of planes), and ornithopters, or flapping wing types, have not been thoroughly developed, and in fact, there are so many serious mechanical problems to
'

be solved before either of these types of air craft will function properly that experts express grave doubts regarding the practicability of either. Aeroplanes are divided into two main types monoplanes or single surface forms, and bi-planes or machines having two sets of liftthird type, ing surfaces, one suspended over the other. the triplane, is not very widely used. Dirigible balloons are divided into three classes: the The rigid has a rigid, the semi-rigid, and the non-rigid. frame or skeleton of either wood or metal inside of the bag, to stiffen it; the semi-rigid is reinforced by a wire net and metal attachments; while the non-rigid is just a bag filled with gas. The aeroplane, more than the dirigible

and balloon, stands as the emblem of the conquest of the Two reasons for this are that power flight is a real air.
a real victory over the battling elements secondly, because the aeroplane, or any flying machine that may follow, brings air travel within the reach
conquest of the
;

air,

of everybody. In practical development, the dirigible may be the steamship of the air, which will render invaluable services of a certain kind, and the aeroplane will be the

automobile of the
for as

air, to

many

purposes as the automobile

be used by the multitude, perhaps is now being used.

Aviation Motor Requirements

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF AERIAL MOTORS

19

One of
tion of

been the effect

marked features of aircraft development has it has had upon the refinement and perfecWithout question the internal combustion motor.
the

gasoline-motors intended for aircraft are the nearest to perfection of any other type yet evolved. Because of the peculiar demands imposed upon the aeronautical motor it must possess all the features of reliability, economy and efficiency now present with automobile or marine engines and then must have distinctive points of its own. Owing
to the unstable nature of the

medium through which

it is

operated and the

fact that heavier-than-air machines can

maintain

flight only as long as the power plant is functioning properly, an airship motor must be more reliable than any used on either land or water. While a few

pounds of metal more or less makes practically no difference in a marine motor and has very little effect upon the speed or hill-climbing ability. of an automobile, an airship motor must be as light as it is possible to make it because every pound counts, whether the motor is to be fitted into an aeroplane or in a dirigible balloon. Airship motors, as a rule, must operate constantly at
high speeds in order to obtain a maximum power delivery with a minimum piston displacement. In automobiles, or motor boats, motors are not required to run constantly at
their

maximum speed. Most aircraft motors must function for extended periods at speed as nearly the maximum as possible. Another thing that militates against the aircraft

motor
it is

is

the

which

attached.
it

aeroplane makes

more or less unsteady foundation to The necessarily light framework of the hard for a motor to perform at maxiof its foundation

mum efficiency on account of the vibration

while the craft is in flight. Marine and motor car engines, while not placed on foundations as firm as those provided for stationary power plants, are installed on bases of much

more stability than the light structure of an aeroplane. The aircraft motor, therefore, must be balanced to a nicety

20

Aviation Engines

and must run steadily under the most unfavorable conditions.

AERIAL MOTORS MUST BE LIGHT

The capacity of light motors designed for aerial work per unit of mass is surprising to those not fully conversant with the possibilities that a thorough knowledge of proportions of parts and the use of special metals developed by the automobile industry make possible. Activity in the development of light motors has been more pronounced in France than in any other country. Some of these motors have been complicated types made light by the skillful proportioning of parts, others are of the refined simpler form modified from current automobile practice. There is a tendency to depart from the freakish or unconventional construction and to adhere more closely to standard forms because it is necessary to have the parts of such size that every quality making for reliability, efficiency and endurance are incorporated in the design. Aeroplane motors range from two cylinders to forms having fourteen and sixteen cylinders and the arrangement of these members varies from the conventional vertical form or the more tandem and opposed placing to the unusual radial motors having either fixed or rotary cyl-

The weight has been reduced so ft* is possible to obtain a complete power plant of the revolving cylinder air-cooled type that will not weigh more than three pounds per actual horse-power and in some cases less than this.
inders.

give brief consideration to the requirements of the aviator it will be evident that one of the most imIf

we

portant

securing maximum power with minimum mass, desirable to conserve all of the good qualities These are cerexisting in standard automobile motors. tainty of operation, good mechanical balance and uniform delivery of power fundamental conditions which must be
is

and

it

is

attained before a power plant can be considered practical. There are in addition, secondary considerations, none the These are minless desirable, if not absolutely essential.

Factors Influencing Power Needed

21

of fuel and lubricating oil, which is a factor of import, for upon the economy depends really the capacity and flying radius. As the amount of liquid

imum consumption

which

must be limited the most suitable motor will be that is powerful and at the same time economical. Another important feature is to secure accessibility of comfuel

ponents in order to make easy repair or adjustment of parts possible. It is possible to obtain sufficiently lightweight motors without radical departure from established Water-cooled power plants have been designed practice. that will w eigh but four or five pounds per horse-power and in these forms we have a practical power plant capable of extended operation.
T

FACTORS INFLUENCING POWER NEEDED

Work is performed whenever an object is moved against a resistance, and the amount of work performed depends not only on the amount of resistance overcome but also upon the amount of time utilized in accomplishing a given task. Work is measured in horse-power for convenience. It will take one horse-power to move 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute or 550 pounds one foot in one second. The same work would be done if 330 pounds were moved 100 feet in one minute. It requires a definite amount of power to move a vehicle over the ground at a certain speed, so it must take power to overcome resistance of
^

an airplane in the
it

air.

Disregarding the factor of air

more power as the speed increases density, if the weight or resistance remains constant, or more power if the speed remains constant and the resistance increases. The airplane is supported by air reaction under the planes or lifting surfaces and the value of this reaction depends upon the shape of the aerofoil, the amount it is tilted and the speed at which it is drawn through the air. The angle of incidence or degree of wing tilt regulates the power required to a certain degree
will take

as this affects the speed of horizontal flight as well as the resistance. Eesistance may be of two kinds, one that is

22

Aviation Engines

necessary and the other that it is desirable to reduce to the lowest point possible. There is the wing resistance

and the sum of the resistances of the

rest of the

machine

such as fuselage, struts, wires, landing gear, etc. If we assume that a certain airplane offered a total resistance of 300 pounds and we wished to drive it through the air at a speed of sixty miles per hour, we can find the horse-

power needed by a very simple computation as follows The product of

300 pounds resistance times speed of 88 feet per second times 60 seconds in a minute divided by 33,000 foot pounds per minute in one horse-power

= H.P. needed,

The

result is the horse-power needed, or

300

88

60

= 48

H.P.
does

33,000

Just as

it

takes

more power

to climb a hill than

it

to run a car on the level, it takes more power to climb in the air with an airplane than it does to fly on the level. The more rapid the climb, the more power it will take.
If the resistance remains 300

pounds and

it is

necessary

to drive the plane at 90 miles per hour, we merely substitute proper values in the above formula and we have

300 pounds times 132 feet per second times 60 seconds in a minute
33,000 foot pounds per minute in one

rrc\

TT T>

horse-power

The same

results can be obtained

by dividing the product

of the resistance in pounds times speed in feet per second by 550, which is the foot-pounds of work done in one second to equal one horse-power. Naturally, the amount
of propeller thrust

pounds necessary to drive an airplane must be greater than the resistance by a substantial margin if the plane is to fly and climb as well.
in

measured

Computations for Horse-Power Needed

23

The following formulae were given in "The Aeroplane" of London and can be used to advantage by those desiring to make computations to ascertain power requirements: The thrust of the propeller depends on the power of

L= Lift = Weighl =

D = Drift
R= Reaction

Angle of Incidence

Pr- Momentum- M
Pr 2 Jt

= Work

Pr 2 31= WorkMln.

B
'.P.

or in English

Pr27CR
33.000

-H.P.

2rJt

Fig.

1.

Diagrams Illustrating Computations for Horse-Power Required for

Airplane Flight.

24

Aviation Engines

the motor, and on the diameter and pitch of the propeller. If the required thrust to a certain machine is known, the calculation for the horse-power of the motor should be an

The required thrust is the sum of three different " re" The first is the 'drift " sistances. (dynamical head re'

easy matter.

sistance of the aerofoils), i.e., tan a equal to the total weight of machine
flight

lift

(W)

(L), lift being for horizontal

equal to the angle of incidence. Certainly we must take the tan a at the maximum v value for minimum speed, as then the drift is the greatest (Fig. 1, A). 2 Another method for finding the drift is D X when we take the drift again so as to be greatest. The second " resistance " is the total head resistance of the machine, at its maximum velocity. And the third

and

AV

the thrust for climbing. The horse-power for climbing can be found out in two different ways. I first propose to deal with the method, where we find out the actual horse-power wanted for a certain climbing speed to our machine, where
is

H.P.

climbing speed/sec.

550

In this case we know already the horse-power for climbing, and we can proceed with our calculation. With the other method we shall find out the "thrust" in pounds or kilograms wanted for climbing and add it to drift and total head resistance, and we shall have the " thrust " of our machine and we shall denote it total with T, while thrust for climbing shall be T c The following calculation is at our service to find out
.

VcXW
this thrust for climbing

H.P.,

550
thence Vc

H.P.

550
(1)

Computations for Horse-Power Needed

H.P.

25

To

550 To

(1)

Vc

-,

XV -XV
550

then from

X550

To

XV

=-

thence,

T =
c

VcXW
V

Whether

T means

drifts,

head resistance and thrust

for climbing, or drift and head resistance only, the following calculation is the same, only in the latter case, of course, we must add the horse-power required for climb-

ing to the result to obtain the total horse-power. Now, when we know the total thrust, we shall find the

horse-power in the following manner:

We

know

that the H.P.

English measure, H.P.

where

P=

r = radius on which P R = Revolution/min. r

pressure in klgs. or

When B X

= M,
4,500

then H.P.

M=-

H.P.

R2*

its

716.2 H.P. - in meter kilograms,

=
Pr2*R
75X60
(Fig.
1,

in kilograms, or in

B)

33,000

Ibs.

is acting.

M.R. 2 w
,

thence,

4,500

or in English system

M=

H.P. 33,000

5253.1 H.P.

p.

in foot

R2*

R
of the propeller

pounds.

Now
will be

the

power on the circumference

radius, so
it

M
reduced by
will be

part

26
of

Aviation Engines

will be

tion, so that the total

used for counteracting the air and bearing fricpower on the circumference of the

M
propeller will be
r

X =P
*)

where
fi

rj

is

the mechanical

efficiency of the propeller.

Now tan

<x

= T, where a is taken

on the

tip of the propeller.

it

I take a at the tip, but

can be taken, of course, at any

point, but then in equation

to this point,

M
,

must be taken only up

;

and not the whole radius but

it is

more
(Fig.

corn-

fortable to take

Now we

T=

can write up the equation of the thrust 716.2 H.P. 5253.1 H.P. or in English measure
:

R r tan a

rj

thence H.P.

TXRX

it
,

at the tip, as tan a

Pitch
-

1,

C).

r2?u

YJ

R r tan a

TXRX

r tan a
r]

or in English measure

716.2

r tan a

5253.1

r]

The computations and formulae given are

of most value

to the student engineer rather than matters of general interest, but are given so that a general idea may be

secured of

how

to secure sustained flight. resistance of an airplane

airplane design influences power needed It will be apparent that the

depends upon numerous con-

siderations of design which require considerable research

It is obvious in aerodynamics to determine accurately. that the more resistance there is, the more power needed

to fly at a given speed. Light monoplanes have been flown with as little as 15 horse-power for short distances,

Why

Explosive Motors Are Best

27

but most planes now built use engines of 100 horse-power or more. Giant airplanes have been constructed having The 2,000 horse-power distributed in four power units.

amount of power provided for an airplane of given design

many conditions govern this, but it will range from approximately one horse-power to each 8 pounds weight in the case of very light, fast machines to one horse-power to 15 or 18 pounds of the total weight in the case of medium speed machines. The development in airplane and power plant design is so rapid, however, that the figures given can be considered only in the light of general averages rather than being typical of current
practice.

varies widely as

WHY

EXPLOSIVE MOTOKS ARE BEST

Internal combustion engines are best for airplanes "and all types of aircraft for the same reasons that they are universally used as a source of power for automobiles.

The gasoline engine is the lightest known form of prime mover and a more efficient one than a steam engine, especially in the small powers used for airplane propulsion. It has been stated that by very careful designing

a steam plant and engine could be made that would be practical for airplane propulsion, but even with the latest development it is doubtful if steam power can be utilized
in aircraft to

engines are.

as good advantage as modern gasolineWhile the steam-engine is considered very

the latter is

much simpler than a gas-motor,

much more

easily mastered by the non-technical aviator and certainly requires less attention. weight of 10 pounds per horse-

is possible in a condensing steam plant but this figure is nearly double or triple what is easily secured with a gas-motor which may weigh but 5 pounds per horse-

power

power in the water cooled forms and but 2 or 3 pounds in the air-cooled types. The fuel consumption is twice as great in a -steam-power plant (owing to heat losses)
as would be the case in a gasoline engine of equal and much IP.SS weight.

power

28

Aviation Engines

The internal-combustion engine has come seemingly like an avalanche of a decade; but it has come to stay, to take its well-deserved position among the powers for aiding labor. Its ready adaptation to road, aerial and marine service has made it a wonder of the age in the development of speed not before dreamed of as a possibility; yet in so short a time, its power for speed has
taken rank on the common road against the locomotive on the rail with its century's progress. It has made aerial navigation possible and practical, it furnishes power for all marine craft from the light canoe to. the transatlantic
operates the machine tools of the mechanic, tills the soil for the farmer and provides healthful recreation for thousands by furnishing an economical means of transliner. It

port by land and sea. It has been a universal mechanical education for the masses, and in its present forms represents the great refinement and development made possible by the concentration of the world's master minds on the problems incidental to internal combustion engineering.
HISTOKICAL

Although the ideal principle of explosive power was

conceived some two hundred years ago, at which time --experiments' were made with gunpowder as the explosive element, it was not until the last years of the eighteenth century that the idea took a patentable shape, and not until about 1826 (Brown's gas- vacuum engine) that a further progress was made in England by condensing the products of combustion by a jet of water, thus creating

a partial vacuum. Brown's was probably the first explosive engine that did real work. It was clumsy and unwieldy and was soon
relegated to
its

place

among

the failures of previous ex-

periments. cylinder was reached in practice, although many ingenious designs were described, until about 1838 and the following years. Barnett's engine in England was the first attempt to compress the charge before exploding. From this ^Ime

No approach

to active explosive effect in a

Why

Explosive Motors Are Best

29

on to about 1860 many patents were issued in Europe and a few in the United States for gas-engines, but the progress was .slow, and its practical introduction for power came with spasmodic effect and low efficiency. From 1860 on, practical improvement seems to have been made, and the Lenoir motor was produced in France and brought to the United States. It failed to meet expectations, and

was soon followed by further improvements in the Hugon motor in France (1862), followed by Beau de Rocha's
four-cycle idea, which has been slowly developed through a long series of experimental trials by different inventors.

In the hands of Otto and Langdon a further progress was made, and numerous patents were issued in England, France, and Germany, and followed up by an increasing interest in the United States, with a few patents. From 1870 improvements seem to have advanced at a steady rate, and largely in the valve-gear and precision of governing for variable load. The early idea of the necessity of slow combustion was a great drawback in the advancement of efficiency, and the suggestion of de Eocha in 1862 did not take root as a prophetic truth until many failures and years of experience had taught the fundamental axiom that rapidity of action in both combustion and expansion was the basis of success in explosive motors. With this truth and the demand for small and safe prime movers, the manufacture of gas-engines increased in Europe and America at a more rapid rate, and improve-

ments in perfecting the details of this cheap and efficient prime mover have finally raised it to the dignity of a standard motor and a dangerous rival of the steam-engine for small and intermediate powers, with a prospect of
largely increasing its individual units to many hundred, if not to the thousand horse-power in a single cylinder. The unit size in a single cylinder has now reached to about 700 horse-power and by combining cylinders in the same

machine, powers of from 1,500 to 2,000 horse-power are now available for large power-plants.

30

Aviation Engines

MAIN TYPES OF INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES

This form of prime mover has been built in so

many

different types, all of which have operated with some degree of success that the diversity in form will not be

generally appreciated unless some attempt is made to classify the various designs that have received practical application. Obviously the same type of engine is not universally applicable, because each class of work has individual peculiarities which can best be met by an engine designed with the peculiar conditions present in view.
will enable the reader to the extent of the development of what is now the judge most popular prime mover for all purposes.

The following tabular synopsis

A.

Internal Combustion (Standard Type) 1. Single Acting (Standard Type)

2.
,

3.

4.
5.
6.

Double Acting (For Large Power Only) Simple (Universal Form) Compound (Barely Used) Eeciprocating Piston (Standard Type) Turbine (Revolving Eotor, not fully developed)

Al.

Two-Stroke Cycle a. Two Port Three Port b.

c.

d.
e.
f.

Combined Two and Three Port Fourth Port Accelerator Differential Piston Type Distributor Valve System

A2.

Four-Stroke Cycle a. Automatic Inlet Valve Mechanical Inlet Valve b. c. Poppet or Mushroom Valve d. Slide Valve d 1. Sleeve Valve

d d

2. 3.

Eeciprocating Eing Valve Piston Valve

Gas Engine Types

e.

Classified

31

Eotary Valves
e 1.

Disc
Cylinder or Barrel Single Cone

e e

2. 3.

e 4.
f.

Double Cone

g. h.

Piston (Balanced Explosion) Eotary. Cylinder, Fixed Crank (Aerial)

Two

Fixed Cylinder, Eotary Crank (Standard Type)

A3.
B.

Six-Stroke Cycle

External Combustion (Practically Obsolete) a. Turbine, Eevolving Eotor b. Eeciprocating Piston

CLASSIFICATION BY CYLINDER

ARRANGEMENT

Single Cylinder a. Vertical

b.
c.

Horizontal Inverted Vertical

Double Cylinder
a.

Vertical

b.
c.

d.
e.

Horizontal (Side by Side) Horizontal (Opposed) 45 to 90 Degrees (Angularly Disposed) Horizontal Tandem (Double Acting)

Three Cylinder
a.

Vertical

b.
c.

Horizontal

Eotary (Cylinders Spaced at 120 Degrees)

Eadially Placed (Stationary Cylinders) One Vertical, One Each Side at an Angle

d.
e.
f.

Compound (Two High

Pressure)

Pressure,

One Low

Four Cylinder
a.

Vertical

b.

Horizontal (Side by Side)

32
c.

Aviation Engines
Horizontal (Two Pairs Opposed) 45 to 90 Degrees

d.
e.

Twin Tandem (Double Acting)

Vertical (Five

Five Cylinder
a.

Throw Crankshaft)

b.
c.

d.

Eadially Spaced at 72 Degrees (Stationary) Eadially Placed Above Crankshaft ( Stationary) Placed Around Rotary Crankcase (72 Degrees

Spacing)
Six Cylinder
a.

Vertical

b.
c.

Horizontal (Three Pairs Opposed) 45 to 90 Degrees

Seven Cylinder a. Equally Spaced (Eotary)

Eight Cylinder
a.

Vertical

b.
c.

Horizontal (Four Pairs Opposed) 45 to 90 Degrees

Nine Cylinder a. Equally Spaced (Eotary)

.

Twelve Cylinder
a.

Vertical

b.
c.

Horizontal (Six Pairs Opposed) 45 to 90 Degrees

Fourteen Cylinder a. Eotary

Sixteen Cylinder 45 to 90 Degrees a. Horizontal (Eight Pairs Opposed) b.

Eighteen Cylinder a. Eotary Cylinder

Two- Cylinder, Double Acting/Four Cycle Engine for Blast Furnace Gas Fuel
Very slow speed,

made

Weight 600 Pounds per Horsepower

in siz.es

uptb 2000 Horsepower. 60io 100 R.P.M.

Two

Sizes. Cylinder Opposed Gas Engine 150 to 650 Horsepower 500 to 600 Pounds per Horsepower. 90 to 100 R.P.M.

Stationary Diesel Engine

450 to 500 Pounds per Horsepower

d s Approximately
200
R.P.M.

Stationary Gas Engine

Four Cycle -Two Cylinder 500 Pounds per Horsepower

Fig.

2. Plate Showing Heavy, Slow Speed Internal Combustion Engines Used Only for Stationary Power in Large Installations Giving Weight

to Horse-Power Ratio.
33

Four Cylinder

Diesel Engine for Marine Use 250 Pounds perHorsepower

Two- Cycle Marine Engine 50-100 Pounds per Horsepower 600to 800 R.P M.

150

Single Cylinder Vertical Farm Engine Pounds per Horsepower- Speed 400 R RM.

Two

Cylinder Four Cycle Tractor Engine 15 Pounds per Horsepower 800 to 1000. R.P.M
.

Four -Cylinder Four Cycle Automobile PowerPlant: Weiqhsabout ZS Pounds per Horsepower IZOO to ZOOO R.P. M.

Pig. in

3.

Weight

Various Forms of Internal Combustion Engines Showing Decrease to Horse-Power Ratio with Augmenting Speed of Rotation.
34
,

Eight Cylmder"Vee"Au+onnobile Engine 15 to 18 Pounds per Horse power Speeds 1500 toZOOOR P.M.

Two
Engine

Cylinder-AirCooled Motorcycle

weighH 8MO Pounds Horsepower Speed 3000 R. P.M.

Six,

Eight or Twelve Cylinder Water Cooled Aviation Engine, Tandem or V Form

Speed 1500 R,R

4 to 6 Pounds per Horsepower M. Direct Coupled - 2000 R RM.Geared'Drive

Air Cooled Speed 1200 R.RM.2.8Pounds perHorsepowsr

Fig.

Seven or Nine Cylinder Revolving

Fourteen or Eighteen Cylinder Revolving Air Cooled Aviation Engine

Speed 1200 R.P.M. . 2 Pounds per Horsepower

Internal Combustion Engine Types of Extremely Fine Construction 4. and Kefined Design, Showing Great Power Outputs for Very Small Weighty a Feature Very Much Desired in Airplane Power Plants.

35

#6

Aviation Engines

the types enumerated above engines having less than eight cylinders are the most popular in everything but aircraft work. The four-cylinder vertical is without doubt the most widely used of all types owing to the large number employed as automobile power plants.
all

Of

Stationary engines in small and medium powers are invariably of the single or double form. Three-cylinder engines are seldom, used at the present time, except in marine work and in some stationary forms. Eight- and twelve-cylinder motors have received but limited application and practically always in automobiles, racing motor boats or in aircraft.' The only example of a fourteencylinder motor to be used to any extent is incorporated in aeroplane construction. This is also true of the sixteen-

and eighteen-cylinder forms and of twenty-four-

cylinder engines

now

in process of development.
is

designed for determines the weight per horse-power. High powered engines intended for steady service are always of the slow speed type and consequently are of very massive construction. Various forms of heavy duty type stationary engines are shown at Fig. 2. Some of these engines may weigh as much as 600 pounds per horse-power. A further study is possible by consulting data given on Figs. 3 and 4. As the crankshaft speed increases and cylinders are multiplied the
engines become lighter. While the big stationary power plants may run for years without attention, airplane engines require rebuilding after about 60 to 80 hours air service for the fixed cylinder types and 40 hours or less There is evifor the rotary cylinder air-cooled forms. a decrease in durability and reliability as the dently

The duty an engine

weight

These illustrations also permit of obtaining a good idea of the variety of forms internal combustion engines are made in.
is

lessened.

CHAPTER

II

Operating Principles of Two- and Four-Stroke Engines Four-cycle Action Two-cycle Action Comparing Two- and Four-cycle Types Theory of Gas and Gasoline Engine Early Gas-Engine Forms Isothermal Law Adiabatic Law Temperature Computations Heat and Its Work Conversion of Heat to Power Requisites for Best Power Effect.

OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF TWO- AND FOUR-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES

BEFORE discussing the construction of the various forms of internal combustion engines it may be well to describe the operating cycle of the types most generally used.

The two-cycle engine is the simplest because there are no valves in connection with the cylinder, as the gas is introduced into that member and expelled from it through ports cored into the cylinder walls. These are covered by the piston at a certain portion of its travel and uncovered at other parts of its stroke. In the four-cycle engine the explosive gas is admitted to the cylinder through a port at the head end closed by a valve, while the exhaust gas is expelled through another port controlled in a simiThese valves are operated by mechanism lar manner.
distinct

piston. of the four-cycle type may be easily understood if one refers to illustrations at Figs. 5 and 6. It

from the

The action

is

make four

called the "four-stroke engine" because the piston must strokes in the cylinder for each explosion or

The principle of the gas-engine of the internal combustion type is similar to that of a gun, i.e., power is obtained by the rapid combustion of
power impulse obtained.
some explosive or other quick burning substance. The bullet is driven out of the gun barrel by the pressure of the gas evolved when the charge of powder is ignited. The piston or movable element of the gas-engine is driven,
37

38

Aviation Engines

from the closed or head end to the crank end of the cylinder by a similar expansion of gases resulting from combustion. The first operation in firing a gun or securing an explosion in the cylinder of the gas-engine is to
7. Cylinder Filling with Gas,
Inlet Pipe

2, Piston

Compressing Gas.

Inlet Value

Cylinder Filled with ' Combustible Gas

shown

Ope,

Exhaust Valv
Closed
Cooling Flanges

Exhaust Pipe
Piston Ascending

Vo/t/.e

Spring

Cam

Camshaft
Lower Half Cranhcase

'amrod

/.

Powder

Inserted.

2.

Powder Compressed.

Fig.

5.

Outlining First

Two

Strokes of Piston in Four-Cycle Engine.

the combustion space with combustible material. This done by a down stroke of the piston during which time the inlet valve opens to admit the gaseous charge to the cylinder interior. This operation is shown at Fig. 5, A. The second operation is to compress this gas which is done by an upward stroke of the piston as shown at Fig,
fill

is

Internal Combustion Engine Action

39

When the top of the compression stroke is reached, 5, B. the gas is ignited and the piston is driven down toward the open end of the cylinder, as indicated at Fig. 6, C The
fourth operation or exhaust stroke
8.

is

performed by the
Gases Exhausted,

Compressed Gas Exploded.

4. Inert

Spark Plug
Bath Values Closed

serf

Oas
Cooling Flanges

Being Ignited

by Spark.

3.

Powder Exploded.
Outlining Second

4.

Powder Gas Exhausted.

Fig.

6.

Two

Strokes of Piston in Four-Cycle Engine.

return upward movement of the piston as shown at Fig. 6, D during which time the exhaust valve is opened to permit the burnt gases to leave the cylinder. As soon as the piston reaches the top of its exhaust stroke, the energy stored in the fly-wheel rim during the power stroke causes that member to continue revolving and as the piston

40

Aviation Engines

Spark Plug

._

Gas Flowing

;n-. s

Piston Goes

Down

Connecting

Rod

.A-

Intake Stroke

Water Space

Gas ai
High Press u re

Piston Goes Down-.

"'

Cylinder

C- Power Stroke

D- Exhaust Stroke

Fig.

7.

Sectional

View of L Head Gasoline Engine Cylinder Showing Piston Movements During Four-Stroke Cycle.

How

Two-Stroke Cycle Engine Works

41

again travels on its down stroke the inlet valve opens and admits a charge of fresh gas and the cycle of operations
is

repeated.

The illustrations at Fig. 7 show how the various cycle functions take place in an L head type water cooled cylinder engine. The sections at and C are taken through

the inlet valve, those at exhaust valve.

and

are taken through the

The two-cycle engine works on a different principle, as while only the combustion chamber end of the piston is employed to do useful work in the four-cycle engine, both
upper and lower portions are called upon to perform the
functions necessary to two-cycle engine operation. Instead of the gas being admitted into the cylinder as is the
case with the four-stroke engine, it is first drawn into the engine base where it receives a preliminary compression prior to its transfer to the working end of the cylinder.
at Fig. 8 should indicate clearly the operation the piston is At of the two-port two-cycle engine.

The views

stroke and the gas above the is being compressed ready for ignition, while the piston suction in the engine base causes the automatic valve to

seen reaching the top of

its

open and admits mixture from the carburetor to the crank case. When the piston reaches the top of its stroke, the compressed gas is ignited and the piston is driven down on the power stroke, compressing the gas in the engine base. When the top of the piston uncovers the exhaust port the flaming gas escapes because of its pressure. A downward movement of the piston uncovers the inlet port opposite the exhaust and permits the fresh gas to bypass through the transfer passage from the engine base to the The conditions with the intake and exhaust cylinder.
port fully opened are clearly shown at Fig. 8, C. The deflector plate on the top of the piston directs the entering fresh gas to the top of the cylinder and prevents the main portion of the gas stream from flowing out through the open exhaust port. On the next upstroke of the piston

42

Aviation Engines

bO

How

Two-Stroke Cycle Engine Works

I H
fao

44

Aviation Engines

the gas in the cylinder is compressed and the inlet valve to permit a fresh charge to enter opened, as shown at

the engine base.

principle of the three-port, two-cycle engine is practically the same as that previously described with the exception that the gas is admitted to the crank-

The operating

case through a third port in the cylinder wall, which is uncovered by the piston when that member reaches the end of its upstroke. The action of the three-port form can be readily ascertained by studying the diagrams given at Fig. 9. Combination two- and three-port engines have been evolved and other modifications made to improve the
action.

THE TWO-CYCLE AND FOUK-CYCLE TYPES

In the earlier years of explosive-motor progress was evolved the two types of motors in regard to the cycles
of their operation.

The early attempts

to perfect

the

two-cycle principle were for many years held in abeyance from the pressure of interests in the four-cycle type, until its simplicity and power possibilities were demonstrated by Mr. Dugald Clerk in England, who gave the principles of the two-cycle motor a broad bearing leading to immediate improvements in design, which has made further progress in the United States, until at the present time it has an equal standard value as a motor-power in some
applications as its ancient rival the four-cycle or Otto type, as demonstrated by Beau de Eocha in 1862. Thermodynamically, the methods of the two types are

equal as far as combustion is concerned, and compression may favor in a small degree the four-cycle type as well as the purity of the charge. The cylinder volume of the two-cycle motor is much smaller per unit of power, and the enveloping cylinder surface is therefore greater per unit of volume. Hence more heat is carried off by the
jacket water during compression, and the higher compression available from this tends to increase the economy

during compression which

is lost

during expansion.

Two- and Four-Stroke Cycles Compared

45

From the above considerations it may be safely stated that a lower temperature and higher pressure of charge at the beginning of compression is obtained in the twocycle motor, greater weight of charge and greater specific power of higher compression resulting in higher thermal

The smaller cylinder for the same power of efficiency. the two-cycle motor gives less friction surface per impulse than of the other type; although the crank-chamber pressure may, in a measure, balance the friction of the fourcycle type. Probably the strongest points in favor of the
two-cycle type are the lighter fly-wheel and the absence of valves and valve gear, making this type the most simple in construction and the lightest in weight for its developed

power. Yet, for the larger power units, the four-cycle type will no doubt always maintain the standard for
efficiency

and its degree of mixture with the remains of the previous explosion in the clearance space, has been a matter of discussion for both
types of explosive motors, with doubtful results. In Fig. we illustrate what theory suggests as to the distribu10, tion of the fresh charge in a two-cycle motor, and in Fig. 10, B what is the probable distribution of the mixture when the piston starts on its compressive stroke. The arrows show the probable direction of flow of the fresh charge and burnt gases at the crucial moment. In Fig. 10, C is shown the complete out-sweep of the products of combustion for the full extent of the piston stroke of a four-cycle motor, leaving only the volume of the clearance to mix with the new charge and at D the manner by which the new charge sweeps by the ignition

The

and durability of action. distribution of the charge

device, keeping

ignition device.

it cool and avoiding possibilities of preundue heating of the terminals of the sparking by Thus; by enveloping the sparking device with

the pure mixture, ignition spreads through the charge with its greatest possible velocity, a most desirable condition in high-speed motors with side-valve chambers and igniters within the valve chamber.

46

Aviation Engines

Theoretical condition.

Practical condition.

Exhaust.

New

charge.

Pig. 10.

Diagrams Contrasting Action of Two- and Four-Cycle Cylinders on Exhaust and Intake Stroke.

Internal Combustion Engine Theory

47

THEORY OF THE GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINE

The laws controlling the elements that create a power their expansion by heat due to combustion, when propby erly understood, become a matter of computation in
-

regard to their value as an agent for generating power

The method in the various kinds of explosive engines. of heating the elements of power in explosive engines greatly widens the limits of temperature as available in
other types of heat-engines. It disposes of many of the practical troubles of hot-air, and even of steam-engines,
in the simplicity

and directness of application of the

ele-

ments of power. In the explosive engine the difficulty of conveying heat for producing expansive effect by convection
is displaced by the generation of the required heat within the expansive element and at the instant of its useful work. The. low conductivity of heat to and from air has been the great obstacle in the practical development of the hot-air engine; while, on the contrary, it has become the source of economy and practicability in the development of the internal-combustion engine.

air, gas, and the vapors of gasoline and whether singly or mixed, is affected by petroleum oil, changes of temperature practically in nearly the same ratio; but when the elements that produce combustion are

The action of

interchanged in confined spaces, there is a marked difference of effect. The oxygen of the air, the hydrogen and carbon of a gas, or vapor of gasoline or petroleum oil are the elements that by combustion produce heat to expand
the nitrogen of the air and the watery vapor produced by the union of the oxygen in the air and the hydrogen in the gas, as well as also the monoxide and carbonic-acid
i

gas that may be formed by the union of the carbon of gas or vapor with part of the oxygen of the air. The various mixtures as between air and gas, or air and vapor, with the proportion of the products of combustion left
in the

cylinder from a previous combustion, form the elements to be considered in estimating the amount of

48

Aviation Engines

pressure that may be. obtained by their combustion and expansive force.

EARLY GAS ENGINE FOKMS

The working' process of the explosive motor may be divided into three principal types 1. Motors with charges igniting at constant volume without compression, such as the Lenoir, Hugon, and other similar types now abandoned as wasteful in fuel and effect. 2. Motors with charges
:

igniting at constant pressure with compression, in which a receiver is charged by a pump and the gases burned

while being admitted to the motor cylinder, such as types of the Simon and Brayton engine. 3. Motors with charges
igniting at constant such as the later two-

volume with variable compression, and four-cycle motors with compres-

sion of the indrawn charge; limited in the two-cycle type and variable in the four-cycle type with the ratios of the

clearance space in the cylinder. This principle produces the explosive motor of greatest efficiency. The phenomena of the brilliant light and its accom-

panying heat at the moment of explosion .have been witnessed in. the experiments of Dugald Clerk in England, the illumination lasting throughout the stroke; but in regard to time in a four-cycle engine, the incandescent state exists only one-quarter of the running time. Thus
the time interval, together with the non-conductibility of the gases, makes the phenomena o*f a high-temperature

combustion within the comparatively cool walls of a inder a practical possibility.

cyl-

THE ISOTHERMAL LAW

promulgated by Boyle, the subject of the expansion and compression of gases by force and by heat, and their variable pressures and temperatures when confined, are
conceded to be practically true and applicable to whether single, mixed, or combined.
all gases,

The natural laws, long Gay Lussac, and others, on

since

Isothermal Law.

49

The law formulated by Boyle only relates to the compression and expansion of gases without a change of temperature, and is stated in these words:
// the temperature of a gas be kept constant, its pressure or elastic force will vary inversely as the volume
it

occupies.
It is

expressed in the formula

PXV

= C, or pressure

volume

= constant.

C
Hence,

=V

C
and

= P.

Thus the curve formed by increments of pressure during the expansion or compression of a given volume of gas without change of temperature is designated as the isothermal curve in which the volume multiplied by the pressure is. a constant value in expansion, and inversely the pressure divided by the volume is a constant value in compressing a gas. But as compression and expansion of gases require force for their accomplishment mechanically, or by the application or abstraction of heat chemically, or by convection, a second condition becomes involved, which was formulated into a law of thermodynamics by Gay Lussac under the following conditions: given volume of gas under a free piston expands by heat and contracts by the loss of heat, its volume causing a proportional movement of a free piston equal to ^73 part of the cylinder volume

for each degree Centigrade difference in temperature, or %92 part of its volume for each degree Fahrenheit. "With

a fixed piston (constant volume), the pressure is increased or decreased by an increase or decrease of heat in the

same proportion of %TS part of its pressure for each degree Centigrade, or %92 part of its pressure for each degree Fahrenheit change in temperature. This is the natural sequence of the law of mechanical equivalent, which is a necessary deduction from the principle that

50

Aviation Engines

nothing in nature can be lost or wasted, for all the heat that is imparted to or abstracted from a gaseous body must be accounted for, either as heat or its equivalent transformed into some other form of energy. In the case of a piston moving in a cylinder by the expansive force of heat in a gaseous body, all the heat expended in expansion of the gas is turned into work; the balance must be accounted for in absorption by the cylinder or radiation.

THE ADIABATIC LAW

is equally applicable to the cooling of gases abstraction of heat or by cooling due to expansion by by the motion of a piston. The denominators of these heat

This theory

fractions of expansion or contraction represent the absolute zero of cold below the freezing-point of water, and

273 C. or 492.66 460.66 F. below zero: and these are the starting-points of reference in computing the. heat expansion in gas-engines. According to Boyle's law, called the first law of gases, there are but two characteristics of a gas and their variations to be considered, viz., volume and pressure: while by the law of Gay Lussac, called the second law of gases, a third is added, consisting of the value of the absolute temperature, counting from absolute zero to the temperatures at which the operations take place. This is the Adiabatic
law.

read

The

ratio of the variation of the three conditions

from the absolute zero temvolume, pressure, and heat has a certain rate, in which the volume multiperature plied by the pressure and the product divided by the absolute temperature equals the ratio of expansion for each degree. If a volume of air is contained in a cylinder having a piston and fitted with an indicator, the piston,
'

moved to and fro slowly, will alternately compress and expand the air, and the indicator pencil will trace a line or lines upon the card, which lines register the change of pressure and volume occurring in the cylinder. If the piston is perfectly free from leakage, and it be supposed
if

Adiabatic

Law

51

that the temperature of the air is kept quite constant, then the line so traced is called an Isothermal line, and the pressure at any point when multiplied by the volume
is

a constant, according to Boyle's law,

pv
If,

=a
is

constant.

rapidly, the air will not remain at constant temperature, but the temperature will increase because work has been done upon the air,

however, the piston

moved very

52

Aviation Engines
of degrees,

number

and by reversing the process the degree

of acquired heat may be obtained approximately. These methods are not strictly in conformity with the absolute mathematical formula, because there is a small increase in the increment of expansion of a dry gas, and there is also a slight difference in the increment of expansion due to moisture in the atmosphere and to the vapor of water formed by the union of the hydrogen and oxygen in the combustion chamber of explosive engines.

TEMPERATURE COMPUTATIONS

The

ratio of expansion on the Fahrenheit scale is de-

rived from the absolute temperature below the freezingpoint of water (32) to correspond with the Centigrade
1
scale
;

therefore 492.66

= .0020297,

the ratio of expansion

for each degree rise in temperature on the Fahrenheit scale. As an example, if the temperature of any

from 32

volume of air or gas at constant volume is raised, say from 60 to 2000 F., the increase in temperature will be
1

1940.

The
:

ratio will be

= .0019206.

Then by

the

520.66

the gauge acquired temp. X initial pressure and .0019206 X 1940 X 14.7 == 54.77 Ibs. pressure; By another formula, a convenient ratio is obtained by

formula Eatio

absolute pressure

14.7

or
absolute temp.
520.66

= .023233;

then, using the dif-

ference of temperature as before, .028233 X 1940 == 54.77 Ibs. pressure. By another formula, leaving out a small increment due to specific heat at high temperatures:

Temperature Computations
Atmospheric pressure
_L.

53

+ acquired temp. Absolute temp. + initial

absolute temp.

temp.

absolute pressure due to the acquired temperature, from which the atmospheric pressure is deducted for the gauge pressure. Using, the foregoing example, we have
14.7

460.66

+ 2000 - =
60

69.47

14.7

= 54.77,

the

gauge

460.66

for zero pressure, 460.66 being the absolute temperature Fahrenheit. For obtaining the volume pf expansion of a gas from a given increment of heat, we have the approximate

formula
II. -

Volume

absolute temp.

+ acquired temp. temp.

heated

Absolute temp.
volume.
ample, the figures become:
460.66
I.

+ initial

In applying this formula to the foregoing ex-

+ 2000 - = 4.72604 volumes. 460.66 + 60

term the gauge pressure

From

this last

may

be obtained
14.7 Ibs. at;

as follows:
III.

4.72604

14.7

= 69.47

Ibs.

absolute

mospheric pressure

54.77 Ibs.

gauge pressure

which

is

the theoretical pressure due to heating air in a confined space, or at constant volume from 60 to 2000 F.

By
to

we have

inversion of the heat formula for absolute pressure the formula for the acquired heat, derived from

combustion at constant volume from atmospheric pressure gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure as derived from Example L, by which the expression
absolute pressure

absolute temp.

+ initial

temp,

initial

absolute pressure

54

Aviation Engines
temperature

= absolute

+ temperature
is

from which the acquired temperature

tracting the absolute temperature.
69.47

of combustion, obtained by sub-

460.66

+ 60

Then, for example,

14.7

= 2460.66,

and

2460.66
tion.

460.66

= 2000,

the theoretical heat of combus-

makes a small decimal difference in the result in the different formulas.

of terminal decimals
\

The dropping

HEAT AND

ITS

WORK

By

whenever heat

Joule's law of the mechanical equivalent of heat, is imparted to an elastic body, as air or

gas, energy is generated and mechanical work produced by the expansion of the air or gas. When the heat is im-

parted by combustion within a cylinder containing a movable piston, the mechanical work becomes an amount measurable by the observed pressure and movement of the piston. The heat generated by the explosive elements and the expansion of the non-combining elements of nitrogen and water vapor that may have been injected into the cylinder as moisture in the air, and the water vapor formed by the union of the oxygen of the air with the

hydrogen of the gas, all add to the energy of the work from their expansion by the heat of internal combustion.
against this, the absorption of heat by the walls of the cylinder, the piston, and cylinder-head or clearance walls, becomes a modifying condition in the force imparted to the moving piston. It is found that when any explosive mixture of air and gas or hydrocarbon vapor is fired, the pressure falls far short of the pressure computed from the theoretical effect of the heat produced, and from gauging the expansion of the contents of a cylinder. It is now well known that in
practice the high efficiency which is promised by theoretical calculation is never realized; but it must always be

As

Heat and

Its

Work

55

remembered that the heat of combustion is the real agent, and that the gases and vapors are but the medium for the
conversion of inert elements of power into the activity of energy by their chemical union. The theory of combustion has been the leading stimulus to large expectations with
inventors and constructors of explosive motors; its entanglement with the modifying elements in practice has delayed the best development in construction, and as yet no really positive design of best form or action seems to

made during
reliability,

have been accomplished, although great progress has been the past decade in the development of speed,
economy, and power output of the individual
units of this comparatively new power. One of the most serious difficulties in the practical development of pressure, due to the theoretical computations

by imparting the heat of the fresh charge

of the pressure value of the full heat, is probably caused to the balance
of the previous charge that has been cooled by expansion from the maximum pressure to near the atmospheric pressure of the exhaust. The retardation in the velocity of combustion of perfectly mixed elements is now well known from experimental trials with measured quantities;

but the principal

applying these conditions to the practical work of an explosive engine where a necessity for a large clearance space cannot be obviated, is in the inability to obtain a maximum effect from the imperfect mixture and the mingling of the products of the last explosion with the new mixture, which produces a clouded condition that makes the ignition of the mass irregular or chattering, as observed in the expansion lines of indicator cards; but this must not be confounded with
difficulty in

the reaction of the spring in the indicator. Stratification of the mixture has been claimed as taking place in the clearance chamber of the cylinder; but this is not a satisfactory explanation in view of the vortical
effect of the violent injection of the air and gas or vapor mixture. It certainly cannot become a perfect mixture in the time of a stroke of a high-speed motor of the two-

56

Aviation Engines

cycle class. In a four-cycle engine, making 1,500 revolutions per minute, the injection and compression in any one cylinder take place in one twenty-fifth of a second-

formerly considered far too short a time for a perfect infusion of the elements of combustion but noAV very easily taken care of despite the extremely high speed of numerous aviation and automobile power-plants.
TABLE
DiaI.

EXPLOSION AT CONSTANT VOLUME IN A CLOSED CHAMBER.

gram Curve
Fig.
8.

Heat and
TABLE

Its

Work

57

II. PROPERTIES AND EXPLOSIVE TEMPERATURE OF A MIXTURE OF ONE PART OF ILLUMINATING GAS OF 660 THERMAL UNITS PER CUBIC FOOT WITH VARIOUS PROPORTIONS OF AIR WITHOUT MIXTURE OF CHARGE WITH

THE PRODUCTS OF A PREVIOUS EXPLOSION.

i

58

Aviation Engines

ratio, of which Col. 8 gives the usual combustion efficiency Col. 7 Col. 8 gives the absolute rise in temperature

of a pure mixture, as given in Col.

9.

The many recorded experiments made to solve the discrepancy between the theoretical and the actual heat development and resulting pressures in the cylinder of an
explosive motor, to which much discussion has been given as to the possibilities of dissociation and the increased

elements of combustion and non-comas well, also, of absorption and radiation of heat, bustion, have as yet furnished no satisfactory conclusion as to what really takes place within the cylinder walls. There
specific heat of the

seems to be very little known about dissociation, and somewhat vague theories have been advanced to explain the phenomenon. The fact is, nevertheless, apparent as shown in the production of water and other producer gases by the use of steam in contact with highly incandescent fuel. It is known that a maximum explosive mixture of pure gases, as hydrogen and oxygen or carbonic oxide and oxygen, suffers a contraction of one-third their volume by combustion to their compounds, steam or carbonic acid. In the explosive mixtures in the cylinder of a motor, however, the combining elements form so small a proportion of the contents of the cylinder that the shrinkage of their volume amounts to no more than This by no means 3 per cent, of the cylinder volume. accounts for the great heat and pressure differences between the theoretical and actual effects.
CONVERSION OF HEAT TO POWER

The utilization of heat in any heat-engine has long been a theme of inquiry and experiment with scientists and engineers, for the purpose of obtaining the best practical conditions and construction of heat-engines that would represent the highest efficiency or the nearest approach to the theoretical value of heat, as measured by empirical laws that have been derived from experimental researches
.

relating to its ultimate volume.

It is well

known

that the

Requisites for Best

Power Effect

59

steam-engine returns only from 12 to 18 per cent, of the power due to the heat generated by the fuel, about 25 per cent, of the total heat being lost in the chimney, the only use of which is to create a draught for the fire; the balance, some 60 per cent., is lost in the exhaust and by
radiation.

The problem

of utmost utilization

of force

in steam has nearly reached its limit. The internal-combustion system of creating power is comparatively new in practice, and is but just settling into definite shape by repeated trials and modification of details, so as to give somewhat reliable data as to what

be expected from the rival of the steam-engine as For small powers, the gas, gasoline, and petroleum-oil engines are forging ahead at a rapid rate, filling the thousand wants of manufacture and business for a power that does not require expensive care, that is perfectly safe at all times, that can be used in any place in the wide world to 'which its concentrated fuel can be conveyed, and that has eliminated the constant handling of crude fuel and water.

may

a prime mover.

REQUISITES FOR BEST

POWER EFFECT

The
to the

manner

utilization of heat in a gas-engine is mainly due in which the products entering into com-

bustion are distributed in relation to the movement of the piston. The investigation of the foremost exponent of the theory of the explosive motor was prophetic in consideration of "the later realization of the best conditions under which these motors can be made to meet the requirements of economy and practicability. As early as 1862, Beau de Kocha announced, in regard to the coming

power, that four requisites were the basis of operation

for

economy and best effect. 1. The greatest possible cylinder volume with the least possible cooling surface, 2. The greatest possible rapidity of expansion. Hence, 3. The greatest possible expansion. Long high speed. 4. The greatest possible pressure at the comstroke. mencement of expansion. High compression.

CHAPTER
Efficiency of Internal
.

III

Combustion Engines Various Measures o-f EffiTemperatures and Pressures Factors Governing Economy Losses in Wall Cooling Value of Indicator Cards Compression in Explosive Motors Factors Limiting Compression Causes of Heat Losses and Inefficiency Heat Losses to Cooling Water.
ciency

EFFICIENCY OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

EFFICIENCIES are worked out through intricate formulas

for a variety of theoretical and unknown conditions of combustion in the cylinder: ratios of clearance and cyl-

inder volume, and the uncertain condition of the products of combustion left from the last impulse and the wall temperature. But they are of but little value, except as a mathematical inquiry as to possibilities. The real com-

mercial efficiency of a gas or gasoline-engine depends upon the volume 'of gas or liquid at some assigned cost, required per actual brake horse-power per hour, in which an indicator card should show that the mechanical action of the valve gear and ignition was as perfect as practicable, and that the ratio of clearance, space, and cylinder volume gave a satisfactory terminal pressure and compression: i.e., the difference between the power figured from the indicator card and the brake power being the

friction loss

of the engine.

In four-cycle motors of the compression type, the efficiencies are greatly advanced by compression, producing a more complete infusion of the mixture of gas or vapor and air, quicker firing, and far greater pressure than is possible with the two-cycle type previously described. In
the practical operation of the gas-engine during the past twenty years, the gas-consumption efficiencies per indito a

cated horse-power have gradually risen from 17 per cent, maximum of 40 per cent, of the theoretical heat, and
60

Various Measures of Efficiency

61

this has been done chiefly through a decreased combustion chamber and increased compression the compression having gradually increased in practice from 30 Ibs. per square inch to above 100; but there seems to be a limit to com-

pression, as the efficiency ratio decreases with greater increase in compression. It has been shown that an ideal
efficiency of 33 per cent, for 38 Ibs. compression will increase to 40 per cent, for 66 Ibs., and 43 per cent, for 88
Ibs.

compression.

On

means greater explosive pressure and greater

the other hand, greater compression strain on

the engine structure, which will probably retain in future practice the compression between the limits of 40 and 90
Ibs.

except

in

super-compression

engines

intended for

high altitude

work where compression pressures as high

as 125 pounds have been used.

In .experiments made by Dugald Clerk, in England, with a combustion chamber equal to 0.6 of the space swept by the piston, with a compression of 38 Ibs., the consumption of gas was 24 cubic feet per indicated horse-power per hour. With 0.4 compression space and 61 Ibs. compression, the consumption of gas was 20 cubic feet per indicated horse-power per hour; and with 0.34 compression space and 87 Ibs. compression, the consumption of

gas fell to 14.8 cubic feet per indicated horse-power per hour the actual efficiencies being respectively 17, 21, and 25 per cent. This was with a Crossley four-cycle engine.
VARIOUS MEASURES OF EFFICIENCY
efficiencies in regard to power in a heat-engine be divided into four kinds, as follows: I. The first may is known as the maximum theoretical efficiency of a per-

The

fect engine (represented

by the

lines in the indicator dia-

T!

T
and shows
T,

gram).
the

It is

expressed by the formula

work

the received

of a perfect cycle in an engine working between temperature+ absolute temperature (TJ and

62

Aviation Engines

ture

the initial atmospheric temperature absolute temperaII. The second is the actual heat (T ). efficiency, or the ratio of the heat turned into work to the total heat

received by the engine. It expresses the indicated horsepower. III. The third is the ratio between the second or actual heat efficiency and the first or maximum theoretical efficiency of a perfect cycle. It represents the
greatest possible utilization of the power of heat in an internal-combustion engine. IV. The fourth is the me-

Useful

Work

5% Engjne
Friction
100 Jo
Supplied

Lost to Cooling Water

Rejected in Exhaust and Radiation

Fig.

12.

Graphic

Diagram Showing Approximate Utilization of Fuel Burned in Internal-Combustion Engine.

chanical efficiency. This is the ratio between the actual horse-power delivered by the engine through a dynamometer or measured by a brake (brake horse-power),

and the indicated horse-power. The difference between is the power lost by engine friction. In regard to the general heat efficiency of the materials of power in explosive engines, we find that with good illuminating gas the practical efficiency varies from 25 to 40 per cent.
the two
;

kerosene-motors, 20 to 30; gasoline-motors, 20 to 32; acetylene, 25 to 35; alcohol, 20 to 30 per cent, of their heat value. The great variation is no doubt due to imperfect mixtures and variable conditions of the old and new charge
in the cylinder; uncertainty as to leakage

and the perfec-

Temperatures and Pressures

tion of combustion.
to nearly 500 pounds,

63

In the Diesel motors operating under

an efficiency of high pressure, up 36 per cent, is claimed. The graphic diagram at Fig. 12 is of special value as it shows clearly how the heat produced by charge combusan engine of average design. On general principles the greater difference between the heat of combustion and the heat at exhaust is the relative measure of the heat turned into work, which
tion is expended in

represents the degree of efficiency without loss during The mathematical formulas appertaining to expansion. the computation 'of the element of heat and its work in

an explosive engine are in a large measure dependent upon assumed values, as the conditions of the heat of combustion are made uncertain by the mixing of the fresh charge with the products of a previous combustion, and by absorption, radiation, and leakage. The computation of the temperature from the observed pressure may be

made

as before explained, but for compression-engines the needed starting-points for computation are very uncertain, and can only be approximated from the exact

measure and value of the elements of combustion in a

cylinder charge.

TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES

Owing

to the decrease

from atmospheric pressure in

the indrawing charge of the cylinder, caused by valve and frictional obstruction, the compression seldom starts above

13 Ibs. absolute, especially in high-speed engines. Col. 3 in the following table represents the approximate absolute

compression pressure for the clearance percentage and ratio in Cols. 1 and 2, while Col. 4 indicates the gauge pressure from the atmospheric line. The temperatures in Col. 5 are due to the compression in Col. 3 from an assumed temperature of 560 F. in the mixture of the fresh charge of 6 air to 1 gas with the products of combustion left in the clearance chamber from the exhaust stroke of a medium-speed motor. This temperature is subject to

64

Aviation Engines

considerable variation from the difference in the heatunit power of the gases and vapors used for explosive power, as also of the cylinder-cooling effect. In Col. 6 is given the approximate temperatures of explosion for a mixture of air 6 to gas 1 of 660 heat units per cubic foot, for the relative values of the clearance ratio in Col. 2 at constant volume.
TABLE III. GAS-ENGINE CLEARANCE RATIOS, APPROXIMATE COMPRESSION, TEMPERATURES OF EXPLOSION AND EXPLOSIVE PRESSURES WITH A MIXTURE OF GAS OF 660 HEAT UNITS PER CUBIC FOOT AND MIXTURE OF GAS
1

TO 6 OF AIR.

Losses in Wall Cooling

65

obtain the most economical output of actual power. This means water-tanks or water-coils, with air-cooling surfaces
suitable and adjustable to the most economical requirement of the engine, which by late trials requires the jacket water to be discharged at about 200 F. 5th. To reduce the

wall surface of the clearance space or combustion chamber to the smallest possible area, in proportion to its required volume. This lessens the loss of the heat of combustion by

exposure to a large surface, and allows of a higher mean wall temperature to facilitate the heat of compression.
LOSSES IN

WALL COOLING

In an experimental investigation of the efficiency of a gas-engine under variable piston speeds made in France, T it w as found that the useful effect increases with the velocity of the piston that is, with the rate of expansion of the burning gases with mixtures of uniform volumes; so that the variations of time of complete combustion at constant pressure, and the variations due to speed, in a way compensate in their efficiencies. The dilute mixture, being slow burning, will have its time and pressure quickened by increasing the speed. Careful trials give unmistakable evidence that the useful effect increases with the velocity of the piston that The is, with the rate of expansion of the burning gases. time necessary for the explosion to become complete and to attain its maximum pressure depends not only on the composition of the mixture, but also upon the rate of exThis has been verified in experiments with a pansion. high-speed motor, at speeds from 500 to 2,000 revolutions per minute, or piston speeds of from 16 to 64 feet per second. The increased speed of combustion due to increased piston speed is a matter of great importance to builders of gas-engines, as well as to the users, as indicating the mechanical direction of improvements to lessen
the wearing strain due to high speed

and to lighten the vibrating parts with increased strength, in order that the

66

Aviation Engines

balancing of high-speed engines may be accomplished with the least weight. From many experiments made in Europe and in the

United States,

it has been conclusively proved that excessive cylinder cooling by the water-jacket results in a marked loss of efficiency. In a series of experiments with

a simplex engine in France, it was found that a saving of 7 per cent, in gas consumption per brake horse-power

was made by raising the temperature of the jacket water from 141 to 165 F. A still greater saving was made in a trial with an Otto engine by raising the temperature of to 140 the jacket water from 61 F. it being 9.5 per
gas per brake horse-power. has been stated that volumes of similar cylinders increase as the cube of their diameters, while the surface of their cold walls varies as the square of their diameters
cent, less
It
;

so that for large cylinders the ratio of surface to volume This points to greater econis less than for small ones.

omy

in the larger engines.

The study

of

many

experi-

ments goes to prove that combustion takes place gradually in the gas-engine cylinder, and that the rate of increase
of pressure or rapidity of firing is controlled by dilution and compression of the mixture, as well as by the rate of expansion or piston speed.
also depends on the size
ber,

The rate of combustion and shape of the explosion cham-

and is increased by the mechanical agitation of the mixture during combustion, and still more by the mode
of firing.

VALUE OF INDICATOR CARDS

To the uninitiated, indicator cards are considerable of a mystery; to those capable of reading them they form an index relative to the action of any engine. An indicator card, such as shown at Fig. 13, is merely a graphical representation of the various pressures existing in the
cylinder for different positions of the piston. The length is to some scale that represents the stroke of the piston. During the intake stroke, the pressure falls below the

Value of Indicator Cards

atmospheric
ally

67

line. During compression, the curve gradubecomes higher owing to increasing pressure as the volume is reduced. After ignition the pressure line moves
Actual Indicator
J)ia(jram from Otto Engine.

Max 1* Press.

&

Temp*

Dia.
JZngine]

Miri? Press.
Atr,

Admission:
T7tis

length is proportional..totes, strode of Engine-

Tig. 13.

Otta Four-Cycle Card.

straight, then as the piston goes down on the explosion stroke, the pressure falls gradually to the point of exhaust valve, opening when the sudden release

upward almost

the imprisoned gas causes a reduction in pressure to nearly atmospheric. An indicator card, or a series of
o't

V...

Fig.

14-.

Diesel

Motor Card.

them, will always show by its lines the normal or defective condition of the inlet valve and passages; the actual line
of compression; the firing moment; the pressure of explosion; the velocity of combustion; the normal or defective line of expansion, as measured by the adiabatic curve,

68

Aviation Engines

and the normal or defective operation of the exhaust In fact, all valve, exhaust passages, and exhaust pipe. the cycles of an explosive motor may be made a practical study from a close investigation of the lines of an indicator card.

most unique card is that of the Diesel motor (Fig. which involves a distinct principle in the design and 14),
operation of internal-combustion motors, in that instead of taking a mixed charge for instantaneous explosion, its

charge primarily is of air and its compression to a pressure at which a temperature is attained above the igniting point of the fuel, then injecting the fuel under a still higher pressure by which spontaneous combustion takes place gradually with increasing volume over the compression for part of the stroke or until the fuel charge is consumed. The motor thus operating between the pressures

of 500 and 35 Ibs. per square inch, with a clearance of about 7 per cent., has given an efficiency of 36 per cent, of the total heat value of kerosene oil.

COMPRESSION IN EXPLOSIVE MOTORS

That the compression in a gas, gasoline, or oil-engine has a direct relation to the power obtained, has been long

known to experienced builders, having been suggested by M. Beau de Eocha, in 1862, and afterward brought into
practical use in the four-cycle or Otto type about 1880. The degree of compression has had a growth from zero,
in the early engines, to the highest available due to the varying ignition temperatures of the different gases and

vapors used for explosive

fuel, in

order to avoid prema-

Much of ture explosion from the heat of compression. the increased power for equal-cylinder capacity is due to compression of the charge from the fact that the most powerful explosion of gases, or of any form of explosive material, takes place when the particles are in the closest
contact or cohesion with one another, less energy in this form being consumed by the ingredients themselves to

bring about their chemical combination, and consequently

Value of Compression

69

more energy

given out in useful or available work. This is best shown by the ignition of gunpowder, which, when ignited in the open air, burns rapidly, but without
is

explosion, an explosion only taking place if the be confined or compressed into a small space.

powder

Piston Stroke
.20

Volume
.333 .363
.40

.222

.25

.285

.444

.50

Fig. 15.

Diagram of Heat in the Gas Engine Cylinder.

In a gas or gasoline-motor with a small clearance or compression space with high compression the surface with which the burning gases come into contact is much smaller in comparison with the compression space in a low-compression motor. Another advantage of a highcompression motor is that on account of the smaller clearance of combustion space less cooling water is required than with a low-compression motor, as the temperature,

70

Aviation Engines

falls more rapidly. The the water-jacket is thus less in the through case of a high-compression than in that of a low-compression motor. In the non-compression type of motor the

and consequently the pressure,

loss of heat

best results were obtained with a charge of 16 to 18 parts of gas and 100 parts of air, while in the compression type the best results are obtained with an explosive mixture that

of 7 to 10 parts of gas and 100 parts of air, thus showing by the utilization of compression a weaker charge

with a greater thermal efficiency is permissible. It has been found that the explosive pressure resulting from the ignition of the charge of gas or gasoline-vapor and air in the gas-engine cylinder is about 4^ times the pressure prior to ignition. The difficulty about getting
high compression is that if the pressure is charge is likely to ignite prematurely, as always results in increased temperature. may become too hot, a deposit of carbon,
electrode or plug
too high the

compression

The cylinder
a projecting

candescent and sively heated by the high compression and mixture of the hot gases of the previous explosion.

body in the cylinder may become inignite the charge which has been exces-

FACTORS LIMITING COMPRESSION

With gasoline-vapor and air the compression should not be raised above about 90 to 95 pounds to the square inch, many manufacturers not going above 65 or 70 pounds. For natural gas the compression pressure may easily be raised to from 85 to 100 pounds per square inch. For of low calorific value, such as blast-furnace or progases ducer-gas, the compression may be increased to from 140 to 190 pounds. In fact the ability to raise the compression to a high point with these gases is one of the principal reasons for their successful adoption for gas-engine use. In kerosene injection engines the compression of 250 pounds per square inch has been used with marked economy.

Many

troubles in regard to loss of power and in-

crease of fuel have occurred and will no doubt continue,

Factors Limiting Compression

71

owing to the wear of valves, piston, and cylinder, which produces a loss in compression and explosive pressure and a waste of fuel by leakage. Faulty adjustment of valve movement is also a cause of loss of power; which may be from tardy closing of the inlet-valve or a too early
opening of the exhaust-valve. The explosive pressure varies to a considerable amount in proportion to the compression pressure by the difference in fuel value and the proportions of air mixtures, so that for good illuminating gas the explosive pressure may be from 2.5 to 4 times the compression pressure. For natural gas 3 to 4.5, for gasoline 3 to 5, for producergas 2 to 3, and for kerosene by injection 3 to 6. The compression temperatures, although well known and easily computed from a known normal temperature
of the explosive mixture, are subject to the effect of the uncertain temperature of the gases of the previous explosion remaining in the cylinder, the temperature of its
walls,

and the relative volume of the charge, whether full or scant; which are terms too variable to make any computations reliable or available.

For the theoretical compression temperatures from a known normal temperature, we append a table of the rise
in temperature for the compression pressures in the following table:
TABLE
IV.

COMPRESSION TEMPERATURES FROM A NORMAL TEMPERATURE OF 60 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT

484 459 433 404

100 90

Ibs.
Ibs.

80 70

Ibs. Ibs.

gauge gauge gauge gauge

60 50 40 30

Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.

gauge
gauge.
.

Ibs.

gauge gauge

373 339 301 258

CHART FOR DETERMINING COMPRESSION PRESSURES

A
is

very useful chart (Fig. 16) for determining com-

pression pressures in gasoline-engine cylinders for various ratios of compression space to total cylinder volume

given by P. S. Tice, and described in the Chilton Automobile Directory by the originator as follows:

72
It is

Aviation Engines

many

nient

means

times desirable to have at for at once determining with

hand a conveaccuracy what

the compression pressure will be in a gasoline-engine cylinder, the relationship between the volume of the compression space and the total cylinder volume or that swept by the piston being known. The curve at Fig. 16 is

offered as such a means.

It is based-

on empirical data

Fig. 16.

Chart Showing Relation Between Compression Volume

and Pressure.

gathered from upward of two dozen modern automobile engines and represents what may be taken to be the results as found in practice. It is usual for the designer to find

compression pressure values, knowing the volumes from

the equation

which
is

for adiabatic compression of air. Equation (1) right enough in general form but gives results which
is

Determining Compression Pressures

73

are entirely too high, as almost all designers know from The trouble lies in the interchange of heat experience. between the compressed gases and the cylinder walls, in the diminution of the exponent (1.4 in the above) due to the
lesser ratio of specific heat of gasoline vapor and in the transfer of heat from the gases which are being compressed to whatever fuel may enter the cylinder in an

unvaporized condition.
leakage, and,
if

Also, there is always some piston the form of the equation (1) is to be

lower the value of the exwith many engines, it appears ponent. experience that compression reaches its highest value in the cylinder for but a short range of motor speeds, usually during the
retained, this also tends to

From

appears that, at those speeds at which highest values, the initial pressure at the start of the compression stroke is from .5 to .9 Ib. below atmospheric. Taking this latter loss value, which shows more often than those of lesser value, the compresmid-range.
Also,
it

compression shows

its

sion is seen to start

from an

initial

pressure of 13.9

Ibs.

per

sq. in. absolute.

Also, experiment shows that if the exponent be given the value 1.26, instead of 1.4, the equation will embrace
all

heat losses in the compressed gas, and compensate for the changed ratio of specific heats for the mixture and also for all piston leakage, in the average engine with In the light of the rings in good condition and tight. foregoing, and in view of results obtained from its use, the above curve is offered values of P 2 being found

from the equation

P =
2

/VA
13.8

1 ' 26

(~J

In using this curve it must be remembered that pressures are absolute.. Thus: suppose it is desired to know
the volumetric relationships of the cylinder for a comAdd atmospheric pression pressure of 75 Ibs. gauge.

75 89.7 pressure to the desired gauge pressure 14.7 Ibs. absolute. Locate this pressure on the scale of ordi-

74

Aviation Engines

nates and follow horizontally across to the curve and then vertically downward to the scale of abscissas, where the ratio of the combustion chamber volume to the total cylinder volume is given, which latter is equal to the sum of
the combustion

chamber volume and that of the piston

sweep. In the above case it is found that the combustion space for a compression pressure of 75 Ibs. gauge will be .225 of the total cylinder volume, or .225 -~ 775 .2905

Conversely, knowing the volumetric ratios, compression pressure can be read directly by proceeding from the scale of abscissas vertically to the curve and thence horizontally to the scale of
ordinates.

of the piston sweep volume.

CAUSES OF HEAT LOSS AND INEFFICIENCY IN EXPLOSIVE MOTORS

The
an
is

difference realized in the practical operation of internal combustion heat engine from the computed

from the values of the explosive elements the most serious difficulty that engineers have probably encountered in their endeavors to arrive at a rational
effect derived

conclusion as to where the losses were located, and the ways and means of design that would eliminate the causes of loss and raise the efficiency step by step to a reasonable percentage of the total efficiency of a perfect cycle. An authority on the relative condition of the chemical

elements under combustion in closed cylinders attributes the variation of temperature shown in the fall of the expansion curve, and the suppression or retarded evolution

and

of heat, entirely to the cooling action of the cylinder walls, to this nearly all the phenomena hitherto obscure in

the cylinder of a gas-engine. Others attribute the great difference between the theoretical temperature of combustion

and the actual temperature realized in the practical operation of the gas-engine, a loss of more than one-half
of the total heat energy of the combustibles, partly to the dissociation of the elements of combustion at extremely

high temperatures and their reassociation by expansion in the cylinder, to account for the supposed continued

Causes of Heat Loss

75

combustion and extra adiabatic curve of the expansion line on the indicator card. The loss of heat to the walls of the cylinder, piston,

and clearance space, as regards the proportion of wall

surface to the volume, has gradually brought this point

Fig. 17.

The Thompson Indicator, an Instrument for Determining Compressions and Explosion Pressure Values and Recording Them on Chart.

to its smallest ratio in the concave piston-head and globular cylinder-head, with the smallest possible space in the inlet and exhaust passage. The wall surface of a cylin-

drical clearance space or combustion chamber of one-half its unit diameter in length is equal to 3.1416 square units,
its

volume but 0.3927 of a cubic unit while the same wall

;

76

Aviation Engines

cubic unit.

surface in a spherical form has a volume of 0.5236 of a It will be readily seen that the volume is inspherical over a cylindrical for equal wall surfaces at the moment of explosion, it is desirable that the greatest amount of heat is
cent, in a

creased

33% per

form

when

generated, and carrjdng with it the greatest possible pressure from which the expansion takes place by the movement
of the piston.

The spherical form cannot continue during the stroke for mechanical reasons; therefore some proportion of piston stroke of cylinder volume must be found to correspond with a spherical form of the combustion chamber
to produce the least loss of heat through the walls during

Fig. 18.

Spherical Combustion

Fig. 19.

Chamber.

Enlarged Combustion Chamber.

This the combustion and expansion part of the stroke. idea is illustrated in Figs. 18 and 19, showing how the relative volumes of cylinder stroke and combustion chamber

may

be varied to suit the requirements due to the

quality of the elements of combustion. Although the concave piston-head shows

economy

in

regard to the relation of the clearance volume to the wall area at the moment of explosive combustion, it may be clearly seen that its concavity increases its surface area and its capacity for absorbing heat, for which there is no provision for cooling the piston, save its contact with
the walls of the cylinder and the slight air cooling of its back by its reciprocal motion. For this reason the concave piston-head has not been generally adopted and the

concave cylinder-head, as shown in Fig. 19, with a

flat

Mercedes Aviation Engine

77

Inlet

Valve

Exhaust
Valve
,,~ Approximately

Spherical

Chamber

Concave.
Piston Top
.-Carburetor

^Connecting

Rod

"

OH Sump

Fig.

20.

Mercedes Aviation Engine Cylinder Section Showing Approximately Spherical Combustion Chamber and Concave Piston Top.

78

Aviation Engines

piston-head is the latest and best practice in airplane engine construction. The practical application of the principle just outlined to one of the most efficient airplane motors ever designed, the Mercedes, is clearly outlined at Fig. 20.

HEAT LOSSES TO COOLING WATER

The mean temperature of the wall surface of the combustion chamber and cylinder, as indicated by the temperatures of the circulating water, has been found to be an important item in the economy of the gas-engine.
Dugald Clerk, in England, a high authority in practical work with the gas-engine, found that 10 per cent, of the gas for a stated amount of power was saved by using water at a temperature in. which the ejected water from the cylinder- jacket was near the boiling-point, and ventures the opinion that a
still higher temperature for the water may be used as a source of economy. circulating This could be made practical in the case of aviation en-

gines by adjusting the air-cooling surface of the radiator so as to maintain the inlet water at just below the boiling
point,

and by the rapid circulation induced by the pump pressure, to return the water from the cylinder- jacket a few degrees above the boiling point. The thermal displacement systems of cooling employed in automobiles are working under more favorable temperature conditions than those engines in which cooling is more energetic. For a given amount of heat taken from the cylinder

by the

largest volume of circulating water, the difference in temperature between inlet and outlet of the water 1 jacket should be the least possible, and this condition of

the water circulation gives a more even temperature to all parts of the cylinder; while, on the contrary, a coldwater supply, say at 60 F., so slow as to allow the ejected

temperature near the boiling-point, must make a great difference in temperature between the bottom and top of the cylinder, with a loss in economy

water to flow

off at a

Heat Losses
in gas

to

Cooling Water

79

and other fuels, as well as in water, if it is obtained by measurement. From the foregoing considerations of losses and inefficiencies, we find that the practice in motor design and
construction has not yet reached the desired perfection

Step by step improvements have been made with many changes in design though many .have been without merit as an improvement, farther than
in its cycular operation.
to gratify the longings of designers for something different from the other thing, 'and to establish a special

These efforts may in time a motor of normal or standard design for each produce kind of fuel that will give the highest possible efficiency
construction of their own.
for all conditions of service.

CHAPTER IV
Engine Parts and Functions Why Multiple Cylinder Engines Are Best Describing Sequence of Operations Simple Engines Four and Six Cylinder Vertical Tandem Engines Eight and Twelve Cylinder V Engines Radial Cylinder Arrangement Rotary Cylinder Forms.

ENGINE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

principal elements of a gas engine are not difficult to understand and their functions are easily denned.

THE

In place of the barrel of the gun one has a smoothly machined cylinder in which a small cylindrical or barrelshaped element fitting the bore closely may be likened to It differs in this important a bullet or cannon ball. as while the shot is discharged from respect, however, the mouth of the cannon the piston member sliding inside of the main cylinder cannot leave it, as its movements back and forth from the open to the closed end and back
again are limited by simple mechanical connection or linkage which comprises crank and connection rod. It is by
this
is

means that the reciprocating movement

of the piston

transformed into a rotary motion of the crank-shaft. The fly-wheel is a heavy member attached to the crankshaft of an automobile engine which has energy stored in its rim as the member revolves, and the momentum
of this revolving mass tends to equalize the intermittent pushes on the piston head produced by the explosion of the gas in the cylinder. In aviation engines, the weight of the propeller or that of rotating cylinders themselves performs the duty of a fly-wheel, so no separate member
is

needed. If some explosive is placed in the chamber formed by the piston and closed end of the cylinder and exploded, the piston would be the only part that would yield to the pressure which would produce a downward movement. As this is forced down the crank-shaft is
80

81

82

Aviation Engines

turned by the connecting rod, and as this part is hinged it is free to oscillate as the crank turns, and thus the piston may slide back and forth while the crankshaft is rotating or describing a curvilinear path. In addition to the simple elements described it is evident that a gasoline engine must have other parts. The most important of these are the valves, of which there are One closes the passage generally two to each cylinder. connecting to the gas supply and opens during one stroke of the piston in order to let the explosive gas into the The other member, or exhaust combustion chamber. valve, serves as a cover for the opening through which the burned gases can leave the cylinder after their work is done. The spark plug is a simple device which may be compared to the fuse or percussion cap of the cannon. It permits one to produce an electric spark in the cylinder when the piston is at the best point to utilize the
at both ends

pressure which obtains when the compressed gas is fired. The valves are open one at a time, the inlet valve being lifted from its seat while -the cylinder is filling and the exhaust valve is opened when the cylinder is being cleared. They are normally kept seated by means of compression springs. In the simple motor shown at Fig. 5, the exhaust valve is operated by means of a pivoted bell crank rocked by a cam which turns at half the speed of the crank-shaft. The inlet valve operates automatically, as will be explained in proper sequence. In order to obtain a perfectly tight combustion chamber, both intake and exhaust valves are closed before the

gas

is

ignited, because all of the pressure

produced by

the exploding gas is to be directed against the top of the movable piston. When the piston reaches the bottom of its power stroke, the exhaust valve is lifted by means
lift

of the bell crank which is rocked because of the point or The cam-shaft is driven by positive on the cam.

gearing and revolves at half the engine speed. The exhaust valve remains open during the whole of the return
stroke of the piston, and as this

member moves toward

Why

Multiple Cylinder

Forms Are Best

83

the closed end of the cylinder it forces out burned gases ahead of it, through the passage controlled by the exhaust

The cam-shaft is revolved at half the engine speed because the exhaust valve is raised from its seat during only one stroke out of four, or only once every two revolutions. Obviously, if the cam was turned at the same speed as the crank-shaft it would remain open once every revolution, whereas the burned gases are expelled from the individual cylinders only once in two turns of the
valve.

crank-shaft.

WHY
Owing

MULTIPLE CYLINDER FORMS ARE BEST

which obtains from the heavy explosion in the large single-cylinder engines used for stationary power other forms were evolved in which the cylinder was smaller and power obtained by running the engine faster, but these are suitable only for very low
to the vibration

powers.

a single-cylinder engine is employed a very heavy fly-wheel is needed to carry the moving parts through idle strokes necessary to obtain a power imFor this reason automobile and aircraft designpulse. ers must use more than one cylinder, and the tendency is to produce power by frequently occurring light impulses rather than by a smaller number of explosions having greater force. "When a single-cylinder motor is employed the construction is heavier than is needed with a multiple-cylinder form. Using two or more cylinders conduces to steady power generation and a lessening of
vibration.

When

Most modern motor cars employ four-cylinder

engines because a power impulse may be secured twice every revolution of the crank-shaft, or a total of fourpower strokes during two revolutions. The parts are so arranged that while the charge of gas in one cylinder is exploding, those which come next in firing order are compressing, discharging the inert gases and drawing in a
fresh charge
respectively.

When

the

power stroke

is

completed in one cylinder, the piston in that

member

in

84

Aviation Engines

which a charge of gas has just been compressed has reached the top of its stroke and when the gas is exploded the piston is reciprocated and keeps the crankshaft turning. When a multiple-cylinder engine is used the fly-wheel can be made much lighter than that of the simpler form and eliminated altogether in some designs.
In fact, many modern multiple-cylinder engines developing 300 horse-power weigh less than the early single- and double-cylinder forms which developed but one-tenth or one-twentieth that amount of energy.
DESCRIBING SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS

Eef erring to Fig. 22, A, the sequence of operation in a single-cylinder motor can be easily understood. Asthe crank-shaft is turning in the direction suming that of the arrow, it will be seen that the intake stroke comes first, then the compression, which is followed by the power impulse, and lastly the exhaust stroke. If two cylinders are used, it is possible to balance the explosions in such a way that one will occur each revolution. This is true with either one of two forms of four-cycle motors. At B, a two-cylinder vertical engine using a crank- shaft in which the crank-pins are on the same plane is shown. The two pistons move up and down simultaneously. Bef erring to the diagram describing the strokes, and assuming that the outer circle represents the cycle of operations in one cylinder while the inner circle represents the sequence of events in the other cylinder, while cylinder No. 1 is taking in a fresh charge of gas, cylinder No. 2 When cylinder No. 1 is compressing, cylis exploding. inder No. 2 is exhausting. During the time that the charge in cylinder No. 1 is exploded, cylinder No. 2 is being filled with fresh^gas. While the exhaust gases are being discharged from cylinder No. 1, cylinder No. 2 is compressing
the gas previously taken. The same condition obtains
the crank-pins are eighty degrees and the cylat C. The reason that the

when

arranged

a.t

one hundred and

inders are opposed, as shown

Sequence of Operations

85

y
Single Cylinder

HPU

Two Cylinder

Vertical

Cranhpins on Same Plans

Two Cylinder, Opposed

Crmnhpins At 180 Degrees

Fig. 22.

Diagrams Illustrating Sequence of Cycles in One- and Two-Cylinder Engines Showing More Uniform Turning Effort on Crank-Shaft with Two-Cylinder Motors.

86

Aviation Engines

two-cylinder opposed motor is more popular than that having two vertical cylinders is that it is difficult to balance the construction shown at B, so that the vibration will not be excessive. The two-cylinder opposed motor

has much less vibration than the other form, and as the explosions occur evenly and the motor is a simple one to construct, it has been very popular in the past on light cars and has received limited application on some
early, light airplanes.

clearly the advantages of multiple-cylinder engines the diagrams at Fig. 23 have been

To demonstrate very

prepared. At A, a three-cylinder motor, having crankpins at one hundred and twenty degrees, which means that they are spaced at thirds of the circle, we have a form of construction that gives a more even turning than that possible with -a two-cylinder engine. Instead of one explosion per revolution of the crank-shaft, one will obtain
three explosions in two revolutions. The manner in which the explosion strokes occur and the manner they overlap
strokes in the other cylinder is shown at A. Assuming that the cylinders fire in the following order, first No. 1, then No. 2, and last No. 3, we will see that while cylinder

No.

represented by the outer circle, is on the power stroke, cylinder No. 3 has completed the last two-thirds of its exhaust stroke and has started on its intake stroke. Cylinder No. 2, represented by the middle circle, during this same period has completed its intake stroke and two1,

thirds of its compression stroke. study of the diagram will show that there is an appreciable lapse of time be-

tween each explosion.

Three-cylinder engines are not used on aircraft at the present time, though Bleriot's flight across the British
It

Channel was made with a three-cylinder Anzani motor. was not a conventional form, however. The three-cyl-

inder engine is practically obsolete at this time for any purpose except "penguins" or school machines that are incapable of flight and which are used in some French
training schools for aviators.

Four- and Six -Cylinder Engines

Firing Order 1,3,2

87

Three Cylinder, Cranks At 120 Degrees

Firing Order

J.

2,4,3

Four Cylinder, Cranhs At 180 Degrees

First Revolution

78(T

180

Second Revolution 780 780

Fig. 23.

Diagrams Demonstrating Clearly Advantages which Obtain when Multiple-Cylinder Motors are Used as Power Plants.

88

Aviation Engines
FOUR- AND SIX-CYLINDER ENGINES

In the four-cylinder engine operation which is shown it will be seen that the power strokes follow each other without loss of time, and one cylinder begins to fire and the piston moves down just as soon as the member ahead of it has completed its power stroke. In a four-cylinder motor, the crank-pins are placed at one hundred and eighty degrees, or on the halves of the crank circle. The crank-pins for cylinders No. 1 and No. 4 are on the same plane, while those for cylinders No. 2 and No. 3 also move in unison. The diagram describing sequence of operations in each cylinder is based on a firing order of one, two, four, three. The outer circle, as in
at Fig. 23, B,

previous instances, represents the cycle of operations in

The next one toward the center, cylinder cylinder one. No. 2, the third circle represents the sequence of events
in cylinder No. 3, while the inner circle outlines the strokes in cylinder four. The various cylinders are working as

follows

1.

2.

3.

4.

Compression Exhaust Intake Explosion Intake Exhaust Compression Compression Intake Explosion
Explosion

Intake

Exhaust

Compression Explosion Exhaust

be obvious that regardless of the method of construction, or the number of cylinders employed, exactly the same number of parts must be used in each cylinder assembly and one can conveniently compare any multiple-cylinder power plant as a series of singlecylinder engines joined one behind the other and so coupled that one will deliver power and produce useful
It will

energy at the crank-shaft where the other leaves off. The same fundamental laws governing the action of a
single cylinder obtain when a number are employed, and the sequence of operation is the same in all members, except that the necessary functions take place at different

Why

Multiple Cylinder Forms-

Are Best

89

times. If, for instance, all the cylinders of a four-cylinder motor were fired at the same time, one would obtain the same effect as though a one-piston engine was used, which had a piston displacement equal to that of the four smaller members. As is the case with a single-cylinder engine, the motor would be out of correct mechanical balance because all the connecting rods would be placed on

crank-pins that lie in the same plane. A very large flywheel would be necessary to carry the piston through the idle strokes, and large balance weights would be fitted to the crank-shaft in an effort to compensate for the weight of the four pistons, and thus reduce vibratory stresses which obtain when parts are not in correct balance. There would be no advantage gained by using four cylinders in this manner, and there would be more loss of heat and more power consumed in friction than in a oneThis is the reason piston motor of the same capacity. that when four cylinders are used the arrangement of crank-pins is always as shown at Fig. 23, B i.e., two pistons are up, while the other two are at the bottom of the stroke. With this construction, we have seen that it
is

possible to string out the explosions so that there will always be one cylinder applying power to the crank-shaft.

The explosions are spaced equally. The parts are in correct mechanical balance because two pistons are on the Care is upstroke while the other two are descending.
taken to have one set of moving members weigh exactly the same as the other. With a four-cylinder engine one has correct balance and continuous application of energy. This insures a smoother running motor which has greater efficiency than the simpler one-, two-, and three-cylinder

forms previously described. Eliminating the stresses which would obtain if we had an unbalanced ftiechanism and irregular power application makes for longer life.
Obviously a large number of relatively light explosions produce less wear and strain than would a lesser number of powerful ones. As the parts can be built lighter if the explosions are not heavy, the engine can be operwill

90

Aviation Engines

ated at higher rotative speeds than

when

large and cum-

Four-cylinder engines intended for aviation work have been built according to the designs shown at Fig. 24, but these forms are unconventional and seldom if ever used.

bersome members are

utilized.

The six-cylinder type of motor, the action of which is shown at Fig. 23, C, is superior to the four-cylinder, inas-

Radial Cylinder Arrangement

Two Sets of Opposed Cylinders
Fig. 24.

Showing Three Possible Though Unconventional Arrangements of

Four-Cylinder Engines.

much

as the power strokes overlap, and instead of having two explosions each revolution we have three explosions. The conventional crank-shaft arrangement in a six-cylinder engine is just the same as though one used two threecylinder shafts fastened together, so pistons 1 and 6 are on the same plane as are pistons 2 and 5. Pistons 3 and 4 also travel together. With the cranks arranged as outlined at Fig. 23, C, the firing order is one, five, three, six, two, four. The manner in which the power strokes overlap
is

clearly

shown

in the diagram.

An

interesting com-

Why

Multiple Cylinder

Forms Are Best

91

parison is also made in the diagrams at Fig. 25 and in the upper corner of Fig. 23, C. rectangle is divided into four columns each of these corresponds to one hundred and eighty degrees, or half a Thus the first revolution of the crank-shaft revolution. is represented by the first two columns, while the second

revolution

is

represented by the last two.

IN
SIIIOIIC

Taking the porK>wf

SIKOHI

THE APPLICATION OF POWER

rowCR STBOt PDWtR
SIHOICl

THE SIX-CYLINDER MOTOR

Kmt StOC

P0*rn

JK8&J83
cmtTtst Mtss

"4EV.

JSRE

MV.

IK#EV.

1REV..

2 REV.

THE APPLICATION OF POWER 'rowtnstoin rowii

iou.

IN

THE FOUR-CYLINDER MOTOR

w_.
.

tnvivi

POWCI stuoy

iou

rowtn

voc

wit

7\
THIS DIAGRAM REPRESENTS

ONE "CYCLE"

IN

WHICH THE PISTON TRAVELS 20 INCHES

I
I

MOTQR
\

_na REPRESENTS POWER

REPRESENTS NO POWER

CYL

2 CYL.

CYL
CYL

Fig. 25.

Why They
tion of the

Diagrams Outlining Advantages of Multiple Cylinder Motors, and Deliver Power More Evenly Than Single Cylinder Types.

diagram which shows the power impulse in a

one-cylinder engine, we see that during the first revolution there has been no power impulse. During the first half of the second revolution, however, an explosion takes place and a power impulse is obtained. The last portion of the

second revolution

is

devoted

to-

exhausting the burned

gases, so that there are three idle strokes and but one power stroke. The effect when two cylinders are employed
is

shown immediately below.

92

Aviation Engines

Here we have one explosion during the first half of the first revolution in one cylinder and another during the first
half of the second revolution in the other cylinder. "With a four-cylinder engine there is an explosion each half revolution, while in a six-cylinder engine there is one

and onesix

half explosions during each half revolution.

Diagrams Show incj Duration of Eve nts
for a Four Stroke Cycle. Six Cylinder Engine

When

When

and

Fxhaus* Valves open 45 early

clofe 7" late, and Inlet Valves open 12 late and

Fig, 4

No+e.-Read Figs. '3&4 from Centers Outward

1st Str

2nd
1st

Str

3rd Str

4th Str

Revolution

ONE CYC LE
360'

2nd Revolution

720:-0

Fig. 3
Fig. 26.

540*

Diagrams Showing Duration of Events for a Four-Stroke Cycle,

Six-Cylinder Engine.

cylinders are used there is no lapse of time between power impulses, as these overlap* and a continuous and smoothturning movement is imparted to the crank shaft. The

diagram shown at Fig. 26, prepared by E. P. Pulley, can be studied to advantage in securing an idea of the coordination of effort that takes place in an engine of the sixcylinder type.

Actual Duration of Cycle Functions

ACTUAL DURATION OF DIFFERENT STROKES

93

In the diagrams previously presented the writer has assumed, for the sake of simplicity, that each stroke takes place during half of one revolution of the crank-shaft,

Inlet Value

Exhaust Value
Closes

^'Past Center-Upper,

Opens

1^ Past Center-Upper

Inlet Valve

Center-Lower

Exhaust Valve Opens 7"Before Center-Lower

Fig. 27.

Diagram Showing Actual Duration of Different Strokes in Degrees.

which corresponds to a crank-pin travel of one hundred and eighty degrees. The actual duration of these strokes
is

different. For example, the inlet stroke is a trifle more than a half revolution, and the exhaust usually The diagram showing the is always considerably more. comparative duration of the strokes is shown at Fig. 27.

somewhat

94

Aviation Engines
inlet valve

opens ten degrees after the piston starts thirty degrees after the piston has reached the bottom of its stroke. This means that the suction stroke corresponds to a crank-pin travel
to

The

go down and remains open

of two hundred degrees, while the compression stroke is measured by a movement of but one hundred and fifty degrees. It is common practice to open the exhaust valve before the piston reaches the end of the power stroke so that the actual duration of the power stroke is about one hundred and forty degrees, while the exhaust stroke corresponds to a crank-pin travel of two hundred and twentyfive degrees. In this diagram, which represents proper
Power 1 ^^g^g^^Exhaus
\\Compression
\

Power <?

^H
ompression

Exhaust

Lompressionm
CompressionlMl
1

U Power 6

UPower4^^f

Exhaust

Revolutions
Fig. 28.

Another Diagram to Facilitate Understanding Sequence of

Functions in Six-Cylinder Engine.

time for the valves to open arid close, the dimensions in inches given are measured on the fly-wheel and apply only If the fly-wheel were to a certain automobile motor. smaller ten degrees would take up less than the dimensions given, while if the fly-wheel was larger a greater space on its circumference would represent the same crank-pin travel. Aviation engines are timed by using a timing disc attached to the crank-shaft as they are not provided with
Obviously, the distance measured in inches fly-wheels. will depend upon the diameter of the disc, though the

number

of degrees interval

would not change.

EIGHT- AND TWELVE-CYLINDER V ENGINES

Those who have followed the development of the gasoarguments that were made when the six-cylinder motor was introduced at a time that the
line engine will recall the

Vee Engine Advantages

95

four-cylinder type was considered standard. The arrival of the eight-cylinder has created similar futile discussion
of its practicability as this is so clearly established as to be accepted without question. It has been a standard for aeroplanes for many years, early expopower plant nents having been the Antoinette, the Woolsley, the Kenault, the E. N. V. in Europe and the Curtiss in the

United States. The reason the

V type

shown

at Fig. 29,
is

A is

favored

is

that the "all-in-line

form" which

shown

at Fig. 29,

is

Fig. 29.

Types of Eight-Cylinder Engines Showing the Advantage of the

Method of Cylinder

Placing.

not practical for aircraft because of its length. Compared to the standard four-cylinder engine it is nearly twice as long and it required a much stronger and longer crankshaft.
It will

be evident that

it

could not be located to

advantage in the airplane fuselage. These undesirable factors are eliminated in the type eight-cylinder motor,

two blocks of four cylinders each, so arthat one set or block is at an angle of forty-five ranged degrees from the vertical center line of the motor, or at This an angle of ninety degrees with the other set. arrangement of cylinders produces a motor that is no
as
it

consists of

96

Aviation Engines
of

longer than a four-cylinder engine

half

the

power

would

be.

Apparently there is considerable misconception as to the advantage of the two extra cylinders of the eight as compared with the six-cylinder. It should be borne in mind
that the multiplication in the number of cylinders noticed since the early days of automobile development has not

been for solely increasing the power of the engine, but to secure a more even turning movement, greater flexibility

Vee Engine Advantages

97

as one of the most important advantages of the eightnumber of torque diagrams are shown cylinder design.

While these appear to be deeply technical, be very easily followed when their purpose is they may explained. At the top is shown the torque diagram of a The high single-cylinder motor of the four-cycle type.
at Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.

Diagrams Showing How Increasing Number of Cylinders Makes for More Uniform Power Application.

point in the line represents the period of greatest torque or power generation, and it will be evident that this occurs early in the first revolution of the crank-shaft. Below this

diagram is shown a similar curve except that it is produced by a four-cylinder engine. Inspection will show that the turning moment is much more uniform than in the

98

Aviation Engines

single cylinder; similarly, the six-cylinder diagram is an improvement over the four, and the eight-cylinder diagram is an improvement over the six-cylinder. The reason that practically continuous torque is obtained in an eight-cylinder engine is that one cylinder fires every ninety degrees of crank-shaft rotation, and as each

impulse lasts nearly seventy-five per cent, of the stroke, one can easily appreciate that an engine that will give four explosions per revolution of the crank-shaft will run more uniformly than one that gives but three explosions per revolution, as the six-cylinder does, and will be twice as smooth running as a four-cylinder, in which but two explosions occur per revolution of the crank-shaft. The com-

shown in graphical diagrams and in Fig. 31 that further description is unnecessary. Any eight-cylinder engine may be considered a "twinparison
is so clearly

four," twelve-cylinder engines sixes/

fers

may

be considered "twin

The only points in which an eight-cylinder motor diffrom a four-cylinder is in the arrangement of the

connecting rod, as in many designs it is necessary to have two rods working from the same crank-pin. This difficulty is easily overcome in some designs by staggering the cylinders and having the two connecting rod big ends of conventional form side by side on a common crank-pin. In other designs one rod is a forked form and works on the Still another outside of a rod of the regular pattern. method is to have a boss just above the main bearing on one connecting rod to which the lower portion of the connecting rod in the opposite cylinder is hinged. As the eight-cylinder engine may actually be made lighter than the six-cylinder of equal power, it is possible to use smaller reciprocating parts, such as pistons, connecting rods and

valve gear, and obtain higher engine speed with practically no vibration. The firing order in nearly every case is the same as in a four-cylinder except that the explosions occur alternately in each set of cylinders. The firing order of an eight-cylinder motor is apt to be confusing to the

100

Aviation Engines

motorist, especially if one considers that there are eight possible sequences. The majority of engineers favor the alternate firing from side to side. Firing orders will be

considered in proper sequence. The demand of aircraft designers for more power has stimulated designers to work out twelve-cylinder motors.

ft,

Fig. 33.

The Hall-Scott Four-Cylinder 100 Horse-Power Aviation Motor.

all

These are high-speed motors incorporating

recent fea-

tures of design in securing light reciprocating parts, large valve openings, etc. The twelve-cylinder motor .incorporates the best features of high-speed motor design and there is no need at this time to discuss further the pros and cons of the twelve-cylinder versus the eight or six, because it
is

conceded by

all

that there is the

same degree of steady

power would

application in the twelve over the eight as there be in the eight over the six. The question resolves

Propeller D

Reduction

Fig. 34.

Two Views

of the Duesenberg Sixteen Valve Four-Cylinder

Aviation Motor.
101

102

Aviation Engines

a motor of high power that will run with Epnmimn;vibr.atiofi and that produces smooth action. This is well shoxvn by diagrams at Fig. 31. It should be remembered that if an eight-cylinder engine will give four
itself into ]ia\ixig

explosions per revolution of the fly-wheel, a twelve-cylinder type will give six explosions per revolution, and instead of the impulses coming 90 degrees crank travel apart, as in the case of the eight-cylinder, these will come but 60

Overhead Cam Shaft

-Valves
Cylinders

'Starting

Crank
Engine Base
Oil

Sump

Fig. 35.

The Hall-Scott Six-Cylinder Aviation Engine.

degrees of crank travel apart in the case of the twelvecylinder. For this reason, the cylinders of a twelve are usually separated by 60 degrees while the eight has the blocks spaced 90 degrees apart. The comparison can be easily made hy comparing the sectional views of Vee engines at Fig. 32. When one realizes that the actual duration of the power stroke is considerably greater than 120 degrees crank travel, it will be apparent that the

overlapping of explosions must deliver a very uniform Vee engines have been devised application of power.

Radial Cylinder Arrangements

103

having the cylinders spaced but 45 degrees apart, but the explosions cannot be timed at equal intervals as when 90
degrees separate the cylinder center
lines.

RADIAL CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS

"While the fixed cylinder forms of engines, having the cylinders in tandem in the four- and six-cylinder models as shown at Figs. 33 to 35 inclusive and the eight-cylinder

as outlined at Figs. 36 and 37 have been generally used and are most in favor at the present time, other forms of motors having unconventional cylinder arrangements have been devised, though most of these are practically

V types

View of Power Delivery End

Fig. 36.

The

Curtiss Eight-Cylinder, 200. Horse-Power Aviation Engine.

102
itself into lia\ing

Aviation Engines

a motor of high power that will run with p^minmiji^vibr.atioil and that produces smooth action. This is well shcnvii by diagrams at Fig. 31. It should be remembered that if an eight-cylinder engine will give four explosions per revolution of the fly-wheel, a twelve-cylinder type will give six explosions per revolution, and instead of the impulses coming 90 degrees crank travel apart, as in the case of the eight-cylinder, these will come but 60

Overhead Cam Shaft

Magneto,

Water

Pump

Engine Base
Oil

Sump

Fig. 35.

The Hall-Scott Six-Cylinder Aviation Engine.

degrees of crank travel apart in the case of the twelvecylinder. For this reason, the cylinders of a twelve are usually separated by 60 degrees while the eight has the blocks spaced 90 degrees apart. The comparison can be easily made hy comparing the sectional views of Vee engines at Fig. 32. When one realizes that the actual duration of the power stroke is considerably greater than 120 degrees crank travel, it will be apparent that the overlapping of explosions must deliver a very uniform Vee engines have been devised application of power.

Radial Cylinder Arrangements

103

having the cylinders spaced but 45 degrees apart, but the explosions cannot be timed at equal intervals as when 90
degrees separate the cylinder center
RADIAL,
lines.

CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS

While the fixed cylinder forms of engines, having the cylinders in tandem in the four- and six-cylinder models as shown at Figs. 33 to 35 inclusive and the eight-cylinder V types as outlined at Figs. 36 and 37 have been generally used and are most in favor at the present time, other forms of motors having unconventional cylinder arrangements have been devised, though most of these are practically

View of Power Delivery

En;

Fig. 36.

The

Curtiss Eight-Cylinder, 200. Horse-Power Aviation Engine.

104
obsolete.

Aviation Engines

While many methods of decreasing weight and increasing mechanical efficiency of a motor are known to
designers, one of the first to be applied to the construction of aeronautical power plants was an endeavor to group

the components, which in themselves were not extremely light, into a form that would be considerably lighter than the conventional design. As an example, we may consider those multiple-cylinder forms in which the cylinders are
Valve Rockers

A
Reduction

A An

**.

* A A

/
.//

Intake Pipes

Gear Case

Propeller

Flange

Carburetor

Fig. 37.

The Sturtevant Eight- Cylinder, High Speed Aviation Motor.

disposed around a short crank-case, either radiating from a common center as at Fig. 38 or of the fan shape shown *at Fig. 39. This makes it possible to use a crank-case but slightly larger than that needed for one or two cylinders and it also permits of a corresponding decrease in length of the crank-shaft. The weight of the engine is lessened because of the reduction in crank-shaft and crank-case weight and the elimination of a number of intermediate bearings and their supporting webs which would be necessary with the usual tandem construction. While there are six power impulses to every two revolutions of the crank-

Radial Cylinder Arrangements

105

shaft, in the six-cylinder engine, they are not evenly spaced

possible with the conventional arrangement. In the Anzani form, which is shown at Fig. 38, the crankcase is stationary and a revolving crank-shaft is employed The cylinders are five as in conventional construction.

as

is

Fig. 38.

Anzani 40-50 Horse-Power Five-Cylinder Air Cooled Engine.

in

the engine develops 40 to 50 H. P. with a weight of 72 kilograms or 158.4 Ibs. The cylinders are of the usual air-cooled form having cooling flanges only part
of the
is

number and

way down

the cylinder.

By

using

five cylinders it

possible to

have the power impulses come regularly,

they coming 145 crank-shaft travel apart, the crank-shaft making two turns to every five explosions. The balance is good and power output regular. The valves are

106

Aviation Engines

placed directly in the cylinder head and are operated by a common pushrod. Attention is directed to the novel method of installing the carburetor which supplies the mixture to the engine base from which inlet pipes radiate to the various cylinders. This engine is used on French school machines. In the form shown at Fig. 39 six cylinders are used, all being placed above the crank-shaft center line. This

Fig. 39.

Unconventional Six-Cylinder Aircraft Motor of Masson Design.

is also of the air-cooled form and develops 50 H. P. and weighs 105 kilograms, or 231 Ibs. The carburetor is

engine

connected to a manifold casting attached to the engine base

from which the induction pipes radiate to the various The propeller design and size relative to the cylinders. is clearly shown in this view. While flights have engine been made with both of the engines described, this method of construction is not generally followed and has been almost entirely displaced abroad by the revolving motors or by the more conventional eight-cylinder V engines. Both of the engines shown were designed about eight years

Rotary Cylinder Engines

107
in

ago and would be entirely too small and weak for use modern airplanes intended for active duty.
ROTARY ENGINES

Rotary engines such as shown at Fig. 40 are generally associated with the idea of light construction and it is

Fig. 40.

The Gnome Fourteen-Cylinder Revolving Motor.

rather an interesting point that is often overlooked in connection with the application of this idea to flight motors, that the reason why rotary engines are popularly supposed to be lighter than the others is because they form their own fly-wheel, yet on aeroplanes, engines are seldom
fitted

with a fly-wheel at

all.

As a matter

of fact the

108

Aviation Engines
engine is not so light because it is a rotary motor, is a rotary motor because the design that has adopted as that most conducive to lightness is

Gnome
and
been
also
it

most suited to an engine working in this way. The cylinders could be fixed and crank-shaft revolve without increasing the weight to any extent. There
prime factors governing the lightness of an one being the initial design, and the other the engine, The consideration quality of the materials employed. of reducing weight by cutting away metal is a subsidiary method that ought not to play a part in standard In practice, however useful it may be in special cases.
the Gnome rotary engine the lightness is entirely due to the initial design and to the materials employed in manufacture. Thus, in the first case, the engine is a radial and has its seven or nine cylinders spaced equally engine,

are two

around a crank-chamber that is no wider or rather longer than would be required for any one of the cylinders. This shortening of the crank-chamber not only effects a considerable saving of weight on its own account, but there is a corresponding saving in the shafts and other members, the dimensions of which are governed by the size of the crank-chamber. With regard to materials, nothing but steel is used throughout, and most of the metal

The beautifully steady forged chrome nickel steel. of the engine is largely due to the fact that there running are literally no reciprocating parts in the absolute sense,
is

the apparent reciprocation between the pistons and cylinders being solely a relative reciprocation since both travel in circular paths, that of the pistons, however, being
ele'ctric

by one-half

of the stroke length to that of the

cylinder.

While the Gnome engine has many advantages, on the other hand the head resistance offered by a motor of this
type
oil is considerable; there is a large waste of lubricating due to the centrifugal force which tends to throw the

the cylinders; the gyroscopic effect of the rotary motor is detrimental to the best working of the
oil

away from

Rotary Cylinder Engines

109

aeroplane, and moreover it requires about seven per cent, of the total power developed by the motor to drive the

Of necessity, the of this type of motor is rather low, and an compression additional disadvantage manifests itself in the fact that
there
is as yet no satisfactory way of muffling the rotary of motor. The modern Gnome engine has been widely type copied in various European countries, but its design was

revolving cylinders around the shaft.

originated in America, the early Adams-Farwell engine being the pioneer form. It has been made in seven- and nine-cylinder types and forms of double these numbers. The engine illustrated at Fig. 40 is a fourteen-cylinder form. The simple engines have an odd number of cylinders in order to secure evenly spaced explosions. In the In the seven-cylinder, the impulses come 102.8 apart. the power strokes are spaced 80 apart. nine-cylinder form, The fourteen-cylinder engine is virtually two seven-cylinder types mounted together, the cranks being just the same as in a double cylinder opposed motor, the explosions coming 51.4 apart; while in the eighteen-cylinder model the power impulses come every 40 cylinder travel. Other rotary motors have been- devised, such as the Le Ehone

and the Clerget

in

France and several German copies of

The mechanical features of these motors will be fully considered later.

these various types.

CHAPTER V
Distillates of Crude Petroleum Properties of Liquid Fuels Principles Air Needed to Buin Gasoline What of Carburetion Outlined

Do Liquid Fuel Storage and Supply Early Vaporizer Forms Development of Float Feed Carburetor Maybach's Early Design Concentric Schebler Carburetor Claudel Carburetor Float and Jet Type Stewart Metering Pin Type Multiple Nozzle Vaporizers TwoCompound Nozzle Stage Carburetor Master Multiple Jet Type Zenith Carburetor Utility of Gasoline Strainers Intake Manifold Design and Construction Compensating for Various Atmospheric How High Altitude Affects Power The Diesel SysConditions tem Notes on Carburetor Installation Notes on Carburetor Ada Carburetor Should

Vacuum Fuel Feed

justment.

THERE is no appliance that has more material value upon the efficiency of the internal combustion motor than
the carburetor or vaporizer which supplies the explosive gas to the cylinders. It is only in recent years that engineers have realized the importance of using carburetors

that are efficient

and that are so strongly and simply made

As the little liability of derangement. obtained from the gas-engine depends upon the power combustion of fuel in the cylinders, it is evident that if the gas supplied does not have the proper proportions of elements to insure rapid combustion the efficiency of the engine will be low. When a gas engine is used as a stationary installation it is possible to use ordinary illuminating or natural gas for fuel, but when this prime mover is applied to automobiles or airplanes it is evident that considerable difficulty would be experienced in carrying enough compressed coal gas to supply the engine for even a very
that there will be

short trip. Eortunately, the development of the internalcombustion motor was not delayed by the lack of suitable
fuel.

Engineers \tere familiar with the properties of certain no

Distillates of

Crude Petroleum

111

engine cylinders. A very small quantity of such liquids would suffice for a very satisfactory period of operation. The problem to be solved before these liquids could be

liquids which gave off vapors that could be mixed with air to form an explosive gas which burned very well in the

applied in a practical manner was to evolve suitable apparatus for vaporizing them without waste. Among the liquids that can be combined with air and burned, gasoline is the most volatile and is the fuel utilized by internal-

combustion engines. The widely increasing scope of usefulness of the internal-combustion motor has made it imperative that other fuels be applied in some instances because the supply of gasoline may in time become inadequate to supply the demand. In fact, abroad this fuel sells for fifty to two* hundred per cent, more than it does in America because most of the gasoline used must be imported from this country or Russia. Because of this foreign engineers have experimented widely with other substances, such as alcohol, benzol, and kerosene, but more to determine if they can be used to advantage in motor cars than in airplane
engines.

DISTILLATES OF CRUDE PETROLEUM

found in small quantities in almost all parts of the world, but a large portion of that produced commercially is derived from American wells. The petroleum obtained in this country yields more of the volatile products than those of foreign production, and for that reason the demand for it is greater. The oil fields of this country are found in Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Ohio, and the crude petroleum is usually in association with natural gas. This mineral oil is an agent from which many compounds and products are derived, and the prodis

Crude petroleum

ucts will vary the lighter and

will evaporate

from heavy sludges, such as asphalt, to more volatile components, some of which

very easily at ordinary temperatures. The compounds derived from crude petroleum are com-

112

Aviation Engines

posed principally of hydrogen and carbon and are termed "Hydrocarbons." In the crude product one finds many
sulphur, and various can be utilized it must be subjected to a process of purifying which is known as refining, and it is during this process, which is one of destructive distillation, that the various liquids are separated. The oil was formerly broken up into three main
free

impurities, such earthy elements.

as

carbon,
oil

Before the

.groups of products as follows Highly volatile, naphtha, benzine, gasoline, eight to ten per cent. Light oils, such as kerosene and light lubricating oils seventy to eighty
:

or residuum five to nine per cent. From the foregoing it will be seen that the available supply of gasoline is determined largely by the demand existing for the light oils forming the larger part of the

per cent.

Heavy

oils

products derived from crude petroleum.

New

processes

have been recently discovered by which the lighter oils, such as kerosene, are reduced in proportion and that of gasoline increased, though the resulting liquid is neither the high grade, volatile gasoline known in the early days of motoring nor the low grade kerosene.
PRINCIPLES OF CARBURETION OUTLINED
of carburetion is combining the volatile which evaporate from the hydrocarbon liquids with vapors certain proportions of air to form an inflammable gas. The quantities of air needed vary with different liquids and some mixtures burn quicker than do other combinations of air and vapor. Combustion is simply burning and Mixtures of gasoline it may be rapid, moderate or slow. and air burn quickly, in fact the combustion is so rapid that it is almost instantaneous and we obtain what is commonly termed an "explosion." Therefore the explosion of gas in the automobile engine cylinder which produces the power is really a combination of chemical elements which produce heat and an increase in the vol-

The process

ume

of the gas because of the increase in temperature. If the gasoline mixture is not properly proportioned

Air Needed

to

Burn Gasoline

113

the rate of burning will vary, and if the mixture is either too rich or too weak the power of the explosion is reduced
to the piston is decreased proportionately. In determining the proper proportions of gasoline and air, one must take the chemical composition of gasoline into account. The ordinary liquid used for fuel is said to contain about eight-four per cent,

and the amount of power applied

carbon and sixteen per cent, hydrogen. Air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen and the former has a great affinity, or combining power, with the two constituents of hydrocarbon liquids. Therefore, what we call an explosion is merely an indication that oxygen in the air has combined with the carbon and hydrogen of the gasoline.
AIR NEEDED TO

BURN GASOLINE

In figuring the proper volume of air to mix with a given quantity of fuel, one takes into account the fact that one pound of hydrogen requires eight pounds of oxygen to burn it, and one pound of carbon needs two and onethird pounds of oxygen to insure its combustion. Air is composed of one part of oxygen to three and one-half portions of nitrogen by weight. Therefore for each pound of oxygen one needs to burn hydrogen or carbon four and one-half pounds of air must be allowed. To insure combustion of one pound of gasoline which is composed of hydrogen and carbon we must furnish about ten pounds of air to burn the carbon and about six pounds of air to insure combustion of hydrogen, the other component of gasoline. This means that to burn one pound of gasoline one must provide about sixteen pounds of air. While one does not usually consider air as having much weight, at a temperature of sixty-two degrees Fahrenheit about fourteen cubic feet of air will weigh a pound, and to burn a pound of gasoline one would require about two hundred cubic feet of air. This amount will provide for combustion theoretically, but it is common practice to allow twice this amount because the element nitrogen, which is the main constituent of air, is an inert gas and

114

Aviation Engines

instead of aiding combustion it acts as a deterrent of burning. In order to be explosive, gasoline vapor must be combined with definite quantities of air. Mixtures that are rich in gasoline ignite quicker than those which have

more air, but when running

these are only suitable when starting or slowly, as a rich mixture ignites much

The richer mixture of quicker than a weak mixture. gasoline and air not only burns quicker but produces the most heat and the most effective pressure in pounds per square inch of piston top area.
of compression of the charge before ignition also has material bearing on the force of the explosion.

The amount

the force exerted

The higher the degree of compression the greater by the rapid combustion of the gas. It

may

plosive pressure

be stated that as a general thing the maximum exis somewhat more than four times the

compression pressure prior to ignition. A charge compressed to sixty pounds will have a maximum of approximately two hundred and forty pounds; compacted to eighty pounds it will produce a pressure of about three hundred pounds on each square inch of piston area at Mixtures varying the beginning of the power stroke. from one part of gasoline vapor to four of air to others having one part of gasoline vapor to thirteen of air can be ignited, but the best results are obtained when the proportions are one to five or one to seven, as this mixture is said to be the one that will produce the highest temperature, the quickest explosion, and the most
pressure.

WHAT A CAEBUKETOR SHOULD

While
it is

DO

apparent that the chief function of a carbureting device is to mix hydrocarbon vapors with air to secure mixtures that will burn, there are a number of factors which must be considered before describing the prinAlmost any device which ciples of vaporizing devices. a current of air to pass over or through a volapermits tile liquid will produce a gas which will explode when

What a

Carburetor Should

Do

115

11
I?

I
o

116

Aviation Engines

compressed and ignited in the motor cylinder.

Modern

carburetors are not only called upon to supply certain quantities of gas, but these must deliver a mixture to the
cylinders that is accurately proportioned and which will be of proper composition at all engine speeds. Flexible control of the engine is sought by varying the engine speed by regulating the supply of gas to the cylinThe power plant should run from its lowest to its ders. highest speed without any irregularity in torque, i.e., the acceleration should be gradual rather than spasmodic. As the degree of compression will vary in value with the amount of throttle opening, the conditions necessary to obtain maximum power differ with varying engine speeds. When the throttle is barely opened the engine speed is low and the gas must be richer in fuel than when the throttle is wide open and the engine speed high. "When an engine is turning over slowly the compression has low value and the conditions are not so favorable to

rapid combustion as when the compression is high. At high engine speeds the gas velocity through the intake piping is higher than at low speeds, 'and regular engine action is not so apt to be disturbed by condensation of liquid fuel in the manifold due to excessively rich mixture or a superabundance of liquid in the stream of carbureted
air.

LIQUID FUEL, STORAGE AND SUPPLY

of gasoline storage and method of supplythe carburetor is one that is determined solely by ing design of the airplane. While the object of designers should be to supply the fuel to the carburetor by as 'simple

The problem

means as possible the fuel supply system of some airplanes is quite complex. The first point to consider is the location of the gasoline tank. This depends upon the amount of fuel needed and the space available in the fuselage. A very simple and compact fuel supply system is shown
In this instance the fuel container is placed immediately back of the engine cylinder. The carburetor
at Fig. 41.

Liquid Fuel Storage and Supply

which

117

is carried as indicated is joined to the tank by a short piece of copper or flexible rubber tubing. This is the simplest possible form of fuel supply system and one

used on a number of excellent airplanes.

As
fuel

the sizes of engines increase and the

power plant

consumption augments it is necessary to use more fuel, and to obtain a satisfactory flying radius without frequent landings for filling the fuel tank it is necessary
supply large containers. When a very powerful power plant is fitted, as on battle planes of high capacity, it is necessary to carry large quantities of gasoline. In order to use a tank of sufficiently large capacity it may be necessary to carry it lower than the carburetor. When installed in this manner it is necessary to force fuel out of the tank by air pressure or to pump it with a vacuum tank because the gasoline tank is lower than the carburetor it supplies and the gasoline cannot flow by gravity as in the simpler systems.
to

While the pressure and gravity feed systems are generally used in airplanes, it may be well to describe the vacuum lift system which has been widely applied to motor cars and which may have some use in connection with airplanes as these machines are developed.
STEWART VACUUM FUEL FEED

One of the marked tendencies has been the adoption of a vacuum fuel feed system to draw the gasoline from
tanks placed lower than the carburetor instead of using either exhaust gas or air pressure to achieve this end. The device generally fitted is the Stewart vacuum feed tank which is clearly shown in section at Fig. 42. In this sys-

tem the suction of a motor is employed to draw gasoline from the main fuel tank to the auxiliary tank incorporated in the device and from this tank the liquid flows to the
claimed that all the advantages of the pressure system are obtained with very little more complication than is found on the ordinary gravity feed. The mechanism is all contained in the cylindrical tank shown,
carburetor.
It is

118

Aviation Engines

which may be mounted either on the front of the dash or on the side of the engine as shown. The tank is divided into two chambers, the upper one being the filling chamber and the lower one the emptying

Atmospheric Valve
Suction Valve ^
,'Fr0m Gasoline

'Suction Pipe

Tank

Fig. 42.

The Stewart Vacuum Fuel Feed Tank.

is at

the top of the device, contains the float valve, as well as the pipes running to the main fuel container and to the intake manifold. The

chamber.

The former, which

lower chamber
line

and

is

used to supply the carburetor with gasounder atmospheric pressure at all times, so the
is

flow of fuel

from

it is

by means of gravity

only.

Since

Stewart Vacuum Feed System

this

119

chamber is located somewhat above the carburetor, there must always be free flow of fuel. Atmospheric pressure is maintained by the pipes A and B, the latter opening into the
air.

In order that the fuel will be sucked

from a main tank to the upper chamber, the suction valve must be opened and the atmospheric valve closed. Under these conditions the float is at the bottom and the suction at the intake manifold produces a vacuum in the tank which draws the gasoline from the main tank to the upper chamber. When the upper chamber is filled at the proper
height the float rises to the top, this closing the suction valve and opening the atmospheric valve. As the suction is now cut off, the lower chamber is filled by gravity owing to there being atmospheric pressure in both upper and lower chambers. flap valve is provided between the two chambers to prevent the gasoline in the lower one from being sucked back into the upper one. The atmospheric and suction valves are controlled by the levers C and D, both of which are pivoted at E, their outer ends being connected by two coil springs. It is seen that the arrangement of these two springs is such that the float must be held at the extremity of its movement, and that it cannot assume an intermediate position. This intermittent action is required to insure that the upper part of the tank may be under atmospheric pressure part of the time for the gasoline to flow to the lower cham-

ber.

When the level of gasoline drops to a certain point, the float falls, thus/ opening the suction valve and closing The suction of the motor then the atmospheric valve.
causes a flow of fuel from the main container. As soon as the level rises to the proper height the float returns to It takes about two seconds for the its upper position. chamber to become full enough to raise the float, as but
.05 gallon is transferred at a time. The pipe running from the bottom of the lower chamber to the carburetor extends up a ways, so that there is but little chance of dirt or water

being carried to the float chamber. If the engine is allowed to stand long enough so that the

120

Aviation Engines

tank becomes empty, it will be replenished after the motor has been cranked over four or five times with the throttle The installation of the Stewart Vacuum- Gravity closed.

very simple. The suction pipe is tapped into the manifold at a point as near, the cylinders as possible, while the fuel pipe is inserted into the gasoline tank and runs to the bottom of that member. There is a screen at the end of the fuel pipe to prevent any trouble due to deposits of sediment in the main container. As the fuel is sucked from the gasoline tank a small vent must be made in the tank filler cap so that the pressure in the main tank will always be that of the atmosphere.

System

is

EARLY VAPORIZER FORMS

The early types of carbureting devices were very crude and cumbersome, and the mixture of gasoline vapor and air was accomplished in three ways. The air stream was
passed over the surface of the liquid itself, through loosely placed absorbent material saturated with liquid, or directly through the fuel. The first type is known as the surface carburetor and is now practically obsolete. The second form is called the "wick" carburetor because the air stream was passed over or through saturated wicking. The third form was known as a "bubbling" carburetor. While these primitive forms gave fairly good results with the
volatile, gasoline

early slow-speed engines and the high grade, or very which was first used for fuel, they would

be entirely unsuitable for present forms of engines because they would not carburate the lower grades of gasoline which are used to-day, and would not supply the modern high-speed engines with gas of the proper consistency fast enough even if they did not have to use very The form of carburetor used at the volatile gasoline. These present time operates on a different principle. devices are known as "spraying carburetors." The fuel is reduced to a spray by the suction effect of the entering air stream drawing it through a fine opening. The advantage of this construction is that a more

Early Vaporizer Form*

121

thorough amalgamation of the gasoline and air particles

is

obtained. With the earlier types previously considered the air would combine with only the more volatile elements, leaving the heavier constituents in the tank. As the fuel
stale it

became

was

difficult to

vaporize

it,

and

it

had

to

Jump Value
Adjustment

Mixture Passage

Gasoline Adjustment

Fig. 43.

Marine-Type Mixing Valve, by which Gasoline is Sprayed into Air Stream Through Small Opening in Air-Valve Seat.

be drained off and fresh fuel provided before the proper mixture would be produced. It will be evident that when the fuel is sprayed into the air stream, all the fuel will be used up and the heavier portions of the gasoline will be taken into the cylinder and vaporized just as well as the

more volatile vapors. The simplest form of spray carburetor

at Fig. 43.

is

that

shown

In this the gasoline opening through which

122

Aviation Engines

the fuel is sprayed into the entering air stream is closed by the spring-controlled mushroom valve which regulates the main air opening as well. When the engine draws in a charge of air it unseats the valve and at the same time

the air flowing around it is saturated with gasoline particles through the gasoline opening. The mixture thus formed goes to the engine through the mixture passage,
of varying the fuel proportions are provided. One of these consists of a needle valve to regulate the amount of gasoline, the other is a knurled screw which

Two methods

controls the

amount

of air

by

limiting the

lift

of the

jump

valve.

DEVELOPMENT OF FLOAT-FEED CARBURETOR

The modern form of spraying carburetor is provided with two chambers, one a mixing chamber through which the air stream passes and mixes with a gasoline spray, the other a float chamber in which a constant level of fuel is maintained by simple mechanism. jet or standpipe is used in the mixing chamber to spray the fuel through and the object of the float is to maintain the fuel level to such a point that it will not overflow the jet when the motor is not drawing in a charge of gas. With the simple forms of generator valve in which the gasoline opening is

controlled by the air valve, a leak anywhere in either valve or valve seat will allow the gasoline to flow continuously whether the engine is drawing in a charge or not. The liquid fuel collects around the air opening, and when the engine inspires a charge it is saturated with gasoline globules and is excessively rich. With a float-feed conlevel of gasoline at the right height in the standpipe, liquid fuel will only be supplied when drawn out of the jet by the suction effect

struction,

which maintains a constant

of the entering air stream.

MAYBACH'S EARLY DESIGN

form of spraying carburetor ever applied successfully was evolved by Maybach for use on one of the
first

The

Maybaclis Early Design

123

124

Aviation Engines

earliest Daimler engines. The general principles of operation of this pioneer float-feed carburetor are shown at

Fig. 44, A. The mixing chamber and valve chamber were one and the standpipe or jet protruded into the mixing chamber. It was connected to the float compartment by a

The fuel from the tank entered the top of the float compartment and the opening was closed by a needle
pipe.

valve carried on top of a hollow metal

level of gasoline in the float
float

float.

When

the

chamber was lowered the

would fall and the needle valve uncover the opening. This would permit the gasoline from the tank to flow into the float chamber, and as the chamber filled the float would rise until the proper level had been reached, under which conditions the float would shut off the gasoline opening. On every suction stroke of the engine the inlet valve, which was an automatic type, would leave its seat and a stream of air would be drawn through the air opening and around This would cause the gasoline to the standpipe or jet. spray out of the tube and mix with the entering air stream. The form shown at B ivas a modification of Maybach's simple device and was first used on the Phoenix-Daimler
Several improvements are noted in this device. engines. First, the carburetor was made one unit by casting the float and mixing chambers together instead of making them
separate and joining them by a pipe, as shown at A. The float construction was improved and the gasoline shut-off valve was operated through leverage instead of being diThe spray nozzle was surrectly fastened to the float. a choke tube which concentrated the air stream rounded by

and made for more rapid air flow at low engine conical piece was placed over the jet to break speeds. the entering spray into a mist and insure more intimate up The air opening was admixture of air and gasoline. provided with an air cone which had a shutter controlling the opening so that the amount of air entering could be regulated and thus vary the mixture proportions within
around
it

certain limits.

Schebler Carburetor Construction

125

CONCENTRIC FLOAT AND JET TYPE

The form shown at B has been further improved, and shown at C is representative of modern single jet practice. In this the float chamber and mixing chamber are concentric. A balanced float mechanism which insures
the type
is used, the gasoline jet or standpipe with a needle valve to vary the amount of provided gasoline supplied the mixture and two air openings are The main air port is at the bottom of the provided. vaporizer, while an auxiliary air inlet is provided at the side of the mixing chamber. There are two methods of the mixture proportions in this form of carcontrolling

steadiness of feed

is

buretor.

One may regulate the gasoline needle or adjust the auxiliary air valve.
SCHEBLER CARBURETOR

Schebler carburetor, which has been used on some airplane engines, is shown in Fig. 45. It will be noticed that a metering pin or needle, valve opens the jet when the air valve opens. The long arm of a leverage is con-

nected to the air valve, while the short arm is connected to the needle, the reduction in leverage being such that the needle valve is made to travel much less than the air valve. For setting the amount of fuel passed or the size of the jet orifice when running with the air valve closed, there is a screw which raises or lowers the fulcrum of
the lever and there
effect
is

also a

dash control having the same

the fulcrum against a small spring. long extension is given to the venturi tube which* is very narrow around the jet orifices, which are horizontal and

by pushing down

shown

at

A in the

drawing.

Fuel enters the

float

chamber

holds the metering pin upward against the restraining action of the lever. The air valve may be set by an easily adjustable knurled screw shown in the drawing, and fluttering of the valve is

through the union

M, and the spring

prevented by the piston dash pot carried in a chamber above the valve into which the valve stem projects. The

126

Aviation Engines

Claudel Carburetor

127

primary air enters beneath the jet passage and there is a small throttle in the intake to increase the speed of air flow for starting purposes. The carburetor is adapted for the use of a hot-air connection to the stove around the exhaust pipe and it is recommended that such a fitting be The lever which controls the supply of air supplied.
Mixture Outlet

,-

Float Yalve.

,., -Throttle

^-Mixing Chamber.

Float

Bowl

->

Compound
Spray Nozzle

filter

Screen'

Fig. 46.

The Claudel Carburetor

through the primary air intake is so arranged that if desired it can be connected with a linkage on the dash or control column by means of a flexible wire.

THE CLAUDEL (FRENCH) CARBURETOR

This carburetor is of extremely simple construction, because it has no supplementary or auxiliary air valve and no moving parts except the throttle controlling the gas flow. The construction is already shown in Fig. 46.

128

Aviation Engines
jet is eccentric

with a surrounding sleeve or tube in which there are two series of small orifices, one at the top and the other near the bottom. The former are about level with the spray jet opening. The sleeve

The spray

The air, surrounding the nozzle 'is closed at the top. passing the upper holes in the sleeve, produces a vacuum in the sleeve, thereby drawing air in through the bottom
holes.
It is this

moving

interior

column of

air that con-

trols the flow of gasoline from the nozzle. Owing to the friction of the small passages, the speed of air flow through

the sleeve does not increase as fast as the speed of air flow outside the sleeve, hence there is a tendency for the

mixture to remain constant.

The

throttle of this carbure-

tor is of the barrel type, and the top of the spray nozzle and its surrounding sleeve are located inside the throttle.

STEWART METERING PIN CARBURETOR

The carburetor shown which the vacuum at the

at Fig. 47 is a metering type in jet is controlled by the weight

of the metering valve surrounding the upright metering The only moving part is the metering valve, which pin.

and falls with the changes in vacuum. The air chamber surrounds the metering valve, and there is a mixing chamber above. As the valve is drawn up the gasoline passage is enlarged on account of the predetermined taper on the metering pin, and the air passage also is increased
rises

dashpot proportionately, giving the correct mixture. In idling the at the bottom of the valve checks flutter. valve rests on its seat, practically closing the air and givpassage through the ing the necessary idling mixture.

valve acts as an aspirating tube. "When the valve is closed altogether the primary air passes through ducts in the The valve itself, giving the proper amount for idling. one adjustment consists in raising or lowering the tapered metering pin, increasing or decreasing the supply of
control is supplied. This pulls down the metering pin, increasing the gasoline flow. The duplex type for eight- and twelve-cylinder motors is the same in
gasoline.

Dash

Multiple Nozzle Vaporizers

129

principle as model 25, but it is a double carburetor synchronized as to throttle movements, adjustments, etc. The duplex for aeronautical motors is made of cast aluminum
alloy.

MULTIPLE NOZZLE VAPORIZERS

To secure properly proportioned mixtures some carburetor designers have evolved forms in which two or more nozzles are used in a common mixing chamber. The usual construction is to use two, one having a small opening and placed in a small air tube and used only for low
Th rattle

Automatic
Metering Valve
...

Primary Air Passages

Flared End of
Aspirating Tube.

Aspirating Tube

Float

Chamber

Dash Pot~"
Inlet Needle Valve

Primary
Air Passages

Tapered Metering

Pin--

"

-Gasoline Strainer

Mixing Chamber
Thforf/e.

'Automatic
.Metering Valve

Primary Air
Passage

Automatic
Metering Valve

\-AirChamber

-- Gasoline

Aspirant Tube-''

Dash
Tapered
Metering

Pot--'''

Tapered
Metering Pin'Gasoline

^Gasoline
Strainer

Pin

Passage

Fig. 47.

The Stewart Metering Pin Carburetor.

130

Aviation Engines

speeds, the other being placed in a larger air tube and having a slightly augmented bore so that it is employed

on intermediate speeds. At high speeds both jets would Some multiple jet carburetors could be used in series. be considered as a series of these instruments, each one
being designed for certain conditions of engine action. They would vary from small size just sufficient -to run
to furnish

the engine at low speed to others having sufficient capacity gas for the highest possible engine speed when

used in conjunction with the smaller members which have been brought into service progressively as the engine speed has been augmented. The multiple nozzle carburetor differs from that in which a single spray tube is used only in the construction of the mixing chamber, as a common float bowl i&an be used to supply all spray pipes. It is
practice to bring the jets into action progressively by some form of mechanical connection with the throttle or by automatic valves.

common

The object of any multiple nozzle carburetor is to secure greater flexibility and endeavor to supply mixtures of proper proportions at all speeds of the engine. It should be stated, however, that while devices of this
nature lend themselves readily to practical application it is more difficult to adjust them than the simpler forms having but one nozzle. When a number of jets are used the liability of clogging, up the carburetor is increased, and if one or more of the nozzles is choked by a particle of dirt or water the resulting mixture trouble is difficult
to detect.

One

of the nozzles

may

supply enough gasoline

to permit the engine to run well at certain speeds and yet not be adequate to supply the proper amount of gas under

In adjusting a multiple jet carburetor in which the jets are provided with gasoline regulating needles, it is customary to consider each nozzle as a distinct carburetor and to regulate it to secure the best motor
other conditions.
action at that throttle position which corresponds to the conditions under which the jet is brought into service.

For

instance, that supplied the

primary mixing chamber

Ball and Ball Two-Stage Carburetor

131

should be regulated with the throttle partly closed, while the auxiliary jet should be adjusted with the throttle fully
opened.

BALL AND BALL TWO-STAGE CARBURETOR

This is a two-stage vaporizing device, hot air being used in the primary or initial stage of vaporization and
cold air in the supplementary stage. Eeferring to the sectional illustration at Fig. 48, it will be seen that there

Fig. 48.

The Ball and Ball Two-Stage Carburetor.

is

turi

a hot-air passage with a choke-valve; the primary venappears at B J is its gasoline jet, and V is a springloaded idling valve in a fixed air opening. These parts constitute the primary system. In the secondary system A is a cold-air passage, T a butterfly valve and J a gasoThis sysline jet discharging into the cold-air passage.
;

brought into operation by opening the butterfly T. A connection between the butterfly T and the throttle, not shown, throws the butterfly wide open when the throttle is not quite wide open; at all other times the butterfly
is

tem

132

Aviation Engines

is held closed by a spring. The cylindrical chamber at the right of the mixing chamber has an extension E of reduced diameter connecting it with the intake manifold

through a passage D. A restricted opening connects the float chamber with the cylindrical chamber so that the
gasoline level is the same in both. loosely fitting plunger P in the cylindrical chamber has an upward extension into the small part of the chamber. is a small air
to the
this
is a passage from the cylindrical chamber opening and chamber. Air constantly passes through mixing

when

the carburetor
in one.

is really

two

is eccentric.

of a central jet in In the air passage there is a fixed opening, and additional air is taken in by the opening through

The carburetor The primary carburetor is made up a venturi passage. The float chamber
is

in operation.

suction of a spring-opposed air valve.

The second

stage,

which comes into play as soon as the carburetor is called upon for additional mixture above low medium speeds, is made up of an independent air passage containing another air valve.
covered, and

As

the valve is opened this jet

it.

is

un-

air is led past

For easy

starting an

extra passage leads from the float bowl passage to a point above the throttle. All the suction falls upon this passage
the throttle is closed. The passage contains a plunand acts as a pick-up device. When the vacuum inger creases the plunger rises and shuts off the flow of gasoline from the intake passage. As the throttle is opened the vacuum in the intake passage is broken, and the plunger This is immefalls, causing gasoline to gather above it. diately drawn through the pick-up passage and gives the

when

desired mixture for acceleration.

MASTER MULTIPLE-JET CARBURETOR

This carburetor, shown in detail in Figs. 49 and 50, has been very popular in racing cars and aviation engines because of exceptionally good pick-up qualities and its thorough atomization of fuel. Its principle of operation is the breaking up of the fuel by a series of jets, which

Master Multiple-Jet Carburetor

133

vary in number from fourteen to twenty-one, according to the size of the carburetor. These are uncovered by the throttle, which is curved a patented feature opening
to secure the correct progression of jets.

The carbu-

S A E Standard Flan

\
Damper Operated by Control
Acts as Variable Venturl Controlling Mixture.

mm

14 to 19 Fine Holes

Where Fuel Comes Out of Distributer as Throttle is Opened

Air Intake

Where Fuel Enters Distributer

First Being Thoroughly Filtered

-Normal Running

Starting
Position

Fig. 49.

The Master Carburetor.

retor has an eccentric float chamber, from which the gasoline is led to the jet piece from which the jets stand up The tops of these jets are closed until the in a row.
throttle is

opened far enough to pass them, which it does progressively. The air opening is at the bottom, and the throttle opening is such that a modified venturi is formed.

134

Aviation Engines

throttle is carried in a cylindrical barrel with the jets placed below it, and the passage from the barrel to the

The

intake is arranged so that, there is no interruption in the For easy starting a dash-controlled shutter closes flow.

Rotary
Throttle

""Filter Screens
Tube Screen
Sectional
-

Detachable Trap
of

Fig. 50.

View

Master Carburetor Showing Parts.

off the air, throwing the suction on the jets, thus giving a rich mixture. The only adjustment is for idling, and once that is

need never be touched. This is in the form of a screw and regulates the position of the throttle when at idling position. The dash control has high-speed, normal and rich-starting positions. In installing the Master
fixed it

carburetor the float chamber may be turned either toward the radiator or driver's seat. If the float is turned toward the radiator, however, a forward lug plate should be ordered otherwise it will be difficult to install the control.
;

The

throttle lever

must go

all

the

way

to the stop lug

Compound Nozzle Zenith Carburetor

or

135

maximum power
screw
it is

idle

In adjusting the .turned in for rich and out for lean.

will not be secured.

COMPOUND NOZZLE ZENITH CARBURETOR

The Zenith carburetor, shown at Fig.
51,

has become

very popular for airplane engine use because of its simplicity, as mixture compensation is secured by a compensating compound nozzle principle that works very well in

To illustrate this principle briefly, let us conpractice. sider the elementary type of carburetor or mixing valve, It consists of a single jet or as shown in Fig. 52, A.
and fed from the usual
spraying nozzle placed in the path of the incoming air float chamber. It is a natural

PRIMING HOLE U

PRIMING TUBE J

REGULATING

BUTTERFLY T

SCREW O

SECONDARY WELL P

CHOKE X

CAP JET H

MAIN JET O

COMPENSATOR
View

Fig. 51.

Sectional

of Zenith

Compound Nozzle Compensating

Carburetor.

136

Aviation Engines

UJ

Action of Zenith Carburetor

137

inference to suppose that as the speed of the motor increases, both the flow of air and of gasoline will increase in the same proportion. Unhappily, such is not the case. There is a law of liquid bodies which states that the flow
of gasoline from the jet increases under suction faster than the flow of air, giving a mixture which grows richer

a mixture containing a much higher percentof gasoline at high suction than at low. The tendency age is shown by the accompanying curve (Fig. 52, B), which gives the ratio of gasoline to air at varying speeds from

and richer

this type of jet.

The mixture is practically constant only between narrow limits and at very high speed. The most

common method of correcting this defect is by putting various auxiliary air valves which, adding air, tends to dilute this mixture as it gets too rich. It is difficult with makeshift devices to gauge this dilution accurately for
every motor speed. Now, if we have a jet which grows richer as the suction increases, the opposite type of jet is one which would grow leaner under similar conditions. Baverey, the inventor of the Zenith, discovered the principle of the constant flow device which is shown in Fig. 52, C. Here a certain fixed amount of gasoline determined by the opening I is permitted to flow by gravity into the well J open
to the air.

The suction

at jet

has no

effect

upon the

gravity compensator I because the suction is destroyed by the open well J. The compensator, then, delivers a steady rate of flow per unit of time, and as the motor suction increases more air is drawn up, while the amount of gasoline remains the same and the mixture grows

poorer and poorer. Fig. 52, D, shows this curve. By combining these two types of rich and poor mixture carburetors the Zenith compound nozzle was evolved. In Fig. 52, E, we have both the direct suction or richer type leading through pipe E and nozzle G and the "constant and nozzle H. flow" device of Baverey shown at J, I,

defects of the other, so that from the cranking of the motor to its highest speed there is

One counteracts the

138

Aviation Engines

a constant ratio of air and gasoline to supply efficient combustion. In addition to the compound nozzle the Zenith is equipped with a starting and idling well, shown in the cut of Model L carburetor at P and J. This terminates in a priming hole at the edge of the butterfly valve,

where the suction is greatest when this valve is slightly The gasoline is drawn up by the suction at the open. priming hole and, mixed with the air rushing by the butterfly, gives an ideal slow speed mixture. At higher speeds
Thro-H-le

Discs

Mixing
Chambers-'

ThroH/e Lever

Float JBowh^ \ Cover

Flood Bowl

.-Air Intake
->

Fuel Inlet

Fig. 53.

The Zenith Duplex Carburetor for Airplane Motors of the

Type.

with the butterfly valve opened further the priming well ceases to operate and the compound nozzle drains the well and compensates correctly for any motor speed. With the coming of the double motor containing eight or twelve cylinders arranged in two V blocks, the question of good carburetion has been a problem requiring much The single carburetor has given only indifferent study. results due to the strong cross suction in the inlet manifold from one set of cylinders to the other. This naturally led to the adoption of two carburetors in which each set of cylinders was independently fed by a separate car-

Zenith Carburetor Installation

buretor.

139

Besults from this system were very good when two carburetors were working exactly in unison, but the
as
it

tion, especially

was extremely difficult to accomplish this co-operawhere the adjustable type was employed,
,lntake Pipe

Air

Stove

Centrifugal

Water

Pump

Air

Stove

Surrounding Exhaust Pipes

Flexible
Air Pipe-

Water Pipes to Jacket

Jacketed Manifold / or Y Branch

Flexible Air Pipe

Zenith Duplex

Carburetor

Fig.

54.

Rear View of Curtiss

OX2 90 Horse-Power Airplane Motor Showing Carburetor Location and Hot Air Leads.

this system never gained in favor. The next logical step was the Zenith Duplex, shown at Fig. 53. This consists of two separate and distinct carburetors joined together so that a common gasoline float chamber and air inlet could be used by both. It does away with cross suction

in the manifold because each set of cylinders has a sep-

140

Aviation Engines

arate intake of its own. It does away with two carburetors and makes for simplicity. The practical application
of the Zenith carburetor to the Curtiss 90 horse-power OX2 motor used on the J.N.4 standard training machine
is

shown

at Fig. 54,

which outlines a rear view of the

engine in question. The carburetor is carried low to permit of fuel supply from a gravity tank carried back of the motor.
UTILITY OF GASOLINE STRAINERS
J
'

Many

carburetors include a filtering screen at the point

where the liquid enters the float chamber in order to keep dirt or any other foreign matter which may be present in the fuel from entering the float chamber. This is not general practice, however, and the majority of vaporizers do not include a filter in their construction. It is very
desirable that the dirt should be kept out of the carburetor because it may get under the float control fuel valve

and cause flooding by keeping

it

it

raised from

its seat.

If

way into the spray nozzle it may block the opening so that no gasoline will issue .or may so constrict the passage that only very small quantities of fuel will
finds its

be supplied the mixture. Where the carburetor itself is not provided with a filtering screen a simple filter is usually installed in the pipe line between the gasoline tank and the float chamber. Some simple forms of filters and separators are shown at Fig. 55. That at A consists of a simple brass casting having a readily detachable gauze screen and a settling chamber of sufficient capacity to allow the foreign matter to settle to "the bottom, from which it is drained out by a pet cock. Any water or dirt in the gasoline will settle
to the

to the carburetor
it is

bottom of the chamber, and as all fuel delivered must pass through the wire gauze screen

not likely to contain impurities when it reaches the The heavier particles, such as scale from float chamber. the tank or dirt and even water, all of which have greater weight than the gasoline, will sink to the bottom of the

Utility of Gasoline Strainers

141

chamber, whereas light particles, such as lint, will be prevented from flowing into the carburetor by the filtering
screen.

The

filtering device

than that shown at

shown at B is a larger appliance A, and should be more efficient as a

Gasoline

Supporting Boss

from Tank

To Carburetor

Gasoline

from Tank
To Carburetor

Wire Gauze

Wire Gauze
Settling Settling

Chambe

Chamber

B
Gasoline Tan ft

To Carburetor

Gasolin

Wire Gauze
To Carburetor.

from Tank
Settling

Chamber
Settling

Chamber

D
Fig. 55.

Tank

Types of Strainers Interposed Between Vaporizer and Gasoline to Prevent Water or Dirt Passing Into Carbureting Device.

separator because the gasoline is forced to pass through three filtering screens before it reaches the carburetor. The gasoline enters the device shown at C through a bent
pipe which leads directly to the settling chamber and from thence through a wire gauze screen to the upper compartment which leads to the carburetor. The device

shown

at

is

a combination strainer, drain, and sedi-

142
merit cup.

Aviation Engines

The filtering screen is held in place by a spring and both are removed by taking out a plug at the bottom of the device. The shut-off valve at the top of the device is interposed between the sediment cup and This separating device is incorporated the carburetor. with the gasoline tank and forms an integral part of the gasoline supply system. The other types shown are designed to be interposed between the gasoline tank and the carburetor at any point in the pipe line where they may be conveniently placed.
INTAKE MANIFOLD DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

On

four-

and six-cylinder engines and

it

in fact

on

all

important that the piping multiple-cylinder forms, from the carburetor to the cylinders be made in leading such a way that the various cylinders will receive their
is

quota of gas and that each cylinder will receive its charge at about the same point in the cycle of operations. In order to make the passages direct the bends should be as few as possible, and when curves are necessary they should be of large radius because an abrupt corner will not only impede gas flow but will tend to promote condensation of the fuel. Every precaution should be taken with f ourfull

and six-cylinder engines to insure equitable gas distribution to the valve chambers if regular action of the power plant is desired. If the gas pipe has many turns and angles
erly.
it

will be difficult to charge all cylinders prop-

six-cylinder aviation engines, two carburetors are used because of trouble experienced with manifolds designed for one carburetor. Duplex carburetors are necessary to secure the best results from eight- and

On some

twelve-cylinder

engines. of intake piping is simplified to some extent on block motors where the intake passage is cored

The problem

in the cylinder casting and \vhere but one short pipe is needed to join this passage to the carburetor. If the

form cylinders are cast in pairs a simple pipe of T or can be used with success. When the engine is of a type

Intake Manifold Construction

143

using individual cylinder castings, especially in the sixcylinder power plants, the proper application and installation of suitable piping is a difficult problem. The reader is referred to the various engine designs outlined to ascertain how the inlet piping has been arranged on representative aviation engines. Intake piping is constructed
in two ways, the most common method being to cast the manifold of brass or aluminum. The other method, which is more costly, is to use a built-up construction of copper or brass tubing with cast metal elbows and Y pieces. One of the disadvantages advanced against the cast manifold is that blowholes may exist which produce imperfect castings and which will cause mixture troubles because the entering gas from the carburetor, which may be of proper proportions, is diluted by the excess air which leaks in

through the porous casting. Another factor of some moment is that the roughness of the walls has a certain amount of friction which tends to reduce the velocity of the gases, and when projecting pieces are present, such
as core wire or other points of metal, these tend to collect the drops of liquid fuel and thus promote condensation. The advantage of the built-up construction is that the
walls of the tubing are very smooth, and as the castings are small it is not difficult to clean them out thoroughly

before they are incorporated in the manifold. The tubing and castings are joined together by hard soldering, brazing or autogenous welding.

COMPENSATING FOR VARYING ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS

The low-grade gasoline used

it

at the present time

makes

necessary to use vaporizers that are

more

susceptible

atmospheric variations than when higher grade and more volatile liquids are vaporized. Sudden temperature changes, sometimes being as much as forty degrees rise or fall in twelve hours, affect the mixture 'proportions to some extent, and not only changes in temperature but variations in altitude also have a bearing on mixture proportions by affecting both gasoline and air. As the ternto

144

Aviation Engines

perature falls the specific gravity of the gasoline increases and it becomes heavier, this producing difficulty in vaporThe tendency of very cold air is to condense gasizing. oline instead of vaporizing it and therefore it is necessary to supply heated air to some carburetors to obtain proper mixtures during cold weather. In order that the gas mixtures will ignite properly the fuel must be vaporized and thoroughly mixed with the entering air either by heat or

CP

sq.in.

per

Ibs.

F3
Pressure,

<

Atmospheric

^oi

How High

Altitude Affects

Power

145

reason for this," says a writer in " Motor Age," "and it is a physical impossibility for the engine to do otherThe difference is due to the lower atmospheric wise. pressure the higher up we get. That is, at sea level the atmosphere has a pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch at 5,000 feet above sea level the pressure is approximately 12.13 pounds per square inch, and at 10,000 feet it is 10 pounds per square inch. From this it will be seen that the final pressure attained after the piston has driven the gas into compressed condition ready for firing is lower as the atmospheric pressure drops. This means that there is not so much power in the compressed charge of gas the higher up you get above sea level. "For example, suppose the compression ratio to be 4^2 to 1; in other words, suppose the air space above the piston to have 4^ times the volume when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke that it has when the piston is at the top of the stroke. That is a common compression ratio for an average motor, and is chosen because it is considered to be the best for maximum horse-power and in order that the compression pressure will not be % so high as to cause pre-ignition. Knowing the compression ratio, we can determine the final pressure immediately before ignition by substituting in the standard formula:
;

1.3

in

which

is

the atmospheric pressure;

is

the final

V
pressure, and
is

the compression ratio, therefore

pounds per square inch, absolute. "That is, 104 pounds per square inch is the most efficient final compression pressure to have for this engine at sea level, since it comes directly from the compression
14.7 (4.5)
ratio.

1>3

= 104

"Now

supposing we consider that the altitude

is

7,000

146
feet

Aviation Engines

above sea
is 11.25

level.

At

this height the

atmospheric press-

ure
the

pounds per square

this case

we can new atmospheric pressure

:

In inch, approximately. again substitute in the formula, using

figure.

The equation
inch,

be-

comes

11.25

i- 3

4.5)

79.4

pounds per square

ab-

solute.

"Therefore we now have a

final

compression pressure

of only 79.4 pounds per square inch, which is considerably below the pressure we have just found to be the most efficient for the motor. The resulting power drop is evident.

"It should be borne in mind that these

final

compres-

sion pressures are absolute pressures that is, they include the atmospheric pressure. In the first case, to get the pressure above atmospheric you would subtract 14.7

and in the latter 11.25 would have to be deducted. In other words, where the sea level compression is 89.3 pounds per square inch above the atmosphere, the same motor
will hav,e only a

compression pressure of 68.15 pounds inch above the atmosphere at 7,000 feet eleper square
vation.

"From

the above

it is

evident that in order to bring

the final compression pressure up to the efficient figure we have determined, a different compression ratio would

have to be used. That is, the final volume would have to be less, and as it is impossible to vary this to meet
the conditions of altitude, the loss of power cannot be helped except by the replacing of the standard pistons

with some that are longer above the wrist-pin so as to reduce the space above the pistons when on top center. Then if the ratio is thereby raised to some such figures as 5 to 1, the engine will again have its proper final pressure, but it will still not have as much power as it would have at sea level, since the horse-power varies directly with the atmospheric pressure, final compression being
kept constant.

That

is,

at 7,000 feet the horse-power of

The
equal to

Diesel System
level

147

an engine that had 40 horse-power at sea

11.25 14.7

would be

30 6 horse-power.
.

"If the original compression ratio of 4.5 were retained, the drop in horse-power would be even greater than this. These computations and remarks will make it clear that the designer who contemplates building an airplane for
high altitude use should see to it that it is of sufficient power to compensate for the drop that is inevitable when This is often illustrated in stationary it is up in the air. gas-engine installations. An engine that had a sea-level rating amply sufficient for the work required, might not be powerful enough when brought up several thousand feet." When one considers that airplanes attain heights of over 18,000 feet, it will be evident that an ample margin of engine power
is

necessary,

THE DIESEL SYSTEM

system of fuel supply developed by the late Dr.

German chemist and engineer, is attracting considerable attention at the present time on account of the ability of the Diesel engine to burn low-grade fuels, such
Diesel, a

as crude petroleum. In this system the engines are built so that very high compressions are used, and only pure air is taken into the cylinder on the induction stroke. This is compressed to a pressure of about 500 pounds

per square inch, and sufficient heat is produced by this compression to explode a hydrocarbon mixture. As the air which is compressed to this high point cannot burn, the fuel is introduced into the cylinder combustion chamber under still higher compression than that of the compressed air, and as it is injected in a fine stream it is immediately vaporized because of the heat. Just as soon as the compressed air becomes thoroughly saturated with the liquid fuel, it will explode on account of the degree of

148

Aviation Engines

heat present in the combustion chamber. Such motors have been used in marine and stationary applications, but are not practical for airplanes or motor cars because of lack of flexibility and great weight in proportion to power developed. The Diesel engine is the standard power plant used in submarine boats and motor ships, as its efficiency

renders

it

particularly well adapted for large units.

NOTES ON CAKBUKETOK INSTALLATION IN AIRPLANES

writer in "The Aeroplane," an English publication, discourses on some features of carburetor installation that may be of interest to the aviation student, so portions of the dissertation are reproduced herewith.
fitted with ordinary type carburetors will do well to note carefully the way in which these are fitted, for several costly machines have been burnt lately through the sheer carelessness of their users. These particular machines were fitted with a high powered V-type engine, made by a firm which is famous as manufacturers of automobiles de luxe. In these engines there are four carburetors, mounted in the V between the cylinders. When the engine is fitted as a tractor, the float chambers are in

" Users of airplanes

front of the jet chambers. Consequently, when the tail of the is resting on the ground, the jets are lower than the level of the gasoline in the float chamber. "Quite naturally, the gasoline runs out of the jet, if it is left turned on when the machine is standing in its normal position, Thence it at the top of the crank-case. and trickles into the runs down to the tail of the engine, where the magnetos are fitted; and saturates them. If left long enough, the gasoline manages to soak well into the fuselage before evaporating. And what does evaporate makes an inflammable gas in the forward cockpit. Then some one comes along and starts up the engine. The spark-gap of the magneto gives one flash, and the whole front of the machine proceeds to give a Fourth of July performance forthwith. Naturally, one safeguard is to turn the petrol off directly the machine lands. Another is never to turn it on till the engine is actually being started up. "One would be asking too much of the human boy who is if officially regarded as the only person fit to fly an aeroplane one depended upon his memory of such a detail to save his machine, though one might perhaps reasonably expect the older pilots Even so, other means of prevention to remember not to forget.

machine

Notes on Carburetor Installation

149

are preferable, for fire is quite as likely to occur from just the same cause if the engine happens to be a trifle obstinate in starting, and so gives the carburetors several minutes in which to drip in which operation they would probably be assisted by airmechanics 'tickling' them. "One way out of the trouble is to fit drip tins under the jet chamber to catch the gasoline as it falls. This is all very well just to prevent fire while the machine is being started up, but it will not save it if it is left standing with the tail on the ground and the petrol turned on, for the drip tins will then fill up and run over. And if it catches then, the contents of the drip tins merely add fuel to the fire.

Reversing Carburetors
is to turn the carburetors round, so that the float chambers are behind the jets, and so come below them when the tail is on the ground, thus cutting off the gasoline low down in the jets. There seems to be no particular mechanical difficulty about this, though I must confess that I did not note very carefully whether the reversal of the float chambers would make them foul any other fittings on the engine. It has been argued, however, that doing this would starve the engine of gasoline when climbing at a steep angle, as the gasoline would then be lowered in the jets and need more suction to get into the This is rather a pretty point of amateur motor mecylinders. chanics to discuss, for, obviously, when the same engine is used as a 'pusher' instead of a tractor, the jets are in front of the floats, and there seems to be no falling off in power.

"Yet another way

Starvation of Mixture

"Moreover, the higher a machine goes the lower is the atmospheric pressure, and, consequently, the less is the amount of air sucked in at each induction stroke. This means, of course, that
with the gasoline supply the mixture at high altitudes is too rich, so that, in order to get precisely the right mixture when very high up, it is necessary to reduce the gasoline supply by screwing down the needle valve between the tank and the carburetor at least, that has been the experience of various high-flying pilots. No doubt something might be done in the way of forced air feed to compensate for reduced atmospheric pressure, but it remains to be proved whether the extra weight of mechanism involved would pay for the extra power obtained. Variable compression might do something, also, to even things up, but here, also, weightof mechanism has to be considered. "In any case, at present, the higher one goes the more the

150
power of the engine

Aviation Engines

is reduced, for less air means a less volume of mixture per cylinder, and as the petrol feed has to be starved to suit the smaller amount of air available, this means further loss of power. I do not know whether anyone has evolved a carbu-

but

retor which automatically starves the gasoline feed when high up, it seems possible that when an airplane is sagging about 'up

against the ceiling' as a French pilot described the absolute limit of climb for his particular machine it might be a good

thing to have the jets in front of the float chamber, for then a certain amount of automatic starvation would take place.

"When a machine is right up at its limiting height, and the pilot is doing his best to make it go higher still, it is probably flying with its tail as low as the pilot dares to let it go, and the lateral and longitudinal controls are on the verge of vanishing,
so that if the carburetor jets are behind the float chambers there is bound to be an over-rich mixture in any case. There is even

a possibility of a careless or ignorant pilot carrying on in this taildown position till one set of cylinders cuts out altogether, in which case the carburetor feeding that set may flood over, just as if the machine were on the ground, and the whole thing may catch fire. Whereas, with the jets in front of the floats, though the mixture may starve a trifle, there is, at any rate, no danger of fire through climbing with the tail down.

A
if

Diving Danger

"On the other hand, in a 'pusher' with this type of engine, the jets are in their normal position which is in front of the floats there is danger of fire in a dive. That is to say, if the pilot throttles right down, or switches off and relies on air pressure on his propeller to start the engine again, so that the gasoline is flooding over out of the jets instead of being sucked into the engine, there may be flooding over the magnetos if the dive is very steep and prolonged. In any case, a long dive will mean a certain amount of flooding, and, probably, a good deal of choking and spitting by the engine before it gets rid of the over-rich mixture and picks up steady firing again. Which may indicate to young pilots that it is not good to come down too low under such circumstances, trusting entirely to their engines to pick up at once and get going before they hit the ground. On the whole, it .seems that it might be better practice to set the carburetors thwartwise of engines, for then jets and floats would always be at approximately the same level, no matter what the longitudinal position of the machine, and it is never long
' '

enough in one positiqn at a big lateral angle to raise any serious carburetor troubles. Car manufacturers who dive cheerfully into

Notes on Carburetor Adjustment

151

the troubled waters of aero-engine designs are a trifle apt to forget that their engines are put into positions on airplanes which would be positively indecent in a motor car. An angle of 1 in 10 is the exception on a car, but it is common on an airplane, and no one ever heard of a car going down a hill of 10 to 1 which is not quite a vertical dive. Therefore, there is every excuse for a well-designed and properly brought-up carburetor misbehaving itself in an aeroplane. "It seems, then, that it is up to the manufacturers to produce better carburetors say, with the jet central with the float. But it also behooves the user to show ordinary common sense in handling the material at present available, and not to make a practice of burning up $25,000 worth or so of airplane just because he is too lazy to turn off his gasoline, or to have the tail of his machine lifted up while he is tinkering with his engines.
' '

NOTES ON CARBURETOR ADJUSTMENT

float feed carburetor is a delicate and balanced appliance that requires a certain amount nicely of attention and care in order to obtain the best results. The adjustments can only be made by one possessing an intelligent knowledge of carburetor construction and must never be made unless the reason for changing the old adjustment is understood. Before altering the adjustment of the leading forms of carburetors, a few hints regarding the quality to be obtained in the mixture should be given some consideration, as if these are properly understood

The modern

this

prove of great assistance in adjusting the vaporizer to give a good working proportion of fuel and air. There is some question regarding the best mixture proportions and it is estimated that gas will be explosive in which the proportions of fuel vapor and air will vary from one part of the former to a wide range included between four and eighteen parts of the latter. A one to four mixture is much too rich, while the one

knowledge

will

in eighteen is much too lean to provide positive ignition. rich mixture should be avoided because the excessive

fuel used will deposit carbon

and

will soot the cylinder

walls, combustion chamber interior, piston top and valves and also tend to overheat the motor. A rich mixture will

152

Aviation Engines

as

also seriously interfere with flexible control of the engine, it will choke up on low throttle and run well on open

the full amount of gas is needed. rich be quickly discovered by black smoke issuing may from the muffler, the exhaust gas having a very pungent odor. If the mixture contains a surplus of air there will be popping sounds in the carburetor, which is commonly termed "blowing back." To adjust a carburetor is not a difficult matter when the purpose of the various control members is understood. The first thing to do in adjusting a carburetor is to start the motor and to retard the sparkthrottle

when

mixture

ing lever so the motor will run slowly leaving the throttle about half open. In order to ascertain if the mixture is too rich cut down the gasoline flow gradually by screwing down the needle, valve until the motor commences to run irregularly or misfire. Close the needle valves as far as possible without having the engine come to a stop, and
after having found the minimum amount of fuel gradually unscrew the adjusting valve until you arrive at the point where the engine develops its highest speed. "When this

adjustment is secured the lock nut is screwed in place so the needle valve will keep the adjustment. The next point to look out for is regulation of the auxiliary air supply on
those types of carburetors where an adjustable air valve This is done by advancing the spark lever is provided.

The air valve is first opened throttle. or the spring tension reduced to a point where the engine misfires or pops back in the carburetor. When the point of maximum air supply the engine will run on is thus deand opening the
termined, the air valve spring may be tightened by screwing in on the regulating screw until the point is reached where an appreciable speeding up of the engine is noticed. If both fuel and air valves are set right, it will be possible
to accelerate the engine speed uniformly without interfering with regularity of engine operation by moving the
throttle lever or accelerator pedal from its closed to its wide open position, this being done with the spark lever

advanced.

All types of carburetors do not have the same

Notes on Carburetor Adjustment

153

of adjustment; in fact, some adjust only with the gasoline regulating needle; others must have a complete

means

change of spray nozzles; while in others the mixture proportions may be varied only by adjustment of the quantity of entering air. Changing the float level is effective in some carburetors, but this should never be done unless it
is

certain that the level is not correct.

Full instructions

for locating carburetion troubles will be given in proper

sequence.
It is a fact well known to experienced repairmen and motorists that atmospheric conditions have much to do with carburetor action. It is often observed that a motor seems to develop more power at night than during the day, a circumstance which is attributed to the presence of

more moisture in the cooler night air. a motor from sea level to an altitude

Likewise, taking
of 10,000 feet in-

volves using rarefied air in the engine cylinders and atmospheric pressures ranging from 14.7 pounds at sea level to 10.1 pounds per square inch at the high altitude.
All carburetors will require some adjustment in the course of any material change from one level to another. Great

changes of altitude also have a marked effect on the cooling system of an airplane. Water boils at 212 degrees F. only at sea level. At an altitude of 10,000 feet it will, boil at a temperature nineteen degrees lower, or 193 degrees F. In high altitudes the reduced atmospheric pressure, for 5,000 feet or higher than sea level, results in not enough air reaching the mixture, so that either the auxiliary air opening has to be increased, or the gasoline in If the user is to be continually the mixture cut down. at high altitudes he should immediately purchase either a larger dome or a smaller strangling tube, mentioning the size carburetor that is at present in use and the type of motor that it is on, including details as to the bore and stroke. The smaller strangling tube makes an increased suction at the spray nozzle the air will have to be readjusted to meet it and you can use more auxiliary
;

154

Aviation Engines

The effect on the motor without air, which is necessary. a smaller strangling tube is a perceptible sluggishness and failure to speed up to its normal crank-shaft revolutions, as well as failure to give power. It means that about onethird of the regular speed is cut out. The reduced atmospheric pressure reduces the power of the explosion, in that there is not the same quantity of oxygen in the combustion chamber as at sea level to increase the amount taken in, you must also increase the gasoline speed, which is done by an increased suction through the smaller strangling aperture. Some forms of carburetors are affected more than others by changes of altitude, which explains why the Zenith is so widely employed for airplane engine The compensating nozzle construction is not influuse. enced as much by changes of altitude as the simpler nozzle
;

types are.

CHAPTER VI
Early Ignition Systems Electrical Ignition Best Fundamentals of Magnetism Outlined Forms of Magneto Zones of Magnetic Influence

How

Related

Magnets are Made Electricity and Magnetism Basic Principles of Magneto Action Essential Parts of

Magneto and Functions Transformer Coil Systems True High Tension Type The Berling Magneto Timing and Care The Dixie Magneto Spark Plug Design and Application Two-Spark
Ignition

Special Airplane Plug.

EAKLY IGNITION SYSTEMS

of the most important auxiliary groups of the gasoline engine comprising the airplane power plant and one absolutely necessary to insure engine action is the
ignition system or the method employed of kindling the compressed gas in the cylinder to produce an explosion

ONE

The ignition system has been fully as well developed as other parts of the engine, and at the present time practically all ignition systems follow
and useful power.
principles which have

become standard through wide

ac-

ceptance.

During the early stages of development of the gasoline engine various methods of exploding the charge of comOn some of bustible gas in the cylinder were employed. the earliest engines a flame burned close to the cylinder head, and at the proper time for ignition a slide or valve moved to provide an opening which permitted the flame This system was to ignite the gas back of the piston. practical only on the primitive form of gas engines in which the charge was not compressed before ignition. Later, when it was found desirable to compress the gas a certain degree before exploding it, an incandescent platinum tube in the combustion chamber, which was kept
in a heated condition

the gas.

by a flame burning in it, exploded The naked flame was not suitable in this appli155

156
cation because

Aviation Engines

was opened to provide communication between the flame and the gas the compressed charge escaped from the cylinder with enough pressure to blow out the flame at times and thus cause irregular igWhen the flame was housed in a platinum tube nition.
the slide

when

was protected from the direct action of the gas, and as long as the tube was maintained at the proper point of incandescence regular ignition was obtained. Some engineers utilized the property of gases firing
it

if compressed to a sufficient degree, while others depended upon the heat stored in the cylinder-head to fire the highly compressed gas. None of these methods

themselves

were practical in their application to motor car engines becanise they did not permit flexible engine action which

At the present time, electrical ignition so desirable. systems in which the compressed gas is exploded by the heating value of the minute electric arc or spark in the cylinder are standard, and the general practice seems to be toward the use of mechanical producers of electricity rather than chemical batteries.
is

ELECTRICAL IGNITION BEST

Two general forms of electrical ignition systems may be used, the most popular being that in which a current of electricity under high tension is made to leap a gap or air space between the points of the sparking plug screwed into the cylinder. The other form, which has been almost entirely abandoned in automobile and which was never used with airplane engine practice, but which is still used to some extent on marine engines, is called the low-tension system because current of 'low voltage is used and the spark is produced by moving electrodes in the combustion chamber. The essential elements of any electrical ignition system, either high or low tension, are: First, a simple and
practical

method of current production; second,

suitable

timing apparatus to cause the spark to occur at the right point in the cycle of engine action; third, suitable wiring

Fundamentals of Magnetism
and other apparatus
to

157

convey the current produced by

the generator to the sparking

member

in the cylinder.

The various appliances necessary

to secure

prompt

ig-

nition of the compressed gases should be described in some detail because of the importance of the ignition system.

patent that the scope of a work of this character does not permit one to go fully into the theory and principles of operation of all appliances which may be used in connection with gasoline motor ignition, but at the same time it is important that the elementary principles be considered to some extent in order that the reader should have a proper understanding of the very essential ignition apparatus. The first point considered will be the common methods of generating the electricity, then the appliances to utilize it and produce the required spark in the cylinInasmuch as magneto ignition is universally used der. in connection with airplane engine ignition it will not be necessary to consider battery ignition systems.
It is

FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM OUTLINED

To properly understand the phenomena and forces involved in the generation of electrical energy by mechanical means it is necessary to become familiar with some of the elementary principles of magnetism and its relation to The following matter can be read with profit electricity. Most those who are not familiar with the subject. by
persons know that magnetism exists in certain substances, but many are not able to grasp the terms used in describing the operation of various electrical devices because of not possessing a knowledge of the basic facts upon which the action of such apparatus is based. Magnetism is a property possessed by certain substances and is manifested by the ability to attract and repel other materials susceptible to its effects. "When this phenomenon is manifested by a conductor or wire through which a current of electricity is flowing it is termed "electro-magnetism." Magnetism and electricity are closely related, each being capable of producing the other. Prac-

160

Aviation Engines

the size of the magnets used and the air gap separating the poles. If the south pole of one magnet is brought close to the end of the same polarity of the other there

pronounced repulsion of like force. These facts are easily proved by the simple experiment outlined at B, Fig. 57. magnet will only attract or influence a substance having similar qualities. The like poles of

will be a

will repel each other because of the obvious impossibility of uniting two influences or forces of practi-

magnets

cally equal

The unlike poles

the force
is

strength but flowing in opposite directions. of magnets attract each other because The flow of flowing in the same direction.

magnetism

is

through the magnet from south to north and

the circuit is completed by the flow of magnetic influence through the air gap or metal armature bridging it from the north to the south pole.

FOKMS OF MAGNETS AND ZONE OF MAGNETIC INFLUENCE

DEFINED
J

Magnets are commonly made

in

made

the shape of a bar or horseshoe. in two types, simple or compound.

of a

two forms, either in These two forms are

The

latter are

composed magnets of the same form united so the ends of like polarity are laced together, and such
of

number

a construction will be more efficient and have more strength than a simple magnet of the same weight. The two common forms of simple and compound magnets are shown The zone in which a magnetic influence at C, Fig. 57. occurs is called the magnetic field, and this force can be
graphically shown by means of imaginary lines, which are termed "lines of force." As will be seen from the diagram at D, Fig. 57, the lines show the direction of
action of the magnetic force and also show its strength, as they are closer together and more numerous when the intensity of the magnetic field is at its maximum. simple method of demonstrating the presence of the force is to lay a piece of thin paper over the pole pieces of either a bar or horseshoe magnet and sprinkle fine iron filings

Magnets and Zone

on
it.

of Influence

161

much

the

The particles of metal arrange themselves in very manner shown in the illustrations and prove

that the magnetic field actually exists. The form of magnet used will materially affect the

be noted that the field will be concentrated to a greater extent with the horseshoe form because of the proximity of the poles. It should be understood that these lines have no actual existence, but are imaginary and assumed to exist only
size
field.

and area of the magnetic

It will

to

show the way the magnetic

field is distributed.

The

magnetic influence is always greater at the poles than at the center, and that is why a horseshoe or U-form

magnet

magnetos or dynamos. This greater attraction at the poles can be clearly demonstrated by sprinkling iron filings on bar and U magnets, as outlined at E, Fig. 57. A large mass gathers at the pole pieces, gradually tapering down toward the point where the attraction is least.
is

used in practically

all

From

the diagrams
is

it

will be

seen that the flow of

magnetism

from one pole

to the other

by means

of

This circuit is completed by the magnetism flowing from one pole to the other through the magnet, and as this flow is continued as long as the body remains magnetic it constitutes a magnetic

curved paths between them.

circuit.

If

this

flow were

temporarily interrupted by

means

of a conductor of electricity moving through the field there would be a current of electricity induced in

the conductor every time it cut the lines of force. There are three kinds of magnetic circuits. non-magnetic circuit is one in which the magnetic influence completes

its circuit

force.

through some substance not susceptible to the closed magnetic circuit is one in which the in-

fluence completes its circuit through some, magnetic

terial

macom-

pound

which bridges the gap between the poles. circuit is that in which the magnetic influence passes through magnetic substances and non-magnetic substances in order to complete its circuit.

162

Aviation Engines

HOW

IRON AND STEEL BARS ARE MADE MAGNETIC

in

two ways, by contact or induction. If a piece of steel is rubbed on a magnet it will be found a magnet when removed, having a north and south pole and all of the properties found in the energizing magnet. This is magnetizing by contact. A piece of steel will retain the magnetism imparted to it for a considerable length of time, and the influence that remains is known as residual magnetism. This property may be increased by alloying the steel with tungsten and hardening it before it is magnetized. Any material that will retain its magnetic influence after removal from the source of magnetism is known as a permanent magnet. If a piece of iron or steel is brought into the magnetic field of a powerful magnet it becomes a magnet without actual contact with the energizer. This is magnetizing If a powerful electric current induction. by magnetic flows through an insulated conductor wound around a piece of iron or steel it will make a magnet of it. This

Magnetism may be produced

is

made

magnetizing by electro-magnetic induction. A magnet in this manner is termed an electro-magnet and usually the metal is of such a nature that it will not
retain its

around

it.

magnetism when the current ceases to flow Steel is used in all cases where permanent

magnets are required, while soft iron is employed in all cases where an intermittent magnetic action is desired. Magneto field magnets are always made of tungsten steel alloy, so treated that it will retain its magnetism for
lengthy periods.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM CLOSELY RELATED

There are many points in which magnetism and

elec-

For instance, air is a medium that oftricity are alike. fers considerable resistance to the passage of both magand electric energy, although it offers more resistance to the passage of the latter. Minerals like iron or steel are very easily influenced by magnetism and
netic influence

Principles of

Magneto Outlined

163

When one of these is present easily penetrated by it. in the magnetic circuit the magnetism will flow through
Any metal is a good conductor for the passage of the electric current, but few metals are good conductors of magnetic energy. body of the proper metal will become a magnet due to induction if placed in the magnetic field, having a south pole where the lines of force enter it and a north pole where they pass out. We have seen that a magnet is constantly surrounded by a magnetic field and that an electrical conductor when carrying a current is also surrounded by a field of magthe metal.

netic influence.

Now

if

the conductor carrying a current

of electricity will induce magnetism in a bar of iron or steel, by a reversal of this process, a magnetized iron or
steel

bar will produce a current of electricity in a con-

It is upon this principle that the modern dynamo or magneto is constructed. If an electro-motive force is induced in a conductor by moving it across a field of magnetic influence, or by passing a magnetic field near a

ductor.

conductor, electricity is said to be generated by magnetoelectric induction. All mechanical generators of the electric current using permanent steel magnets to produce a
field of

magnetic influence are of this

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

type*.

MAGNETO OUTLINED

Fig. 58, will show these stated on an earlier page, principles very clearly. if the lines of force in the .magnetic field are cut by a

The accompanying diagram,

As

suitable conductor
in that conductor.

an electrical impulse will be produced In this simple machine the lines of

force exist between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. The conductor, which in this case is a loop of copper wire, is mounted upon a spindle in order that it may be rotated
in the magnetic field to cut the lines of magnetic influ-

ence present between the pole pieces. Both of the ends of this loop are connected, one with the insulated drum shown upon the shaft, the other to the shaft. Two metal brushes are employed to collect the current and cause it

164
to flow

Aviation Engines

when

the shaft

through the external circuit. It can be seen that is turned in the direction of the arrow
will be

the loop will cut through the lines of magnetic influence

and a current

generated therein.

Insulated Ring'

Loop of Wire
Spindle Brushes*

Fig. 58.

Elementary Form of Magneto Showing Principal Parts Simplified

to

Make Method

of Current Generation Clear.

The pressure

of the current

and the amount produced

vary in accordance to the rapidity with which the lines of magnetic influence are cut. The armature of a practical magneto, therefore, differs materially from that shown
in the diagram. large number of loops of wire would be mounted upon this shaft in order that the lines of magnetic influence would be cut a greater number of times in a given period and a core* of iron used as a backing

Magneto Operating
for the wire.

Principles

165

This would give a more rapid alternating current and a higher electro-motive force than would bo the case with a smaller number of loops of wire. The illustrations at Fig. 59 show a conventional double

Field

Magnets

Armature
Pole
Pieces

^J

Pole
Pieces

Fig. 59.

Showing How Strength of Magnetic Influence and of the Currents Induced in the Windings of Armature Vary with the Eapidity of Changes of riow.

166

Aviation Engines
field

magnetic of a practical magneto in part section and will serve to more fully emphasize the points previously made. If the armature or spindle were removed from between the pole pieces there would exist a field of magnetic influence as shown at Fig. 57, but the introduction of this component provides a conductor (the iron core) for the magnetic energy, regardless of its position, though the facility with which the influence will be transmitted depends entirely upon
the position of the core. As shown at A, the magnetic flow is through the main body in a straight line, while at B, which position the armature has attained after one-

winding armature and

eighth revolution, or 45 degrees travel in the direction of the arrow, the magnetism must pass through in the

At C, which position is attained every the magnetic energy abandons the longer half revolution, path through the body of the core for the shorter passage
manner
indicated.
offer 3d

by the

side pieces,

and the

field

thrown out by the

cross bar disappears. On further rotation of the armature, as at D, the body of the core again becomes ener-

gized as the magnetic influence resumes its flow through These changes in the strength of the magnetic field when distorted by the armature core, as well as the init.

tensity of the

windings, and the

energy existing in the field, affect the electrical energy induced therein corin strength to the rapidity with which these responds changes in magnetic flow occur. The most pronounced
changes in the strength of the
field will

occur as the ar-

mature passes from position B to D, because the magnetic field existing around the core will be destroyed and again
re-established.

in strength will be slight

During the most of the armature rotation the changes and the currents induced in the

wire correspondingly small; but at the instant the core becomes remagnetized, as the armature leaves position C, the current produced will be at its maximum, and it is necessary to so time the rotation of the armature that at this instant one of the cylinders is in condition to be fired. It

Essential Parts of a
is

Magneto

167

imperative that the armature be driven in such relation

to the crank- shaft that each production of maximum current coincides with the ignition point, this condition exist-

ing twice during each revolution of the armature, or at Each position shown correevery 180 degrees travel. to 45 degrees travel of the armature, or one-eighth sponds of a turn, and it takes just three-eighths revolution to to that shown at D. change the position from

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A MAGNETO AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The magnets which produce the influence that in turn induces the electrical energy in the winding or loops of wire on the armature, and which may have any even number of opposed poles, are called field magnets. The loops of wire which are mounted upon a suitable drum
and rotate
in the field of magnetic inflence in order to

an armature winding, while The entire assembly is the core is the metal portion. The exposed ends of the magnets called the armature. are called pole pieces and the arrangement used to collect the current is either a commutator or a collector. The stationary pieces which bear against the collector or commutator and act as terminals for the outside circuit are called brushes. These brushes are often of copper, or some of its alloys, because copper has a greater electrical
cut the lines of force is called

conductivity than any other metal. These brushes are nearly always
is

of carbon, which sometimes electroplated with copper to increase its electrical conductivity, though cylinders of copper wire gauze impregnated with graphite are utilized at times. Carbon is used because it is not so liable to cut the metal of the commutator as might be the case if the contact was of the metal to metal type. The reason for this is that carbon has the peculiar property in that it materially as-

commutator, and being of unctuous composition, will wear and conform to any soft, irregularities on the surface of the metal collector rings. The magneto in common use consists of a number of
sists in the lubrication of the

168

Aviation Engines

horseshoe magnets which are compound in form and attached to suitable cast-iron pole pieces used to collect and concentrate the magnetic influence of the various magnets.

Between these pole pieces an armature rotates. This is usually shaped like a shuttle, around which are wound coils of insulated wire. These are composed of a large number of turns and the current produced depends in
great measure upon the size of the wire and the number of turns per coil. An armature winding of large wire will deliver a current of great amperage, but of small voltage.

armature wound with very fine wire will deliver a current of high voltage but of low amperage. In the form of magneto, such as used for ignition, the ordinary current is alternating in character and the break in the
circuit should be timed to occur when the armature is at the point of its greatest potential or pressure. Where such a generator is designed for direct current production the ends of the winding are attached to the segments of

An

a commutator, but where the instrument is designed to an alternating current one end of the winding is fastened to an insulator ring on one end of the armature shaft and the other end is grounded on the frame of the machine. The quantity of the current depends upon the strength
deliver

of the magnetic field and the number of lines of magnetic influence acting through the armature. The electro-motive

the

force varies as to the length of the armature winding and number of revolutions at which the armature is rotated.

THE TRANSFORMER SYSTEM USES LOW VOLTAGE MAGNETO

The magneto
transformer

coil is

in the various systems which employ a very similar to a low-tension genera-

tor in general construction, and the current delivered at the terminals seldom exceeds 100 volts. As it requires

many times that potential or pressure to leap the gap which exists between the points of the conventional spark
plug, a separate coil is placed in circuit to intensify the current to one of greater capacity. The essential parts

Transformer Coil-Magneto System

169

of such a system and their relation to each other are shown in diagrammatic form at Fig. 60 and as a complete system at Fig. 61. As is true of other systems the

magnetic influence is produced by permanent steel magnets clamped to the cast-iron pole pieces between which the armature rotates. At the point of greatest potential

Distributor Plate Distributor

Arm

Armature

Interrupter

/WWWVWVWWW-1
Secondary Winding nxj[WA

Adjustment

\Qrounded
Contact

Insulated

Contact

Fig. 60.

Diagrams Explaining Action of Low Tension Transformer Coil and True High Tension Magneto Ignition Systems.

in the

armature winding the current is broken by the contact breaker, which is actuated by a cam, and a current of higher value is induced in the secondary winding of the transformer coil when the low voltage current is passed through the primary winding.
It will be noted that the points of the contact breaker are together except for the brief instant when separated by the action of the point of the cam upon the lever. It is obvious that the armature winding is short-circuited

170

Aviation Engines

Transformer Coil-Magneto System

171

upon itself except when the contact points are separated. While the armature winding is thus short-circuited there will be practically no generation of current. When the points are separated there is a sudden flow of current through the primary winding of the transformer coil, inducing a secondary current in the other winding, which
can be varied in strength by certain considerations in the
To

Second Set Spark Plugs

6 Volt Battery

Fig. 61.

Berling Two-Spark Dual Ignition System.

This current of preliminary design of the apparatus. higher potential or voltage is conducted directly to the plug if the device is fitted to a single-cylinder engine, or to the distributor arm if fitted to a multiple-cylinder motor.

The

distributor consists of an insulator in which is

placed a number of segments, one for each cylinder to be fired, and so spaced that the number of degrees between them correspond to the ignition points of the motor. two-cylinder motor would have two segments, a threecylinder, three segments, and so on within the capacity of the instrument. In the illustration a four-cylinder distributor is fitted, and the distributing arm is in contact

172

Aviation Engines

with the segment corresponding to the cylinder about to be fired.

TRUE HIGH-TENSION MAGNETOS ARE SELF-CONTAINED

differs from the preinasmuch as the current of high voltage is proceding duced in the armature winding direct, without the use of the separate coil. Instead of but one coil, the armature

The true high-tension magneto

carries two, one of comparatively coarse wire, the other The arrangement of these of many turns of finer wire.

Fig. 62.

Berling Double-Spark Independent System.

windings can be readily ascertained by reference to the diagram B, Fig. 60, which shows the principle of operation very clearly.
is

evidently by primary winding (coarse wire) is coupled or grounded to 'the armature core, and the other passes to the insulated part of the interrupter. While in some forms the interrupter or contact breaker mechanism does not revolve, the desired motion being imparted to the contact
lever to separate the points of a revolving cam, in this the cam or tripping mechanism is stationary and the conThis arrangement makes it postact breaker revolves. sible to conduct the current from the revolving primary
coil to the interrupter

simplicity of the ignition system One end of the inspection of Fig. 62.

The

by a

direct connection, eliminating

High Tension Magnetos

Self-Contained

173

the use of brushes, which would otherwise be necessary. In other forms of this appliance where the winding is
stationary, the interrupter
if

may

be operated by a revolv-

ing cam, though, point will permit winding. During the revolution of the armature the grounded lever makes and breaks contact with the insulated point, short-circuiting the primary winding upon itself until the armature reaches the proper position of maximum intensity of current production, at which time the circuit is broken, as in the former instance. One end of the secwire) is grounded on the live end of the primary, the other end being attached to the revolving arm of the distributor mechanism. So long as a closed circuit is maintained feeble currents will pass through the primary winding, and so long as the contact points are When the current together this condition will exist. reaches its maximum value, because of the armature being in the best position, the cam operates the interrupter and the points are separated, breaking the short circuit which has existed in the primary winding. The secondary circuit has. been open while the distributor arm has moved from one contact to another and there

desired, the used of a brush at this this construction with a revolving

ondary winding

(fine

has been no flow of energy through this winding. While the electrical pressure will rise in this, even if the distributor arm contacted with one of the segments, there would be no spark at the plug until the contact points separated, because the current in the secondary winding would not be of sufficient strength. When the interrupter operates, however, the maximum primary current will be diverted from its short circuit and can flow to the ground
only through the secondary winding and spark-plug circuit. The high pressure now existing in the secondary winding will be greatly increased by the sudden flow of

primary current, and energy of high enough potential to successfully bridge the gap at the plug is thereby produced in the winding.

174

Aviation Engines

THE BERLING MAGNETO

The Berling magneto

is

a true high tension type de-

livering two impulses per revolution, but it is made in a variety of forms, both single and double spark. Its principle of action does not differ in essentials from the high

Fig. 63.

Type

DD

Berling High Tension Magneto.

tension type previously described. This magneto is used on Curtiss aviation engines and will deliver sparks in a positive manner sufficient to insure ignition of engines up
to 200 horse-power and at rotative speeds of the magneto armature up to 4,000 r. p. m. which is sufficient to take

care of an eight-cylinder

engine running up to 2,000

Berling Ignition Magneto

r. p.

175

m.

The magneto

is

driven at crank- shaft speed on

four-cylinder engines, at 1% times crank- shaft speed on sixcylinder engines and at twice crank- shaft speed on eightcylinder

types.

The types

"D"

and

"DD" BER"DD"

LING Magnetos

are interchangeable with corresponding

magnetos of other standard makes. The dimensions of and the four-, six- and eight-cylinder types are all the same.

"D"

The

ideal

method of driving the magneto

is

by means

of flexible direct connecting coupling to a shaft intended for the purpose of driving the magneto. As the magneto

must be driven at a high speed, a coupling of some The employment of such a coupflexibility is preferable. will facilitate the mounting of the magneto, because ling a small inaccuracy in the lining up of the magneto with the driving shaft will be taken care of by the flexible coupling, whereas with a perfectly rigid coupling the: line-up of the magneto must be absolutely accurate. Another advantage of the flexible coupling is that the vibration of the motor will not be as fully transmitted to the

armature shaft on the magneto as in case a rigid coupling is used. This means prolonged life for the magneto. The next best method of driving the magneto is by means of a gear keyed to the armature shaft. When this method of driving is employed, great care must be exercised in providing sufficient clearance between the If there gear on the magneto and the driving gear. should be a tight spot between these two gears it will The third react disadvantageously on the magneto.
available

method
This
is

is

to drive the

a chain.
sity.

the least

magneto by means of desirable of the three methods

and should be resorted

It is difficult to

to only in case- of absolute neces-

provide sufficient clearance when a chain without rendering the timing less accurate using

and

positive.

shows diagrammtically the circuit of the type two-spark independent magneto and the switch In position OFF the primary winding used with it.
Fig. "64,

A"

"D"

176

Aviation Engines

of the magneto is short-circuited and in this position the switch serves as an ordinary cut-out or grounding In position "1" the switch connects the magswitch. neto in such a way that it operates as an ordinary

single-spark magneto.

In this position one end of the

^
Distributor

Finger ^

Primary Circuit Secondary " Ground (Frame)

C^iL-V:'
n
fisfl

Condenser.
'.

.
\

Interrupter

Front View of Switch

Distributor

Finger-,

J
Magneto
Interrupter''

Back Vi'ew of Switch

''Battery

Timer

B
Fig. 64.

Wiring Diagrams of Berling Magneto Ignition Systems.

1

secondary winding is grounded to the body of the motor. In this position of the This is the starting position.
switch the entire voltage generated in the magneto is concentrated at one spark-plug instead of being divided in half. With the. motor turning over very slowly, as is
the case in starting, the full voltage generated

by the

Berling Ignition Magneto

177

magneto

will not in all cases be sufficient to bridge simultaneously two spark gaps, but is amply sufficient to

bridge one. Also, this position of the switch tends to retard the ignition and should be used in starting to "With the switch in position "2" prevent back-firing. the magneto applies ignition to both plugs in each This is the normal running cylinder simultaneously.
position.

Fig. 64,

type
neto.

B shows diagrammatically the circuit of the "DD" BERLING high-tension two-spark dual mag-

This type is recommended for certain types of heavy-duty airplane motors, which it is impossible to turn over fast enough to give the magneto sufficient speed to generate even a single spark of volume great enough to ignite the gas in the cylinder. The dual feature consists of .the addition to the magneto of a battery interrupter.
consists of the magneto, coil and special switch. The coil is intended to operate on high-tension six volts. Either a storage battery or dry cells may be used.

The equipment

With

the switch in the

OFF

grounded, and the battery

position, the circuit is open.

magneto

is

With

the

switch in the second or battery position marked "BAT," one end of the secondary winding of the magneto is grounded, and the magneto operates as a single-spark magneto delivering high-tension current to the inside distributor, and the battery circuit being closed the hightension current
distributor.

from the

coil is delivered to the outside

In this position the battery current is supto one set of spark plugs, no matter how slowly plied the motor is turned over, but as soon as the motor starts, the magneto supplies current as a single-spark magneto After the engine is to the other set of the spark-plugs. the switch should be thrown to the position running, marked "MAG." The battery and coil are then disconnected, and the magneto furnishes ignition to both This is the normal running plugs in each cylinder. Either u non-vibrating coil type "N-l" is position.

178

Aviation Engines
coil

furnished or a combined vibrating and non-vibrating type "VN-1."

SETTING BERLING MAGNETO

set according to one of two methods, the selection of which is, to some extent, governed by the characteristics of the engine, but largely due to the personal preference on the part of the user. In the first method described below, the

The magneto may be

different

most advantageous position of the piston for fully advanced ignition is determined in relation to the extreme advanced position of the magneto. In this case, the fully retarded ignition will not be a matter of selection, but the timing range of the magneto is wide enough to
bring the fully retarded ignition after top-center position of the piston. The second method for the setting of the magneto fixes the fully retarded position of the magneto
in relation to

retarded ignition

that position of the piston where fully is desired. In this case, the extreme

advance position of the magneto will not always correspond with the best position of the piston for fully advanced ignition, and the amount of advance the magneto should have to meet ideal requirements in this respect must be determined by experiment.
First Method:
1. 2.

Designate one cylinder as cylinder No.

1.

Turn the crank-shaft until the piston in cylinder No. 1 is in the position where the fully advanced spark
is

desired to occur.

3. Eemove the cover from the distributor block and turn the armature shaft in the direction of rotation of the

magneto

finger-brush comes into such a position that this brush makes contact with the segment which is connected to the cable terminal marked
until

the

distributor

"1."
4.

This
Place

is

either one

depending upon
the

of the two bottom segments, the direction of rotation.

cam housing

in

extreme advance,

i.e.,

Timing Berling Magneto

turn the

179
the
direction

cam housing
to

until

it

stops,

in

With
5.

opposite the

the direction of rotation

of the

armature.

in this position, open the cover. "With the armature in the approximate position as

cam housing

described in "3," turn the armature slightly in either direction to such a point that the platinum points of the magneto interrupter will just begin to open at the end of the cam, adjacent to the fibre lever on the interrupter. 6. With this exact position of the armature, fix the magneto to the driving member of the engine.

Second Method:
Designate one cylinder as cylinder No. 1. Turn the crank-shaft until the piston in cylinder No. 1 is in the position at which the fully retarded spark is desired to occur. 3. Same as No. 3 under First Method. 4. Place the cam housing in extreme retard, i.e., turn
1.

2.

same direction as the direction of rotation of the armature. With the cam
the
until
it

cam housing

stops, in the

housing in this position, open the cover. 5. Same as No. 5 under First Method. 6. Same as No. 6 under First Method.

WIRING THE MAGNETO

The wiring of the magneto

diagram.

is clearly

shown by wiring

and then connect the cables

cylinders
in

First determine the sequence of firing for the cylinders to the spark plug in the
cylinder

proper sequence, beginning with No. 1 marked on the distributor block. The switch used with the independent type mounted in such a manner that there will be a connection between the frame of the magneto metal portion of the switch.
It is advisable to use

must be
metallic

and the

or dry

cells,

a separate battery, either storage as a source of current for the dual equip-

180
ment.

Aviation Engines

Connecting to the same battery that is used with the generator and other electrical equipment may cause trouble, as a "ground" in this battery causes the coil
to overheat.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE

Lubrication:

Use only the very best of oil for the oil cups. Put five drops of oil in the oil cup at the driving end of the magneto for every fifty hours of actual running. Put five drops of oil in the oil cup at the interrupter end of the magneto, located at one side of. the cam housing, for every hundred hours of actual running. Lubricate the embossed cams in the cam housing with
a thin film of vaseline every
ning. Wipe in the interrupter. the interrupter.
fifty

off all superfluous vaseline.

hours of actual runNever use oil

Do

not lubricate any other part of

Adjusting the Interrupter:

With the fibre lever in the center of one of the embossed cams, as at Fig. 65, the opening between the platinum contacts should be not less than .016" and not more than .020". The gauge riveted to the adjusting wrench should barely be able to pass between the conThe platinum contacts must be tacts when fully open. smoothed off with a very fine file. When in closed position, the platinum contacts should make contact with each other over their entire surfaces.

When

inspecting the interrupter,

make sure

that the

ground brush in the back of the interrupter base is making good contact with the surface on which it rubs.
Cleaning the Distributor:

The

distributor block cover

inspection every twenty-five and the carbon deposit from the distributor finger-brush wiped off the distributor block by rubbing with a rag

should be removed for hours of actual running

Locating Magneto Trouble

181

The or piece of waste dipped in gasoline or kerosene. terminal brush on the side of the magneto high-tension
should also be carefully inspected for proper tension.

LOCATING TKOTJBLE

Trouble in the ignition system is indicated by the motor " missing, " stopping entirely, or by inability to
start.

It

is

safe to

assume that the trouble

is

not in the

Lev er Retaining 5 p ring.

.Com
Fibre Interrupter

Contact Points Separated-

Lever

Contact Breaker'*

Housing

"----Cam

Fig. 65.

The Berling Magneto Breaker Box Showing Contact Points Separated and Interrupter Lever on Cam.

magneto, and the carburetor, gasoline supply and sparkplugs should first be investigated. If the magneto is suspected, the first thing to do is To determine to determine if it will deliver a spark.
this,

disconnect one of the high-tension leads from the it so that spark-plug in one of the cylinders and place there is approximately Vie" between the terminal and

the cylinder frame. Open the pet cocks on the other cylinders to prevent the engine from firing and turn over the engine until the piston is approaching the end of the compression

182

Aviation Engines

removed.
rapidly

stroke in the cylinder from which the cable has been Set the magneto in the advance position and

engine over the top-center position, observing closely if a spark occurs between the end of the high-tension cable and the frame. If the magneto is of the dual type, the trouble may be either in the magneto or in the battery or coil system, therefore disconnect the battery and .place the switch
the
in the position operate as an
in

rock

magneto will then and should spark independent magneto the proper manner. After this the battery system

marked

"MAG." The

should be investigated. To test the operation of the and coil, examine all connections, making sure battery that they are clean and tight, and then with the switch in the "BAT," rock the piston slowly back and forth. If a type "VN-1" coil is used, a shower of sparks should jump between the high-tension cable terminal and the cylinder frame when the piston is in the correct position for firing. If no spark occurs, remove the cover from the coil and see that the vibrating tongue is free. If a type "N-l" coil is used, a single spark will occur. The battery should furnish six volts when connected to the coil, and this should also be verified. If the coil still refuses to give a spark and all connections are correct, the coil should be replaced and the defective coil returned to the manufacturer. If both magneto and coil give a spark when tested as just described, the spark-plugs should be investiTo do this, disconnect the cables and remove gated. the spark-plugs. Then reconnect the cables to the plugs

and place them so that the frame portions of the plugs are in metallic connection with the frame of the motor. Then turn over the motor, thus revolving the magneto armature, and see if a spark is produced at the spark gaps of the plugs. The most common defects in spark-plugs are breaking down of the insulation, fouling due to carbon, or too large
or small a spark gap.

To

clean the plugs a stiff brush

Locating Magneto Trouble

about

183

and gasoline should be used. The spark gap should be % 2 " and never less than % 4 ". Too small a gap may have been caused by beads of metal forming due to the heat of the spark. Too long a gap may have been caused by the points burning off. If the magneto and spark plugs are in good condition and the engine does not run satisfactorily, the setting

-Distributor

Cover

ContaciBrectker

Rocking Field''

Fig. 66.

The Dixie Model 60 for Six-Cylinder Airplane Engine

Ignition.

should be verified according to instructions previously

given, and, if necessary, readjusted. Be careful to observe that both the type "VN-1" and type "N-l" coils are so arranged that the spark occurs on the opening of the contacts of the timer. As this is
just the reverse of the usual operation, it should be carefully noted when any change in the setting of the timer
is

made.

The timer on the dual type magneto

is

ad-

justed so that the battery spark occurs about 5

later

184

Aviation Engines

This provides an automatic than the magneto spark. advance as soon as the switch is thrown to the magneto This relative timing can be easily position "MAG."
adjusted by removing the interrupter and shifting the

cam

in the direction desired.

THE

DIXIE

MAGNETO

The Dixie magneto, shown at Fig. 66, operates on a different principle than the rotary armature type. It is used on the Hall-Scott and other aviation engines. In

(4)

?.

lbT.i(.

V.j

Deep D

S. St'd.

Thread*

Fig. 67.

Installation Dimensions of Dixie

Model 60 Magneto.

magneto the rotating member consists of two pieces of magnetic material separated by a non-magnetic center This member constitutes true rotating poles for piece. the magnet and rotates in a field structure, composed of
this

two laminated
magnetic rings.

field

pieces, riveted between two nonThe bearings for the rotating poles are

Dixie Ignition Magneto

185

mounted

in steel plates, which lie against the poles of the magnets. When the magnet poles rotate, the magnetic lines of force from each magnet pole are carried directly

Ma q n ets
Rotating

.>

Magnet

Poles ..,__
.Inductor Drive Shaft

Inductor Shaft^
:

--Inductors or Magnet Poles

Plates

and Bearings

The rotating element of the, Dixie magneto. In the Dixie there are no revolving winding$,there is no moving wire

and the parts of the magneto are reduced to a minimum.

A.G.

HAGSTROMN.Y.

Fig.

68.

The Rotating Elements of the Dixie Magneto.

the field pieces and through the windings, without reversal through the mass of the rotating member and with only a single air gap. There are no losses by flux
to

reversal in the rotating part, such as take place in other

186

Aviation Engines

machines, and this is said to account for the high efficiency of the instrument.
involved in the operation a glance at the field strucsimplified by ture, consisting of the non-magnetic rings, assembled to which are the field pieces between which the rotating poles revolve (see Fig. 68). Eotating between the limbs of the magnets, these two pieces of magnetic material form true extensions to the poles of the magnets,
Principle
of the Dixie
is

And

this

"Mason

''

always of the no reversal of through them, and consequently no eddy teresis losses which are present in the
It

and

are, in consequence, will be seen there is

the

same polarity. magnetism

current or hysusual rotor or inductor types. The simplicity features of construction stand out prominently here, in that there are no revolving

windings, a detail entirely differing from the orthodox This simplicity becomes inhigh-tension instrument. when it is found that the circuit breaker, stantly apparent instead of revolving as it does in other types, is stationary

and that the whole breaker mechanism

the

is

cover.

spring simply turning This makes inspection and adjustment particu-

cover

aside

exposed by and removing

larly simple,

and the fact that no special tool is necesfor adjustment of the platinum points an ordinary sary small screw-driver is the whole "kit of tools" needed in

the

work of disassembling or assembling is a feature of some value. With dust- and water-protecting casing removed, and one of the magnets withdrawn, as in Fig. 69, the winding can be seen with its core resting on the field pole pieces and the primary lead attached to its side. An important feature of the high-tension winding is that the heads are of insulating material, and there is not the tendency for
the high-tension current to

jump

to the side as in the

ordinary armature type magneto.

rent

is carried to the distributor block with a spindle, at one end of which is a spring brush bearing directly on the winding, thus shortening

The high-tension curmeans of an insulated by

Dixie Ignition Magneto

187

the path -of the high-tension current and eliminating the use of rubber spools and insulating parts. The moving parts of the magneto need never be disturbed if the high-

tension winding

is

to be

removed.

This winding con-

Distributor

Cover
Terminals,
to

.''Cover Retaining

Screws

Plugs
\

Contact

\
Tension

Box

Winding

-Cover

The whole breaker mechanism is exposed by simply turning the cover spring aside and removing cover. A screw driver is the only tool necessary to adjust the platinum points.

rng
After removing the cover the magnets can be taken off-exposing the high iension winding.

Distributor

Drive Gear
Distributor Cover
\.

;'

Teasion

Distributor

Brush
Carrier,

Condenser.

Nothing could be simpler than Dixie construction. By loosening nuts and turning clamps aside, the distributor block can be

By taking out four screws the condenser and high tension winding can be readily removed.

removed and distributor disc out of its housing.

Fig. 69.

lifted
AG.HSSTROM
N.1

Suggestions for Adjusting and Dismantling Dixie Magneto. Screw Driver Adjusts Contact Points. B Distributor Block Removed.

Taking off Magnets. D Showing Tension Windings are Removed.

How

Easily Condenser and High.

magneto windings, no external spark The condenser is placed directly being necessary. above the winding and is easily removable by taking out two screws, instead of being placed in an armature where it is inaccessible except to an expert, and where it cannot be replaced except at the factory whence it emanated.
stitutes all of the
coil

188

Aviation Engines
CARE OF THE DIXIE MAGNETO

The bearings of the magneto are provided with oil cups and a few drops of light oil every 1,000 miles are sufficient. The breaker lever should be lubricated every
1,000 miles with a drop of light
pick.
oil,

applied with a tooth.020 or one-fiftieth of

The proper distance between the platinum points

when separated should not exceed

an

inch. gauge of the proper size is attached to the screwdriver furnished with the magneto. The platinum contacts should be kept clean and properly adjusted. Should the contacts become pitted, a fine file should be used to smooth them in order to permit them to come The distributor block should be into perfect contact. removed occasionally and inspected for an accumulation of carbon dust. The inside of the distributor block should be cleaned with a cloth moistened with gasoline and then wiped dry with a clean cloth. When replacing the block, care must be exercised in pushing the carbon brush into the socket. Do not pull out the carbon brushes in the distributor because you think there is not enough tension on the small brass springs. In order to obtain the most
results, the normal setting of the spark-plug should not exceed .025 of an inch, and it is adpoints visable to have the gap just right before a spark-plug is
efficient

inserted.

The spark-plug

electrodes

may

be easily set by means

The setting of the gauge attached to the screwdriver. of the spark-plug points is an important function ivhich is usually overlooked, with the result that the magneto
is

blamed when

it is

not at fault.

TIMING OF THE DIXIE MAGNETO

In order to obtain the utmost efficiency from the enThis gine, the magneto must be correctly timed to it.
operation is usually performed when the magneto is fitted The correct setting may to the engine at the factory. to individuality of the engine, and some vary according

Timing of

.the

Dixie Magneto

189

190

Aviation Engines

engines may require an earlier setting in order to obtain the best results. However, should the occasion arise to

retime the magneto, the procedure is as follows: Kotate the crank-shaft of the engine until one of the pistons, preferably that of cylinder No. 1, is Me of an inch ahead
of the end of the compression stroke.

With

the timing

lever in full retard position, the driving shaft of the magneto should be rotated in the direction in which it
will

be driven. The circuit breaker should be closely observed and when the platinum contact points are about to separate, the drive gear or coupling should be secured Care should be taken to the drive shaft of the magneto.
not
position of the magneto shaft when tightening the nut to secure the gear or coupling, after which the magneto should be secured to its base. Reto

alter

the

move

the distributor block and determine which terminal of the block is in contact with the carbon brush of the

distributor finger and connect with plug wire leading to No. 1 cylinder to this terminal. Connect the remaining

plug wires in turn according to the proper sequence of (See the wiring diagram for a firing of the cylinders. A terminal on typical six-cylinder engine at Fig. 70.) the end of the cover spring of the magneto is provided for the purpose of connecting the wire leading to a ground switch for stopping the engine. special model or type of magneto is made for V engines which use a compound distributor construction instead of the simple type on the model illustrated

and a different

interior arrangement permits the production of four sparks per revolution of the rotors. This makes it possible to run the magneto slower than would The application be possible with the two-spark form. of two compound distributor magnetos of this type to a Thomas-Morse 135 horse-power motor of the eight-cylin-

der

V pattern

is

clearly

shown

at Fig. 71.

191

192

Aviation Engines
SPARK-PLUG DESIGN AND APPLICATION

the high-tension system of ignition the spark is produced by a current of high voltage jumping between

With

two points which break the complete

exist

circuit,

which would

otherwise in the secondary coil and its external The spark-plug is a simple device which connections.

Air Starter

\Pipe$

Water

Pump

\
->

Ignition Cables

Ignition r^^in bles

Compound
Distributor

Compound
Distributor

Magneto

Maqneto

Oil

Pump

Fig. 71.

How Magneto

Ignition

is

Installed on

Thomas-Morse 135 Horse-

Power Motor.

Spark-Plug Design and Application

193

consists of two terminal electrodes carried in a suitable

member, which is screwed into the cylinder. Typical spark-plugs are shown in section at Fig. 72 and the construction can be easily understood. The secondary wire from the coil is attached to a terminal at the top of a central electrode member, which is supported in a bushing of some form of insulating material. The type shown at A employs a molded porcelain as an insulator, while that depicted at B uses a bushing of mica. The
shell

Asbestos

Packing

"I <ff
*3f

Standard Thread
Solid Nickel

Hod

Spark

PoMt

Fig. 72.

Spark-Plug Types Showing Construction and Arrangement

of Parts.

insulating bushing

and electrode are housed

in a steel

body, which is provided with a screw thread at the bottom, by which means it is screwed into the combustion chamber. When porcelain is used as an insulating material it is kept from direct contact with the metal portion by some form of yielding packing, usually asbestos. This is nec-

essary because the steel and porcelain have different coefficients of expansion and some flexibility must be provided at the joints to permit the materials to expand
differently

when

heated.

The

steel

body of the plug which

is screwed into the cylinder is in metallic contact with it and carries sparking points which form one of the ter-

minals of the air gap over which the spark occurs.

The

194

Aviation Engines

current entering at the top of the plug cannot reach the ground, which is represented by the metal portion of the engine, until it has traversed the full length of the central

electrode
it

between

and overcome the resistance of the gap and the terminal point on the shell. The
is

porcelain bushing

firmly seated against the asbestos

packing by means of a brass screw gland which sets against a flange formed on the porcelain, and which
screws into a thread at the upper portion of the plug body. The mica plug shown at B is somewhat simpler in construction than that shown at A. The mica core which

keeps the central electrode separated from the steel body is composed of several layers of pure sheet mica wound around the steel rod longitudinally, and hundreds of stamped steel washers which are forced over this member and compacted under high pressure with some form of a binding material between them. Porcelain insulators are
usually molded from high-grade clay and are approximately of the shapes desired by the designers of the plug.

The central electrode may be held in place by mechanical means such as nuts, packings, and a shoulder on the rod, Another method sometimes used is to as shown at A. cement the electrode in place by means of some form of Whatever method of fastening is used, fire-clay cement.
it is

imperative that the joints be absolutely tight so that

no gas can escape at the time of explosion. Porcelain is the material most widely used because it can be glazed eo that it will not absorb oil, and it is subjected to such
high temperature in baking that
it is

not liable to crack

when heated. The spark-plugs may be screwed

of the

into

any convenient

combustion chamber, the general practice part to install them in the caps over the inlet valves, being or in the side of the combustion chamber, so the points will be directly in the path of the entering fresh gases

from the carburetor.

Other insulating materials sometimes used are glass,

Spark-Plug Design and Use

195

steatite (which is a form of soapstone) and lava. Mica and porcelain are the two common materials used because

they give the best results. Glass is liable to crack, while lava or the soapstone insulating bushings absorb oil. The spark gap of the average plug is equal to about %2 of an inch for coil ignition and %o of an inch when

used in magneto circuits. A simple gauge for determining the gap setting is the thickness of an ordinary visiting

23/4" Max.

70

mm-

#8-32
.

4mm. 75p.)

\.

Across Flats
16.9 Threads

per inch : 1.5 millimeters pitch Root diameter 633 inch.: 16.09 millimeters Pitch diameter 678* inch : 17.22 +02 millimeters Outside diameter 7/7 inch 18. 2 millimeters
Fig. 73.

Standard Airplane Engine Plug Suggested Committee.

"by S.

A. E. Standards

card for magneto plugs, or a space equal to the thickness of a worn dime for a coil plug. The insulating bushings are made in a number of different ways, and while details of construction vary, spark-plugs do not differ essentially in design. The dimensions of the standardized plug recommended by the S. A. E. are shown at Fig. 73. It is often desirable to have a water-tight joint between the high-tension cable and the terminal screw on
top of the insulating bushing of the spark-plug, especially
in marine applications.

The plug shown

at C, Fig. 72,

196
is

Aviation Engines

provided with an insulating member or hood of porcewhich is secured by a clip in such a manner that it makes a water-tight connection. Should the porcelain of a conventional form of plug become covered with water or dirty oil, the high-tension current is apt to run down this conducting material on the porcelain and reach the ground without having to complete its circuit by jumping the air gap and producing a spark. It will be evident that wherever a plug is exposed to the elements, which is often the case in airplane service, that it should be protected by an insulating hood which will keep
lain,

the insulator spark.

dry and prevent short circuiting of the The same end can be attained by slipping an

ordinary rubber nipple over the porcelain insulator of any conventional plug and bringing up one end over the
cable.

TWO-SPARK IGNITION

On most
cylinders,

it

aviation engines, especially those having large is sometimes difficult to secure complete

combustion by using a single-spark plug. If the comis not rapid the efficiency of the engine will be reduced proportionately. The compressed charge in the cylinder does not ignite all at once or instantaneously, as many assume, but it is the strata of gas nearest the This in turn sets fire to plug which is. ignited first.
bustion
consecutive layers of the charge until the entire mass is aflame. One may compare the combustion of gas in the gas-engine cylinder to the phenomenon which obtains

when a heavy

object is

First a small circle is has passed into the water, this

thrown into a pool of still water. seen at the point where the object

circle in turn inducing other and larger circles until the whole surface of the pool has been agitated from the .one central point. The

method of igniting the gas

ignites

the

circle

of

very similar, as the spark gas immediately adjacent to the

is

sparking point, and this circle in turn ignites a little larger one concentric with it. The second circle of flame

Two- Spark
sets fire to

Ignition

197

and finally the entire contents of the combustion chamber are burning. While ordinarily combustion is sufficiently rapid with
of the gas,

more

a single plug so that the proper explosion is obtained at moderate engine speeds, if the engine is working fast and the cylinders are of large capacity more power may be obtained by setting fire to the mixture at two different points instead of but one. This may be accomplished by
using two sparking-plugs in the cylinder instead of one, and experiments have shown that it is possible to gain from twenty-five to thirty per cent, in motor power at high speed with two-spark plugs, because the combustion of gas is accelerated by igniting the gas simultaneously in two places. The double-plug system on airplane enis also a safeguard, as in event of failure of one gines plug in the cylinder the other would continue to fire the gas, and the engine will continue to function properly. In using magneto ignition some precautions are necessary relating to wiring and also the character of the sparkplugs employed. The conductor should be of good quality, have ample insulation, and be well protected from accumulations of oil, which would tend to decompose rubber
insulation.

ning it with insulating material. Multiple strand cables should be used for both primary and secondary wiring, and the insulation should be of rubber at least %6 inch thick. The spark-plugs commonly used for battery and coil ignition cannot always be employed when a magneto is fitted. The current produced by the mechanical generator has a greater amperage and more heat value than that obtained from transformer coils excited by battery curThe greater heat may burn or fuse the slender rent. used on some battery plugs and heavier electrodes points
are needed to resist the heating effect of the more intense arc. While the current has greater amperage it is not of as high potential or voltage as that commonly produced by the secondary winding of an induction coil, and it

customary to protect the wiring by runthrough the conduits of fiber or metal tubing lined
It is

198

Aviation Engines

cannot overcome as much of a gap. Manufacturers of magneto plugs usually set the spark points about %4 of an inch apart. The most efficient magneto plug has a plurality of points so that when the distance between one set becomes too great the spark will take place between

p..

Fig. 74.

Special

Mica Plug for Aviation Engines.

one of the other pairs of electrodes which are not separated by so great an air space.
SPECIAL PLUGS FOR AIRPLANE

WORK

Airplane work

calls for special construction of spark-

plugs, owing to the high compression used in the engines and the fact that they are operated on open throttle practically all the time, thus causing a great deal of heat to

Special Airplane Engine Plugs

199

be developed. The plug shown at Fig. 74 was recently described in "The Automobile," and has been devised especially for airplane engines and automobile racing power plants. The core C is built up of mica washers,

and has square shoulders. As mica washers of different sizes may be used, and accurate machining, such as is necessary with conical clamping surfaces, is not required, the plug can be produced economically. The square shoulders of the core afford two gasket seats, and when the core is clamped in the shell by means of check nut E, it is accurately centered and a tight joint is formed. This construction also makes a shorter plug than where conical fits are used, thus improving the heat radiation through the stem. The lower end of the shell is provided with a baffle plate 0, which tends to keep the oil away from the mica. There are perforations L in this baffle plate to prevent burnt gases being pocketed behind the baffle plate and pre-igniting the new charge. This construction also brings the firing point out into the firing chamber of the engine, and has all the other advantages of a closed-end plug. The stem P is made of brass or copper, on account of their superior heat conductivity, and the electrode J is swedged into the bottom of the stem, as shown at K, in a secure manner. The shell is finned, as shown at G, to provide greater heat radiating surface. There is also a fin F at the top of the stem, to increase the radiation of heat from the

stem and electrode.

slightly

The top of this finned portion is and the stem is riveted into same, countersunk,

thereby reducing the possibility of leakage past the threads on the stem. This finned portion is necked at A to take a slip terminal. In building up the core a small section of washers, I, is built up before the mica insulating tube D is placed on. This construction gives a better support to section L is bored out to allow the electrode J to Baffle plate
pass through, and the clearance between baffle plate and electrode is made larger than the width of the gap be-

200
tween the

Aviation Engines

firing points, so that there is no danger of the spark jumping from the electrode to the baffle plate. This plug will be furnished either with or without the

meet individual requirements. The manufacturers lay special stress upon the simplicity of construction and upon the method of clamping, which is
finned
portion,
to

claimed to make the plug absolutely gas-tight.

CHAPTER
Why
tion

VII

Lubrication Is Necessary Friction Defined Theory of LubricaDerivation of Lubricants Properties of Cylinder Oils Factors Influencing Lubrication System Selection Gnome Type Engines Use Castor Oil Hall-Scott Lubrication System Oil Supply by Constant Level Splash System Dry Crank-Case System Best

Engines Why Cooling Systems Are Necessary Cooling Systems Generally Applied Cooling by Positive Pump Circulation Thermo-Syphon System Direct Air-Cooling Methods Air-Cooled Engine Design Considerations.
for Airplane

WHY

LUBRICATION

IS

NECESSARY

of minimizing friction at the various bearing surfaces of machines to secure mechanical effi-

THE importance

ciency is fully recognized by all mechanics, and proper lubricity of all parts of the mechanism is a very essential factor upon which the durability and successful operation

motor car power plant depends. All of the moving of the engine which are in contact with other whether the motion is continuous or intermitportions, tent, of high or low velocity, or of rectilinear or continued rotary nature, should be provided with an adequate supply of oil. No other assemblage of mechanism is operated under conditions which are so much to its disadvantage as the motor car, and the tendency is toward a simplification of oiling methods so that the supply will be ample and automatically applied to the points needing it. In all machinery in motion the members which are in contact have a tendency to stick to each other, and the very minute projections which exist on even the smoothest of surfaces would have a tendency to cling or adhere to each other if the surfaces were not kept apart by some This will flow or spread elastic and unctuous substance. out over the surfaces and smooth out the inequalities
of the

members

'

201

202

Aviation Engines

ing which tend to produce heat and retard motion of the pieces relative to each other.

general impression which obtains is that well machined surfaces are smooth, but while they are apparently free from roughness, and no projections are visible to the naked eye, any smooth bearing surface, even if very carefully ground, will have a rough appearance if examined with a magnifying glass. An exaggerated condition to
illustrate this point is shown at Fig. 75. The amount of friction will vary in proportion to the pressure on the surfaces in contact and will augment as the loads in-

crease; the rougher surfaces will have more friction than smoother ones and soft bodies will produce more friction

than hard substances.

FRICTION DEFINED
Friction
is

always present in any mechanism as a

re-

sisting force that tends to retard motion and bring all moving parts to a state of rest. The absorption of power

by

friction

may

be gauged by the amount of heat which

Friction of solids may be exists at the bearing points. divided into two classes: sliding friction, such as exists

between the piston and cylinder, or the bearings of a gas-engine, and rolling friction, which is that present

when

the load is supported by ball or roller bearings, or that which exists between the tires or the driving wheels and the road. Engineers endeavor to keep friction losses

as low as possible, and

much

care

is

taken in

all

modern

airplane engines to provide adequate methods of lubrication, or anti-friction bearings at all points where considerable friction exists.

THEORY OF LUBRICATION
lubricant is supplied to bearing points be easily understood if one considers that these elastic substances flow between the close fitting surfaces, and fcy filling up the minute depressions in the surfaces and covering the high spots act as a cushion which

The reason a

will

Theory of Lubrication

203

absorbs the heat generated and takes the wear instead of the metallic bearing surface. The closer the parts fit together the more fluid the lubricant must be to pass between their surfaces, and at the same time it must possess sufficient body so that it will not be entirely forced out by the pressure existing between the parts. Oils should have good adhesive, as well as cohesive, The former are necessary so that the oil film qualities.

Pillow Block

Magnified Shaft

Magnifying Glass

Fig. 75.

Showing Use of Magnifying Glass to Demonstrate that Apparently Smooth Metal Surfaces May Have Minute Irregularities which Produce
Friction.

will cling well to the surfaces of the bearings; the latter, so the oil particles will cling together and resist the ten-

dency to separation which exists all the time the bearings are in operation. When used for gas-engine lubrication the oil should be capable of withstanding considerable heat in order that it will not be vaporized by the hot porIt should have sufficient cold test tions of the cylinder. so that it will remain fluid and flow readily at low temperature. Lubricants should be free from acid, or alka-

204
lies,

Aviation Engines

which tend to produce a chemical action with metals and result in corrosion of the parts to which they are
applied.
It
is

imperative that the

oil

be exactly the

proper quality and nature for the' purpose intended and that it be applied in a positive manner. The requirements may be briefly summarized as follows First It must have sufficient body to prevent seizing of the parts to which it is applied and between which it is depended upon to maintain an elastic film, and yet it must not have too much viscosity, in order to minimize the internal or fluid friction which exists between the
:

particles of the lubricant itself. Second The lubricant must not coagulate or gum; must not injure the parts to which it is applied, either by

chemical action or by producing injurious deposits, and it should not evaporate readily. Third The character of the work will demand that the oil should not vaporize when heated or thicken to such a point that it will not flow readily when cold. Fourth The oil must be free from acid, alkalies, animal or vegetable fillers, or other injurious agencies. Fifth It must be carefully selected for the work required and should be a good conductor of heat.
DERIVATION OF LUBRICANTS
first oils which were used for lubricating machinwere obtained from animal and vegetable sources, ery though at the present time most unguents are of mineral

The

derivation.
solids.

Lubricants

may

exist as fluids, semifluids, or

vary from light spindle or which have but little more body than kerodynamo oils, sene, to the heaviest greases and tallows. The most common solid employed as a lubricant is graphite, sometimes termed " plumbago" or " black lead." This substance is of mineral derivation.

The

viscosity will

The disadvantage of oils of organic origin, such as those obtained from animal fats or vegetable substances, is that they will absorb oxygen from the atmosphere,

Derivation of Lubricants

205

which causes them to thicken or become rancid. Such oils have a very poor cold test, as they solidify at comparatively high temperatures, and their flashing point is so low that they cannot be used at points where much heat exists. In most animal oils various acids are present in greater or less quantities, and for this reason they are not well adapted for lubricating metallic surfaces which
be raised high enough in temperature to cause decomposition of the oils. Lubricants derived from the crude petroleum are and they are a product of the called Oleonaphthas

may

' '

' '

process of refining petroleum through which gasoline and kerosene are obtained. They are of lower cost than vegetable or animal oil, and as they are of non-organic origin, they do not become rancid or gummy by constant exposure to the air, and they will have no corrosive action on metals because they contain no deleterious substances in chemical composition. By the process of fractional distillation mineral oils of all grades can be obtained. They have a lower cold and higher flash test and there is not the liability of spontaneous combustion that exists with animal oils. The organic oils are derived from fatty substances, which are present in the bodies of all animals and in

some portions of plants. The general method of extracting oil from animal bodies is by a rendering process, which consists of applying sufficient heat to liquefy the oil and then separating it from the tissue with which it is combined by compression. The only oil which is used
to any extent in gas-engine lubrication that is not of mineral derivation is castor oil. This substance has been used on high-speed racing automobile engines and on airplane power plants. It is obtained from the seeds of the castor plant, which contain a large percentage of oil. Among the solid substances which may be used for lubricating purposes may be mentioned tallow, which is obtained from the fat of animals, and graphite and soapTallow is never stone, which are of mineral derivation.

206

Aviation Engines

used at points where it will be exposed to much heat, though it is often employed as a filler for greases used in transmission gearing of autos. Graphite is sometimes mixed with oil and applied to cylinder lubrication, though it is most often used in connection with greases in the
landing gear parts and for coating wires and cables of the airplane. Graphite is not affected by heat, cold, acids, or alkalies, and has a strong attraction for metal surfaces. It mixes readily with oils and greases and increases their It is sometimes used efficiency in many applications. where it would not be possible to use other lubricants because of extremes of temperature. The oils used for cylinder lubrication are obtained almost exclusively from crude petroleum derived from American wells. Special care must be taken in the selection of crude material, as every variety will not yield oil of the proper quality to be used as a cylinder lubricant. The crude petroleum is distilled as rapidly as possible with fire heat to vaporize off the naphthas and the burning oils. After these vapors have been given off superheated steam is provided to assist in distilling. When enough of the light elements have been eliminated the residue is drawn off, passed through a strainer to free it from grit and earthy matters, and is afterwards cooled to separate the wax from it. This is the dark cylinder oil

and

is

the grade usually used for steam-engine cylinders.

PROPERTIES OF CYLINDER OILS

The oil that is to be used in the gasoline engine must be of high quality, and for that reason the best grades are distilled in a vacuum that the light distillates may be separated at much lower temperatures than ordinary
If the degree of heat conditions of distilling permit. is not high the product is not so apt to decompose and deposit carbon. If it is desired 'to remove the color of the oil which is caused by free carbon and other impurities
it

can be accomplished by

filtering the oil

through char-

coal.

The greater the number

of times the oil is filtered,

Properties of 'Cylinder Oils

the lighter
oils
it

207

will

become in

color.

The best cylinder

have

and

flash points usually in excess of 500 degrees F., while they have a high degree of viscosity at 100

degrees F. they become more fluid as the temperature

increases.

The lubricating oils obtained by refining crude petroleum may be divided into three classes: First The natural oils of great body which are prepared for use by allowing the crude material to settle in tanks at high temperature and from which the impurities are removed by natural filtration. These oils are given the necessary body and are free from the volatile substances they contain by means of superheated steam which provides a source of heat. Second Another grade of these natural oils which are filtered again at high temperatures and under pressure through beds of animal charcoal to improve their color. Third Pale, limpid oils, obtained by distillation and subsequent chemical treatment from the residuum produced in refining petroleum to obtain the fuel oils. Authorities agree that any form of mixed oil in which animal and mineral lubricants are combined should never be used in the cylinder of a gas engine as the admixture
of the lubricants does not prevent the decomposition of the organic oil into the glycerides and fatty acids peculiar to the fat used. In a gas-engine cylinder the flame tends to produce more or less charring. The deposits of carbon

much greater with animal oils than with those derived from the petroleum base because the constituents of a fat or tallow are not of the same volatile character as those which comprise the hydro-carbon oils which will evaporate or volatilize before they char in most instances.
will be

FACTORS INFLUENCING LUBRICATION SYSTEM SELECTION

The
chiefly

suitability of oil for the

cation of all

proper and internal combustion engines

efficient lubriis

determined

by the following factors:

208
1. 2.

Aviation Engines

Type Type
the

of cooling system (operating temperatures). of lubricating system (method of applying

surfaces.

oil to
3.

moving parts). Eubbing speeds of contact

the

operating temperatures, bearing surface speeds and lubrication systems identical, a single oil could be used in all engines with equal satisfaction. The only change then necessary in viscosity would be that due
to climatic conditions.

Were

three grades of
all

oil

.As engines are now designed, only are necessary for the lubrication of

types with the exception of Knight, air-cooled and full load. In the specification of engine lubricants the feature of load carried by the engine should be carefully considered.

some engines which run continuously at

Full Load Engines.

1.

Marine.

2.
3.

Kacing automobile.
Aviation.

4.
5.

Farm
Some

tractor.

stationary.

Variable Load Engines.

1.

Pleasure automobile.

2.
3.

Commercial vehicle. Motor cycle.

4.

Some

stationary.

Of the forms outlined, the only one we have any immediate concern about is the airplane power plant. The Platt & Washburn Kenning Company, who have made a careful study of the lubrication problem as applied to 'all types of engines, have found a peculiar set
of conditions to apply to oiling high-speed constant-duty Modern airplane engines are or "full-load" engines. designed to operate continuously at a fairly uniform

high rotative speed and at full load over long periods of time. As a sequence to this heavy duty the operating

Lubricating Airplane Engines

209

temperatures are elevated. For the sake of extreme lightness in weight of all parts, very thin alloy steel aluminum or cast iron pistons are fitted and the temperature of
the thin piston heads
at

the

center reaches

anywhere

between 600

Fahr., as in automobile racing to such intense heat hydro-carbon engines. Freely exposed oils are partially "cracked" into light and heavy prod-

and 1,400

ucts or polymerized into solid hydro-carbons. From these facts it follows that only heavy mineral oils of low carbon residue and of the greatest chemical purity and stability

should be used to secure good lubrication.

In

all

cases

the oil should be sufficiently heavy to assure the highest horse-power and fuel and oil economy compatible with

perfect lubrication, avoiding, at the same time, carbonization and ignition failure. When aluminum pistons are used their superior heat-conducting properties aid materially in reducing the rate of oil destruction.

in flight

The extraordinary evolutions described by airplanes make it a matter of vital necessity to operate
all

engines inclined at

angles to the vertical as well as in

an upside-down
cating

position.

To meet

this

situation lubri-

systems have been elaborated so as to deliver an abundance of oil where needed and to eliminate posThis is done by applying a sible flooding of cylinders.' full force feed system, distributing oil under considerable
all working parts. Discharged through the the oil drains down to the suction side of a bearings, second pump located in the bottom of the base chamber. This pump being of greater capacity than the first pre-

pressure to

vents

accumulation of oil in the crank-case, and a separate oil reservoir-cooler, whence it flows back in rapid circulation to the pump feeding the
the
it

forces

to

bearings.
is

arrangement positive lubrication The lubrientirely independent of engine position. of the Thomas-Morse aviation engines, cating system which is shown at Fig. 76, is typical of current practice.
this

With

hi

PH

210

Gnome Type Engines Use

Castor Oil

211

GNOME TYPE ENGINES USE CASTOR

OIL

The construction and operation of rotative radial

cylinder engines introduce additional difficulties of lubrication to those already referred to and merit especial attention. Owing to the peculiar alimentation systems
of

Gnome type

air is

engines, atomized gasoline mixed with drawn through the hollow stationary crank-shaft

directly into the crank-case which it fills on the way to Therein lies the trouble. the cylinders. Hydrocarbon

are soon dissolved by the gasoline and washed off, leaving the bearing surfaces without adequate protection and exposed to instant wear and destruction. So castor
oils

resorted to as an indispensable but unfortunate compromise. Of vegetable origin, it leaves a much more bulky carbon deposit in the explosion chambers than
oil

is

does mineral oil and its great affinity for oxygen causes the formation of voluminous gummy deposit in the crankcase. Engines employing it need to be dismounted and thoroughly scraped out at frequent intervals. It is advisable to use only unblended chemically pure castor oil

by virtue of its insolubility in and second because its extra heavy body can gasoline
in rotative engines, first
resist the

high temperature of air-cooled cylinders.

HALL-SCOTT LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The

oiling

system of the Hall-Scott' type A-5 125

horse-power engine is clearly shown at Fig. 77. It is completely described in the instruction book issued by the company from which the following extracts are reproduced by permission. Crank-shaft, connecting rods and
other parts within the crank-case and cylinders are lubricated directly or indirectly by a force-feed oiling system. The cylinder walls and wrist pins are lubricated
all

by

spray thrown from the lower end of connecting rod bearings. This system is used only upon A-5 engines. Upon A-7a and A-5a engines a small tube supplies oil
oil

llflil

212

Hall- Scott Lubricating System

213

from connecting rod bearing directly upon the wrist pin. The oil is drawn from the strainer located at the lowest portion of the lower crank-case, forced around the main
intake manifold
to the
oil

jacket.

From

here

it

is

circulated

main distributing pipe located along the lower left hand side of upper crank-case. The oil is then forced
directly to the lower side of crank- shaft, through holes drilled in each main bearing cup. Leakage from these main bearings is caught in scuppers placed upon the

cheeks of the crank-shafts furnishing oil under pressure to the connecting rod bearings. A-7a and A-5a engines have small tubes leading from these bearings which convey the oil under pressure to the wrist pins. bi-pass located at the front end of the distributing oil pipe can be regulated to lessen or raise the pressure. By screwing the valve in, the pressure will raise and more oil will be forced to the bearings. By unscrewing,

pressure is reduced and less oil is fed. -A-7a and A-5a engines have oil relief valves located just off of the main oil pump in the lower crank-case. This regulates the pressure at all times so that in cold weather there will be no danger of bursting oil pipes due to excessive presIf it is found the oil pressure is not maintained sure. at a high enough level, inspect this valve. stronger will not allow the oil to bi-pass so freely, and spring consequently the pressure will be raised; a weaker spring will bi-pass more oil and reduce the oil pressure mateIndependent of the above-mentioned system, a rially. small, directly driven rotary oiler feeds oil to the base The supply of oil is furof each individual cylinder. nished by the main oil pump located in the lower crankcase. small sight-feed regulator is furnished to control the supply of oil from this oiler. This instrument should

be placed higher than the auxiliary oil distributor itself to enable the oil to drain by gravity feed to the oiler. If there is no available place with the necessary height in the front seat of plane, connect it directly to the intake L fitting on the oiler in an upright position. It should

214
be regulated with

Aviation Engines
full

open throttle to maintain an oil level in the glass, approximately half way. An oil pressure gauge is provided. This should be run to the pilot's instrument board. The gauge registers the oil pressure upon the bearings, also determining its circulation. Strict watch should be maintained of this instrument by pilot, and if for any reason its hand should the motor should be immediately stopped and drop to the trouble found before restarting engine. Care should
be taken that the
as
it

oil

does not work up into the gauge,

will prevent

the correct gauge registering of oil

pressure. The oil pressure will vary according to weather conditions and viscosity of oil used. In normal weather, with the engine properly warmed up, the pressure will
register on the oil gauge

from 5

to 10

engine is turning from 1,275 to 1,300 r. not apply to all aviation engines, however,' as the proper pressure advised for the Curtiss 0X2 motor is from 40 to 55 pounds at the gauge. The oil sump plug is located at the lowest point of the lower crank-case. This is a combination dirt, water and sediment trap. It is easily removed by unscrewing. Oil is furnished mechanically to the cam-shaft housing under pressure through a small tube leading from the

pounds when the This does p. m.

main distributing pipe

at the

propeller end of engine

directly into the end of cam-shaft housing. The opposite end of this housing is amply relieved to allow the oil to rapidly flow down upon cam-shaft, magneto, pinionshaft,

and crank-shaft gears, after which

it

returns to
is

lower crank-case. An outside overflow pipe vided to carry away the surplus oil.
DRAINING OIL FROM: CRANK-CASE

also pro-

The
every

oil

lower crank-case.
five

strainer is placed at the lowest point of the This strainer should be removed after
to

hours running of the engine and It is also advisable cleaned thoroughly with gasoline. to squirt distillate up into the case through the opening
eight

Hall-Scott Oiling System

215

where the strainer has been removed.

tillate to

Allow

this dis-

drain out thoroughly before replacing the plug with strainer attached. Be sure gasket is in place on plug before replacing. Pour new oil in through either of the two breather pipes on exhaust side of motor. Be sure to replace strainer screens if removed. If,

through oversight, the engine does not receive sufficient lubrication and begins to heat or pound, it should be
After allowing engine to cool pour at least three gallons of oil into oil sump. Fill radiator with water after engine has cooled. Should there be the engine should be thoroughly inapparent damage, spected immediately without further running. If no obvious damage has been done, the engine should be given a careful examination at the earliest opportunity to see that the running without oil has not burned the bearings or caused other trouble. Oils best adapted for Hall-Scott engines have the following properties: A flash test of not less than 400 F. viscosity of not less than 75 to 85 taken at 20 F. with Saybolt's Universal Viscosimeter. Zeroline heavy duty oil, manufactured by the Standard
stopped immediately.
;

Oil

Company

of California; also,

Gargoyle mobile Oil Company, both

world.

oil,

manufactured by the Vacuum

the above specifications.
all

fulfill

One

or the other of these oils can be obtained

over the

Monogram

extra heavy

is

also

recommended.

OIL SUPPLY BY CONSTANT LEVEL SPLASH SYSTEM

The splash system of lubrication that depends on the

connecting rod to distribute the lubricant is one of the most successful and simplest forms for simple four- and six-cylinder vertical automobile engines, but is not as well adapted to the oiling of airplane power plants for

reasons previously stated. If too much oil is supplied the surplus will work past the piston rings and into the

combustion chamber, where

it

will

burn and cause carbon

216

Aviation Engines

deposits. Too much oil will also cause an engine to smoke and an excess of lubricating oil is usually manifested by a bluish- white smoke issuing from the exhaust. A good method of maintaining a constant level of oil

for the successful application of the splash system is shown at Fig. 78. The engine base casting includes a separate chamber which serves as an oil container and which is below the level of oil in the crank-case. The
is drawn from the sump or oil container by of a positive oil pump which discharges directly into the engine case. The level is maintained by an overflow pipe which allows all excess lubricant to flow back

lubricant

means

into the oil container at the bottom of the cylinder. Before passing into the pump again the oil is strained or filtered by a screen of wire gauze and all foreign matter removed. Owing to the rapid circulation of the oil it may be used over and over again for quite a period
oil is introduced directly into the crankbreather pipe and the level is indicated by by a a rod carried by a float which rises when the container is replenished and falls when the available supply diminIt will be noted that with such system the only ishes. apparatus required besides the oil tank which is cast integral with the bottom of the crank-case is a suitable pump to maintain circulation of oil. This member is

of time.

The

case

always positively driven, either by means of universal coupling or direct gearing. As the entirely automatic in action, it will furnish supply of oil at all desired points, and it
are provided or needed.

shaft and

system is a positive cannot be

tampered with by the inexpert because no adjustments

DKY CRANK-CASE SYSTEM BEST FOR AIRPLANE ENGINES
In most airplane power plants it is considered desirable to supply the oil directly to the parts needing it by suitable leads instead of depending solely upon the distributing action of scoops on the connecting rod big ends. A system of this nature is shown at Fig. 77. The oil

Best Oiling System for Airplane

is

217

the normal

carried in the crank-case, as is common practice, but oil level is below the point where it will be

reached by the connecting rod. It is drawn from the crank-case by a plunger pump which directs it to a manifold leading directly to conductors which supply the main

Wafer Outfetr

WaterSpac&s

WaferSpaces

Geared 0// Pts/n/?

Fig. 78.

Sectional View of Typical Motor Showing Parts Needing Lubrication and Method of Applying Oil by Constant Level Splash System.
also

Note

Water Jacket and Spaces

for

Water

Circulation.

218
journals.

Aviation Engines

After the oil has been used on these points it drains back into the bottom of the crank-case. An excess is provided which is supplied to the connecting rod ends by passages drilled into the webs of the crank-shaft and
part
lines.

way

into
oil

the crank-pins as

shown by the dotted

The

which

is

present at the connecting rod

Oil Strainer.

Adjusting Valve.
Oil Filler.

Reservoir.

11

Pump.

Fig. 79.

Pressure Feed Oil-Supply* System of Airplane Power Plants has Many Good Features.

crank-pins is thrown off by centrifugal force and lubricates the cylinder walls and other internal parts. Keguscrews are provided so that the amount of oil lating supplied the different points may be regulated at will. relief check valve is installed to take care of excess

lubricant and to allow any oil that does not pass back into the pipe line to overflow or bi-pass into the main container.

A
in a

simple system of this nature is shown graphically phantom view of the crank-case at Fig. 79, in which

Why
is

Cooling Systems

Are Needed

219

the oil passages are made specially prominent. The oil taken from a reservoir at the bottom of the engine base by the usual form of gear oil pump and is supplied
to a

crank-case.

main feed manifold which extends the length of the Individual conductors lead to the five main which in turn supply the crank-pins by pasbearings,
sages drilled through the crank-shaft web. In this power plant the connecting rods are hollow section bronze castings and the passage through the center of the con-

rod serves to convey the lubricant from the crank-pins to the wrist-pins. The cylinder walls are oiled by the spray of lubricant thrown off the revolving cranknecting
shaft

by centrifugal

force.

Oil projection

by the dippers

on the connecting rod ends from constant level troughs is unequal upon the cylinder walls of the two-cylinder blocks of an eight- or twelve-cylinder V engine. This on one side of the engine, to under-lubrication, gives rise, and, on the other side, to over-lubrication, as shown at This applies to all modifications of splash Fig. 80, A.
lubricating systems. When a force-feed lubricating system is used, the oil, escaping past the cheeks of both ends of the crank-pin bearings, is thrown off at a tangent to the crank-pin
circle in all directions,

supplying the cylinders on both sides with an equal quantity of oil, as at Fig. 80, B.

WHY
ters that the

COOLING SYSTEMS ARE NECESSARY

The reader should understand from preceding chappower of an internal-combustion motor is obtained by the rapid combustion and consequent exThe operation in pansion of some inflammable gas. brief is that when air or any other gas or vapor is heated, it will expand and that if this gas is confined
which will not permit expansion, pressure will be exerted against all sides of the containing chamber. The more a gas is heated,- the more- pressure it will exert upon the walls of the combustion chamber it
in a space

220

Aviation Engines

Fig.

80.

Why

Pressure

Feed System

is

Best for Eight-Cylinder Vee

Airplane Engines.

Why
confines.

Cooling Systems are Needed

221

Pressure in a gas may be created by increasing its temperature and inversely heat may be created by pressure. When a gas is compressed its total volume is reduced and the temperature is augmented. The efficiency of any form of heat engine is determined by the power obtained from a certain fuel consumption. A definite amount of energy will be liberated in the form of heat when a pound of any fuel is burned. The efficiency of any heat engine is proportional to the power developed from a definite quantity of fuel with the least loss of thermal units. If the greater proportion of the heat units derived by burning the explosive mixture could be utilized in doing useful work, the efficiency of the gasoline engine would be greater than that of any other form of energizing power. There is a great loss of heat from various causes, among which can be
cited the reduction of pressure through cooling the and the loss of heat through the exhaust valves

motor

when

the burned gases are expelled from the cylinder. The loss through the water jacket of the average automobile power plant is over 50 per cent, of the total fuel

This means that more than half of the heat power are absorbed and dissipated the cooling water. Another 16 per cent, is lost through by the exhaust valve, and but 33% per cent, of the heat units do useful work. The great loss of heat through the cooling systems cannot be avoided, as some method must be provided to keep the temperature of the engine within proper bounds. It is apparent that the rapid combustion and continued series of explosions would soon heat the metal portions of the engine to a red heat if some means were not taken to conduct much of this heat away. The high temperature of the parts would burn the lubricating oil, even that of the best quality, and the piston and rings would expand to such a degree,
efficiency.

units available for

especially when deprived of oil, that they would seize in the cylinder. This would score the walls, and the friction

which ensued would tend to bind the parts so tightly

222

Aviation Engines

that the piston would stick, bearings would be burned out, the valves would warp, and the engine would soon

become inoperative. The best temperature to secure efficient operation is one on which considerable difference of opinion exists among engineers. The fact that the efficiency of an
engine
is

dependent upon the ratio of heat converted

Cylinder Walls 1 80 "to 550 Fahr.

c ,Heat of Explosion 2000 'to 3000

Fahr.

. '

Piston

Heads

300iolOOOFahr.

.Pision Walls
;

200to400Fahr

Crank Bearing
140 "to 250

Oil
,*'

/'

Fahr

Sump
Fig. 81.

Oil

90 to 200 Fahr/

Operating Temperatures of Automobile Engine Parts Useful as a Guide to Understand Airplane Power Plant Heat.

into

useful

work compared

to

that

generated by the

It is very explosion of the gas is an accepted fact. important that the engine should not get too hot, and on the other hand it is equally vital that the cylinders

be not robbed of too

much heat. The object of cylinder cooling is to keep the temperature of the cylinder below the danger point, but at the same time to have it as high as possible to secure maximum power from the
The usual operating temperatures
of

gas burned.

an

Cooling Systems Generally Applied

223

automobile engine are shown at Fig. 81, and this can be taken as an approximation of the temperatures apt to exist in an airplane engine of conventional design as well when at ground level or not very high in the air. The newer very high compression airplane engines in which compressions of eight or nine atmospheres are used, or about 125 pounds per square inch, will run considerably hotter than the temperatures indicated.

COOLING SYSTEMS GENERALLY APPLIED

There are two general systems of engine cooling in common use, that in which water is heated by the absorption of heat from the engine and then cooled by air, and the other method in which the air is directed onto the cylinder and absorbs the heat directly instead of through the medium of water. When the liquid is employed in cooling it is circulated through jackets which surround the cylinder casting and the water may be The one generally kept in motion by two methods. favored is to use a positive circulating pump of some form which is driven by the engine to keep the water
motion. The other system is to utilize a natural principle that heated water is lighter than cold liquid and that it will tend to rise to the top of the cylinder when it becomes heated to the proper temperature and cooled water takes its place at the bottom of the water
in
jacket.
tion.

Air-cooling methods may be by radiation or convecIn the former case the effective outer surface of the cylinder is increased by the addition of flanges

machined or cast thereon, and the air is depended on to rise from the cylinder as heated and be replaced by cooler air. This, of course, is found only on stationary
engines. When a positive air draught is directed against the cylinder by means of the propeller slip stream in an airplane, cooling is by convection and radiation both.

Sometimes the

air

draught

may

be directed against the

224
cylinder walls

Aviation Engines

by some form of jacket which

confines it

to the heated portions of the cylinder.

COOLING BY POSITIVE WATER CIRCULATION

typical water-cooling system in which a pump is depended upon to promote circulation of the cooling

The radiator is carliquid is shown at Figs. 82 and 83. ried at the front end of the fuselage in most cases, and serves as a combined water tank and cooler, but in some
cases
it

is

carried at the side of the engine, as in Fig.

.Outlet Pipes for

Hot Wafer
Filler

Centrifugal"

Centrifugal

Pump

Pump

Fig. 82.

Water Cooling of Salmson Seven-Cylinder Radial Airplane Engine.

84, or attached to the central portion of the aerofoil or wing structure. It is composed of an upper and lower

portion joined together by a series of pipes which may be round and provided with a series of fins to radiate the heat, or which may be flat in order to have the water

pass through in thin sheets and cool it more easily. Cellular or honeycomb coolers are composed of a large number of bent tubes which will expose a large area of surface to the cooling influence of the air draught forced

through the radiator either by the forward movement

of the vehicle or

by some type of

fan.

The

cellular

and

Cooling by Positive Circulation

flat

225

tube types have almost entirely displaced the flange tube radiators which were formerly popular because they cool the water more effectively, and may be made lighter

than the tubular radiator could be for engines of the

same capacity. The water

is

drawn from
is

radiator by the
fPU-Tracf-o/* Scre\

pump and

the lower header of the forced through -a manifold

'Radiator,
Filler Cafi
I

-Hot-Water P/pe.

Hose for
Flexible Connection

Pipe from

foPvmp

Pipe from

Bottom of Radiator to Water Pump

Lurrenr

ongerons
Engirt e. Bed

Fig.

83.

How Water

Cooling

System of Thomas Airplane Engine

is

Installed in Fuselage.

lower portion of the water jackets of the cylinder. becomes heated as it passes around the cylinder walls and combustion chambers and the hot water passes out of the top of the water jacket to the upper portion of the radiator. Here it is divided in thin streams and directed against comparatively cool metal which abstracts the heat from the water. As it becomes cooler it falls to the bottom of the radiator because its weight increases as the temperature becomes lower. By the time it reaches
to the
It

226

Aviation Engines

the lower tank of the radiator

so.

it has been cooled suffibe again passed around the cylinmay ciently The popular form of circulating ders of the motor. is known as the "centrifugal type" because a rotary pump impeller of paddle-wheel form throws water which it receives at a central point toward the outside and thus causes it to maintain a definite rate of circulation. The pump is always a separate appliance attached to the

that

it

Fig. 84.

Finned Tube Radiators at the Side of Hall-Scott Airplane Power Plant Installed in Standard Fuselage.

engine and driven by positive gearing or direct-shaft The centrifugal pump is not as positive as connection.
the gear form, and some manufacturers prefer the latter because of the positive pumping features. They are in form, consisting of a suitable cast body very simple in which a pair of spur pinions having large teeth are
carried.

and as

of these gears is driven by suitable means, turns the other member they maintain a flow The pump should alof water around the pump body. ways be installed in series with the water pipe which
it

One

Water

Circulation by Natural

System

227

conveys the cool liquid from the lower compartment of the radiator to the coolest portion of the water jacket.

WATER CIRCULATION BY NATURAL SYSTEM

Some automobile engineers contend that the rapid water circulation obtained by using a pump may cool
the cylinders too much,

and that the temperature of the

engine may be reduced so much that the efficiency will be lessened. For this reason there is a growing tendency to use the natural method of water circulation as the
cooling liquid is supplied to the cylinder jackets just below the boiling point, and the water issues from the
jacket at the top of the cylinder after it has absorbed sufficient heat to raise it just about to the boiling point. As the water becomes heated by contact with the hot

cylinder and combustion-chamber walls it rises to the top of the water ;jacket, flows to the cooler, where enough

become sensibly greater in weight. As the water becomes cooler, it falls to the bottom of the radiator and it is again supplied to the water jacket. The circulation is entirely automatic and continues as long as there is a difference in temperature between the liquid in the water spaces of the engine and that in the cooler. The circulation becomes brisker as the engine becomes hotter and thus the temperature of the cylinders is kept more nearly to a fixed
of the heat is absorbed to cause
it

to

point.
is

"With the thermosyphon system the cooling liquid nearly always at its boiling point, whereas if the cir-

culation is maintained
cooler at

by a pump the engine will become high speed and will heat up more at low speed.

With the thermosyphon, or natural system of cooling, more water must be carried than with the pump-maintained circulation methods. The water spaces around the cylinders should be larger, the inlet and discharge water manifolds should have greater capacity, and be free from sharp corners which might impede the flow. The radiator must also carry more water than the form
used in connection with the

pump

because of the brisker

228

Aviation Engines

pump
why

circulation which maintains the engine temperature at a lower point. Consideration of the above will show

the pump system is almost universally used connection with airplane power plant cooling.

in

DIRECT AIK-COOLING METHODS

The

earliest

of gas-engines

known method of cooling the cylinder was by means of a current of air passed

through a jacket which confined it close to the cylinder was used by Daimler on his first gas-engine. The gasoline engine of that time was not as efficient as the later form, and other conditions which materialized
walls and

by water. Even as became more and more perfected there gasoline engines has always existed a prejudice against air cooling, though many forms of engines have been used, both in automobile and aircraft applications where the air-cooling method

made

it

desirable to cool the engine

has proven to be very practical. The simplest system of air cooling is that in which the cylinders are provided with a series of flanges which
increase the effective radiating surface of the cylinder and directing an air current from a fan against the This increase in the availflanges to absorb the heat. able radiating surface of an air-cooled cylinder is neces-

sary because air does not absorb heat as readily as water and therefore more surface must be provided that the excess heat be absorbed sufficiently fast to prevent distortion of the cylinders. Air-cooling systems are based

on a law formulated by Newton, which is: "The rate for cooling for a body in a uniform current of air is directly proportional to the speed of the air current and the

amount
effect."

of

radiating

surface

exposed

to

the

cooling

AIR-COOLED ENGINE DESIGN"

CONSIDERATIONS

There are certain considerations which must be taken into account in designing an air-cooled engine, which are often overlooked in those forms cboled by water. Large

Air-Cooled Engines

229

valves must be provided to insure rapid expulsion of the flaming exhaust gas and also to admit promptly the fresh cool mixture from the carburetor. The valves of air-cooled engines are usually placed in the cylinderTracfor Screw
Air Cooled Flanged Cylinde.

Fig.

85.

Installed in Bleriot Monoplane. to Propeller Slip Stream.

Anzani Testing His Five-Cylinder Air Cooled Aviation Motor Note Exposure of Flanged Cylinders

head, in order to eliminate any pockets or sharp passages which would impede the flow of gas or retain some of the products of combustion and their heat. When high

power

is desired multiple-cylinder engines should be used, as there is a certain limit to the size of a successful

230

Aviation Engines

air-cooled cylinder. Much better results are secured from those having small cubical contents because the heat from small quantities of gas will be more quickly carried off

than from greater amounts. All successful engines of the aviation type which have been air-cooled have been
of the multiple-cylinder type. An air-cooled engine must be placed in .the fuselage, as at Fig. 85, in such a 'way that there will be a positive
it all the time that it is in current may be produced by the operation. tractor screw at the front end of the motor, or by a suction or blower fan attached to the crank-shaft as in the Eenault engine or by rotating the cylinders as in the

circulation of air

around

The

air

Le Khone and Gnome motors.

Greater care

is

required

in lubrication of the air-cooled cylinders and only the best quality of oil should be used to insure satisfactory oiling.

The combustion chambers must be proportioned

is

so

as uniform as possible in that distribution of metal order to prevent uneven expansion during increase in temperature and uneven contraction when the cylinder
is

cooled.

It

is

essential that the

inside walls

of the

combustion chamber be as smooth as possible because any sharp angle or projection may absorb sufficient heat to remain incandescent and cause trouble by igniting the mixture before the proper time. The best grades of cast iron or steel should be used in the cylinder and piston and the machine work must be done very accurately so the piston will operate with minimum friction in the The cylinder bore should not exceed 4% or 5 cylinder. inches and the compression pressure should never exceed 75 pounds absolute, or about five atmospheres,, or serious
overheating will result.

As an example of the care taken in disposing of the exhaust gases in order to obtain practical air-cooling, some cylinders are provided with a series of auxiliary exhaust ports uncovered by the piston when it reaches the end of its power stroke. The auxiliary exhaust ports open just as soon as the full force of the explosion has

Air-Cooling Methods

231

been spent and a portion of the flaming gases is discharged through the ports in the bottom of the cylinder. Less of the exhaust gases remains to be discharged through the regular exhaust member in the cylinder-head

and
as

this will not heat the walls of the cylinder nearly

much as the larger quantity of hot gas would. That the auxiliary exhaust port is of considerable value is conceded by many designers of fixed and fan-shaped aircooled motors for airplanes. Among the advantages stated for direct air cooling, the greatest is the elimination of cooling water and its cooling auxiliaries, which is a factor of some moment,
as
it

ratio of the engine, something

permits considerable reduction in horse-power-weight very much to be desired.

In the temperate zone, where the majority of airplanes are used, the weather conditions change in a very few months from the warm summer to the extreme cold winter, and when water-cooled systems are employed it is necessary to add some chemical substance to the water to prevent it from freezing. The substances commonly employed are glycerine, wood alcohol, or a saturated solution of calcium chloride. Alcohol has the disadvantage in that it vaporizes readily and must be often renewed. Glycerine affects the rubber hose, while the calcium chloride solution crystallizes and deposits salt in the radiator and water pipes.
of the disadvantages of an air-cooling method, as stated by those who do not favor this system, is that

One

engines cooled by air cannot be operated for extended periods under constant load or at very high speed without heating up to such a point that premature ignition of the charge may result. The water-cooling systems, at the other hand, maintain the temperature of the engine more nearly constant than is possible with an air-cooled motor, and an engine cooled by water can be operated under conditions of inferior lubrication or poor mixture adjustment that would seriously interfere with proper

and

efficient

cooling

by

air.

232

Aviation Engines

Air-cooled motors, as a rule, use less fuel than watercooled engines, because the higher temperature of the cylinder does not permit of a full charge of gas being
inspired on the intake stroke. As special care is needed in operating an air-cooled engine to obtain satisfactory results and because of the greater difficulty which obtains

and fuel mixturers which not produce undue heating, the air-cooled system has but few adherents at the present time, and practically all airplanes, with but very few exceptions, are provided with water-cooled .power plants. Those fitted with aircooled engines are usually short-flight types where maximum lightness is desired in order to obtain high speed The water-cooled engines are best and quick climb. suited for airplanes intended for long flights. The Gnome, Le Ehone and Clerget engines are thoroughly practical
in providing proper lubrication
will

and have been widely used in France and England. These are rotary radial cylinder types. The Anzani is a fixed cylinder engine used on training machines, while the Renault is a V-type engine made in eight- and twelvecylinder V forms that has been used on reconnaissance and bombing airplanes with success. These types will
be fully considered in proper sequence.

CHAPTER
Methods

VIII

of Cylinder Construction Block Castings Influence on Crank-Shaft Design Combustion Chamber Design Bore and Stroke Ratio Meaning of Piston Speed Advantage of Off-Set Cylinders Valve Location of Vital Import Valve Installation Practice Valve Design and Construction Valve Operation Methods of Driving Cam-Shaft Valve Springs Valve Timing Blowing Back Lead Given Exhaust Valve Exhaust Closing, Inlet Opening Time of Ignition How Closing the Inlet Valve an Engine Is Timed Gnome "Monosoupape" Valve Timing Four Valves per Cylinder. Springless Valves

THE improvements noted in the modern internal combustion motors have been due to many conditions. The continual experimenting by leading mechanical minds
could have but one ultimate result.

The parts of the

engines have been lightened and strengthened, and greater power has been obtained without increasing piston displacement. A careful study has been made of the many conditions which make for efficient motor action, and
principles are well recognized by all engineers is well shown by the standardization of design noted in modern power plants. There are many different

that the

main

methods of applying the same principle, and it will be the purpose of this chapter to define the ways in which the construction may be changed and still achieve the same results. The various components may exist in many different forms, and all have their advantages and disadvantages. That all methods are practical is best shown by the large number of successful engines which use
radically different designs.

METHODS OF CYLINDER CONSTRUCTION

One of the most important parts of the gasoline engine and one that has material bearing upon its effiThe cylinders may be cast ciency is the cylinder unit.
233

234

Aviation Engines

individually, or in pairs, and it is possible to make all cylinders a unit or block casting. Some typical methods of cylinder construction are shown in accompanying illus-

The appearance of individual cylinder castings ascertained by examination of the Hall-Scott may airplane engine. Air-cooled engine cylinders are always of the individual pattern.
trations.

be

Considered from a purely theoretical point of view, the individual cylinder casting has much in its favor. It is advanced that more uniform cooling is possible than where the cylinders are cast either in pairs or three or four in one casting. More uniform cooling insures that the expansion or change of form due to heating will be more equal. This is an important condition because the cylinder bore must remain true under all conditions of operation. If the heating effect is not uniform, which condition is liable to obtain if metal is not evenly distributed, the cylinder may become distorted by heat and the bore be out of truth. When separate cylinders are used it is possible to make a uniform water space and have the cooling liquid evenly distributed around the cylinder. In multiple cylinder castings this is not always
.

the rule, as in many instances, especially in four-cylinder block motors where compactness is the main feature, there is but little space between the cylinders for the passage

Under such circumstances the cooling effect not even, and the stresses which obtain because of unequal expansion may distort the cylinder to some When steel cylinders are made from forgings, extent. the water jackets are usually of copper or sheet steel
of water.
is

attached to the forging by autogenous welding; in the case of the latter and, in some cases, the former may be electro-deposited on the cylinders.

BLOCK CASTINGS

The advantage of casting the cylinders

that a motor

in blocks is

may

be

much

shorter than
It is

individual castings were used.

would be if admitted that when

it

Block Casting of Cylinders

235

the cylinders are cast together a more compact, rigid, and stronger power plant is obtained than when cast There is a disadvantage, however, in that separately.
if

one cylinder becomes damaged

it

will be necessary to

@
Viewed -from Top

'ocroo/ ooo'O

Fig. 86.

Views of Four-Cylinder Duesenberg Airplane Engine

Cylinder Block.

unit, which means scrapping three because one of the four has failed. When good cylinders the cylinders are cast separately one need only replace the one that has become damaged. The casting of four in one unit is made possible by improved cylinders

replace

the

entire

236

Aviation Engines

foundry methods, and when proper provision is made for holding the cores when the metal is poured and the cylinder casts are good, the construction is one of distinct merit. It is sometimes the case that the proportion of sound castings is less when cylinders are cast in "block, but if the proper precautions are observed in molding and the proper mixtures of cast iron used, the
ratio of defective castings is

no more than when cylinders

are molded individually. As an example of the courage of engineers in departing from old-established rules, the cylinder casting shown at Fig. 86 may be considered This is used on the Duesenberg four-cylinder typical. sixteen- valve 4%" x 7" engine which has a piston displacement of 496 cu. in. At a speed of 2,000 r.p.m.,

corresponding to a piston speed of 2,325 ft. per min., the The engine is guaranteed to develop 125 horse-power. weight of the model engine without gear reduction is 436 Ibs., but a number of refinements have been made in
the design whereby it is expected to get the weight down The four cylinders are cast from semi- steel to 390 Ibs. The cylinder in a single block, with integral heads. the same as that which has always Mr. Duesenberg, inlet and 'exhaust valves been used by being arranged horizontally opposite each other in the head. There are large openings in the water jacket at both sides and at the ends, which are closed by means

construction

is

of aluminum covers, water-tightness being secured by This results in a saving in weight the use of gaskets. because the aluminum covers can be made considerably lighter than it would be possible to cast the jacket walls,

and, besides, it permits of obtaining a more nearly uniform thickness of cylinder wall, as the cores can be much better supported. The cooling water passes completely around each cylinder, and there is a very con-

being made necessary

space between the two central cylinders, this in order to get the large bearing area desirable for the central bearing. It is common practice to cast the water jackets intesiderable

Advantage of Block Castings

237

gral with the cylinders, if cast iron or aluminum is used, and this is also the most economical method of applying
it

because

detail is

gives good results in practice. An important that the water spaces must be proportioned so
it

that they are equal around the cylinders whether these members are cast individually, in pairs, threes or fours.

When

cylinders are cast in block

form

it is

good practice

to leave a large opening in the jacket wall which will assist in supporting the core and make for uniform water

be noticed that the casting shown at Fig. 86 has a large opening in the side of the cylinder block. These openings are closed after the interior of the casting is thoroughly cleaned of all sand, core wire, etc., by brass, cast iron or aluminum plates. These also have particular value in that they may be removed after the motor has been in use, thus permitting one to clean out the interior
space.
It will

of the water jacket and dispose of the rust, sediment,, and incrustation which are always present after the engine has been in active service for a time. the advantages claimed for the practice of casting cylinders in blocks may be mentioned compactness, lightness, rigidity, simplicity of water piping, as well

Among

as permitting the use of simple forms of inlet and exhaust manifolds. The light weight is not only due- to the reduction of the cylinder mass but because the block construction permits one to lighten the entire motor. The fact
that all cylinders are cast together decreases vibration, and as the construction is very rigid, disalignment of

working parts

is

practically eliminated.

When

inlet

and

exhaust manifolds are cored in the block casting, as is sometimes the case, but one joint is needed on each of
these instead of the multiplicity of joints which obtain when the cylinders are individual castings. The water

piping is also simplified. In the case of a four-cylinder block motor but two pipes are used; one for the water to enter the cylinder jacket, the other for the cooling
liquid to discharge through.

238

Aviation Engines

INFLUENCE ON CRANK-SHAFT DESIGN

The method of casting the cylinders has a material influence on the design of the crank-shaft as will be shown When four cylinders are combined in proper sequence. in one block it is possible to use a two-bearing crank-shaft.

Where
shaft
is

cylinders are cast in pairs a three-bearing crankcommonly supplied, and when cylinders are cast
.Copper Asbestos Gasket

"'Cylinder Li/ier

<Aluminum Cylinder Pair Casting

'

.Cylinder

Head

Fig. 87.

Twin-Cylinder Block of Sturtevant Airplane Engine Aluminum, and Has Removable Cylinder Head.
it

is

Cast of

thought necessary to supply a five-bearing crank-shaft, though sometimes shafts having but three journals are used successfully. Obviously the shafts must be stronger and stiffer to withstand the stresses imposed if two supporting bearings are used than if a larger number are employed. In this connection it may be stated that there is less difficulty in securing alignment with a lesser number of bearings and there
is
is also less friction.

as individual units

On

the other hand, the greater the

still

number

of points of support a crank-shaft has the lighter

the webs can be

made and

have requisite strength.

Combustion Chamber Design

COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN

239

Another point of importance in the design of the cylinder, and one which has considerable influence upon the power developed, is the shape of the combustion chamber. The endeavor of designers is to obtain maximum power from a cylinder of certain proportions, and the greater
energy obtained without increasing piston displacement or fuel consumption the higher the efficiency of the motor. To prevent troubles due to pre-ignition it is necessary

Fig.

88.

Aluminum Cylinder Pair Casting of Thomas 150 Horse-Power Airplane Engine is of the L Head Type.

that the combustion

chamber be made

so that there will

be no roughness, sharp corners, or edges of metal which may remain incandescent when heated or which will serve to collect carbon deposits by providing a point of anchorWith the object of providing an absolutely clean age.

combustion chamber some makers use a separable head unit to their twin cylinder castings, such as shown at These permit one to machine the Fig. 87 and Fig. 88. of the cylinder and combustion chamber. entire interior The relation of valve location and combustion chamber These design will be considered in proper sequence.
as cylinders are cast of aluminum, instead of cast iron,

240
is

Aviation Engines

customary, and are provided with steel or cast iron cylinder liners forced in the soft metal casting bores. BORE AND STROKE RATIO
question that has been a vexed one and which has been the subject of considerable controversy is the proper proportion of the bore to the stroke. The early gas engines had a certain well-defined bore to stroke ratio, as it was usual at that time to make the stroke twice as long as the bore was wide, but this cannot be done when high
is desired. "With the development of the presentmotor the stroke or piston travel has been gradually day shortened so that the relative proportions of bore and stroke have become nearly equal. Of late there seems to

speed

be a tendency among designers to return to the proportions which formerly obtained, and the stroke is sometimes one and a half or one and three-quarter times the
bore.

Engines designed for high speed should have the stroke not much longer than the diameter of the bore. The disadvantage of short-stroke engines is that they will not pull well at low speeds, though they run with great reguThe long-stroke larity and smoothness at high velocity. engine is much superior for slow speed work, and it will pull steadily and with increasing power at low speed. It was formerly thought that such engines should never turn more than a moderate number of revolutions, in order not to exceed the safe piston speed of 1.000 feet per minute. This old theory or rule of practice has been discarded in designing high efficiency automobile racing

and aviation engines, and piston speeds from 2,500 to 3,000 feet per minute are sometimes used, though the average is around 2,000 feet per minute. While both short- and long-stroke motors have their advantages, it would seem desirable to average between the two. That is why a proportion of four to five or six seems to be more general than that of four to seven or eight, which would be a long-stroke ratio. Careful analysis of a num-

Meaning

of Piston

Speed

241

her of foreign aviation motors shows that the average stroke is about 1.2 times the bore dimensions, though some instances were noted where it was as high as 1.7 times the bore.

MEANING OF PISTON SPEED

The factor which

piston
is

limits

the

stroke

and makes the

the

speed of rotation so dependent

piston speed.

upon

the travel of the

Lubrication

is

main factor

which determines piston speed, and

'the

higher the rate

of piston travel the greater care, must be taken to insure proper oiling. Let us fully consider what is meant by

piston speed. Assume that a motor has a piston travel or stroke of six inches, for the sake of illustration. It would take two strokes of the piston to cover one foot, or twelve inches,

and as there are two strokes to a revolution it will be seen that this permits of a normal speed of 1,000 revolutions per minute for an engine with a six-inch stroke, if
one does not exceed 1,000 feet per minute. If the stroke was only four inches, a normal speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute would be possible without exceeding the prescribed limit. The crank-shaft of a small engine, having three-inch stroke, could turn at a speed of 2,000 revolutions per minute without danger of exceeding the safe speed limit. It will be' seen that the longer the stroke the slower the speed of the engine, if one desires to keep the piston speed within the bounds as recommended, but modern practice allows of greatly exceeding the speeds

formerly thought best.

ADVANTAGES OF OFF-SET CYLINDERS

Another point upon which considerable difference of opinion exists relates to the method of placing the cylinder upon the crank-case its center line i.e., whether
should be placed directly over the center of the crankThe motor shown at shaft, or to one side of center. Fig. 90 is an off-set type, in that the center line of the

242
cylinder
shaft.
is

Aviation Engines
a
little to

one side of the center of the crankare presented at Fig. 91 which show Diagrams the advantages of off-set crank-shaft construction. The

Rocker

Arm ----.

,'Laminctted Leaf

Spring
^,

Intake Valve

Exhaust

,.-Coirburetor

Exhaust Pipe -''

Push and
Pull

Rod

Applied Sheet"" Metal Water Jacket

"-Cylinder
Center Line.

Steel Cylinder-''

-Crank Shaft
Center Line

Fig. 90.

Construction.

Cross Section of Austro-Daimler Engine, Showing Offset Cylinder Note Applied Water Jacket and Peculiar Valve Action.

view at

a section through a simple motor with the conventional cylinder placing, the center line of both crank-shaft and cylinder coinciding. The view at B shows
is

Advantages of Offset Cylinders

243

the cylinder placed to one side of center so that its center line is distinct from that of the crank-shaft and at some

from it. The amount of off-set allowed is a point of contention, the usual amount being from fifteen to The advantages of twenty-five per cent, of the stroke. the off-set are shown at Fig. 91, C. If the crank turns
distance
MINI

mill

\i//7e of Side

Thrust Against Cylinder Wall, Which Increases

With Angularity of Connecting

Rod

Note Decreased Side Thrust Because of Letter Angle of Connecting Rod

Resistance to Motion Center Line of

Crank

Center Line of Cylinder

Fig. 91.

Diagrams Demonstrating Advantages of Offset Crank-Shaft

Construction.

in direction of the

arrow there

is

a certain resistance to

motion which

is proportional to the amount of energy exerted by the engine and the resistance offered by the There are two thrusts acting against the cylinder load. wall to be considered, that due to explosion or expansion of the gas, and that which resists the motion of the piston. These thrusts may be represented by arrows, one which acts directly in a vertical direction on the piston top, the

244

Aviation Engines

other along a straight line through the center of the connecting rod. Between these two thrusts one can draw a line representing a resultant force which serves to bring the piston in forcible contact with one side of the cylinder
wall, this being

the crank-shaft

and the

as side thrust. As shown at C, at 90 degrees, or about one-half stroke, The connecting rod is at 20 degrees angle.
is

known

shorter connecting rod would increase the diagonal resultant and side thrusts, while a longer one would reduce the angle of the connecting rod and the side thrust of
the piston would be less. With the off-set construction, as shown at D, it will be noticed that with the same con-

necting-rod length as shown at C and with the crankshaft at 90 degrees of the circle that the connecting-rod angle is 14 degrees and the side thrust is reduced proportionately.

Another important advantage is that greater efficiency obtained from the explosion with an off-set crank-shaft, because the crank is already inclined when the piston is at top center, and all the energy imparted to the piston by the burning mixture can be exerted directly into producing a useful turning effort. "When a cylinder is placed directly on a line with the crank-shaft, as shown at A, it will be evident that some of the force produced by the expansion of the gas will be exerted in a direct line and until the crank moves the crank throw and connecting rod are practically a solid member. The pressure which might be employed in obtaining useful turning effort is wasted by causing a direct pressure upon the lower half of the main bearing and the upper half of the crank-pin
is

bushing.

Very good and

easily understood illustrations

show-

ing advantages of the off-set construction are shown at E and F. This is a bicycle crank-hanger. It is advanced that the effort of the rider is not as well applied when the crank is at position E as when it is at position F.
Position

the cylinder

corresponds to the position of the parts when is placed directly over the crank-shaft center.

Valve Location Practice

Position

245
is

F may
when

be compared to the condition which

present

the off-set cylinder construction is used.

VALVE LOCATION OF VITAL IMPORT

It has often been said that a chain is no stronger than weakest link, and this is as true of the explosive motor as it is of any other piece of mechanism. Many motors which appeared to be excellently designed and which were well constructed did not prove satisfactory because some minor detail or part had not been properly considered by the designer. A factor having material bearing upon the efficiency of the internal combustion motor is the location of the valves and the shape of the combustion chamber which is largely influenced by their placing. The fundamental consideration of valve design is that the gases be admitted and discharged from the cylinder as quickly as possible in order that the speed of gas flow will not be impeded and produce back pressure. This is
its

imperative in obtaining satisfactory operation in any form of motor. If the inlet passages are constricted the cylinder will not fill with explosive mixture promptly, whereas if the exhaust gases are not fully expelled the parts of the inert products of combustion retained dilute the fresh charge, making it slow burning and causing lost

When an engine employs water as a cooling medium this substance will absorb the surplus heat readily, and the effects of overheating are not noticed as quickly as when air-cooled cylinders are emValve sizes have a decided bearing upon the ployed. of motors and some valve locations permit the speed use of larger members than do other positions.
power and overheating.
While piston velocity is an important factor in determinations of power output, it must be considered from the aspect of the wear produced upon the various parts, of the motor. It is evident that engines which run very
fast, especially of high power, must be under a greater strain than those operating at lower speeds. The valvemechanism is especially susceptible to the inoperating

246
fluence of rapid

Aviation Engines

longer the parts will valve action.

movement, and the slower the engine the wear and the more reliable the

be seen by reference to the accompanying illustration, Fig. 92, there are many ways in which valves may be placed in the cylinder. Each method outlined possesses some point of advantage, because all of the types
will

As

Fig. 92.

Diagram Showing Forms of Cylinder Demanded by Different Valve

Placings.

A T

Head Type, Valves on Opposite

Sides.

B L Head F

Cylinder, Valves Side by Side. C L Head Cylinder, One Valve in Head, Other in Pocket. D Inlet Valve Over Exhaust Member, Both in Side

Pocket.

E Valve-in-the-Head Type with Vertical Valves. Valves Placed to Open Directly into Combustion Chamber.

Inclined

Valve Location Practice

illustrated
turers.

247

are used by reputable automobile manufacThe method outlined at Fig. 92, A, is widely used, and because of its shape the cylinder is known as It is approved for automobile use for the "T" form. several reasons, the most important being that large valves can be employed and a well-balanced and symmet-

Two independent camcasting obtained. are needed, one operating the inlet valves, the The valve-operating mechother the exhaust members. anism can be very simple in form, consisting of a plunger
rical cylinder

shafts

actuated by the cam which transmits the cam motion to the valve-stem, raising the valve as the cam follower rides on the point of the cam. Piping may be placed without crowding, and larger manifolds can be fitted than This has special value, as in some other constructions. it permits the use of an adequate discharge pipe on the exhaust side with its obvious advantages. This method
gines
of cylinder construction is never found on airplane enbecause it does not permit of maximum power

output.

considered from a viewpoint of actual heat efficiency, it is theoretically the worst form of combustion chamber. This disadvantage is probably compensated for by uniformity of expansion of the cylinder
the other hand,
if

On

because of balanced design. The ignition spark-plug may be located directly over the inlet valve in the path of the incoming fresh gases, and both valves may be easily removed and inspected by unscrewing the valve caps without taking off the manifolds. The valve installation shown at C is somewhat unusual, though it provides for the use of valves of large diameter. Easy charging is insured because of the large inlet valve directly in the top of the cylinder. Conditions be reversed if necessary, and the gases discharged may through this large valve. Both methods are used, though it would seem that the free exhaust provided by allowing the gases to escape directly from the combustion chamber through the overhead valve to the exhaust manifold

248

Aviation Engines

would make for more power. The method outlined at Fig. 92, F and at Fig. 90 is one that has been widely employed on large automobile racing motors where extreme power is required as well as in engines constructed
for aviation service. The inclination of the valves permits the use of large valves, and these open directly into the combustion chamber. There are no pockets to retain heat or dead gas, and free intake and outlet of gas is obtained. This form is quite satisfactory from a theoretical point of view because of the almost ideal combustion chamber form. Some difficulty is experienced, however, in properly water-jacketing the valve chamber which experience has shown to be necessary if the engine is to
92, B and Fig. 88 employs of the "L" type. Both valves are placed in cylinders a common extension from the combustion chamber, and

have high power. The motor shown at Fig.

being located side by side both are actual from a common cam-shaft. The inlet and exhaust pipes may be placed on the same side of the engine and a very compact assemblage is obtained, though this is optional if passages are cored in the cylinder pairs to lead the gases to opposite sides. The valves may be easily removed if desired, and the construction is fairly good from the viewpoint of both foundry man and machinist. The chief disadvantage is the limited area of the valves and the loss of heat efficiency due to the pocket. This form of combustion chamber, however, is more efficient than the "T" head construction, though with the latter the use of larger valves probably compensates for the greater heat loss. It has been stated as an advantage of this construction that both manifolds can be placed at the same side of the engine and a compact assembly secured. On the other hand, the disadvantage may be cited that in order to put both pipes on the same side they must be of smaller size than can be used when the valves are
oppositely placed.

The

"L"

form cylinder
is

is

sometimes

made more

efficient if

but one valve

placed in the pocket

Valve Location Practice

249

This construction is while the other is placed over it. D and is found on Anzani motors. well shown 'at Fig. 92, The method of valve application shown at Fig. 87 is an ingenious method of overcoming some of the disad-

vantages inherent with valve-in-the-head motors.

first

In the

place

it

is possible to water-jacket the valves thor-

Rocker

Arm
Cap

Shaft
"

Valve Rocker Arm

Valve Si-em

Oil

Adjusting Ball

End-

Valve Spring

Lock Nu+

"Valve Cage Nut

Valve Cage

Packing Ring
Valve'

Cage

.Valve
Push Pod

Cylinder
Valve Lifter

6 ufde

Valve. Lifter

Connecting Rod

"

'

Cra n k S.ha ft

Fig.

93.

Sectional

View

of Engine Cylinder Showing Valve and Cage

Installation.

oughly, which

is

difficult

to

accomplish when they are

mounted

in cages. The water circulates directly around the walls of the valve chambers, which is superior to a

construction where separate cages are used, as there are two thicknesses of metal with the latter, that of the valve-

The cooling cage proper and the wall of the cylinder. medium is in contact only with the outer wall, and as there is always a loss of heat conductivity at a joint it

250

Aviation Engines

is practically impossible to keep the exhaust valves their seats at a uniform temperature. The valves

and

may

be of larger size without the use of pockets when seating In fact, they could be equal in directly in the head.

Fig. 94.

Diagrams Showing

How

Valves and Other Types. C Overhead Valve.

Gas Enters Cylinder Through Overhead Tee Head Cylinder. B L Head Cylinder.

diameter to almost half the bore of the cylinder, which provides an ideal condition of charge placement and exhaust. When valve grinding is necessary the entire head is easily removed by taking off six nuts and loosening inlet manifold connections, which operation would be necessary even if cages were employed, as in the
engine shown at Fig. 93.

Valve Location Practice

251

At

Fig. 94,

A and B,

shaped cylinder is a pocket construction is employed, in addition to its faculty for absorbing heat, the passage of gas would be impeded. For example, the inlet gas rushing in through the open valve would impinge sharply upon the valve-cap or combustion head directly over the valve and then must turn at a sharp angle to enter the combustion chamber

a section through a typical "L"-. depicted. It will be evident that where

Fig. 95.

Conventional Methods of Operating Internal Combustion Motor

Valves.

252

Aviation Engines

and then at another sharp angle to fill the cylinders. The same conditions apply to the exhaust gases, though they
are reversed. When the valve-in-the-head type of cylinder is employed, as at C, the only resistance offered the gas is in the manifold. As far as the passage of the gases in and out of the cylinder is concerned, ideal conditions obtain. It is claimed that valve.-in-the-head motors are more flexible and responsive than other forms, but the construction has the disadvantage in that the valves must be opened through a rather complicated system of push

Tig. 96.

Examples of Direct Valve Actuation "by Overhead Cam-Shaft, A Mercedes. B Hall-Scott. C Wisconsin.

rods and rocker arms instead of the simpler and direct plunger which can be used with either the "T" or "L"

head cylinders.

.This is clearly outlined in the illustrations at Fig. 95, where shows the valve in the headmechanism necessary if the cam-shaft is caroperating

ried at the cylinder base, while B shows the most direct push-rod action obtained with "T" or "L" head cylinder
placing.

met by carrying the camand driving it by means of shaft above the cylinders The types of engine cylinders using this congearing. struction are shown at Fig. 96, and it will be evident that a positive and direct valve action is possible by following the construction originated by the Mercedes (German)

The objection can be

easily

Valve Location Practice

253

Fig. 97.

CENSORED

254

Aviation Engines

Fig. 98.

CENSORED

forms at

aviation engine designers and outlined at A. The other B and C are very clearly adaptations of this

The Hall-Scott engine at Fig. 97 is depicted in design. part section and no trouble will be experienced in understanding the bevel pinion and gear drive from the crank-

Concentric Valve Design

255

ter-shaft.

shaft to the overhead cam-shaft through a vertical counvery direct valve action is used in the

is shown in part section The valves are -parallel with the piston top and are actuated by rocker arms, one end of which bears against the valve stem, and the other rides the. cam-shaft.

Duesenberg engines, one of which

at Fig. 98.

,'Main Rocker Arm

Exhaust
Valve
Sleeve.

Auxiliary Rocker Arm for Inlet

'

Inlet

Valve

Valve
Fig. 99.

Open
Section at A-B

Sectional Views Showing Arrangement of Novel Concentric Valve Arrangement Devised by Panhard for Aerial Engines.

at Fig. 99 shows an ingenious application of the valve-in-the-head idea which permits one to obtain large valves. It has been used on some of the

The form shown

Panhard aviation engines and on the American Aeromarine power plants. The inlet passage is controlled by the sliding sleeve which is hollow and slotted so as
to permit the inlet gases to enter the cylinder through the regular type poppet valve which seats in the exhaust
sleeve.

When

the exhaust valve

pet rod and rocker

arm

is operated by the tapthe intake valve is also carried

256

Aviation Engines

down with

it. The intake gas passage is closed, however, and the burned gases are discharged through the large

annular passage surrounding the sleeve.

valve leaves
its

When

the inlet

gas around
mized.

seat in the sleeve the passage of cool the sleeve keeps the temperature of both
is

valves to a low point and the danger of warping

mini-

dome-shaped combustion chamber may be used, which is an ideal form in conserving heat efficiency, and as large values may be installed the flow of both fresh and exhaust gases may be obtained with minimum resistance.

The intake valve

is

rocker

arm which

is lifted

opened by a small auxiliary when, the cam follower rides

into the depression in the cam by the action of the strong spring around the push rod. .When the cam follower rides

on the high point the exhaust sleeve is depressed from its seat against the cylinder. By using a cam having both positive and negative profiles, a single rod suffices for both valves because of its push and pull action.
VALVE DESIGN AND CONStRTJCTION

Valve dimensions are an important detail to be conand can be determined by several conditions, among which may be cited method of installation, opersidered ating mechanism, material employed, engine speed desired, manner of cylinder cooling and degree of lift desired. review of various methods of valve location

has shown that when the valves are placed directly in the head we can obtain the ideal cylinder form, though larger valves may be used if housed in a separate pocket, as afforded by the "T" head construction. The method of operation has much to do with the size of the valves. For example, if an automatic inlet valve is employed it

good practice to limit the lift and obtain the required area of port opening by augmenting the diameter. Because of this a valve of the automatic type is usually made twenty per cent, larger than one mechanically operated. When both are actuated by cam mechanism, as is
is

now common

practice, they are usually

made

the

same

Valve Design and Construction

size

257
simplifies

and are interchangeable, which greatly

manufacture. The relation of valve diameter to cylinder bore is one that has been discussed for some time

The writer's experience would indicate that should be at least half the bore, if possible. While they the mushroom type or poppet valve has become standard and is the most widely used form at the present time, there is some difference of opinion among designers as to the materials employed and the angle of the seat. Most valves have a bevel seat, though some have a flat seating. The flat seat valve has the distinctive advantage of providing a clear opening with lesser lift, this conducing to It also has value because it is silent in free gas flow. operation, but the disadvantage is present that best material and workmanship must be used in their construction As it can be made very to obtain satisfactory results. light it is particularly well adapted for use as an automatic inlet valve. Among other disadvantages cited is the claim that it is more susceptible to derangement, owing to the particles of foreign matter getting under the seat. With a bevel seat it is argued that the foreign matter would be more easily dislodged by the gas flow, and that the valve would close tighter because it is drawn positively against the bevel seat. Several methods of valve construction are the vogue, the most popular form being the one-piece type; those which are composed of a head of one material and stem of another are seldom used in airplane engines because they are not reliable. In the built-up construction the
by engineers.
head
is

usually of high nickel steel or cast iron, which

metals possess good heat-resisting qualities. Heads made of these materials are not likely to warp, scale, or pit, as is sometimes the case when ordinary grades of machinery steel are used. The cast-iron head construction is not popular because it is often difficult to keep the head There is a slight difference in extight on the stem. ratio between the head and the stem, and as the pansion

stem

is

either screwed or riveted to the cast-iron

head

258
the constant

Aviation Engines

hammering

loosen the joint. the action of the valve becomes erratic. The best practice is to machine the valves from tungsten steel forgings.

As soon

of the valve against its seat may as the head is loose on the stem

This material has splendid heat-resisting qualities and Even the electriwill not pit or become scored easily. welded head to stem types which are used in autocally

L/ne rearrr

a -fter assembling 375*. 0005 -.

Fig.

100.

Showing Clearance Allowed Between Valve and Valve Stem Guide to Secure Free Action.

Stem

mobile engines are not looked upon with favor in the aviation engine. Valve stem guides and valve stems must be machined very accurately to insure correct action. The usual practice in automobile engines is shown at Fig. 100.

VALVE OPERATION"

The methods

of valve operation

commonly used vary

according to the type of cylinder construction employed. In all cases the valves are lifted from their seats by camactuated mechanism. Various forms of valve-lifting cams are shown at Fig. 101. As will be seen, a cam consists

Valve-Lifting

Cams

259

member has been added

is

of a circle to which, a raised, approximately triangular at one point. When the cam

follower rides on the circle, as shown at Fig. 1.02, there no difference in height between the cam center and its

periphery and there is no movement of the plunger. As soon as the raised portion of the cam strikes the plunger
this reciprocating mitted to the valve stem by suitable
it
it,

will lift

and

movement

is

trans-

mechanical connec-

tions.

The cam forms outlined at Fig. 101 are those commonly used. That at A is used on engines where it is

Fig.

Forms of Valve-Lifting Cams Generally Employed. A Cam Long Dwell and Quick Lift. B Typical Inlet Cam Used with Mushroom Type Follower. C Average Form of Cam. D Designed to Give Quick Lift and Gradual Closing.
101.

Profile for

desired to obtain a quick lift arid to keep the valve fully opened as long as possible. It is a noisy form, however, and is not very widely employed. That at B is utilized

more often as an
is

inlet

cam

while the profile shown at

generally depended on to operate exhaust valves. The cam shown at D is a? composite form which has some

of the features of the other three types. It will give the quick opening of form A, the gradual closing of form B, and the time of maximum valve opening provided by cam
profile

C.

at

The various types of valve plungers used are shown Fig. 102. That shown at A is the simplest form, con-

sisting of a simple cylindrical

member having a rounded

These are sometimes

end which follows the cam

profile.

260

Aviation Engines

made
is

of square stock or kept from rotating by means of line contact is possible when the plunger a key or pin.

kept from turning, whereas but a single point bearing is obtained when the plunger is cylindrical and free to The plunger shown at A will follow only cam revolve. which have gradual lifts. The plunger shown at profiles B is left free to revolve in the guide bushing and is pro-

Fig. 102.

Showing Principal Types of Cam Followers which Have Received

General Application.

vided with a

mushroom head which serves as a cam The type shown at C carries a roller at its follower. lower end and may follow very irregular cam profiles if
flat

and B are the are desired. While forms simplest, that outlined at C in its various forms is more widely used. Compound plungers are used on the Curtiss 0X2 motors, one inside the other. The small or inner one works on a cam of conventional design, the outer plunger follows a profile having a flat spot to permit of a pull
abrupt
lifts

rod action instead of a push rod action. All the methods in which levers are used to operate valves are more or less noisy because clearance must be left between the valve stem and the stop of the plunger. The space must be taken up before the valve will leave its seat, and when

Valve-Stem Clearances

261

the engine is operated at high speeds the forcible contact between the plunger and valve stem produces a rattling sound until the valves become heated and expand and the stems lengthen out. Clearance must be left between the valve stems and actuating means. This clearance is clearly shown in Fig. 103 and should be .020" (twenty thou-

sandths) when engine is cold. The amount of clearance allowed depends entirely upon the design of the engine

Screw

Cam
f

'

-?'

Follower Rocker Levers

Lock Screw

Valve,-

Si-em

Fig. 103.

Diagram Showing Proper Clearance to Allow Between Adjusting Screw and Valve Stems in Hall-Scott Aviation Engines.

On the Curtiss 0X2 engines the clearance is but .010" (ten thousandths) because the valve stems are shorter. Too little clearance will result in loss of power or misfiring when engine is hot. Too
much
amount and
clearance will not allow the valve to open irs full will disturb the timing.

and length of valve stem.

METHODS OF DRIVING CAM-SHAFT

most common of these
systems of cam-shaft operation are used. The is by means of gearing of some form. If the cam-shaft is at right angles to the crankshaft it may be driven by worm, spiral, or bevel gearing.

Two

262

Aviation Engines

If the cam-shaft is parallel to the crank-shaft, simple spur gear or chain connection may be used to turn it. typiis shown at cal cam-shaft for an eight-cylinder engine

Fig. 104.

be seen that the sixteen cams are forged integrally with the shaft and that it is spur-gear driven. The cam-shaft drive of the Hall-Scott motor is shown at
It will

Fig. 97.

While gearing is more commonly used, considerable attention has -been directed of late to silent chains for The ordinary forms of block or cam-shaft operation.
roller chain

have not proven successful in

this applica-

Resr Bearing-^

ter Bearing

Pig. 104.
ral.

Cam-Shaft of Thomas Airplane Motor Has Cams Forged IntegNote Split Cam-Shaft Bearings and Method of Gear Retention.

but the silent chain, which is in reality a link belt operating over toothed pulleys, has demonstrated its worth. The tendency to its use is more noted on foreign
tion,

motors than those of American design. It first came to public notice when employed on the Daimler-Knight enr gine for driving the small auxiliary crank-shafts w hich reciprocated the sleeve valves. The advantages cited for

the application of chains are, first, silent operation, which obtains even after the chains have worn considerably;
second,. in designing it is not necessary to figure on maintaining certain absolute center distances between the
if

crank- shaft and cam-shaft sprockets, as would be the case conventional forms of gearing were used. On some

forms of motor employing gears, three and even four

Valve Springs

263

members are needed

a

to turn the cam-shaft.

With a chain

drive but two sprockets are necessary, the chain forming flexible connection which permits the driving and driven
to be

members

placed at any distance apart that the

exigencies of the design demand. When chains are used it is advised that some means for compensating chain
slack be

chains

provided, or the valve timing will lag when are worn. Many combination drives may be

worked out with chains that would not be possible with other forms of gearing. Direct gear drive is favored at
the present time by airplane engine designers because they are the most certain and positive means, even when a

number of gears must be used as intermediate drive members. With overhead cam-shafts, bevel gears work
out very well in practice, as in the Hall-Scott motors and others of that type.

VALVE SPRINGS

Another consideration of importance is the use of proper valve-springs, and particular care should be taken with those of automatic valves. The spring must be weak

enough to allow the valve to open when the suction is light, and must be of sufficient strength to close it in
time at high speeds. It should be made as large as possible in diameter and with a large number of convolutions, in order that fatigue of the metal be obviated, and it is imperative that all springs be of the same strength when used on a multiple-cylinder engine. Practically all valves used to control the gas flow in airplane engines are meOn the exhaust valve the spring chanically operated. must be strong enough so that the valve will not be sucked It should be borne in mind that in on the inlet stroke. if the spring is too strong a strain will be imposed on the valve-operating mechanism, and a hammering action produced which may cause deformation of the valve- seat. Only pressure enough to insure that the operating mechanism will follow the cam is required. It is common practice to make the inlet and exhaust valve springs of

264
the

Aviation Engines

same tension when the valves are of the same

is
it is

size

and both mechanically operated. This simplify manufacture and not because

done merely to necessary for

Sparh Plug

Outer Sleeve

Cranks
Derating Sleeves

ner Sleeve

Fig. 105.

Section Through Cylinder of Knight Motor, Showing Important Parts of Valve Motion.

the inlet valve-spring to be as strong as the other. Valve springs of the helical coil type are generally used, though torsion or "scissors" springs and laminated or singleleaf springs are also utilized in special applications.

Two

Valve Springs

265

springs are used on each valve in some valve-in-the-head types; a spring of small pitch diameter inside the regular Its function is to valve-spring and concentric with it.

Spark Plug

..-Water Space

.Exhaust

Intake

Piston-

Intake Stroke-Intake Ports Open

Compression Stroke

-All Ports

Closed

Firing Stroke -All Ports

Closed

Exhaust Stroke -Exhaust Ports Open

Fig. 106.

Diagrams Showing Knight Sleeve Valve Action.

keep the valve from falling into the cylinder in event of breakage of the main spring in some cases, and to provide a stronger return action in others.

266

,>

Aviation Engines

KNIGHT SLIDE VALVE MOTOR

The
shows

sectional view through the cylinder at Fig. 105 the Knight sliding sleeves and their actuating

means very

The diagrams at Fig. 106 show clearly. the sleeve movements and their relation to graphically the crank-shaft and piston travel. The action may be

summed up as follows: The inlet port begins to open when the lower edge of .the opening of the outside sleeve which is moving down passes the top of the slot in the inner member also moving downwardly. The inlet port is closed when the. lower edge of the slot in the inner sleeve which is moving up passes the top edge of the port
moving toward the top of the cylinder. The inlet opening extends over two hundred degrees of crank motion. The exhaust port is unin the outer sleeve
is

which

also

covered slightly when the lower edge of the port in the inner sleeve which is moving down passes the lower edge of the portion of the cylinder head which protrudes in
the top of the port in the outer sleeve traveling toward the bottom of the cylinder passes the lower edge of the slot in the cylinder wall the exhaust
the cylinder.

When

passage is closed. The exhaust opening extends over a period corresponding to about two hundred and forty degrees of crank motion. The Knight motor has not been applied to aircraft to the writer's knowledge, but an eight-cylinder Vee design that might be useful in that
connection
object is other besides the

lightened is shown at Fig. 107. to show that the Knight valve action
if

The main

mushroom

is the only or poppet valve that has been

applied successfully to high speed gasoline engines.

VALVE TIMING
It is

in valve timing that the greatest difference of

opinion prevails
will see the

among

that the

same same timing could not be used with motors of

engineers, and it is rare that one formula in different motors. It is true

Valve-Timing Practice

267

different construction, as there are many factors which determine the amount of lead to be given to the valves. The most important of these is the relative size of the

valve to the cylinder bore, the speed of rotation

it

is

Priming Cups N
-

Cylinder Oi
tt.T.Coil*

Wiring Header^

\
\
\
,

Junk Ring,
Cylinder
\
'

Head,

Hot A ir Conn toCarburetor

Piston-"'
Ex. Pipe,

/'

""
Cylinder-^

Outer Sleeve
Inner Sleeve-'
Conn. Rod-'
Oil.By-pass

\~Long Ecc. Shaft Rod

'Short Ecc.Shaft 'Rod
Eccentric Shafts
Valve'j'
**"-

Pody

Mam

Bearing' Oil

Lead
Drain Plug-""

Crank-Shaft with Counter-weight

i.C.tUtSTROM M.y.

Fig. 107.

Cross Sectional

View of Knight Type Eight Cylinder

Engine.

desired to obtain, the fuel efficiency, the location of the valves, and other factors too numerous to mention. Most of the readers should be familiar with the cycle
of operation of the internal combustion motor of the four-stroke type, and it seems unnecessary to go into detail except to present a review. The first stroke of the

piston

is

one in which a charge of gas

is

taken into the

268

Aviation Engines

motor; the second stroke, which is in reverse direction to the first, is a compression stroke, at the end of which the spark takes place, exploding the charge and driving the piston down on the third or expansion stroke, which is in the same direction as the intake stroke, and finally, after the piston has nearly reached the end of this stroke, another valve opens to allow the burned gases to escape, and remains open until the piston has reached the end of the fourth stroke and is in a position to begin the series over again. The ends of the strokes are reached when the piston comes to a stop at either top or bottom of the cylinder and reverses its motion. That point is known as a center, and there are two for each cylinder, top and bottom centers, -respectively. All circles may be divided into 360 parts, each of which is known as a degree, and, in tnrn, each of these degrees may be again divided into minutes and seconds, though we need not concern ourselves with anything less than the degree. Each stroke of the piston represents 180 degrees travel of the crank, because two strokes represent one complete revolution of three hundred and sixty degrees. The top and bottom centers are therefore separated by 180 degrees. Theoretically each phase of a four-cycle engine begins and ends at a center, though in actual practice the inertia or movement of the gases

makes

necessary to allow a lead or lag to the valve, as may be. If a valve opens before a center, the distance is called "lead"; if it closes after a center, this
it

the case

as "lag." The profile of the cams ordinarily used to open or close the valves represents a considerable time in relation to the 180 degrees of the crank-shaft travel, and the area of the passages through
distance
is

known

which the gases are admitted or exhausted is quite small owing to the necessity of having to open or close the valves at stated times; therefore, to open an adequately large passage for the gases it is necessary to open the valves earlier and close them later than at centers. That advancing the opening of the exhaust valve was

Valve-Timing Practice
of value

269

was discovered on the early motors and is explained by the necessity of releasing a large amount of gas, the volume of which has been greatly raised by the
heat of combustion.
ically

When

the inlet valves were mechanto lag

operated

it

was found that allowing them

at closing enabled the inspiration of a greater volume of gas. Disregarding the inertia or flow of the gases, open-

ing the exhaust at center would enable one to obtain full value of the expanding gases the entire length of the piston stroke, and it would not be necessary to keep the valve open after the top center, as the reverse stroke would produce a suction effect which might draw some of the inert charge back into the cylinder. On the other hand, giving full consideration to the inertia of the gas, opening the valve before center is reached will provide
for quick expulsion of the gases, which have sufficient velocity at the end of the stroke, so that if the valve is

allowed to remain open a little longer, the amount of lag varying with the opinions of the designer, the cylinder is cleared in a more thorough manner.

BLOWING BACK

When the factor of retarded opening is considered without reckoning the inertia of the gases, -it would appear that if the valve were allowed to remain open
after center had passed, say, on the closing of the inlet, the piston, having reversed its motion, would have the effect of expelling part of the fresh charge through the
it passed inward at its compression This effect is called blowing back, and is often noted with motors where the valve settings are not absolutely correct, or where the valve-springs or seats are
still

open valve as

stroke.

and prevent proper closing. This factor is not of as much import as might appear, as on closer consideration it will be seen that the movement of the piston as the crank reaches either end of the stroke is less per degree of angular movement than it is when the angle of the connecting rod is greater. Then,
defective

270

Aviation Engines

again, a certain length of time is required for the reversal of motion of the piston, during which time the crank is

motion but the piston practically at a standstill. If the valves are allowed to remain open during this period, the passage of the gas in or out of the cylinder will be
in

by

its

own momentum.
LEAD GIVEN EXHAUST VALVE

The faster a motor turns, all other things being equal, the greater the amount of lead or advance it is necessary to give the opening of the exhaust valve. It is self-evident truth that if the speed of a motor is doubled it travels twice as many degrees in the time necessary to lower the pressure. As most designers are cognizant of this fact, the valves are proportioned accordingly. It is well to consider in this respect that the cam profile has much to do with the manner in wThich the valve is opened that is, the lift may be abrupt and the gas allowed to escape in a body, or the opening may be gradual, the
;

gas issuing from the cylinder in thin streams. An analogy may be made with the opening of any bottle which conIf the cork is removed tains liquid highly carbonated. suddenly the gas escapes with a loud pop, but, on the other hand, if the bottle is uncorked gradually, the gas escapes from the receptacle in thin streams around the
cork, and passage of the gases to the air is accomplished without noise. While the second plan is not harsh, it is slower than the former, as must be evident.

EXHAUST CLOSING, INLET OPENING

point which has been much discussed by engineers the proper relation of the closing of the exhaust valve and the opening of the inlet. Theoretically they should

is

succeed each other, the exhaust closing at upper dead center and the inlet opening immediately afterward. The reason why a certain amount of lag is given the exhaust
closing in practice is that the piston cannot drive the

Valve-Timing Practice

271

gases out of the cylinder unless they are compressed to a degree in excess of that existing in the manifold or passages, and while toward the end of the stroke this pressure may be feeble, it is nevertheless indispensable. At the end of the piston's stroke, as marked by the upper dead center, this compression still exists, no matter how little it may be, so that if the exhaust valve is closed and
the
inlet

opened immediately afterward, the

pressure

which exists in the cylinder may retard the entrance of the fresh gas and a certain portion of the inert gas may penetrate into the manifold. As the piston immediately begins to aspirate, this may not be serious, but as these gases are drawn back into the cylinder the fresh charge If the spark-pltig will be diluted and weakened in value. is in a pocket, the points may be surrounded by this weak gas, and the explosion will not be nearly as energetic as

when

It is

the ignition spark takes place in pure mixture. a well-known fact that the exhaust valve should

close after

dead center and that a certain amount of lag

should be given to opening, of the inlet. The lag given the closing of the exhaust valve should not be as great as that given the closing of the inlet valve. Assuming that the excess pressure of the exhaust will equal the
depression during aspiration, the time necessary to complete the emptying of the cylinder will be proportional to the volume of the gas within it. At the end of the suction stroke the volume of gas contained in the cylinder
is

equal to the cylindrical volume plus the space of the

combustion chamber. At the end of the exhaust stroke the volume is but that of the dead space, and from onethird to one-fifth its volume before compression. While it is natural to assume that this excess of burned gas
will escape faster than the fresh gas will enter the cylinder, it will be seen that if the inlet valve were allowed

to lag

more than

twenty degrees, the exhaust valve lag need not be five degrees, providing that the capacity of the combustion chamber was such that the gases occupied one-quarter of their former volume.

272

Aviation Engines

back pressure
muffler.

no absolute rule can be given, as vary with the design of the valve passages, the manifolds, and the construction of the
It is evident that

will

opening, the sooner the valve can be closed and the better the cylinder cleared.
direct

The more

the

Ten degrees represent an appreciable angle of the crank, and the time required for the crank to cover this angular motion is not inconsiderable and an important quantity of
the exhaust may escape, but the piston is very close to the dead center after the distance has been covered.

opens there should be a certain depression in the cylinder, and considerable lag may be allowed before the depression is appreciable. So far as the volume of fresh gas introduced during the admission stroke is concerned, this is determined by the displacement of the piston between the point where the inlet valve

Before the

inlet valve

opens and the point of closing, assuming that sufficient gas has been inspired so that an equilibrium of pressure has been established between the interior of the cylinder and the outer air. The point of inlet opening varies with different motors. It would appear that a fair amount of lag would be fifteen degrees past top center for the inlet opening, as a certain depression will exist in the cylinder, assuming that the exhaust valve has closed five or ten degrees after center, and at the same time the piston has not gone down far enough on its stroke to materially decrease the amount of gas which will be taken into the
cylinder.

CLOSING THE INLET VALVE

in the case with the other points of opening and closing, there is a wide diversity of practice as relates

As

Some of the designers close to closing the inlet valve. this exactly at bottom center, but this practice cannot be commended, as there is a considerable portion of time,
at least ten or fifteen degrees angular motion of the crank, before the piston will commence to travel to any extent on its compression stroke. The gases rushing into the

Valve-Timing Practice

27 B

cylinder have considerable velocity, and unless an equilibrium is obtained between the pressure inside and that of the atmosphere outside, they will continue to rush into the cylinder even after the Diston ceases to exert any
suction effect.

For
ter,

this reason, if the valve is closed exactly

on cen-

charge may not be inspired into the cylinder, if the time of- closing is delayed, this momentum though or inertia of the gas will be enough to insure that a maximum charge is taken into the cylinder. The writer considers that nothing will be gained if the valve is allowed to remain open longer than twenty degrees, and an
full

analysis of practice in this respect would seem to confirm From that point in the crank movement this opinion. the piston travel increases and the compressive effect is
appreciable, and it would appear that a considerable proportion of the charge might be exhausted into the mani-

and carburetor if the valve were allowed to remain open beyond a point corresponding to twenty degrees angular movement of the crank.
fold

TIME OF IGNITION
In this country engineers unite in providing a variable time of ignition, though abroad
is

some difference of

noted on this point. The practice of advancopinion the time of ignition, when affected electrically, was ing severely condemned by early makers, these maintaining that it was necessary because of insufficient heat and volume of the spark, and it was thought that advancing The engineers of to-day appreignition was injurious. ciate the fact that the heat of the electric spark, especially when from a mechanical generator of electrical energy, is the only means by which we can obtain practically instantaneous explosion, as required by the operation of motors at high speeds, and for the combustion
of large volumes of gas. It is apparent that a motor with a fixed point of

274

Aviation Engines

ignition is not as desirable, in every way, as one in which the ignition can be advanced to best meet different re-

quirements, and the writer does not readily perceive any

*5

Position of No. I Cylinder Cams when No. I Piston is on top dead center

Part

Diagram of Gears
Type

in

Hall-Scott-

A-5 Aviation Motor

<sv^

Part- B

'Exhaust Closed ,'ExhaustC.

Magneto
fully

Vx*"""

L7~jk\""V.

Advanced

Section thru

Cam Shaft
of

Housing Showing position Cams.when Exhaust Valve is Closed

Note on Chart that Crank-Shaft is 10 past top center when Exhaust Valve. is closed

Intake Closed'

'Exhaust-

Open

Fig. 108.

Diagrams Explaining Valve and Ignition Timing of Hall-Scott

Aviation Engine.

advantage outside of simplicity of control in establishing a fixed point of ignition. In fact, there seems to be some
difference of opinion

among

those designers

who favor

Ignition Timing
fixed ignition,

275

and in one case this is located forty-three ahead of center, and in another motor the point degrees is fixed at twenty degrees, so that it may be said that this will vary as much as one hundred per cent, in various This point will vary with different methods of forms.
Dead Center
1*6

Fig. 109.

Timing Diagram of Typical Six-Cylinder Engine.

spark-plug or For the sake of simplicity, most airplane enigniter. gines use set spark; if an advancing and retarding mechanism is fitted, it is only to facilitate starting, as the spark is kept advanced while in flight, and control is by
ignition,

as well

as the location of the

throttle alone.
It is obvious

by consideration of the foregoing that

there can be no arbitrary rules established for timing,

276

Aviation Engines

because of the many conditions which determine the best times for opening and closing the valves. It is customary to try various settings when a new motor is designed until the most satisfactory points are determined, and the setting which will be very suitable for one motor is not always right for one of different design. The timing

Fig. 110.

Timing Diagram of Typical Eight-Cylinder

Engine.

diagram shown at Fig. 108 applies to the Hall- Scott It should be engine, and may be considered typical. followed in view of the very complete explanation easily given in preceding pages. Another six-cylinder engine diagram is shown at Fig. 109, and an eight-cylinder timing diagram is shown at Fig. 110. In timing automobile engines no trouble is experienced, because timing marks

How

an Engine

is

Timed

277

are always indicated on the engine fly-wheel register with an indicating trammel on the ^crank-case. To time an
is necessary to test for a suspected cam-shaft defect, a timing disc of aluminum is attached to the crank-shaft which has the timing marks If the disc is made 10 or 12 inches indicated thereon. in diameter, it may be divided into degrees without

airplane engine accurately, as

difficulty.

HOW AN ENGINE

IS

TIMED

In timing a motor from the marks on the timing disc rim it is necessary to regulate the valves of but one
cylinder at a time. Assuming that the disc is revolving in the direction of engine rotation, and that the firing order of the cylinders is 1-3-4-2, the operation of timing

The crank-shaft would marked "Exhaust opens 1 and 4" registered with the trammel on the motor bed. At this
would be carried on as follows:
be revolved until the line
point the exhaust-valve of either cylinder No. 1 or No. 4 should begin to open. This can be easily determined by noting which of these cylinders holds the compressed charge ready for ignition. Assuming that the spark has

occurred in cylinder No. 1, then when the fly-wheel is turned from the position to that in which the line marked "Exhaust opens 1 and 4" coincides with the trammel point, the valve-plunger under the exhaust-valve of cylinder No. 1 should be adjusted in such a way that there is no clearance between it and the valve stem. Further movement of the wheel in the same direction should produce a lift of the exhaust valve. The disc is turned about two hundred and twenty-five degrees, or a little less than three-quarters of a revolution; then the line marked "Exhaust closes 1 and 4" will register with the trammel

and the valveand a certain amount of clearance stem should separate The next cylinder to time would obtain between them. be No. 3. The crank-shaft is rotated until mark "Exhaust opens 2 and 3" comes in line with the trammel. At this
point.
this period the valve-plunger

At

278

Aviation Engines

point the exhaust valve of cylinder No. 3 should be just about opening. The closing is determined by rotating the
shaft until the line

" Exhaust

closes

and 3" comes

under the trammel.

This operation is carried on with all the cylinders, being well to remember -that but one cylinder is working at a time and that a half -revolution of the fly-wheel corresponds to a full working stroke of all the cylinders, and that while one is exhausting the others are respectively taking in a new charge, compressing and exploding.
it

instance, if cylinder No. 1 has just completed its power-stroke, the piston in cylinder No. 3 has reached the point where the gas may be ignited to advantage. The piston of cylinder No. 4, which is next to fire, is at

For

the bottom of its stroke and will have inspired a charge, while cylinder No. 2, which is the last to fire, will have just finished expelling a charge of burned gas, and will be starting the intake stroke. This timing relates to a
four-cylinder engine in order to simplify the explanation. The timing instructions given apply only to the conventional

motor types.

Eotary cylinder engines, especially

distinctive

the

Gnome "monosoupape," have a

valve

timing on account of the peculiarities of design.

GNOME "MONOSOUPAPE" VALVE TIMING

In the present design of the Gnome motor, a cycle of operations somewhat different from that employed in the ordinary four-cycle engine is made use of, says a writer in "The Automobile," in describing the action of this power-plant. This cycle does away with the need for the usual inlet valve and makes the engine operable with only a single valve, hence the name mono soup ape, or " single" The valve. A charge being comcycle is as follows: pressed in the outer end of the cylinder or combustion
chamber, it is ignited by a spark produced by the sparkplug located in the side of this chamber, and the burning charge expands as the piston* moves down in the cylinder
while the latter revolves around the crank-shaft.

When

Gnome Monosoupape Timing

279

the piston is about half-way down on the power stroke, the exhaust valve, which is located in the center of the

mechanically opened, and during the following upstroke of the piston the burnt gases are expelled from the cylinder through the exhaust valve directly into the atmosphere. Instead of closing at the end of the exhaust stroke, or a few degrees thereafter, the exhaust valve is held open for about two-thirds of the following inlet stroke of the piston, with the result that fresh air is drawn through the exhaust valve into the cylinder. "When the
cylinder-head,
is

65 degrees from the end of the inlet halfAs no more air revolution, the exhaust valve closes. can get into the cylinder, and as the piston continues to
cylinder
is still

move inwardly,
formed.

it

is

obvious that a partial

vacuum

is

When the cylinder approaches within 20 degrees of the end of the inlet half -re volution a series of small
around the circumference of the cylinder wall is uncovered by the top edge of the piston, whereby the combustion chamber is placed in communication with the crank chamber. As the pressure in the crank chamber is substantially atmospheric and that in the combustion chamber is below atmospheric, there results a suction effect which causes the air from the crank chamber to flow into the combustion chamber. The air in the crank chamber is heavily charged with gasoline vapor, which is due to the fact that a spray nozzle connected with the
inlet ports all

gasoline supply tank is located inside the chamber. The proportion of gasoline vapor in the air in the crank

chamber is several times as great as in the ordinary combustible mixture drawn from a carburetor into the This extra-rich mixture is diluted in the comcylinder. bustion chamber with the air which entered it through the exhaust valve during the first part of the inlet stroke, thus forming a mixture of the proper proportion for
complete combustion. The inlet ports in the cylinder wall remain open until

280

Aviation Engines

20 degrees of the compression half-revolution has been completed, and from that moment to near the end of the compression stroke the gases are compressed in the cylinder. Near the end of the stroke ignition takes place
.

and this completes the cycle. The exact timing of the different phases of the cycle is shown in the diagram at Fig. 111. It will be seen that ignition occurs substantially 20 degrees ahead of the outer dead center, and expansion of the burning gases continues until 85 degrees past the outer dead center, when the piston is a little past half-stroke. Then the exhaust-valve opens and remains open for somewhat more than a complete revolution of the cylinders, or, to
be exact, for 390 degrees of cylinder travel, until 115 degrees past the top dead center on the second revolution. Then for 45 degrees of travel the charge within the cylinder is expanded, whereupon the inlet ports are untravel, 20 degrees

covered and remain open for 40 degrees of cylinder on each side of the inward dead center

position.

SPRINGLESS VALVES

Springless valves are the latest development on French racing car engines, and it is possible that the positivelyoperated types will be introduced on aviation engines Two makes of positively-actuated valves are shown also. at Fig. 6. The positive-valve motor differs from the conventional form by having no necessity for valve-springs, as a cam not only assures the opening of the valve, but also causes it to return to the valve-seat. In this respect it is much like the sleeve-valve motor, where the uncover-

ing of the ports is absolutely positive. The cars equipped with these valves were a success in long-distance auto Claims made for this type of valve mechanism races. include the possibility of a higher number of revolutions and consequently greater engine power. With the springcontrolled, single-cam operated valve a point is reached where the spring is not capable of returning the valve

Springless Valves
to its seat before the

281

movement.

its opening extend the limits considerably by using a light valve on a strong spring, but the

cam has again begun

It is possible to

Igriif't-on

Fig.

111.

Timing Diagram Showing Peculiar Valve Timing of Gnome "Monosoupape" Rotary Motor.

valve

still

remains a limiting factor in the speed of the

motor.

part sectional view through a cylinder of an engine designed by G. Michaux is shown at Fig. 112, A. There are two valves per cylinder, inclined at about ten degrees from the vertical. The valve-stems are of large diameter, as owing to positive control, there is no necessity of single overlightening this part in an unusual degree.

282

Aviation Engines

head cam-shaft has eight pairs of cams, which are shown

in detail at B.

For each valve there

is

a three-armed

rocker, one arm of which is connected to the stem of the valve and the two others are in contact, respectively with

the opening and closing cams. The connection to the end of the valve-stem is made by a short connecting link,

which

is

screwed on to the tnd of the valve-stem and

Cam Shaft Housing

Cam
Valve Operating Yoke

Yoke Guide

Cam Shaft
Housing Supports

Fig. 112.

Two Methods
Which

of .Operating Valves by Positive Closes as Well as Opens Them.

Cam Mechanism

locked in position. This allows some adjustment to' be made between the valves and the actuating rocker. It will be evident, that one cam and one rocker arm produce the opening of the valve and that the corresponding

rocker

If the opening

ing be noticed that a light valve- spring is shown in drawing. This is provided to give a final seating to its valve after

arm and cam result in the closing of the valve. cam has the. usual convex profile, the closcam has a correspondingly concave profile. It will

Positive Valve Systems

it

283

been closed by the cam. This is not absolutely necessary, as an engine has been run successfully without these springs. The whole mechanism is contained within an overhead aluminum cover. The positive-valve system used on the De Lage motor In this the valves are actuated as shown is shown at D. in sectional views D and E. The valve system is unique in that four valves are provided per cylinder, two for exhaust and two for intake. The valves are mounted side by side, as shown at E, so the double actuator member may be operated by a single set of cams. The valve-operating member consists of a yoke having guide bars
lias

at the top and bottom. The actuating cam works inside of this yoke. The usual form of cam acts on the lower

portion of the yoke to open the valve, while the concave cam acts on the upper part to close the valves. In this design provision is made for expansion of the valve-stems due to heat, and these are not positively connected to the
actuating member. As shown at E, the valves are held against the seat by short coil springs at the upper end of the stem. These are very stiff and are only intended to provide for expansion. slight space is left between

the top of the valve-stem and the portion of the operating member that bears against them when the regular profile cam exerts its pressure on the bottom of the valve-

Another novelty in this motor operating mechanism. design is that the cam-shafts and the valve-operating members are carried in casing attached above the motor by housing supports in the form of small steel pillars. The overhead cam-shafts are operated by means of bevel
gearing.

FOUR VALVES PER CYLINDER

.:

Mention has been previously made of the sixteenvalve four-cylinder Duesenberg motor and its great power This is made posoutput for the piston displacement. sible by the superior volumetric efficiency of a motor provided with four valves in each cylinder instead of

284

Aviation Engines

but two. This principle was thoroughly tried out in racing automobile motors, and is especially valuable in permitting of greater speed and power output from simple

On eight- and twelvethe resulting complicacylinder types, tion due to using a very large number of valves would be worth while. When extremely large valves are used,
four-

and six-cylinder engines.

it

is

doubtful

if

---~~-'*

Two Small
Valves

'One Large

Valve

Fig. 113.

Diagram Comparing Two Large Valves and Four Small Ones Same Area. Note How Easily Small Valves are Installed to Open Directly Into the Cylinder.
of Practically the

as shown in diagram at Fig. 113, it is difficult to have them open directly into the cylinder, and pockets are

sometimes necessary. large valve would weigh more than two smaller valves having an area slightly larger in the aggregate; it would require a stiff er valve spring on account of its greater weight. certain amount of metal in the valve-head is necessary to prevent warping; therefore, the inertia forces will be greater in the large valve than in the two smaller valves. As a greater port

Multiple Valve Advantages

285

286

Aviation Engines

area is obtained by the use of two valves, the gases will be drawn into the cylinder or expelled faster than with a lesser area. Even if the areas are practically the same
as in the diagram at Fig. 113, the smaller valves
Push Rod
Inlet Valve Depressing Lever

may

Exhaust Valve

Actuating
Lever.

Cylinder hold

Propeller
Oil

Hub

Gauge

Oil

Pump-

Fig. 115.

Front View of Curtiss OX3 Aviation Motor, Showing Unconventional Valve Action by Concentric Push Rod and Pull Tube.

have a greater

lift without imposing greater stresses on the valve-operating mechanism and quicker gas intake and exhaust obtained. The smaller valves are not af-

by heat as much as larger ones are. The quicker movements made possible, as well as reduction of gas
fected

Multiple Valve Advantages

inertia
forces,

287

permits of higher rotative speed, and, consequently, greater power output for a given piston displacement. The drawings at Fig. 114 show a sixteenvalve motor of the four-cylinder type that has been designed for automobile racing purposes, and it is apparent that very slight modifications would make it suitable for Part of the efficiency is due to the aviation purposes. reduction of bearing' friction by the use of ball bearings, but the multiple-valve feature is primarily responsible
for the excellent performance.

CHAPTER IX
Constructional Details of Pistons Aluminum Cylinders and Pistons Piston Ring Construction Leak Proof Piston Rings Keeping
Oil

Out of Combustion Chamber

Connecting Rod Forms

Con-

Cam-Shaft and Crank-Shaft Denecting Rods for Vee Engines Ball Bearing Crank-Shafts signs Engine Base Construction.

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF PISTONS

The piston is one of the most important parts of the gasoline motor inasmuch as it is the reciprocating member that receives the impact of the explosion and which transforms the power obtained by the combustion of gas to mechanical motion by means of the connecting rod to which it is attached. The piston is one of the simplest elements of the motor, and it is one component which does not vary much in form in different types of motors. The piston is a cylindrical member provided with a series
of grooves in which packing rings are placed on the outside and two bosses which serve to hold the wrist pin in
its interior.

It is usually

made

though
sired,

in

some motors where

of cast iron or aluminum, extreme lightness is de-

such as those used for aeronautic work, it may be made of steel. The use of the more resisting material enables the engineer to use lighter sections where it is important that the weight of this member be kept as low as possible consistent with strength. number of piston types are shown at Fig. 116. That has a round top and is provided with four split at

A A

packing rings and. two

is

oil

grooves.

piston of this type

motors where the combustion generally employed chamber is large and where it is desired to obtain a higher degree of compression than would be possible with
in

flat top piston. This construction is also stronger because of the arched piston top. The most common form

Constructional Details of Pistons

of piston is that

289

at B, and it differs from that previously described only in that it has a flat top. The piston outlined in section at C is a type used on some of the sleeve-valve motors of the Knight pattern, and has a concave head instead of the convex form shown The design shown at D in side and plan views is at A.

shown

Side View

Fig.

Forms of Pistons Commonly Employed in Gasoline Engines. Piston and Three Packing Kings. B Flat Top Form Almost Universally Used. C Concave Piston Utilized in Knight Motors and Some Having Overhead Valves. D Two-Cycle Engine
116.

A Dome Head

Member with
Principle.

Deflector

Plate

Cast Integrally.

Differential

of

Two-Diameter Piston Used in Some Engines Operating on Two-Cycle

the

conventional

form employed

in

two-cycle

engines.

deflector plate on the top of the cylinder is cast integral and is utilized to prevent the incoming fresh gases

The

from flowing

directly over the piston top and out of the exhaust port, which is usually opposite the inlet openOn these types of two-cycle engines where a twoing. diameter cylinder is employed, the piston shown at E is

290

Aviation Engines

fi
fl

FHO

45*

tl

lifts

I -8 B 5 O
rt

53

p4

fe

ai P-i

5! If I
60

Constructional Details of Pistons

used.

291

This

is

known
The

an enlarged portion at
ing cylinder.

as a "differential piston," and has its lower end which fits the pumpusual form of deflector plate is pro-

Piston Rings

Piston Ring

Grooves

Wrist Pin

Piston

Connecting Rod-

Connecting Rod Bearing

Bearing Liner's

Connecting Rod Cap

Connecting Rod Bolts

Oil

Scoop

Fig. 118.

Typical Piston and Connecting

Rod Assembly.

vided at the top of the piston and one

may

consider

it

as two pistons in one. One of the important conditions in piston design is the method of securing the wrist pin which is used to

292

Aviation Engines

connect the piston to the upper end of the connecting Various methods have been devised to keep the in place, the most common of these being shown at pin
rod.

Fig.

117.

positive the vibratory stresses which obtain at this point.

The wrist pin should be retained by some means which is not liable to become loose under
If the

Spark Plugs

Spark

'-Connecting

Rod

M/ n D Wrist Pin Bushing, ,

Connecting Rod Big End Boxes

Ring Grooves

Piston

Pis -ran

Rings-

Fig.

119.

Parts

of

Sturtevant

Showing Valves.

A Cylinder Head Aviation Engine. Connecting Rod. C Piston and Rings.

Constructional Details of Pistons

293

wrist pin was free to move it would work out of the bosses enough so that the end would bear against the
cylinder wall. As it is usually made of steel, which is a harder material than cast iron used in cylinder construction, the rubbing action would tend to cut a groove in the cylinder wall which would make for loss of power

Fig. 120.

Aluminum Piston and Light But Strong Steel Connecting Rod and Wrist Pin of Thomas Aviation Engine.
it

because

would permit escape of gas.

The wrist pin

member

a simple cylindrical element that fits the bosses closely, and it may be either hollow or solid stock. typical piston and connecting rod assembly which shows a piston in section also is given at Fig. 118. The piston of the Sturtevant aeronautical motor is shown at Fig.
is

with piston rings in place is shown at Fig. 120. A good view of the wrist pin and connecting rod are also given.

119, the

aluminum piston

of the

Thomas

airplane motor

The iron piston of the Gnome "Monosoupape" airplane engine and the unconventional connecting rod assembly are clearly depicted at Fig 121. The method of retention shown at A is the simplest and consists of a set screw having a projecting portion

294

Aviation Engines

passing into the wrist pin and holding it in place. The screw is kept from turning or loosening by means of a check nut. The method outlined at B is similar to that
at A, except that the wrist pin is solid and the point of the set screw engages an annular groove turned in the pin for its reception. very positive method- is

shown

Here the retention screws pass into the wrist pin and are then locked by a piece of steel wire which passes through suitable holes in the ends. The method outlined at D is sometimes employed, and it varies
at
C.

shown

Fig. 121.

Cast Iron Piston of "Monosoupape" Gnome Engine Installed On One of the Short Connecting Eods.

at C only in that the locking wire, which of spring steel, is passed through the heads of the locking screws. Some designers machine a large around the piston at such a point that when the groove

from that shown

is

made

wrist pin
in place.

put in place a large packing ring may be sprung in the groove and utilized to hold the wrist pin
is

not so widely used as the more costly and does not simpler methods, because offer any greater security when the parts are new than the simple lock shown at A. In this a hollow wrist pin is used, having a tapered thread cut at each end. The wrist

The system shown

at

is

it is

pin

is slotted at

three or four points, for a distance equal

to the length of the boss,

and when taper expansion plugs

Piston Pin Retention

295

are screwed in place the ends of the wrist pin are expanded against the bosses. This method has the advantage of providing a certain degree of adjustment if the wrist pin should loosen up after it has been in use for some time. The taper plugs would be screwed in deeper and the ends of the wrist pin expanded proportionately to take up the loss motion. The method shown at Gf is an ingenious one. One of the piston bosses is provided with a projection which is drilled out to receive a plunger. The wrist pin is provided with a hole of sufficient size to
receive the plunger, which is kept in place by means of a spring in back of it. This makes a very positive lock and one that can be easily loosened when it is desired to

To unlock, a piece of fine pin. thrust into the hole at the bottom of the boss which
remove the wrist

rod

is

pushes

the plunger back against the spring until the wrist pin can be pushed out of the piston.

advisable to oscillate the wrist pin in the piston bosses, instead of in the connecting rod small end. It is argued that this construction gives more bearing surface at the wrist pin and also provides for
it

Some

engineers think

more strength because

used.

When

of the longer bosses that can be this system is followed the piston pin is

held in place by locking it to the connecting rod by some means. At the simplest method is outlined. This con-

sisted of driving a taper pin through both rod and wrist pin and then preventing it from backing out by putting a split cotter through the small end of the tapered, lock-

Another method, which is depicted at I, consists of clamping the wrist pin by means of a suitable bolt which brings the slit connecting rod end together as
ing pin.

shown.

ALUMINUM FOR CYLINDERS AND

cast iron

PISTONS

Aluminum pistons outlined at Fig. 122, have replaced members in many airplane engines, as these weigh about one-third as much as the cast iron forms of
the

same

size,

while the reduction in the inertia forces

296
has made
it

Aviation Engines

possible to increase the engine speed without correspondingly stressing the connecting rods, crank-shaft

and engine bearings.

Aluminum has not only been used for pistons, but a number of motors will be built for the coming season that
aluminum cylinder block castings as well. Of the aluminum alloy is too soft to.be used as a course, bearing for the piston, and it will not withstand the hammering action of the valve. This makes the use of cast
will use

(-""Ribs

,'Hourglass Piston \

Racing
Piston

''Recesses in Casting

,Ribs for Strength

and

Heat Radiation*

Hourglass Piston*.

Wrist Pin Boss'"'

Sections of Aluminum Piston

Fig. 122.

Types of Aluminum Pistons Used In Aviation Engines,

iron or steel imperative in all motors. When used in connection with an aluminum cylinder block the cast iron

mould so that they act as cylinder and valve seats, and the molten metal is poured around them when the cylinder is cast. It is said that this construction results in an intimate bond between the cast iron and the surrounding aluminum metal. Steel liners may also be pressed into the aluminum cylinders
pieces are placed in the
liners

after these are bored out to receive them. Aluminum has for a number of years been used in many motor

Aluminum
car parts.

Pistons

297

Alloys have been developed that have greater strength than cast iron and that are not so brittle. Its use for manifolds and engine crank and gear cases has been general for a number of years. At first thought it would seem as though aluminum would be entirely unsuited for use in those portions of internal combustion engines exposed to the heat of the explosion, on account of the low melting point of that metal and its disadvantageous quality of suddenly " wilt" ing when a critical point in the temperature is reached. Those who hesitated to use aluminum on account of this defect lost sight of the great heat conductivity of that metal, which is considerably more than that of cast iron. It was found in early experiments with aluminum pistons that this quality of quick radiation meant that aluminum pistons remained considerably cooler than cast iron ones in service, which was attested to by the reduced formation of carbon deposits thereon. The use of aluminum makes possible a marked reduction in power plant weight. small four-cylinder engine which was not particularly heavy even with cast iron cylinders was found to weigh 100 pounds less when the cylinder block, pistons, and upper half of the crank-case had been made of aluminum instead of cast iron. Aluminum motors are no longer an experiment, as a considerable number of these have been in use on cars during the past year without the owners of the cars being apprised of the fact. Absolutely

no complaint was made in any case of the aluminum motor and it was demonstrated, in addition to the saving in weight, that the motors cost no more to assemble and cooled much more efficiently than the cast iron form. One of the drawbacks to the use of aluminum is its growing scarcity, which results in making it a "near precious"
metal.

PISTON RING CONSTRUCTION

As all pistons the cylinder with

must be

free to

move up and down

they must be

in

minimum

friction,

less in

298

Aviation Engines

diameter than the bore of the cylinder. The amount of freedom or clearance provided varies with the construction of the engine and the material the piston is made of, as well as its size, but it is usual to provide from .005 to .010 of an inch to compensate for the expansion of the piston due to heat and also to leave sufficient clearance for the introduction of lubricant between the working surfaces. "Obviously, if the piston were not provided with packing rings, this amount of clearance would enable a
portion of the gases evolved when the charge is exploded to escape by it into the engine crank-case. The packing

Fig. 123.

Types of Piston Rings and Ring

Joints.

Concentric Ring.

Eccentrically Machined Form.

C Lap

Joint Ring.

Butt Joint,

Seldom Used.

Diagonal Cut Member, a Popular Form.

members or piston

rings, as they are called, are split of cast iron, which are sprung into suitable grooves rings machined on the exterior of the piston, three or four of

these being the usual number supplied. These have sufficient elasticity so that they bear tightly against the cylinder wall and thus make a gas-tight joint. Owing to the
limited

amount of surface in contact with the cylinder wall and the elasticity of the split rings the amount of friction resulting from the contact of properly fitted rings and. the cylinder is not of enough moment to cause any damage and the piston is free to slide up and down in
the cylinder bore. These rings are
Fig. 123.

two forms, as outlined at The design shown at A is termed a " concentric

in

made

Piston Ring

Forms

299

ring," because the inner circle is concentric with the outer one and the ring" is of uniform thickness at all The ring shown at B is called an "eccentric points. ring," and it is thicker at one part than at others. It has theoretical advantages in that it will make a tighter joint than the other form, as it is claimed its expansion

more uniform. The piston rings must be that they may be sprung in place in the split in order grooves, and also to insure that they will have sufficient elasticity to take the form of the cylinder at the different
due to heat
is

If the cylinder bore varies by points in their travel. small amounts the rings will spring out at the points where the bore is larger than standard, and spring in at those portions where it is smaller than standard.

important that the joint should be as nearly gastight as possible, because if it were not a portion of the gases would escape through the slots in the .piston rings. The joint shown at C is termed a "lap joint," because the ends of the ring are cut in such a manner that they The butt joint This is the approved joint. overlap. shown at D is seldom used and is a very poor form, the
It is

only advantage being

The diagonal cut shown at E is a compromise between the very good form shown at C and the poor joint depicted at D. It is also widely used, though most constructors prefer the lap
its

cheapness.

because it does not permit the leakage of gas as much as the other two types. There seems to be some difference of opinion relative some favoring the eccentric to the best piston ring type pattern, others the concentric form. The concentric ring has advantages from the lubricating engineer's point of view; as stated by the Platt & Washburn Company in their text-book on engine lubrication, the smaller clearance behind the ring possible with the ring of uniform section is advantageous. Fig. 124, A, shows a concentric piston ring in its Since the ring itself is concentric with the groove. groove, very small clearance between the back of the ring
joint,

300

Aviation Engines
'

and the bottom of its groove may be allowed. Small clearance leaves less space for the accumulation of oil and carbon deposits. The gasket effect of this ring is uniform throughout the entire length of its edges, which

marked advantage over the eccentric ring. This of piston ring rarely burns fast in its groove. There type are a large number of different concentric rings manuis

its

factured of different designs and of different efficiency. Figs. 124, B and 124, C show eccentric rings assembled in the ring groove. It will be noted that there is a large
CyJmder\
Clearance.

Cylinder^

.Clearance

learance

Wafer.-'

Jacket

Eccentric Ring-

Fig-.

124.

Diagrams Showing Advantages of Concentric Piston Rings.

space between the thin ends of this ring and the bottom of the groove. This empty space fills up with oil which in the case of the upper ring frequently is carbonized, restricting the action of the ring and nullifying its usefulness. The edges of the thin ends are not sufficiently

wide to prevent rapid escape of gases past them. In a means loss of compression and When new and properly fitted, very little difference can be noted between the tightness
practical way this leakage noticeable drop in power.
of eccentric and concentric rings. Nevertheless, after several months' use, a more rapid leakage will always occur past the eccentric than past the concentric. If continuous trouble with the carbonization of cylinders,

smoking and sooting of spark-plugs

is

experienced,

it is

Leak-Proof Piston Rings

301

a sure indication that mechanical defects exist in the engine, assuming of course, that a suitable oil has been used. Such trouble can be greatly lessened, if not en-

by the application of concentric rings (lap joint), of any good make, properly fitted into the Too much emphasis canno^ be grooves of the piston.
tirely eliminated,

put upon this point.

If the oil

used in the engine

is

of

the correct viscosity, and serious carbon deposit, smoking, etc., still result, the only certain remedy then is to have the cylinders rebored and fitted with properly designed, oversized pistons and piston rings.

LEAK-PROOF PISTON RINGS

In order to reduce the compression loss and leakage of gas by the ordinary simple form of diagonal or lap joint one-piece piston ring a number of compound rings have been devised and are offered by their makers to The leading forms are use in making replacements.

shown

at Fig. 125.

That shown at

is

known

as the

"Statite" and consists of three rings, one carried inside

while the other two are carried on the outside. The ring shown at B is a double ring and is known as the McCadThis is composed of two thin concentric lap joint den.
rings so disposed relative to each other that the opening in the inner ring comes opposite to the opening in the outer ring.

The form shown at C is known as the "Leektite," and is a single ring provided with a peculiar form of lap and dove tail joint. The ring shown at D is known as the "Dunham" and is of the double concentric type being composed of two rings with lap joints which are welded together at a point opposite the joint so that there is no passage by which the gas can escape. The Burd high compression ring is shown at E. The joints of these rings are sealed by means of an H-shaped coupler of bronze which closes the opening. The ring ends are made with tongues which interlock with the coupling. The

302
ring shown at

Aviation Engines

is

called the

"Evertite" and

is

a three-

piece ring composed of three sectional view below the ring.

members as shown in the The main part or inner

ring has a circumferential channel in which the two outer rings lock, the resulting cross-section being rectangular
All just the same as that of a regular pattern ring. three rings are diagonally split and the joints are spaced equally and the distances maintained by small pins. This

SECTION OF RING
Fig. 125.

Leak-Proof and Other Compound Piston Rings.

results in each joint being sealed the other rings.

by the

solid portion of

of a number of light steel rings instead of wide ring in the groove is found on a number of one automobile power plants, but as far as knowTi, this conIt is struction is not used in airplane power plants. contended that where a number of light rings is employed a more flexible packing means is obtained and the

The use

Eings of this design possibility of leakage is reduced. are made of square section steel wire and are given a
spring temper.

Owing

to the limited

width the diagonal

Keeping Oil Out of Combustion Chambers

which

303

cut joint is generally employed instead of the lap joint is so popular on wider rings*

KEEPING OIL OUT OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

examination of the engine design that is economical in oil consumption discloses the use of tight piston rings, large centrifugal rings on the crank-shaft where it
passes through the case, ample cooling fins in the pistons, vents between the crank-case chamber and the valve enclosures, etc. Briefly put, cooling of the oil in this engine has been properly cared for and leakage reduced to a minimum. To be specific regarding details of design: Oil surplus can be kept out of the explosion chambers by leaving the lower edge of the piston skirt sharp and by the use of a shallow groove (C), Fig. 126, just below the Small holes are bored through the lower piston ring. piston walls at the base of this groove and communicate with the crank-case. The similarity of the sharp edges of piston skirt (D) and piston ring to a carpenter's plane
bit,

An

makes their operation plain. The cooling of oil in the sump (A) can be accomplished most effectively by radiating fins on its outer surface. The lower crank-case should be fully exposed to

the outer air. settling basin for sediment (B) should be provided having a cubic content not less than onetenth of the total oil capacity as outlined at Fig. 126. The depth of this basin should be at least 2% inches, and its walls vertical, as shown, to reduce the mixing of sedi-

ment with the

the oil

The inlet opening to oil in circulation. should be near the top of the sediment basin pump in order to prevent the entrance into the pump with the oil of any solid matter or water condensed from the prodThis sediment basin should be ucts of combustion. drained after every five to seven hours air service of an airplane engine. Concerning filtering screens there is little to be said, save that their areas should be ample
and the mesh coarse enough (one- sixteenth of an inch) to

304
offer

Aviation Engines

no serious resistance
oil

heavy
case

may

to the free flow of cold or otherwise the oil in the crankthrough them; build up above them to an undesirable level.

The necessary frequency of draining and flushing out the oil sump differs greatly with the age (condition) of the

s--

Sump
Sediment Basin
Fig.
126.

Sectional

View
Oil

of Engine Showing Means of Preventing Leakage By Piston Rings.

engine and the suitability of the oil used. In broad terms, the oil sump of a new engine should be thoroughly drained and flushed with kerosene at the end of the first 200

Connecting

Rod Forms

305

miles, next at the end of 500 miles and thereafter every While these instructions apply specifically 1,000 miles.
to automobile motors,
it is

very good practice to change

the
is

In many cases, in airplane engines frequently. the best results have been secured when the oil supply
oil

completely replenished every five hours that the enis

gine

in operation.

CONNECTING ROD FORMS

The connecting rod is the simple member that joins the piston to the crank-shaft and which transmits the power imparted to the piston by the explosion so that it

may

be usefully applied.

movement
shaft.

It transforms the reciprocating of the piston to a rotary motion at the crank-

wrist pin are shown at Fig. 120. It will be seen that it has two bearThe small end is bored out to ings, one at either end.
its

typical connecting rod

and

receive the wrist pin which joins it to the piston, while the large end has a hole of sufficient size to go on the

crank-pin.

The airplane and automobile engine connectinvariably a steel forging, though in marine is sometimes made a steel or high tensile

ing rod

is
it

engines strength bronze casting. In all cases it is desirable to have softer metals than the crank- shaft and wrist pin at the bearing point, and for this reason the connecting rod is usually provided with bushings of anti-friction or white metal at the lower end, and bronze at the upper. The

upper end of the connecting rod may be one piece, because the wrist pin can be introduced after it is in place The lower bearing between the bosses of the piston. must be made in two parts in most cases, because the
crank- shaft cannot be passed through the bearing owing to its irregular form. The rods of the Gnome engine are all one piece types, as shown at Fig. 127, owing to the construction
of

the

" mother " rod which receives the

The complete connecting rod assembly is crank-pins. shown in Fig. 121, also at A, Fig. 127. The " mother "

306

Aviation Engines

rod, with one of the other rods in place to be inserted, is shown at Fig. 127, B.

and one about The built-up

feasible
is

crank-shaft

which makes

this

construction

shown

at Fig. 127, B,

Some

of the various designs of connecting rods that

have been used are shown at Fig. 128. That at A is a simple form often employed in single-cylinder motors, having built-up crank-shafts. Both ends of the connect-

Fig.

127.

Connecting

Rod and Crank-Shaft Construction "Monosoupape" Engine.

of

Gnome

ing rod are bushed with a one-piece bearing, as it can be assembled in place before the crank-shaft assembly is built up. built-up crank-shaft such as this type of conrod would be used with is shown at Fig. 106. The necting pattern shown at B is one that has been used to some extent on heavy work, and is known as the "marine type." It is made in three pieces, the main portion being a steel forging having a- flanged lower end to which the

bronze boxes are secured by bolts. The modified marine type depicted at C is the form that has received the widest application in automobile and aviation engine con-

Connecting

Rod Forms

307

308
struction.

Aviation Engines

It consists of two pieces, the main member a steel drop forging having the wrist-pin bearing being and the upper crank-pin bearing formed integral, while the lower crank-pin bearing member is a separate forging secured to the connecting rod by bolts. In this construction bushings of anti-friction metal are used at the lower end, and a bronze bushing is forced into the upperor wrist-pin end. The rod shown at D has also been used. It is similar in construction to the form widely shown at C, except that the upper end is split in order to permit of a degree of adjustment of the wrist-pin bushing, and the lower bearing cap is a hinged member which is retained by one bolt instead of two. When it is desired to assemble it on the crank-shaft the lower cap is swung to one side and brought back into place when

the connecting rod has been properly located. Sometimes the lower bearing member is split diagonally instead of
horizontally, such a construction being outlined at E. In a number of instances, instead of plain bushed bearings anti-friction forms using ball or rollers have

been used at the lower end. A ball-bearing connecting rod is shown at F. The big end may be made in one piece, because if it is possible to get the ball bearing on the crank-pins it will be easy to put the connecting rod in place. Ball bearings are not used very often on connecting rod big. ends because of difficulty of installation,

though when applied properly they give satisfactory servOne of the adice and reduce friction to a minimum. of the ball bearing is that it requires no adjustvantages ment, whereas the plain bushings depicted in the other connecting rods must be taken up from time to time to

compensate for wear. This can be done in forms shown at B C, D, and E by bringing the lower bearing caps closer to the upper one and scraping out the brasses to fit the shaft. A number of liners or shims of thin brass or copper stock, varying from .002 inch to .005 inch, are sometimes interposed between the halves of the bearings when it is first
?

Connecting
fitted to the crank-pin.

Rod Types

309

As the brasses wear the shims be removed and the portions of the bearings brought may close enough together to take up any lost motion that may exist, though in some motors no shims are provided and depreciation can be remedied only by installing new brasses and scraping to fit. The various structural shapes in which connecting rods are formed are shown in section at Gr. Of these the I

~Ring Grooves

Connecting Rod (Forked)

Connecting Rod Bearing

Cap

Fig. 129.

Double Connecting Bod Assembly For Use On Single CrankPin of Vee Engine.

most widely used in airplane engines, because strong and a very easy hape to form by the dropforging process or to machine out of the solid bar when extra good steel is used. Where extreme lightness is desired, as in small high-speed motors used for cycle propulsion, the section shown at the extreme left is often used. If the rod is a cast member as in some marine ensection is
it is

sections are somegines, the cross, hollow cylinder, or times used. If the sections shown at the right are em-

310

Aviation Engines

ployed, advantage is often taken of the opportunity for passing lubricant through the center of the hollow round

on vertical motors or at the bottom of the U section, which would be used on a horizontal cylinder
section

power

plant.

tinct styles.

Connecting rods of Vee engines are made in two disThe forked or "scissors" joint rod assembly

Fig. 130.

Another Type of Double Connecting Bod for Vee Engines.

is

employed when the cylinders are placed directly opThe "blade" rod, as shown at Fig. posite each other. fits between the lower ends of the forked rod, which 129,
on the bearing which encircles the crank-pin. of the "blade" rod is usually attached to the bearing brasses, the ends of the "forked" rod move on the outer surfaces of the brasses. Another form of rod devised for use under these conditions is shown at Fig. 130 and installed in an aviation engine at Fig. 132. In this construction the shorter rod is attached to a boss on the master rod by a short pin to form a hinge and to permit the short rod to oscillate as the conditions dieoscillate

The lower end

Connecting

Rod Types

311

312
tate.

Aviation Engines

This form of rod can be easily adjusted when the bearing depreciates, a procedure that is .difficult with the forked type rod. The best practice, in the writer's opin-

Fig. 132.

Engine, Showing Connecting Internal Parts.

Part Sectional View of Renault Twelve-Cylinder Water-Cooled Bod Construction and Other Important

ion, is to stagger the cylinders

is

and use side-by-side rods in the Curtiss engine. Each rod may be fitted as done independently of the other and perfect compensation for
wear of the big ends
is possible.

Cam-Shaft and Crank-Shaft Design

CAM-SHAFT AND CRANK-SHAFT DESIGN

313

Before going extensively into the subject of crankshaft construction it will be well to consider cam-shaft
design, which is properly a part of the valve system and which has been considered in connection with the other

elements which have to do directly with cylinder construcsome extent. Cam-shafts are usually simple members carried at the base of the cylinder in the engine case of Vee type motors by suitable bearings and having the cams employed to lift the valves attached at intervals. Two typical cam-shaft design is shown at Fig. 133. main methods of cam-shaft construction are followed
tion to

Bt

Fig.

133.

Typical

Cam-Shaft, with Valve Lifting Cams and Gears to Operate Auxiliary Devices Forged Integrally.

that in which the

pinned to the shaft,

formed

integral,

cams are separate members, keyed and and the other where the cams are the latter being the most suitable for
.

airplane engine requirements. The cam-shafts shown at Figs. 133 and 134, B, are of the latter type, as the cams are machined integrally. In

cams but also the gears used in driving the auxiliary shafts are forged integral. This is a more expensive construction, because of the .high initial .cost of forging dies as well as the greater expense of machining. It has ther advantage over the other form in which the cams are keyed in place in that it is stronger,
this case not only the

and as the cams are a part of the shaft they can never become loose, as 'might be possible where they are separately formed and assembled on a simple shaft. The importance of the crank-shaft has been previously

314

Aviation Engines

considered, and some of its forms have been shown in views of the motors presented in earlier portions of this work. The crank-shaft is one of the parts subjected to the greatest strain and extreme care is needed in its con-

Fig.

134.

Important Parts of Duesenberg Aviation Engine.

Three

Main Bearing Crank-Shaft. B Cam-Shaft with Integral Cams. C Piston and Connecting Rod Assembly. D Valve Eocker Group. E Piston. F Main Bearing Brasses.

and design, because practically the entire duty of transmitting the power generated by the motor to the
struction

gearset devolves upon

it.

Crank-shafts are usually

made

of high tensile strength steel of special composition. They may be made in four ways, the most common being ,from

Crank-Shaft Construction

315

a drop or machine forging which is formed approximately to the shape of the finished shaft and in rare instances (experimental motors only) they may be steel castings. Sometimes they are made from machine f orgings, where considerably more machine work is necessary than would be the case where the shaft is formed between dies. Some engineers favor blocking the shaft out of a solid slab of metal and then machining this rough blank to form. In some radial-cylinder motors of the Gnome and

Fig. 135.

Forging Before Machining.

ing Crank-Shaft.

Showing Method of Making Crank-Shaft. A The Rough Steel B The Finished Six-Throw, Seven-Bear-

Le Ehone type the crank-shafts are built up of two pieces, held together by taper fastenings or bolts. The form of the shaft depends on the number of cylinders and the form has material influence on the method of construction. For instance, a four-cylinder crank-shaft could be made by either of- the methods outlined.
is

forging process, because if drop forged or cut from the blank it will have to be heated and the crank throws bent around so that the pins will lie in three planes one hundred and twenty degrees apart, while the other types described need no further attention, as the crank-pins lie in planes one hundred and eighty degrees apart. This can be better understood by referring to Fig. 135, which shows a six-cylinder shaft
best
in the

On the other hand, a made by the machine

three- or six-cylinder shaft

rough and finished stages.

At

the appearance

316

Aviation Engines

moved
is

of the machine forging before any of the material is reis shown, while at B the appearance of the finished
is

crank-shaft

clearly depicted.

The

built-up crank-shaft

seldom used on multiple-cylinder motors, except in

Fig.

136.

Showing

Form

of

Crank-Shaft

for

Twin-Cylinder

Opposed

Power

Plant.

some cases where the crank-shafts revolve on ball bearings as in some automobile racing engines. Crank-shaft form will vary with a number of cylinders and it is possible to use a number of different arrangements of crank-pins and bearings for the same number

Fig.

137.

Crank-Shaft

of.

Thomas-Morse Eight-Cylinder Vee Engine.

of cylinders.

The simplest form

of crank-shaft is that

used on simple radial cylinder motors as it would consist of but one crank-pin, .two webs, and the crank-shaft. As the number of cylinders increase in Vee motors as a general rule

more crank-pins are

used.

The crank- shaft that

Crank-Shaft Construction

317

would be used on a two-cylinder opposed motor is shown at Fig. 136. This has two throws and the crank-pins are
spaced 180 degrees apart. The bearings are exceptionFour-cylinder crank- shafts may have two, ally long. three or five main bearings and three or four crank-pins. In some forms of two-bearing crank-shafts, such as used when four-cylinders are cast in a block, or unit casting,

Fig. 138.

Crank-Case and Crank-Shaft Construction for Twelve-Cylinder Motors. A Duesenberg. B Curtiss.

two of the pistons are attached

to one

common

crank-

pin, so that in reality the crank-shaft has but three crankpins. typical three bearing, four-cylinder crank-shaft

is shown at Fig. 134, A. The same type can be used for an eight-cylinder Vee engine, except for the greater length of crank-pins to permit of side by side rods as shown at Six cylinder vertical tandem and twelve-cylinFig. 137. der Vee engine crank-shafts usually have four or seven main bearings depending upon the disposition of the crank-pins and arrangement of cylinders. At Fig. 138, A,

318

Aviation Engines

the bottom view of a twelve-cylinder engine with bottom

removed is given. This illustrates the arrangement of main bearings when the crankclearly shaft is supported, on four journals. The crank-shaft
half of crank case

shown
type.
.

at Fig. 138, B. is a twelve-cylinder seven-bearing

In some automobile engines, extremely good results have been secured in obtaining steady running with mini-

/\
>Main Bearing
No.
I

/,

Balance weights forged

integrally with shaft

Main

Bearing No.3
n\

-.-Balance weights bolted on

Balance weights-

Fig.

139.

Counterbalanced Crank-Shafts Eeduce Engine Vibration and Permit of Higher Rotative Speeds.

mum

vibration by counterbalancing the crank-shafts as outlined at Fig. 139. The shaft at is a- type suitable for a high speed four-cylinder vertical or an eight-cylin-

der Vee type. That at B is for a six-cylinder vertical or a twelve-cylinder V with scissors joint rods. If counterbalancing crank-shafts helps in an automobile engine, it should have advantages of some moment in airplane engines, even though the crank-shaft weight is greater.

B all-Bearing

Crank-Shafts

319

BALL-BEARING CRANK-SHAFTS

While crank-shafts are usually supported in plain journals there seems to be a growing tendency of late to use anti-friction bearings of the ball type for their This is especially noticeable on block motors support. where but two main bearings are utilized. When ball bearings are selected with proper relation to the load which obtains they will give very satisfactory service. They permit the crank- shaft to turn with minimum friction, and if properly selected will never need adjustment. The front end is supported by a bearing which is clamped in such a manner that it will take a certain amount of load in a direction parallel to the axis of the shaft, while the rear end is so supported that the outer race of the bearing has a certain amount of axial freedom or "float." The inner race or cone of each bearing is firmly clamped against shoulders on the crank-shaft. At the front end of the crank- shaft timing gear and a suitable check nut are used, while at the back end the bearing is clamped by a threaded retention member between the fly-wheel and a shoulder on the crank-shaft. The fly-wheel is held in place by a taper and key retention. The ball bearings are carried in a light housing of bronze or malleable iron, which in turn are held in the crank-case by bolts. The Kenault engine uses ball bearings at front and rear ends of the crank-shaft, but has plain bearings around intermediate crank-shaft journals. The rotary engines of the

Gnome, Le Rhone and Clerget forms would not be pracbearings were not used as the bearing friction and consequent depreciation would be very high.
tical if ball

ENGINE-BASE CONSTRUCTION

One of the important parts of the power plant is the substantial casing or bed member, which is employed to support the cylinders and crank-shaft and which is attached directly to the fuselage engine supporting

mem-

320
bers.

Aviation Engines

This will vary widely in form, but as a general is an approximately cylindrical member which thing be divided either vertically or horizontally in two may
it

or more parts. Airplane engine crank-cases are usually made of aluminum, a material which has about the same

strength as cast iron, but which only weighs a third as much. In rare cases cast iron is employed, but is not

favored by most engineers because of

its brittle

nature,

Fig. 140.

View

of Thomas 135 Horse-Power Aeromotor, Model Conventional Method of Crank-Case Construction.

8,

Showing

great weight and low resistance to tensile stresses. Where exceptional strength is needed alloys of bronze may be used, and in some cases where engines are produced in large quantities a portion of the crank-case may be a sheet steel or aluminum stamping. Crank-cases are always large enough to permit the crank-shaft and parts attached to it to turn inside and
obviously its length is determined by the number of cylinders and their disposition. The crank-case of the radial cylinder or double-opposed cylinder engine would be subThat of a four-cylinder stantially the same in length.

Crank-Case Construction
will

321
cylin-

vary in length with the method of casting the

the four-cylinders are cast in one unit and a two-bearing crank-shaft is used, the crank-case is a very
der.

When

Fig. 141.

Views of Upper Half of Thomas Aeromotor Crank-Case.

compact and short member. When a three-bearing crankshaft is utilized and the cylinders are cast in pairs, the engine base is longer than it would be to support a block casting, but is shorter than one designed to sustain in-

322

Aviation Engines

It is

dividual cylinder castings and a five-bearing crank-shaft. now common construction to cast an oil container

integral with the bottom of the engine base and -to draw the lubricating oil from it by means of a pump, as shown at Fig. 140. The arms by which the motor is supported
Exhaust
Inlet Ports

Exhaust Ports

Note: Rigidity and cleanliness ofdesign

t

Right

Hand

Cylinder Block

also central inlet port locations for even distribution of gas

Exhaust Ports r ..
Inlet Ports
\

,(9/7

Duct to Cam Shaft Bearing and Front Gear Case

Exhaust Ports

''Crank Shaft

Bearing

Oil Ports
'Oil

Return

/y

fe

Left

Hand Cylinder Block Casting

Bearing Supports

Fig.

142.
if

Method of Constructing Eight-Cylinder Vee Engine, Possible Aluminum Cylinder and Crank-Case Castings are Used.

Crank-Case

Construction

323
cast inte-

in the fuselage are substantial-ribbed grally with the upper half.

members

The approved method of crank-case construction favored by the majority of engineers is shown at the top of Fig. 141, bottom side up. The upper half not only forms a bed for the cylinder but is used to hold the crank-shaft as well. In the illustration, the three-bearing boxes form
part of the case, while the .lower brasses are in the form

Fig. 143.

Simple and Compact Crank-Case, Possible Engine Design is Followed.

When

Radial Cylinder

of separately cast caps retained by suitable bolts. In the construction outlined the bottom part of the case serves merely as an oil container and a protection for

the interior,

mechanism of the motor.

held

down by means

The cylinders are of studs screwed into the crank-case

top, as

shown at Fig. 141, lower view. If the aluminum cylinder motor has any future, the method of construction outlined at Fig. 142, which has been used in cast iron for an automobile motor, might be used for an eight-

The simplicity of cylinder Vee engine for airplane use. the crank-case needed for a revolving cylinder motor and its small weight can be well understood by examination of the illustration at Fig. 143, which shows the engine crank-case for the nine-cylinder "Monosoupape"

Gnome

This consists" of two accurately machined held together by bolts as clearly indicated. forgings
engine.

CHAPTER X
Power Plant
Installation Curtiss OX 2 Engine Mounting and Operating Rules Standard S. A. E. Engine Bed Dimensions Hall-Scott Engine Installation and Operation Fuel System Rules Ignition System Water System: Preparations to Start Engine Mounting Radial and Rotary Engines Practical Hints to Locate Engine Troubles All Engine Troubles Summarized Location of Engine Troubles Made Easy.

is

The proper installation of the airplane power plant more important than is generally supposed, as while these engines are usually well balanced and run with little

vibration, it is necessary that they be securely anchored and that various connections to the auxiliary parts be

carefully made in order to prevent breakage from vibration and that attendant risk of motor stoppage while in

The type of motor to be installed determines the method of installation to be followed. As a general rule six-cylinder vertical engine and eight-cylinder Vee The type are mounted in substantially the same way. fixed cylinder forms and the radial, rotary cylinradial, der Gnome and Ehone rotary types require an entirely Some unconventional different method of mounting. have been devised, notably that shown at Fig. mountings 144, which is a six-cylinder German engine that is installed in just the opposite way to that commonly folThe inverted cylinder construction is not genlowed.
the air.

even with pressure feed, dry crank-case type lubricating system there is considerable danger of over-lubrication and of oil collecting and carbonizing in the combustion chamber and gumming up the valve action much quicker than would be the case if
erally

followed because

the engine
tion.

to

was operated in the conventional upright posiThe reason for mounting an engine in this way is obtain a lower center of gravity and also to make for
324

Power Plant

Installation

325
of the fuselage this slight ad-

more perfect streamlining of the front end It is rather doubtful if in some cases.

vantage will compensate for the disadvantages introduced by this unusual construction. It is not used to any extent now but is presented merely to show one of the possible systems of installing an airplane engine. In a number of airplanes of the tractor-biplane type the power plant installation is not very much different

**

jk

--, \

slk^^^^^^>.

/ /

Fig. 144.

Unconventional Mounting of German Inverted Cylinder Motor.

found in automobile practice. The illustration at Fig. 145- is a very clear representation of the method of mounting the Curtiss eight-cylinder 90 H. P. or model 0X2 engine in the fuselage of the Curtiss JN4 tractor biplane which is so generally used in the United States as a training machine. It will be observed that the fuel tank is mounted under a cowl directly behind the motor and that it feeds the carburetor by means of a
is

than that which

326

Aviation Engines

flexible fuel pipe. As the tank is mounted higher than the The carburetor, it will feed that member by gravity.
is mounted at the front end of the fuselage and connected to the water piping on the motor ,by the usual rubber hose connections. An oil pan is placed under the engine and the top is covered with a hood just as in motor car practice. The panels of aluminum are attached

radiator

Fig.

145.

How

Curtiss

Curtiss Tractor Biplane. Power Plant.

Model OX2 Motor is Installed in Fuselage of Note Similarity of Mounting to Automobile

to the sides of the fuselage and are supplied with doors which open and provide access to the carburetor, oil-

gauge and other parts of the motor requiring inspection. The complete installation with the power plant enclosed is given at Fig. 146, and in this it will be observed that
the exhaust pipes are connected to discharge members that lead the gases above the top plane. In the engine

shown

at the sides of the

at Fig. 145 the exhaust flows' directly into the air machine through short pipes bolted to
outlet

the exhaust gas

ports.

The

installation

of the

327

328

Aviation Engines

radiator just back of the tractor screw insures that adequate cooling will be obtained because of the rapid air flow due to the propeller slip stream.

INSTALLATION OF CURTISS OX 2 ENGINE

The following instructions are given in the Curtiss Instruction Book for installing the 0X2 engine and preparing it for flights, and taken in connection with the very

Flexible

Exhaust Discharge Pipes

/r Exhaust

Manifolds
Radiator,

\\

Fig.

Front View of L. W. F. Tractor Biplane Fuselage, Showing Installing Thomas Aeromotor and Method of Disposing of Exhaust Gases.
147.

Method of

clear illustration presented no difficulty should be experienced in understanding the proper installation, and mount-

ing of this power plant. The bearers or beds should be 2 inches wide by 3 inches deep, preferably of laminated hard wood, and placed 11% inches apart. They must be well braced. The six arms of the base of the motor are

Curtis
drilled for

OX2
bolts,

Engine

Installation
this
size

329
should

%-inch

and none but

be used.
1. Anchoring the Motor. Put the bolts in from the bottom, with a large washer under the head of each so the head cannot cut into the wood. On every bolt use a castellated nut and a cotter pin, or an ordinary nut and a lock washer, so the bolt will not work loose. Always set motor in place and fasten before attaching any auxiliary apparatus, such as carburetor, etc. 2. Inspecting the Ignition-Sivitch Wires. The wires leading from the ignition switch must be properly connected one end to the motor body for ground, and the other end to the post on the breaker box of the magneto. 3. Filling the Radiator. Be sure that the water from the radiator fills the cylinder jackets. Pockets of air remain in the cylinder jackets even though the may Turn the motor over a few radiator may appear full. times by hand after filling the radiator, and then add more water if the radiator will take it. The air pockets, if allowed to remain, may cause overheating and develop serious trouble when the motor is running. 4. Filling the Oil Reservoir. Oil is admitted into the crank-case through the breather tube at the rear. It is well to strain all oil put into the crank-case. In filling the oil reservoir be sure to turn the handle on the oil sightgauge till it is at right angles with the gauge. The oil sight-gauge is on the side of the lower half of the crankcase. Put in about 3 gallons of the best obtainable oil, Mobile B recommended. It is important to remember

that the very best oil

5.

is

none too good.

Exposed Moving Parts. Oil all rocker-arm before each flight. little oil should be applied bearings where the push rods pass through the stirrup straps. 6. Filling the Gasoline Tanks. Be certain that all connections in the gasoline system are tight. 7. Turning on the Gasoline. Open the cock leading from the gasoline tank to the carburetor. 8. Charging the Cylinders. With the ignition switch
Oiling

330

Aviation Engines

OFF, prime the motor by squirting a little gasoline in each exhaust port and then turn the propeller backward two revolutions. Never open the exhaust valve by operating the rocker-arm by hand, as the push-rod is liable to
come out of
9.

its

socket in the

cam

follower and bend the

rocker-arm when

the motor turns over.

Starting the Motor Toy Hand. Always retard the spark part way, to prevent back-firing, by pulling forward the wire attached. to the breaker box. Failure to so retard the spark in starting may result in serious injury to the operator. Turn on the ignition switch with throttle partly open; give a quick, strong pull down and outward on the starting crank or propeller. As soon as the motor is started advance the spark by releasing the retard wire.
10. Oil Circulation.

Let the motor run at low speed

for a few minutes in order to establish oil circulation in

all

bearings.

throttle
flight.
*

may

With all parts functioning properly, the be opened gradually for warming up before
S.A.E.

STANDAKD

ENGINE BED DIMENSIONS

of Automotive Engineers have made efforts to standardize dimensions of bed timbers for sup-

The Society

porting power plant in an aeroplane. Owing to the great difference in length no standardization is thought possible The dimensions recommended are as in this regard. follows
:

Distance between timbers ....... Width of bed timbers .......... Distance between centers of bolts.

12
1

in.

14
1

in.

16
18

in.

%
1

in.
in.

in.
in.

2 in.
in.

IS

15%

It will

be evident that

if

any standard of

this nature

were adopted by engine builders that the designers of fuselage could easily arrange their bed timbers to conform to these dimensions, whereas it would be difficult to have them adhere to any standard longitudinal dimensions which are much more easily varied in fuselages
than the transverse dimensions are.
It,

however, should

Standard Engine Bed Dimensions

331

332

Aviation Engines

be possible to standardize the longitudinal positions of the holding down bolts as the engine designer would still be able to allow himself considerable space fore-and-aft
of the bolts.

HALL-SCOTT ENGINE INSTALLATION

The very thorough manner in which installation diagrams are prepared by the leading engine makers leaves nothing to the imagination. The dimensions of the HallScott four-cylinder airplane engine are given clearly in

Fig. 149.

Plan and Side Elevation of HaU-Scott A-7 Four-Cylinder Airplane Engine, with Installation Dimensions.

Engine Installation

333

our inch measurements with the metric equivalents at Figs. 148 and 149, the former showing a vertical elevation while the latter has a plan view and side elevation.

The installation of this engine in airplanes is clearly shown at Figs. 150 and 151, the former having the radiator installed at the front of the motor and having all
exhaust pipes joined to one

common

discharge funnel,

Fig. 150.

CENSORED

which deflects the gas ove'r the top plane while the latter has the radiator placed vertically above the motor at the back end and has a direct exhaust gas discharge to
the air.

The dimensions of the, six-cylinder Hall-Scott motor is known as the type A-5 125 H. P. are given at Fig. 152, which is an end sectional elevation, and at Fig. 153, which is a plan view. The dimensions are given both in inch sizes and the metric equivalents. The appearance
which

334

Aviation Engines

is

of a Hall-Scott six-cylinder engine installed in a fuselage given at Fig. 154, while a diagram showing the loca-

and the various pipes leading to the The following auxiliary groups is outlined at Fig. 155. instructions for installing the Hall-Scott power plant are
tion of the engine

Fig. 151.

CENSORED

Engine Installation

335

Fig. 152.

CENSORED

336

Aviation Engines

reproduced from the instruction book issued by the maker. Operating instructions which are given should enable any good mechanic to make a proper installation and to keep
the engine in good running condition.

FUEL SYSTEM INSTALLATION

Gasoline giving the best results with this equipment as follows: Gravity 58-62 deg. Baume A. Initial boiling point Eichmond method 102 Fahr. Sulphur .014.
is

"

-A*-- 6'/z"-*#"6'/ 2 "~l\

I/I

"*

/6*- J/1/65MW.J/

Fig. 153.

Plan View of Hall-Scott Type A-5 125 Horse-Power Airplane

Engine, Showing Installation Dimensions.

Calorimetric bomb test 20610 B. T. IL per pound. If the gasoline tank is placed in the fuselage below the level of the carburetor, a hand pump must be used to maintain
buretor.
air pressure in gas tank to force the gasoline to the carAfter starting the engine the small auxiliary air

pump upon

the engine will maintain sufficient pressure.

A-7a and A-5a engines are furnished with a new type auxiliary air pump. This should be frequently oiled and care taken so no grit or sand will enter which might lodge between the valve and its seat, which would make it fail

An air relief valve is furnished with each engine. It should be screwed into the gas tank and properly regulated to maintain the pressure required.
to operate properly.

Hall-Scott Engine Installation

337

This is done by screwing the ratchet on top either up or down. If two tanks are used in a plane one should be installed in each tank. All air pump lines should be care-

Fig.

154. Three-Quarter View of Hall-Scott Type A-5 125 Horse-Power Six-Cylinder Engine, with One of the Side Radiators Removed to Show Installation in Standard Fuselage.

338

Engine
fully

Installation

339

gone over quite frequently to ascertain if they are Check values have to be placed in these lines. In tight. some cases the gasoline tank is placed above the engine,
allowing
it

to drain

by gravity

to the carburetor.

When

using this system there should be a drop of .not less than two feet from the lowest portion of the gasoline tank to

Even the upper part of the carburetor float chamber. this height might not be sufficient to maintain the proper volume of gasoline to the carburetor at high speeds. Air
pressure is advised upon all tanks to insure the proper supply of gasoline. When using gravity feed without air pressure be sure to vent the tank to allow circulation of air. If gravity tank is used and the engine runs satisfactorily at low speeds but cuts out at high speeds the trouble is undoubtedly due to insufficient height of the tank above the carburetor. The tank should be raised or
air pressure

system used.
IGNITION SWITCHES

Two " DIXIE"

gine.
seat,

Both of these should be

switches are furnished with each eninstalled in the pilot's

one controlling the E. H., and the other the L. H. magneto. By shorting either one or the other it can be quickly determined if both magnetos, with their respective spark-plugs, are working correctly. Care should be taken not to use spark-plugs having special extensions or long protruding points. Plugs giving best results are extremely small with short points.

WATER SYSTEMS
temperature gauge should be installed in the water pipe, coming directly from the cylinder nearest the proThis instrument inpeller (note illustration above). stalled in the radiator cap has not always given satisThis is especially noticeable when the factory results. water in the radiator becomes low, not allowing it to touch the bulb on the moto-meter. For ordinary running,

340
it

Aviation Engines

should not indicate over 150 degrees Fahr. In climbing tests, however, a temperature of 160 degrees Fahr. can be maintained without any ill effects upon the enIn case the engine becomes overheated, the indigine. cator will register above 180 degrees Fahr., in which case it should be stopped immediately. Overheating is most
generally caused by retarded spark, excessive carbon in the cylinders, insufficient lubrication, improperly timed
valves, lack of water, clogging of water system in way which would obstruct the free circulation of

any
the

water.

Overheating will cause the engine to knock, with posdamaging results. Suction pipes should be made out of thin tubing, and run within a quarter or an eighth of an inch of each other, so that when a hose is placed over the two, it will not be possible to suck together. This is often the case when a long rubber hose is used, which causes overheating. Eadiators should be flushed
sible

out and cleaned thoroughly quite often. may cause overheating.

dirty radiator

very important to repump until water This is to avoid air pockets being formed in the appears. circulating system, which might not only heat up the engine, but cause considerable damage. All water pump hoses and connections should be tightly taped and shelfilling
it

When

the radiator

is

move

the plug on top of the water

lacked after the engine is properly installed in the plane. The greatest care should be taken when making engine installation not to use smaller inside diameter hose connection than water pump suction end casting. One inch and a quarter inside diameter should be used on A-7 and A-5 motors, while nothing less than one inch and a half
.

inside diameter hose or tubing on all A-7a

and A-5a

en-

gines. It is further important to have light spun tubing, void of any sharp turns, leads from pump to radiator and In other words, the cylinder water outlet to radiator. water circulation through the engine must be as little restricted as possible. Be sure no light hose is used, that

Preparations to Start Engine

will often suck together

341

when engine

is started.

To

thor-

oughly drain the water from the entire system, open the drain cock at the lowest side of the water pump.
PREPARATIONS TO START ENGINE

which

Always replenish gasoline tanks through a strainer is clean. This strainer must catch all water and Pour at least three other impurities in the gasoline.

Oil all gallons of fresh oil into the lower crank-case. rocker arms through oilers upon rocker arm housing caps.

within one inch of the top. After all the parts are oiled, and the tanks filled, the following must be looked after before starting: See if crank-shaft flange is tight on shaft. See if propeller bolts are tight and evenly drawn up. See if propeller bolts are wired. See if propeller is trued up tp within %". Every four days the magnetos should be oiled if the
sure radiators are
filled

Be

engine

is

in daily use.
all

cylinder hold-down nuts should be gone over to ascertain if they are tight. (Be sure to recotter nuts.)

Every month

See if magnetos are bolted on tight and wired. See if magneto cables are in good condition. See if rocker arm tappets have a .020" clearance from valve stem when valve is seated. See if tappet clamp screws are tight and cottered. See if all gasoline, oil, water pipes and connections are
in perfect condition.

Air on gas

line should be tested for leaks.

Pump
tank.

at least three

pounds

air pressure into gasoline

After making sure that above rules have been observed, test compression of cylinders by turning propeller.

"DO NOT FORGET TO SHORT BOTH MAGNETOS "

sure all compression release and priming cocks do not leak compression. If they do, replace same with a

Be

342

Aviation Engines
as
this

new one immediately,

firing.

might cause premature

Open priming cocks and

Close cocks.

squirt

some gasoline

into each.

Open compression release Open throttle slightly.

If using Berling

cocks.

magnetos they should be three-quar-

ters advanced.

foregoing directions have been carefully followed, the engine is ready for starting. In cranking engine either by starting crank, or propeller, it is essential to throw it over compression quickly. Immediately upon starting, close compression release
If
all

the

cocks.

engine is running, advance magnetos. has warmed up, short one magneto and then the other, to be sure both magnetos and spark-plugs are If there is a miss, the fouled plug must firing properly. be located and cleaned. There is a possibility that the jets in the carburetor are stopped up. If this is the case, do not attempt to clean same with any sharp instrument.

When
After

it

it might change the opening in the jets, Jets and nozzles should thus spoiling the adjustment. be blown out with air or steam. An open intake or exhaust valve, which might have

If this is done,

become

sluggish or stuck from carbon, might cause trouble. Be sure to remedy this at once by using a little coal-oil or kerosene on same, working the valve by hand
it

until

becomes

free.

We

recommend using graphite on

guard against sticking or

valve stems mixed with undue wear.

oil to

INSTALLING ROTARY AND RADIAL CYLINDER ENGINES

rotary engines are installed simple steel stampor "spiders" are attached to the fuselage to hold the ing fixed crank-shaft. Inasmuch as the motor projects clear of the fuselage proper there is plenty of room back of

When

II
ll

II
M

|S

|i
343

344

Aviation Engines

the front spider plate to install the auxiliary parts such as the oil pump, air pump and ignition magneto and also

and oil containers. The diagram given at Fig. 156 shows how a Gnome "monosoupape" engine is installed on the anchorage plates and it also outlines clearly the piping necessary to convey the oil and fuel and also the air-piping needed to put pressure on both fuel and oil tanks to insure positive supply of these liquids which
the fuel

Air Screw

Motor in
Front

*'Motor in

Rear

Tractor Screw
in

Front

Fig. 157.

Showing Two Methods of Placing Propeller on Gnome Rotary

Motor.

be carried in tanks placed lower than the motor in some installations. The diagram given at Figs. 157 and 158 shows other mountings of Gnome engines and are self-explanatory. The simple mounting possible when the Anzani ten-cylinder radial fixed type engine is used given at Fig. 159. The front end of the fuselage is provided with a substantial pressed steel plate having members projecting from it which may be bolted to the longerons. The bolts that hold the two halves of the crankcase together project through the steel plate and hold the

may

engine securely to the front end of the fuselage.

Location of Engine Troubles

.

345

PRACTICAL HINTS TO LOCATE ENGINE TROUBLES

One who
menting and

is

not thoroughly familiar with engine con-

struction will seldom locate troubles

it

by haphazard experi-

only by a systematic search that the cause can be discovered and the defects eliminated. In this chapter the writer proposes to outline some of the most common power-plant troubles and to give sufficient
is

'Front Engine

Upper Longeron

Upper
^

Support

Longerons-,^

Rear Engine Support

.Crank-Shaft

^=
'Carburetor"

Tractor

Screw

'-Lower

*~-

Longeron

Lower Longerons-'

Side View
Fig.
158.

Front View

How Gnome

Eotary Motor May Be Fuselage Members.

Attached to Airplane

advice to enable those

to locate

who

are not thoroughly informed

them by a

logical process of elimination.

The

internal-combustion motor, which is the power plant of all gasoline automobiles as well as airplanes, is composed of a number of distinct groups, which in turn include distinct

components. These various appliances are so closely related to each other that defective action of any one may

interrupt the operation of the entire power plant. Some of the auxiliary groups are more necessary than others

and the power

-plant will continue to operate for a time even after the failure of some important parts of some

of the auxiliary groups.

The gasoline engine

in itself is

346

Aviation Engines

a complete mechanism, but it is evident that it cannot deliver any power without some means of supplying gas to the cylinders and igniting the compressed gas charge
after
it

has been compressed in the cylinders.

From

this

Fixed Cylinder Radial Engine

Engine
Supporting
P/ai-e

\
J~

Fig. 159.

How Anzani Ten-Cylinder Eadial Engine is Installed to Plate Securely Attached to Front End of Tractor Airplane Fuselage.

Typical Engine Stoppage Analyzed

it is

347

patent that the ignition and carburetion systems are just as essential parts of the power plant as the piston, connecting rod, or cylinder of the motor. The failure of either the carburetor or igniting means to function properly will be immediately apparent by faulty action of the

power

plant.

To
is

insure that the motor will continue to operate

it

it

from overheating by some form of keep and to supply oil to the moving parts to cooling system reduce friction. The cooling and lubrication groups are not so important as carburetion and ignition, as the engine would run for a limited period of time even should the cooling system fail or the oil supply cease. It would only be a few moments, however, before the engine would overheat if the cooling system was at fault, and the parts
necessary to
seize if the lubricating system should fail. Any derangein the carburetor or ignition mechanism would manifest itself at once because the engine operation would be

ment

affected, but a defect in the cooling or not be noticed so readily. The careful aviator will always mechanism before starting on a trip and if inspection is carefully carried

oiling

system would

inspect the motor of any consequence, out and loose parts

seldom that irregular operation will be found due to actual breakage of any of the components Deterioration due to natural causes of the mechanism. matures slowly, and sufficient warning is always given when parts begin to wear so satisfactory repairs may be
tightened
it

is

promptly made before serious derangement or failure

manifested.

is

A TYPICAL ENGINE STOPPAGE ANALYZED

Before describing the points that may fail in the various auxiliary systems it will be well to assume a typical case of engine failure and show the process of locating the trouble in a systematic manner by indicating the various steps which are in logical order and which could

348

Aviation Engines
In any case of engine failure the

reasonably be followed.

ignition system, motor compression, and carburetor should be tested first. If the ignition system is functioning prop-

erly one should determine the

all

cylinders and

of compression in if this is satisfactory the carbureting

amount

group should be tested. If the ignition system is working properly and there is a decided resistance in the cylinders

LJ UJ "-assas. 35-~**

LJ

Fig.

160.

Side Elevation of

Thomas 135 Horse-Power Airplane Engine, Giving Important Dimensions.

the propeller is turned, proving that there is good compression, one may suspect the carburetor. If the carburetor appears to be in good condition, the trouble may be caused by the ignition being out of time, which condition is possible when the magneto timing gear or coupling is attached to the armature shaft by a taper and nut retention instead of the more positive key or taper-pin fastening. It is possible that the inlet manifold may be broken or perforated, that the exhaust valve is stuck on its seat because of a broken or bent stem, broken or loose cam, or failure of the cam-shaft drive because the teeth are stripped from the engine shaft or cam-shaft

when

Engine Troubles Summarized

gears;

349

'or because the key or other fastening on either has failed, allowing that member to turn independgear ently of the shaft to which it normally is attached. The gasoline feed pipe may be clogged or broken, the fuel

Fig. 161.

Front Elevation of Thomas-Morse 135 Horse-Power Aeromotor,

Showing Main Dimensions.

supply
be

line line
filled

may be depleted, or the shut-off cock in the gasomay have jarred closed. The gasoline filter may
with dirt or water which prevents passage of the
defects outlined above, except the failure of the

fuel.

The

350

Aviation Engines

gasoline supply, are very rare, and if the container is found to contain fuel and the pipe line to be clear to the carburetor, it is safe to assume the vaporizing device is
at fault. If fuel continually runs out of the mixing chamber 'the carburetor is said to be flooded. This condition results from failure of the shut-off needle to seat properly or from a punctured hollow metal float or a gasolinesoaked cork float. It is possible that not enough gasoline If the passage controlled is present in the float chamber. the float-needle valve is clogged or if the float was by badly out of adjustment, this contingency would be probWhen the carburetor is examined, if the gasoline able. level appears to be at the proper height, one may suspect that a particle of lint, or dust, or fine scale, or rust from the gasoline tank has clogged the bore of the jet in the

mixing chamber.
system and carburetor appear to be in good working order, and the hand crank shows that there is no compression in one or more of the cylinders, it
If the ignition

means some defect

in the valve system. If the engine is a multiple-cylinder type and one finds poor compression in all of the cylinders it may be due to the rare defect

of improper valve timing. This may be caused by a gear having altered its position on the cam-shaft or crankshaft, because of a sheared

key or pin having permitted

the gear to turn about half of a revolution and then having caught and held the gear in place by a broken or jagged end so that cam-shaft would turn, but the valves

open at the wrong time. If but one of the cylinders is and the rest appear to have good compression trouble may be due to a defective condition either inthe
at fault
side or outside of that cylinder. The external parts may be inspected easily, so the following should be looked for a broken valve, a warped valve-head, broken valve-springs, sticking or bent valve-stems, dirt under valve-seat, leak .Defective at valve-chamber cap or spark-plug gasket.
:

priming cock, cracked* cylinder head (rarely occurs), leak through cracked spark - plug insulation, valve plunger

bO

351

352

Aviation Engines

stuck in the guide, lack of clearance between valve-stem end and top of plunger caused by loose adjusting screw which has worked up and kept the valve from seating. The faulty compression may be due to defects inside the

motor.

The piston-head may be cracked

(rarely occurs),

piston rings

may

be broken, the slots in the piston rings

may

be in

line,

the rings

or have become

gummed

may have lost their elasticity in the groves of the piston, or

the piston and cylinder, walls may be badly scored by a loose wrist pin or by defective lubrication. If the motor is a type with a separate head it is possible the gasket

or packing between the cylinder and combustion chamber may leak, either admitting water to the cylinder or allow-

ing compression to escape.

CONDITIONS THAT CAUSE FAILURE OF IGNITION SYSTEM

If the first test of the

motor had showed that the comseri-

pression was as

it

should be and that there were no

ous mechanical defects and there was plenty of gasoline at the carburetor, this would have demonstrated that the If a batignition system was not functioning properly.
tery is employed to supply current the first step is to take the spark-plugs out of the cylinders and test the system by turning over the engine by hand. If there is no spark in any of the plugs, this may be considered a positive indication that there is a broken main current lead from
the battery, a defective ground connection, a loose battery terminal, or a broken connector. If none of these conditions are present, it is safe to say that the battery

no longer capable of delivering current. While magneto ignition is generally used on airplane engines, there is apt to be some development of battery ignition, espeis

cially

on engines equipped with electric self-starters which are now being experimented with. The spark-plugs may be short circuited by cracked insulation or carbon and The secondary wires oil deposits around the electrode. may be broken or have defective insulation which permits

Ignition System Failure

353

the current to ground to some metal part of the fuselage The electrodes of the spark-plug may be too or motor.

far apart to permit a spark to overcome the resistance of the compressed gas, even if a spark jumps the air
space, when the plug is laid on the cylinder. If magnetos are fitted as is usually the case at present and a spark is obtained between the points of the plug

and that device or the wire leading

is

to

it

from the magneto

in proper condition, the trouble is probably caused by the magneto being out of time. This may result if the

driving gear

is

loose on

the

armature-shaft or crank-

shaft, and is a rare occurrence. If no spark is produced at the plugs the secondary wire may be broken, the ground wire may make contact with some metallic portion of the

brushes

it reaches the switch, the carbon collecting be broken or not making contact, the contact points of the make-and-break device may be out of adjustment, the wiring may be attached to wrong terminals, the distributor filled with metallic particles, carbon, dust or

chassis before

may

accumulations, the distributor contacts may not be making proper connection because of wear and there may
oil

be a more serious derangement, such as a burned out secondary winding or a punctured condenser. If the motor runs intermittently, i.e., starts and runs only a few revolutions, aside from the conditions previously outlined, defective operation may be due to seizing between parts because of insufficient oil or deficient cooling, too much oil in the crank-case which fouls the cylinder after the crank-shaft has revolved a few turns,

and derangements in the ignition or carburetion systems that may be easily remedied. There are a number of defective conditions which may exist in the ignition group, that will result in "skipping" or irregular operation and
the

following points should be considered first: weak source of current due to worn out dry cells or discharged

storage batteries; weak magnets in magneto, or defective contacts at magneto; dirt in magneto distributor or poor contact at collecting brushes. Dirty or cracked insulator

356

Aviation Engines

justed and the mixture delivered the cylinder burns properly, the exhaust gas will be clean and free from .the
objectionable
excess.

odor present when gasoline

of combustion

is

burned

in

The character
is

may

color of the flame which issues

from

it

be judged by the when the engine

If the
If yellowish,

running with an open throttle after nightfall.

is red, it

flame
it

indicates too

much

gasoline.

shows an excess of air, while a properly proportioned mixture will be evidenced by a pronounced blue flame,
such as given by a gas-stove burner. The Duplex Model 0. D. Zenith carburetor used upon most of the six- and eight-cylinder airplane engines consists of a single float chamber, and a single air intake, joined to two separate and distinct spray nozzles, venturi and idling adjustments. It is to be noted that as the carburetor barrels are arranged side by side, both valves are mounted on the same shaft, and work in unison through a single operating lever. It is not necessary to In order to make the engine idle alter their position.
well, it is essential that the ignition, especially the spark-

good condition. The gaskets between carburetor and manifold, and between manifold and cylinders should be absolutely air-tight. The adjustment for low speed on the carburetor is made by turning in or out the two knurled screws, placed one on each side of the After starting the engine and allowing it float chamber. to become thoroughly warmed, one side of the carburetor
plugs, should be in

should be adjusted so that the three cylinders it affects The other side should be fire properly at low speed. in the same manner until all six cylinders fire adjusted As the adjustment is changed perfectly at low speed. difference in the idling of the enon the knurled screw a gine should be noticed. If the engine begins to run evenly or speeds up it shows that the mixture becomes right in
its

proportion. sure the butterfly throttle is closed as far as possible by screwing out the stop screw which regulates the

Be

Zenith Carburetor Adjustments

357

closed position for Idling. Care should be taken to have the butterfly held firmly against this stop screw at all times while idling engine. If three cylinders seem to run

irregularly after changing the position of the butterfly, still another adjustment may have to be made with the

knurled

makes the mixture some of the air supply to leaner. Screwing the idling jet, making it richer. After one side has been made to idle satisfactorily repeat the same procedure with
screw.

Unscrewing

this

in closes off

In other words, each side the opposite three cylinders. should be idled independently to about the same speed.

Eemember that the main jet and compensating jet have no appreciable effect on the idling of the engine. The idling mixture is drawn directly through the opening determined by the knurled screw and enters the carburetor barrel through the small hole at the edge of each This is called the priming hole and is only butterfly. effective during idling. Beyond that point the suction is transferred to the main jet and compensator, which controls the power of the engine beyond the idling position
of the throttle.

DEFECTS IN OILING SYSTEMS

While troubles existing in the ignition or carburetion groups are usually denoted by imperfect operation of the motor, such as lost power, and misfiring, derangements of the lubrication or cooling systems are usually
evident by overheating, diminution in engine capacity, or

Overheating may be caused by poor noisy operation. carburetion as much as by deficient cooling or insufficient When the oiling group is not functioning as it oiling. should the friction between the motor parts produces heat. If the cooling system is in proper condition, as will be evidenced by the condition of the water in the radiator, and the carburetion group appears to be in good condition, the overheating is probably caused by some defect
in the oiling system. The conditions that

most commonly result

in

poor

358
lubrication are:

Aviation Engines

Insufficient oil in the engine crank-case or sump, broken or clogged oil pipes, screen at filter filled with lint or dirt, broken oil pump, or defective oil-pump

be reduced by a defective inlet or discharge-check valve at the mechanical oiler or worn pumps. clogged oil passage or pipe leading to an important bearing point will cause trouble because the oil cannot get between the working surfaces. It is well to remember that much of the trouble caused by defective oiling may be prevented by using only the best grades of lubricant, and even if all parts of the oil system are working properly, oils of poor quality will cause
drive.
oil

The supply of

may

friction

and overheating.
DEFECTS IN COOLING SYSTEMS OUTLINED

Cooling systems are very simple and are not liable to give trouble as a rule if the radiator is kept full of clean water and the circulation is not impeded. When over-

due to defective cooling the most common troubles are those that impede water circulation. If the radiator is clogged or the piping of water jackets filled with rust or sediment the speed of water circulation will be slow, which will also be the case if the water pump or its driving means fail. Any scale or sediment in the water
heating
is

jackets or in the piping or radiator passages will reduce the heat conductivity of the metal exposed to the air, and the water will not be cooled as quickly as though the scale

was not present.

rubber hose often used in making the flexible connections demanded between the radiator and water manifolds of the engine may deteriorate inside and particles of rubber hang down that will reduce the area of
TJie

the passage. The grease from the grease cups mounted on the pump- shaft bearing to lubricate that member often
finds its

way

into the waiter system

and rots the inner

walls of the rubber hose, this resulting in strips of the

partly decomposed rubber lining hanging

down and

re-

Cooling System Faults

359

The cooling system is prone to striding the passage. overheat after antifreezing solutions of which calcium chloride forms a part have been used. This is due to the formation of crystals of salt in the radiator passages or water jackets, and these crystals can only be dissolved
by
suitable chemical means, or

removed by scraping when

the construction permits. Overheating is often caused

by some condition

in the

fuel system that produces too rich or too lean mixture.

Excess gasoline may be supplied if any of the following conditions are present: Bore of spray nozzle or standpipe too large, auxiliary air- valve spring too tight, gasoline level too high, loose regulating valve, fuel-soaked
cork
float,

punctured sheet-metal

float,

dirt

under

float

control shut-off valve or insufficient air supply because of a clogged air screen. If pressure feed is utilized there

may

be too

much pressure

trolled

mechanism operating the

in the tank, or the float conshut-off in the float bowl

of the carburetor

may

not act quickly enough.

SOME CAUSES OF NOISY OPEKATION

There are a number of power-plant derangements which give positive indication because of noisy operation. Any knocking or rattling sounds are usually produced by wear in connecting rods or main bearings of the engine, though sometimes a sharp metallic knock, which is very much the same as that produced by a loose bearing, is due to carbon deposits in the cylinder heads, or premature ignition due to advanced spark-time lever. Squeaking sounds invariably indicate dry bearings, and whenever such a sound is heard it should be immediately located and oil applied to the parts thus denoting their dry condition. Whistling or blowing sounds are produced by
leaks, either in the engine itself or in the

gas manifolds. sharp whistle denotes the escape of gas under pressure and is usually caused by a defective packing or gasket that seals a portion of the combustion chamber or that is

360

Aviation Engines

used for a joint as the exhaust manifold. A blowing sound indicates a leaky packing in crank-case. Grinding noises in the motor are usually caused by the timing gears and will obtain if these gears are dry or if they have become worn. Whenever a loud knocking sound is heard careful inspection should be made to locate the cause of the trouble. Much harm may be done in a few minutes if the engine is run with loose connecting rod or bearings that would be prevented by taking up the wear or looseness between the parts by some means of adjustment.
BRIEF

SUMMARY OF HINTS FOR STARTING ENGINE

sure that
all

cylinders have compression. cocks of all cylinders except To ascertain this, open pet the one to be tested, crank over motor and see that a r strong opposition to cranking is met with once in tw o

First

make

motor has no pet cocks, crank and notice that oppositions are met at equal distances, two to every
revolutions.
If

revolution of the starting crank in a four-cylinder motor. If compression is lacking, examine the parts of the cylin-

der or cylinders at fault in the following order, trying to start the motor whenever any one fault is found and remedied. See that the valve push rods or rocker arms do not touch valve stems for more than approximately y2 revolution in every 2 revolutions, and that there is not
.010 to .020 inch clearance between them deon the make of the motor. Make sure that the pending To determine this examine the exhaust valve seats. spring and see that it is connected to the valve stem Take out valve and see that there is no obproperly. See that valve such as carbon, on its seat. struction, Examine inlet valve in same works freely in its guide. manner. Listen for hissing sound while cranking motor

more than

for leaks at other places. Make sure that a spark occurs in each cylinder as follows: If magneto or magneto and battery with non-

vibrating coil

is

used:

Disconnect wire from spark-plug,

Summary
hold end about
plug. curs.

of Hints for Starting

Engine

361

% inch from cylinder

points. See that wires are placed correctly and not short circuited. Take out spark-plug and lay it on the cylinder, being careful that base of plug only touches the cylinder and that ignition wire is connected. Have motor cranked briskly and

Have motor cranked briskly and Examine adjustment of interrupter

or terminal of sparksee if spark oc-

see if spark occurs.

that all brushes are

Check timing of magneto and see making contact.

See
there
clear.

if

is

there is gasoline in the carburetor. See that Examine valve at tank. gasoline in the tank.
see that spray nozzle passage is
is

Prime carburetor and

Be

sure throttle

open.

Prime cylinders by put-

ting about a teaspoonful of gasoline in through pet cock or spark-plug opening. Adjust carburetor if necessary.

LOCATION OF ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY

The following tabulation has been prepared and originated by the writer to outline in a simple manner the various troubles and derangements that interfere with The parts internal-combustion engine action. and their functions are practically the same in all gas or gasoline engines of the four-cycle type, and the general instructions given apply just as well to all hydro-carbon
efficient

engines, even if the parts differ in form materially. The essential components are clearly indicated in the many part sectional drawings in this book so they may be

The various defects that may materialize are tabulated in a manner that makes for ready reference, and the various defective conditions are found opposite the part affected, and under a heading that denotes the main trouble to which the others are conThe various symptoms denoting the tributing causes.
easily recognized.

individual troubles outlined are given to facilitate their

recognition in a positive manner. Brief note is also made of the remedies for the restoration of the defective part or condition.
It is

apparent

362

Aviation Engines

is intended merely as a a compilation of practically all the known troubles that may materialize in gas-engine operation. While most of the defects outlined are common enough to warrant suspicion, they will never exist in an engine all at the same time, and it will be necessary to make a systematic search for such of those as exist. To use the list advantageously, it is necessary to know one main trouble easily recognized. For example, if the power plant is noisy, look for the possible troubles under

that a table of this character

it is

guide, and

the head of Noisy Operation;

if

it

lacks capacity,

the

in all cases that the trouble or its components, and not in power plant the auxiliary members of the ignition, carburetion, lubriThe novice and student will cation, or cooling systems.
It is

derangement Lost Power.

will

undoubtedly be found under the head of

assumed

exists in the

readily recognize the parts of the average aviation engine by referring to the very complete and clearly lettered illustrations of mechanism given in many parts of this
treatise.

Power and Overheating

363

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364
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Aviation Engines

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Noisy Operation of Power Plant

365

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Skipping or Irregular Operation

367

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Ignition System Troubles

369

IGNITION SYSTEM TROUBLES

ONLY

Motor Will Not Start or Starts Hard

Loose Battery Terminal. Magneto Ground Wire Shorted. Magneto Defective (No Spark at Plugs). Broken Spark Plug Insulation. Carbon Deposits or Oil Between Plug Points. Spark-Plug Points Too Near Together or Far Apart.

Wrong

Cables to Plugs. Short Circuited Secondary Cable.

Broken Secondary Cable.

Dry Battery Weak.

Storage Battery Discharged.

Battery Systems
'

Poor Contact at Timer. Timer Points Dirty.

Only.

Poor Contact at Switch. Primary Wires Broken, or Short Circuited. -~ Battery Grounded in Metal Container. ^ 01 1 Ignition T3 n -D T ~ Battery Connectors Broken or Loose. t n Timer Points Out of Adjustment.
j

Defects in Induction Coil.

Ignition Timing Wrong, Spark Too Late or Too Early. Defective Platinum Points in Breaker Box (Magneto). Points Not Separating.

Broken Contact Maker Spring. Contact at Secondary Collector Brush. Platinum Contact Points Burnt or Pitted. Contact Breaker Bell Crank Stuck. Fiber Bushing in Bell Crank Swollen.

No

Short Circuiting Spring Always in Contact. Dirt or Water in Magneto Casing.

Oil in Contact Breaker.

Soaked Brush and Collector Ring. Distributor Filled with Carbon Particles.
Oil

370

Aviation Engines

Motor Stops Without Warning

Broken Magneto Carbon Brush. Broken Lead Wire. Broken Ground Wire.
Battery Ignition Systems.

Water on High Tension Magneto Terminal. Main Secondary Cable Burnt Through by Hot Exhaust
Coil, Magneto Systems). Carbon Between Spark Plug Points. Magneto Short Circuited by Ground Wire. Magneto Out of Time, Due to Slipping Drive. Water or Oil in Safety Spark Gap (Multi-cylinder Mag-

Pipe (Transformer

Particle of

neto).

Magneto Contact Breaker or Timer Stuck

Position.

in

Eetard

Worn

Fiber Block in Magneto Contact Breaker. Binding Fiber Bushing in Contact Breaker Bell Crank. Spark Advance Eod or Wire Broken. Contact Breaker Parts Stuck.

Motor Runs Irregularly or

Loose Wiring or Terminals. Broken Spark-Plug Insulator. Spark-Plug Points Sooted or
at

Misfires

Oily.

Plug Points. Wrong Spark Gap Cable. Leaking Secondary

Prematurely Grounded Primary Wire. Batteries Running Down (Battery Ignition only). Poor Adjustment of Contact Points at Timer. Wire Broken Inside of Insulation. Loose Platinum Points in Magneto.

Weak

Contact Spring.

Broken Collector Brush.

Dirt in Magneto Distributor Casing or Contact Breaker. Worn Fiber Block or Cam Plate in Magneto.

Ignition System Troubles

371

"Worn

Cam

or Contact Eoll in Timer

(Battery System

only). Dirty Oil in Timer.

Sticking Coil Vibrators. Coil Vibrator Points Pitted.

Oil Soaked Magneto Winding. Punctured Magneto or Coil Winding.

Distributor Contact Segments Bough. Sulphated Storage Battery Terminals.

Weak Magnets

in Magneto.

Poor Contact at Magneto Contact Breaker Points.

DEFECTS IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

further simplify the location of electrical system is thought desirable to outline the defects that can be present in the various parts of the individual deIf an airplane vices comprising the ignition system.
faults
it

To

engine is provided with magneto ignition solely, as most engines are at the present time, no attention need be paid to such items as storage or dry batteries, timer or induction coil. There seems to be some development in
the direction of battery ignition so it has been considered desirable to include components of these systems as well

as the almost universally used magneto group. Sparkand switches are needed with either system. plugs, wiring
.

SPARK-PLUGS
DEFECT
Insulation cracked. Insulation oil soaked. TBOTJBLE CAUSED

EEMEDY

Plug inoperative.
Cylinder misfires.

New

insulation. Clean.

Carbon deposits.
Insulator loose. Gasket broken. Electrode loose on shell.

Short circuited spark.

Cylinder misfires.

Remove.
Tighten. gasket. Tighten. Tighten. Set correctly. Set points l/32'<

Gas

leaks by.

New

Wire

loose in insulator.

Air gap too close. Air gap too wide.

Cylinder misfires. Cylinder misfires. Short circuits spark. Spark will not jump.

Loose terminal.

Cylinder
.

Plug loose in cylinder. Mica insulation oil soaked.

Gas

may

misfire.

leaks.

Short circuits spark.

apart. Tighten. Tighten. Replace.

372

Aviation Engines

MAGNETO
DEFECT
Dirty oil in distributor. Metal dust in distributor. Brushes not making contact. Distributor segments worn.
Collecting brush broken. Distributing brush broken. Oil soaked winding. Magnets loose on pole pieces. Armature rubs.

TROUBLE CAUSED
Engine misfires. Engine misfires. Current cannot pass. Engine misfires. Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine
Noisy.
misfires. misfires. misfires. misfires. misfires.

REMEDY
Clean. Clean.

Strengthen spring. Secure even bear-

New New

ing.

brush. brush. Clean. Tighten screws.

Bearings worn. Magnets weak. Contact breaker points pitted. Breaker points out of adjust-

Weak

spark.

Engine misfires. Engine misfires.

Repair bearings. Replace. Recharge. Clean. Reset.

Replace. Replace. Tighten.

ment
Defective winding (rare). Punctured condenser (rare).

No spark. Weak or no
Noise.

spark.

Driving gear

loose.

Magneto armature out Magneto loose on base.

of time.

Spark

will not fire charge. Misfiring and noisy.

Retime. Tighten.
Replace. Replace.

Contact breaker cam worn. Misfiring. Fibre shoe or rolls worn Misfiring. (Bosch). Fibre bushing binding in con- Misfiring. Bosch tact lever No spark. Contact lever return spring
(
) .

Ream

slightly.

Replace.
Replace.
Insulate.

broken.

Contact lever return spring weak. Ground wire grounded. Ground wire broken. Safety spark gap dirty. Fused metal in spark gap. Safety spark gap points too
close.

Misfiring.

No

spark.

Engine will not stop.

.No spark. No spark.
Misfiring. Misfiring.

Connect up.
Clean.

Remove.
Set properly.
Tighten.

Loose distributor terminals. Contact breaker sticks.

No

spark control.

Remove and

clean

Magneto switch short-circuited. No spark. No engine Magneto switch open circuit.

stop.

bearings. Insulate. Restore contact.

STORAGE BATTERY
DEFECT
Electrolyte low.

TROUBLE CAUSED

REMEDY
Replenish with tilled water.
Tighten.
dis-

Weak

current.

Loose terminals. Sulphated terminals.

Misfiring. Misfiring.

Clean

thoroughly

and coat with

vaseline.

Battery discharged. Electrolyte weak.

Plates sulphated. Sediment or mud in bottom. Active material loose in grids.

Misfiring or no spark. Weak current.

New

Bring

charge. to proper

Poor capacity.

specific gravity. Special slow charge.

Weak

current.

Clean out.

Poor capacity.

New

plates.

Ignition System Troubles

373

STORAGE BATTERY
DEFECT
Moisture or acid on top of
cells.

Continued

TROUBLE CAUSED
Shorts terminals.

REMEDY
Remove.

Plugged vent cap. Cracked vent cap. Cracked cell jar.

Buckles cell jars. Acid spills out. Electrolyte runs out.

Make vent

hole.

New New

cap.
jar.

DRY CELL BATTERY

DETECT

TROUBLE CAUSED

REMEDY

Broken wires.
Loose terminals. Weak cell (7 amperes or
Cells in contact.
less)

No

current.

New

wires.
cells.

Misfiring. Misfiring.

New
Dry

Tighten.

Short
box.

circuit. circuit.

Separate and insulate.

Water in battery

Short

out.

TIMER
DEFECT
Contact segments worn or
pitted.

TROUBLE CAUSED
Misfiring.

REMEDY
Grind down smooth.

Platinum points
Dirty
oil or

pitted.

Misfiring.
Misfiring.

metal dust in

interior.

Worn
Worn
Out

bearing.

Loose terminals.
revolving contact brush.
of time.

374

Aviation Engines

CARBURETTOR SYSTEM FAULTS SUMMARIZED

Motor Starts Hard or Will Not Start

No No

Gasoline in Tank. Gasoline in Carburetor Float Chamber. Tank Shut-Off Closed.

Clogged Filter Screen. Fuel Supply Pipe Clogged. Gasoline Level Too Low. Gasoline Level Too High (Flooding). Bent or Stuck Float Lever. Loose or Defective Inlet Manifold.

Not Enough Gasoline

at Jet.

Cylinders Flooded with Gas. Fuel Soaked Cork Float (Causes Flooding ). Water in Carburetor Spray Nozzle. Dirt in Float Chamber. Gas Mixture Too Lean.

Carburetor Frozen (Winter Only).

Motor Stops In Flight

Gasoline Shut-Off Valve Jarred Closed. Gasoline Supply Pipe Clogged. No Gasoline in Tank. Spray Nozzle Stopped Up.

Water

Spray Nozzle. Carbon Between Spark-Plug Points. Magneto Short Circuited by Ground in Wire. Air Lock in Gasoline Pipe. Broken Air Line or Leaky Tank (Pressure Feed System
Particles of

in

Only).

Fuel Supply Pipe Partially Clogged. Air Vent in Tank Filler Cap Stopped

Up

(Gravity and

System). Float Needle Valve Stuck. Water or Dirt in Spray Nozzle. Mixture Adjusting Needle Jarred Loose (Eotary Motors
Only).

Vacuum Feed

Carburetion System Faults

375

Motor Races, Will Not, Throttle Down

Air Leak in Inlet Piping. Air Leak Through Inlet Valve Guides. Control Eods Broken.
Defective Induction Pipe Joints. Leaky Carburetor Flange Packing. Throttle Not Closing.

Poor Slow Speed Adjustment (Zenith Carburetor).

Motor Misfires
Carburetor Float Chamber Getting Dry.

Water

or Dirt in Gasoline.

Poor Gasoline Adjustment (Eotary Motors). Not Enough Gasoline in Float Chamber. Too Much Gasoline, Carburetor Flooding. Incorrect Jet or Choke (Zenith Carburetor). Broken Cylinder Head Packing Between Cylinders.
Noisy Operation

Popping or Blowing Back in Carburetor.

Incorrectly
Inlet

Timed Inlet Valves. Valve Not Seating.

Defective Inlet Valve Spring.

Under Inlet Valve Seat. Not Enough Gasoline (Open Needle Valve).
Dirt
Muffler or Manifold Explosions.

Mixture Not Exploding Regularly. Exhaust Valve Sticking. Dirt Under Exhaust Valve Seat.

CHAPTEE XI
Tools for Adjusting and Erecting Forms of Wrenches Use and Care of Files Split Pin Removal and Installation Complete Chisel Set MeasDrilling Machines Drills, Reamers, Taps and Dies uring Tools Micrometer Calipers and Their Use Typical Tool Outfits Special Hall-Scott Tools Overhauling Airplane Engines Taking Engine Down Defects in Cylinders Carbon Deposits, Cause and Prevention Use of Carbon Scrapers Burning Out Carbon with Oxygen Repairing Scored Cylinders Valve Removal and Inspection Reseating and Truing Valves Valve Grinding Processes Depreciation in Valve Operating System Piston Troubles Piston Ring Manipulation Fitting Piston Rings Wrist-Pin Wear Inspection and Refitting; of Engine Bearings Scraping Brasses to Fit Fitting Connecting Rods Testing for Bearing Parallelism Cam-Shafts and Timing Gears Precautions
in Reassembling Parts.

TOOLS FOR ADJUSTING AND ERECTING

very complete outfit of small tools, some of which are furnished as part of the tool equipment of various engines are shown in group at Fig. 163. This group includes all of the tools necessary to complete a very practical kit and it is not unusual for the mechanic who is
continually dismantling and erecting engines to possess even a larger assortment than indicated. The small bench
vise provided is a useful auxiliary that can be clamped to any convenient bench or table or even fuselage longeron

an emergency and should have jaws at inches wide and capable of opening four or
in
It is

least

three

five inches.

especially useful in that it will save trips to the bench vises, as it has adequate capacity to handle practically any of the small parts that need to be worked on

when making

blow torch, tinner's snips and are very useful in sheet metal work and soldering copper in making any repairs requiring the use of solder. The in any operation requiring a source of torch can be used
repairs.
376

:*r

~ 00

_^
Oil

Tinners Snips

Small

Vise

Can

Machinists

Hammer

SESJD

(^^

Soldering Copper

Screw Drivers
(AH Me+al Type)

Socket Wrench Set

Adjustable End Wrench

SideCuttinq
Parallel

Combination
Plie

Jaw

Bicycle

Wrench
Small Socket Wrench

Spark Plug Socket

Adjustable

End Wrench

Spanner

'Combination Pliers

Cutting Pliers

Thin

Wrench
Cold Chisel
Center Punch

Bearing Scraper

Carbon Scrapers
Fig.
163.

End Wrenches

Double End Wrenches

Practical

Hand

Tools Useful in

Dismantling and Repairing

Airplane Engines.
377

378
heat.

Aviation Engines

The large box wrench shown under the vise is used for removing large special- nuts and sometimes has one end of the proper size to fit the valve chamber cap. The
piston ring removers are easily made from thin strips of sheet metal securely brazed or soldered to a light wire handle. These are used in sets of three for removing

and applying piston rings in a manner to be indicated. The uses of the wrenches, screw drivers, and pliers shown are known to all and the variety outlined should be sufficient for all ordinary work of restoration. The wrench equipment is very complete, including a set of open end
S-wrenches to
fit

all

standard bolts, a spanner wrench,

socket or box wrenches for bolts that are inaccessible with

the ordinary type, adjustable end wrenches, a thin monkey wrench of medium size, a bicycle wrench for handling small nuts and bolts, a Stillson wrench for pipe and a large adjustable monkey wrench for the stubborn fasten-

ings of large

size.

different types of pliers are shown, one being a parallel jaw type with size cutting attachment, while the other illustrated near it is a combination parallel jaw type
flat stock.

Four

adapted for use on round work as well as in handling The most popular form of pliers is the combination pattern shown beneath the socket wrench set. This is made of substantial drop forgings having a hinged joint that can be set so that a very wide opening at the jaws is possible. These can be used on round work and for wire cutting as well as for handling flat work. Eound nose pliers are very useful also.
files, including square, half three-cornered and rat tail are round, mill, flat bastard, hacksaw- frame and a number of saws, also necessary. some with fine teeth for tubing and others with coarser teeth for bar or solid stock will be found almost indiscomplete punch and chisel set should be propensable. vided, samples of which are shown in the group while the

very complete

set

of

complete

outfit

is

outlined

in

another illustration.

number of different forms and

sizes of chisels are neces-

Forms

of

Wrenches

379

sary, as one type is not suitable for all classes -of work. The adjustable end wrenches can be used in many places

where a monkey wrench cannot be fitted and where it will be difficult to use a wrench having a fixed opening. The Stillson pipe wrench is useful in turning studs, round rods, and pipes that cannot be turned by any other means. A complete shop kit must necessarily include various sizes for Stillson and monkey wrenches, as no one size can be expected to handle the wide range of work the engine repairman must cope with. Three sizes of each form of wrench can be used, one, a 6 inch, is as small as is needed
while a 12 inch tool will handle almost any piece of pipe or nut used in engine construction. Three or four sizes of hammers should be provided, according to individual requirement, these being small
riveting,

medium and heavyweight

machinist's hammers.

very practical tool of this nature for the repair shop can be used as a hammer, screw driver or pry iron. It is known as the " Spartan" hammer and is a tool steel drop forging in one piece having the working surfaces properly hardened and tempered while the metal is distributed so as to give a good balance to the head and a comfortable grip to the handle. The hammer head provides a positive and comfortable T-handle when the tool is used as a screw driver or " tommy" bar. Machinist's hammers are provided with three types of heads, these being of various weights. The form most commonly used is termed the "ball pein" on account of the shape of the portion used for riveting. The straight pein is just the
except that in the latter the straight portion right angles to the hammer handle, while in the former it is parallel to that member.
pein,
is at

same as the cross

FORMS OF WRENCHES

Wrenches have been made in infinite variety and there are a score or more patterns of different types of adjustable socket and off-set wrenches. The various wrench

380

Aviation Engines

types that differ from the more conventional monkey wrenches or those of the Stillson pattern are shown at The " perfect handle" is a drop forged open Fig. 164. end form provided with a wooden handle similar to that

used on a monkey wrench in order to provide a better The " Saxon" wrench is a double grip for the hand.
alligator form, so called because the jaws are in the form of a V-groove having one side of the plain, while the other is serrated in order to secure a tight grip on round

objects.

In the form shown, two jaws of varying sizes

5TARRETT
MILLER

Fig. 164.

Wrenches are Offered in

Many

Forms.

are provided, one for large work, the other to handle the smaller rods. One of the novel features in connection with this wrench is the provision of a triple die block in the centre of the handle which is provided with three most commonly used of the standard threads including % 6 -inch-18, %-inch-16, and %-inch-13. This is useful in cleaning up burred threads on bolts before they are replaced, as burring is unavoidable if it has been neces-

sary to drive them out with a hammer. The "Lakeside" wrench has an adjustable pawl engaging with one of a series of notches by which the opening may be held in

any desired position. Ever since the socket wrench was invented

it

has been

Forms

of

Wrenches

381

a popular form because it can be used in many places where the ordinary open end or monkey wrench cannot be applied owing to lack of room for the head of the wrench. A typical set which has been made to fit in a very small space is shown at D. It consists of a handle, which
nickel-plated and highly polished, a long extension bar, a universal joint and a number of case hardened cold drawn steel sockets to fit all commonly used standard nuts and bolt heads. Two screw-driver bits, one small and the other large to fit the handle, and a long socket to fit sparkplugs are also included in this outfit. The universal joint permits one to remove nuts in a position that would be inaccessible to any other form of wrench, as it enables the socket to be turned even if the handle is at one side
is

The " Pick-up " wrench, shown at E, is used for sparkplugs and the upper end of the socket is provided with a series of grooves into which a suitable blade carried by the handle can be dropped. The handle is pivoted to the
top of the socket in such a way that the blades may be picked up out of the grooves by lifting on the end of the handle and dropped in again when the handle is swung around to the proper point to get another hold on the

of an intervening obstruction.

The "Miller" wrench shown at F, is a combinaand open end type, made especially for use with spark-plugs. Both the open end 'and the socket are convenient. The "Handy" set shown at G, consists of a number of thin stamped wrenches of steel held together in a group by a simple clamp fitting, which enables either end of any one of the four double wrenches to be brought
socket.

tion socket

into play according to the size of the nut to be turned. The "Cronk" wrench shown at H, is a simple stamping

having an alligator opening at one end and a stepped opening capable of handling four different sizes of standard nuts or bolt heads at the other. Such wrenches are very cheap and are worth many times their small cost, especially for fitting nuts where there is not sufficient room to admit the more conventional pattern. The

382

Aviation Engines

"Starrett" wrench set, which is shown at I, consists of a ratchet handle together with an extension bar and universal joint, a spark-plug socket, a drilling attachment which takes standard square shank drills from %-inch to 3/2-inch in diameter, a double ended screw-driver bit and several adjustments to go with the drilling attachment.
Twenty-eight assorted cold drawn steel sockets similar in design to those shown at D, to fit all standard sizes of square and hexagonal headed nuts are also included. The reversible ratchet handle, which may be slipped over the extension bar or the universal joint and which is also adapted to take the squared end of any one of the sockets
is

exceptionally useful in permitting, as it does, the instant release of pressure when it is desired to swing the

handle back to get another hold on the nut. The socket wrench sets are usually supplied in hard wood cases or in leather bags so that they may be kept together and protected against loss or damage. With a properly selected socket wrench set, either of the ratchet handle or T-handle form, any nut on the engine may be reached and end wrenches will not be necessary.

USE AND CARE OF FILES

Mention has been previously made of the importance of providing a complete set of files and suitable handles. These should be in various grades or degrees of fineness and three of each kind should be provided. In the flat and half round files three grades are necessary, one with coarse teeth for roughing, and others with medium and The round or rat tail fine teeth for the finishing cuts. file is necessary in filing out small holes, the half round for finishing the interior of large ones. Half round files
are also well adapted for finishing surfaces of peculiar contour, such as the inside of bearing boxes, connecting rod and main bearing caps, etc. Square files are useful in finishing keyways or cleaning out burred splines, while
the triangular section or three-cornered
file is

of value in

Use and Care of Files

383

Flat files cleaning out burred threads and sharp corners. on all plane surfaces. are used The file brush shown at Fig. 165, A, consists of a large number of wire bristles attached to a substantial wood

Fig. 165.

Illustrating

Use and Care of

Files.

back having a handle of convenient form so that the bristles may be drawn through the interstices between
the teeth of the
file

to

remove

dirt

and grease.

If the

384

Aviation Engines

teeth are filled with pieces of soft metal, such as solder or babbitt, it may be necessary to remove this accumulation with a piece of sheet metal as indicated at Fig.

The method of holding a file for working on when it is fitted with the regular form of wooden handle is shown at C, while two types of handles
165, B.

plain surfaces

enabling the mechanic to use the flat file on plain surfaces of such size that the handle type indicated at C, could not be used on account of interfering with the sur-

The method of using a by draw filing is shown at E. This differs from the usual method of filing and is only used when surfaces are to be polished and very little
face finished are
at D.
file

shown

when

surfaces are finished

metal removed.

SPLIT PIN

REMOVAL AND INSERTION

of the most widely used of the locking means to prevent nuts or bolts from becoming loose is the simple These can be split pin, sometimes called a "cotter pin."

One

handled very easily if the special pliers shown at Fig. They have a curved jaw that, permits 166, A, are used. of grasping the pin firmly and inserting it in the hole ready to receive it. It is not easy to insert these split pins by other means because the ends are usually spread out and it is hard to enter the pin in the hole. With the cotter pin pliers the ends may be brought close together
plier jaws are small the pin may be easily in place. Another use of this plier, also indicated, pushed is to bend over the ends of the split pin in order to pre-

and as the

vent it from fal-ling out. To remove these pins a simple curved lever, as shown at Fig. 166, B, is used. This has one end tapering to a point and is intended to be inserted in the eye of the cotter pin, the purchase offered by the handle permitting of ready removal of the pin after the ends have been closed by the cotter pin pliers.

Miscellaneous Small Tools

385

COMPLETE CHISEL SET

A
also

complete chisel set suitable for repair shop use

is

shown at Fig. 166. The type at C is known as a "cape"- chisel and has a narrow cutting point and is intended to chip keyways, remove metal out of corners and for all other work where the broad cutting edge chisel,

Tig. 166.

Outlining Use of Cotter Pin Pliers, Spring Winder, and Showing Practical Outfit of Chisels.

at D, cannot be used. The form with the wide is used in chipping, cutting sheet metal, etc. cutting edge At E, a round nose chisel used in making oil ways is outlined, while a similar tool

shown

having a pointed cutting edge

and often used for the same purpose is shown at F. The centre punch depicted at G, is very useful for marking
parts either for identification or for drilling.

In addition

386

Aviation Engines

to the chisels shown, a

resembling very much

point
is

number of solid punches or drifts that shown at E, except that the

blunt should be provided to drive out taper pins, and other fastenings of this nature. These should be provided in the common sizes. complete set of real value would start at %-inch and increase by increments of %2-inch up to %-inch. simple spring winder
bolts, rivets,

is

at Fig. 166, H, this making it possible for the repairman to wind coil springs, either on the lathe or in
It will

shown

the vise.

handle a number of different sizes of

wire and can be set to space the coils as desired.

DRILLING MACHINES

be of two kinds, hand or power small holes in metal it is necesdrilling operated. sary to run the drill fast, therefore the drill chuck is usually driven by gearing in order to produce high drill small hand speed without turning the handle too fast. As will be observed, the drill is shown at Fig. 167, A.
Drilling machines

may

For

chuck spindle is driven by a small bevel pinion, which in turn, is operated by a large bevel gear turned by a crank. The gear ratio is such that one turn of the handle will
drill of this turn the chuck five or six revolutions. design is not suited for drills any larger than one-quarter inch. For use with drills ranging from one-eighth to three-eighths, or even half -inch the hand drill presses shown at C and D are used. These have a pad at the upper end by which pressure may be exerted with the chest in order to feed the drill into the work, and for The form this reason they are termed "breast drills." at C has compound gearing, the drill chuck being driven by the usual form of bevel pinion in mesh with a larger small helical bevel gear at one end of a countershaft. end of this countershaft receives spur pinion at the other its motion from a larger gear turned by the hand crank.

This arrangement of gearing permits of high spindle speed without the use of large gears, as would be neces-

Drilling Machines

387

but two were used. The form at D gives two one for use with small drills is obtained by enspeeds, gaging the lower bevel pinion with the chuck spindle and

sary

if

CHUCK

Fig. 167.

Forms of Hand Operated DriUing Machines.

driving it by the large ring gear. The slow speed is obtained by shifting the clutch so that the top bevel pinion drives the drill chuck. As this meshes with a gear but slightly larger in diameter, a slow speed of the drill

chuck

is

possible.

Breast

drills

are provided with a

388

Aviation Engines

handle screwed into the side of the frame, these are used to steady the drill press. For drilling extremely large holes which are beyond the capacity of the usual form of drill press the ratchet form shown at B, may be used or the bit brace outlined at E. The drills used with either of these have square shanks, whereas those used in the drill presses have round shanks. The bit brace is also used widely in wood work and the form shown is provided with a ratchet by which the bit chuck may be turned through only a portion of a revolution in either direction
if

desired.
DRILLS, REAMERS, TAPS

AND

DIES

In addition to the larger machine tools and the simple hand tools previously described, an essential item of equipment of any engine or plane repair shop, even in cases where the ordinary machine tools are not provided, is a complete outfit of drills, reamers, and threading tools. Drills are of .two general classes, the flat and the twist drills. The flat drill has an angle between cutting edges of about 110 degrees and is usually made from special

commercially known as drill rod. flat drill cannot be fed into the work very fast because it removes metal by a scraping, rather than a
steel

twist drill in its simplest form is cylindrical throughout the entire length and has spiral flutes which are ground off at the end to form the cutting

cutting process.

The

and which also serve to carry the metal chips out of The simplest form of twist drill used is shown " chuck" at Fig. 168, C, and is known as a drill, because A twist it must be placed in a suitable chuck to turn it. drill removes metal by cutting and it is not necessary to
lip

the holes.

use a heavy feed as the drill will tend to feed itself into the work. Larger drills than %-inch are usually made with a

tapered shank as shown at Fig. 168, B. At the end of the taper a tongue is formed which engages with a suitable opening in the collet, as the piece used to support

Drills
the drill
is called.

and Reamers

389

object of this tongue is to relieve the tapered portion of the drill from the stress of driving by frictional contact alone, as this would not turn the

The

and the resulting slippage would wear the socket, .this depreciation changing the taper and making The tongue is usually proporit unfit for other drills. tioned so it is adequate to drive the drill under any condrill positively

Fig. 168.

Forms of

Drills

Used

in

Hand and Power

Drilling Machines.

small keyway is provided in the collet into which a tapering key of flat stock may be driven against the end of the tongue to drive the drill from the spindle. standard taper for drill shanks generally accepted by the machine trade is known as the Morse and is a taper of five-eighths of an inch to the foot. The Brown and Sharp form tapers six-tenths of an inch to the foot. Care must
dition.

be taken, therefore, when purchasing

drills

and

collets,

390
to

Aviation Engines

should be

make sure that the tapers coincide, as no attempt made to run a Morse taper in a Brown and

Sharp collet, or vice versa. Sometimes cylindrical drills have straight flutes, as outlined at Fig. 168, A. Such drills are used with soft metals and are of value when the drill is to pass entirely through the work. The trouble with a drill with spiral flutes is that it will tend to draw itself through as the
This catching of the drill cutting lips break through. break it or move the work from its position. With may

a straight flute drill the cutting action is practically the same as with the flat drill shown at Fig. 168, E and F.

employed in boring holes through closegrained, tough metals, as wrought or malleable iron and steel, the operation will be facilitated by lubricating the drill with plenty of lard oil or a solution of soda and water. Either of these materials will effectually remove the heat caused by the friction of the metal removed against the lips of the drill, and the danger of heating
.

If a drill is

the drill to a temperature that will soften it by drawing the temper is minimized. In drilling large or deep holes
to apply the lubricating medium diat the drill point. Special drills of the form shown rectly at Fig. 62, D, having a spiral oil tube running in a
it

is

good practice

suitably formed channel, provides communication between the point of the drill and a suitable receiving hole on a drilled shank. The oil is supplied by a pump and its

pressure not only promotes positive circulation and removal of heat, but also assists in keeping the hole free In drilling steel or wrought iron, lard oil of chips.
applied to the point of the drill will facilitate the drilling, but this material should never be used with either brass or cast iron. The sizes to be provided depend upon the nature of the work and the amount of money that can be invested in drills. It is common practice to provide a set of drills, such as shown at Fig. 169, which are carried in a suitable metal stand, these being known as number drills on ac-

Drills

and Reamers

391

count of conforming to the wire gauge standards. Number drills do not usually run higher than % 6 inch in diameter. Beyond this point drills are usually sold by to the diameter. A set of chuck drills, ranging from inch, advancing by %2 inch, and a set of Morse taper

to l 1 ^ inches, by increments ranging from of Vis inch, will be all that is needed for the most pretentious repair shop, as it is cheaper to bore holes larger than 1% inches with a boring tool than it is to carry a

shank

drills

1
Fig. 169.

Useful Set of

Number

Drills,

Showing Stand for Keeping These

in an Orderly Manner.

number

of large drills in stock that would be used very seldom, perhaps not enough to justify their cost. In grinding drills, care must be taken to have the
length, so that they will form the same If one lip is longer than the other, in the flat drill at Fig. 168, E, the hole will be

lips of the

same

angle with the axis.

as

shown

larger than the drill size, and all the work of cutting will come upon, the longest lip. The drill ends should be symmetrical, as

an exact diameter, but for the most work a variation of a few thousandths of an inch is of no great moment. Where accuracy is necessary, holes must be reamed out to the
required
size.

at Fig. 168, F. It is considered very difficult to drill a hole to

shown

In reaming, a hole

is drilled

about %2 inch

392
smaller than
tool
is

Aviation Engines
required,

Tools of this nature 170, A. not designed to remove considerable amounts of metal, but are intended to augment the diameter of the Eeamers drill hole by only a small fraction of an inch.
are

known as the reamer. fluted form shown at Fig.

and is enlarged with a cutting Eeamers are usually of the

B
1 C

31

Fig. 170.

Illustrating Standard

Forms of Hand and Machine Eeamers.

are tapered slightly at the point in order that they will enter the hole easily, but the greater portion of the fluted part is straight, all cutting edges being parallel. Hand reamers are made in either the straight or taper forms, that at A, Fig. 170, being straight, while B has tapering flutes. They are intended to be turned by a wrench similar to that employed in turning a tap, as shown at Fig.

Types
172,

of

Reamers and Use

393

The reamer shown at Fig. 170, C, is a hand The form at D has spiral flutes similar to a twist drill, and as it is provided with a taper shank it is intended to be turned by power through the medium of
C.

reamer.

a suitable

collet.

As the solid reamers must become reduced in size when sharpened, various forms of inserted blade reamers
One of these is shown at E, and as surfaces become reduced in diameter it is cutting possible to replace the worn blades with others of proper
have been designed.
the
size. Expanding reamers are of the form shown at F. These have a bolt passing through that fits into a tapering hole in the interior of the split reamer portion of the If the hole is to be enlarged a few thousandths of tool. an inch, it is possible to draw up on the nut just above the squared end .of the shank, and by drawing the tapering wedge farther into the reamer body, the cutting portion will be expanded and will cut a larger hole.

Eeamers must be very carefully sharpened or there

will be a

tendency toward chattering with a consequent production of a rough surface. There are several methods of preventing this chattering, one being to separate the r cutting edges by irregular spaces, w hile the most common method, and that to be preferred on machine reamers, is to use spiral flutes, as shown at Fig. 170, D. Special taper reamers are made to conform to the various taper pin sizes which are sometimes used in holding parts totaper of %e inch per foot is ingether in an engine. tended for holes where a pin, once driven in, is to remain in place. "When "it is desired that the pin be driven out, the taper is made steeper, generally 14 i nc ^ P er foot, which is the standard taper used on taper pins. When threads are to be cut in a small hole, it will be apparent that it will be difficult to perform this operation economically on a lathe, therefore when internal threading is called for, a simple device known as a "tap" is used. There are many styles of taps, all conforming to different standards. Some are for metric or foreign

394

Aviation Engines

threads, some conform to the American standards, while others are nsed for pipe and tubing. Hand taps are the

form most used in repair shops, these being outlined at Fig. 171, A and B. They are usually sold in sets of three, known respectively as taper, plug, and bottoming. The taper tap is the one first put into the hole, and is then followed by the plug tap which cuts the threads deeper.

fl

Fig. 171.

Tools for Thread Cutting.

imperative that the thread should be full size clear to the bottom of the hole, the third tap of the set, which is straight-sided, is used. It would be difficult to start a bottoming tap into a hole because it would be larger in diameter at its point than the hole. The taper tap, as shown at A, Fig. 171, has a portion of the cutting lands ground away at the point in order that it will enter the hole. The manipulation of a tap is not hard, as it does not need to be forced into the work, as the thread
If
it

is

Use of Taps and Dies

will

395
is

draw

it

into the hole

as the tap

turned.

The

tapering of a tap is done so that no one thread is called upon to remove all of the metal, as for about half way up the length of the tap each succeeding thread is cut a
larger by the cutting edge until the full thread Care must be taken to always enter a enters the hole. in order to have the thread at correct angles tap straight
little

to the surface.

In cutting external threads on small rods or on small pieces, such as bolts and studs, it is not always economical to do this work in the lathe, especially in repair work. Dies are used to cut threads on pieces that are to be placed in tapped holes that have been threaded by the corresponding size of tap. Dies for small work are often made solid, as shown at Fig. 171, C, but solid dies are Sometimes the 2 usually limited to sizes below y inch. solid die is cylindrical in shape, with a slot through one side which enables one to obtain a slight degree of adjustment by squeezing the slotted portion together. Large dies, or the sizes over y inch, are usually made 2 in two piece's in order that the halves may be closed up or brought nearer together. The advantage of this form of die is that either of the two pieces may be easily sharpened, and as it may be adjusted very easily the thread may be cut by easy stages. For example, the die may be adjusted to cut large, which will produce a shallow thread
that will act as an accurate guide

when

the die is closed

up and a deeper thread cut. A common form of die holder for an adjustable die is shown at Fig. 172, A. As will be apparent, it consists pf a central body portion having guide members to keep the die pieces from falling out and levers at each end in
order to permit the operator to exert sufficient force to remove the metal. The method of adjusting the depth of thread with a clamp screw when a two-piece die is employed is also clearly outlined. The die stock shown at B is used for the smaller dies of the one-piece pattern, having a slot in order that they may be closed up slightly

396

Aviation Engines

by the clamp screw. The reverse side of the diestock shown at B is outlined below it, and the guide pieces,
be easily moved in or out, according to the size of the piece to be threaded by means of eccentrically disposed semi-circular slots in the adjustment plate, are

which

may

Fig. 172.

Showing Holder Designs for One- and Two-Piece Thread Cutting

Dies.

shown.

let into their

These movable guide members have small pins surface ^hich engage the slots, and they

may be moved

in or out, as desired, according to the posiThe use of the guide pieces tion of the adjusting plate.

makes for accurate positioning or centering

of the rod to be threaded. Dies are usually sold in sets, and are commonly furnished as a portion of a complete outfit such as

Measuring Tools
outlined at Fig. 173.
stock,

397
sizes of die-

That shown has two

a tap wrench, eight assorted

dies, eight

assorted
die.

taps,

and a small screw driver for adjusting the

An

automobile repair shop should be provided with three different sets of taps and dies, as three different standards for the bolts and nuts are used in fastening autoThese are the American, metric mobile components.

Fig. 173.

Useful Outfit of Taps and Dies for the Engine Repair Shop.

threads.
useful.

(used on foreign engines), and the S. A. E. standard set of pipe dies and taps will also be found

MEASURING TOOLS
mechanic who do machine work must include a number of measuring tools which are not needed by the floor man or one who merely assembles and takes apart the finished

The

tool outfit of the machinist or the

aspires to

The machinist who must convert raw material pieces. into finished products requires a number of measuring
some of which are used for taking only approximate measurements, such as calipers and scales, while others are intended to take very accurate measurements, such as the Vernier and the micrometer. A number of common forms of calipers are shown at Fig. 174. These
tools,

are

known

as inside or outside calipers, depending upon

the measurements they are intended to take.

That at

398
is

Aviation Engines

an inside caliper, consisting of two legs, A and D, and a gauging piece, B, which can be locked to leg A, or released from that member by the screw, C. The object of this construction is to permit of measurements being taken at the bottom of a. two diameter hole, where the point to be measured is of larger diameter than the portion of the hole through which the calipers entered. It will be apparent that the legs A and D must be brought
close together to pass through the smaller holes.

This

Fig. 174.

Common Forms

of Inside and Outside Calipers.

may

be done without losing the setting, as the guide bar remain in one position as determined by the size of the hole to be measured, while the leg may be swung are lifted out. in to clear the obstruction as the calipers When it is desired to ascertain the measurements the leg is pushed back into place into the slotted portion of the tool of this guide B, and locked by the clamp screw C. form is known as an internal transfer caliper.
will

The form of caliper shown at B is an outside caliper. Those at C and D are special forms for inside and out-

Measuring Tools

399

while

side work, the former being used, if desired, as a divider, the latter may be employed for measuring the

calipers at E are simple forms, having a friction joint to distinguish them from the spring In order to permit of calipers shown at B, C and D. of a spring caliper, a split nut as shown ready adjustment

walls of tubing.

The

solid nut caliper can only be adjusted by screwing the nut in or out on the screw, which may be a tedious process if the caliper is to be set

at

is

sometimes used.

from one extreme to the other several times in succession. With a slip nut as shown at Gr it is possible to slip it from one end of the thread to the other without turning desired point by it, and of locking it in place at any the caliper leg to come in contact with simply allowing The method of adjusting a spring caliper is shown it.
at Fig. 174, H. Among the

most common of the machinist's tools are those used for linear measurements. The usual forms are shown in group, Fig. 175. The most common tool, which
widely known,
is

is

the carpenter's folding two-foot rule

While these are very convenient for taking measurements where great accuracy is not required, the machinist must work much more accurately than the carpenter, and the standard steel scale which is shown at D, is a popular tool for the machinist. The steel scale is in reality a graduated straight edge and forms an important part of various measuring tools. These are made of high grade steel and vary from 1 to 48 inches in length. They are carefully hardened in order to preserve the graduations, and all surfaces and edges are accurately ground to insure absolute parallelism. The graduations on the high grade scales are produced with a special device known as a dividing engine, but on
or the yardstick.

provide a fairly accurate may be very thin and flexgraduation. or may be about an eighth of an inch thick on the ible, twelve-inch size, which is that commonly used with com-

cheaper scales, etching

suffices to

The

steel scales

bination

squares,

protractors

and other

tools

of

that,

400

Aviation Engines

nature. The repairrnan's scale should be graduated both with the English system, in which the inches are divided into eighths, sixteenths, thirty-secondths and sixty-

4.

5.

il.i.l.i.lii.l.i.lililililiiiliiil.iif.i.l.i.

'

91

3
i

rij

il

ill

Fig. 175.

Measuring Appliances for the Machinist and Floor Man.

and also in the metric system, divided into millimeters and centimeters. Some machinists use scales graduated in tenths, twentieths, fiftieths and hundredths.
fourths,

Measuring Instruments

401

This is not as good a system of graduation as the more conventional one first described. Some steel scales are provided with a slot or groove cut the entire length on one side and about the center of
This permits the attachment of various fitsuch as the protractor head, which enables the matings chinist to measure angles, or in addition the heads convert the scale into a square or a tool permitting the accurate Two scales are bisecting of pieces of circular section. sometimes joined together to form a right angle, such as shown at Fig. 175, C. This is known as a square and is very valuable in ascertaining the truth of vertical pieces that are supposed to form a right angle with a base piece. The Vernier is a device for reading finer divisions on a scale than those into which the scale is divided. Sixtyfourths of an inch are about the finest division that can be read accurately with the naked eye. When fine work This consists essenis necessary a Vernier is employed. tially of two rules so graduated that the true scale has each inch divided into ten equal parts, the upper or Vernier portion has ten divisions occupying the same space as nine of the divisions of the true scale. It is evident, therefore, that one of the divisions of the Vernier is equal If the to nine-tenths of one of those on the true scale.
the scales.

Vernier scale
tions

is
' *

moved
' '

marked

to the right so that the graduashall "coincide, it will have moved one-

tenth of a division on the scale or one-hundredth of an When the graduations numbered 5 coincide the inch. Vernier will have moved five-hundredths of an inch when
;

the lines

marked

and 10

coincide, the Vernier will

have

of an inch, and when 10 on the Vernier comes opposite 10 on the scales, the upper rule will have moved ten-hundredths of an inch, or the whole

moved nine-hundredths

of one division on the scale.

it

By

this

means the

scale,

may be graduated only to tenths of an inch, though be accurately set at points with positions expressed may When graduated to read in in hundredths of an inch. thousandths, the true scale is divided into fifty parts and

402

Aviation Engines

the Vernier into twenty parts. Each division of the Vernier is therefore equal to nineteen-twentieths of one of the true scale. If the Vernier be moved so the lines of

the first division coincide, it will have moved one-twenThe Vernier principle tieth of one-fiftieth, or .001 inch. can be readily grasped by studying the section of the Vernier scale and true scale shown at Fig. 176, A.

The caliper scale which is shown at Fig. 175, A, permits of taking the over-all dimension of any parts that

5lN.

Fig. 176.

At Left, Special Form of Vernier Calipeff for Measuring Gea* Teeth; at Right, Micrometer for Accurate Internal Measurements.

will

go between the jaws. This scale can be adjusted very accurately by means of a fine thread screw attached to a movable jaw and the divisions may be divided by eye into two parts if one sixty-fourth is the smallest of the divisions. A line is indicated on the movable jaw and coincides with the graduations on the scale. As will be apparent, if the line does not coincide exactly with one of the graduations it will be at some point between the
lines

and the true measurement may be approximated with-

out trouble.

group of various other measuring tools of value to the machinist is shown at Fig; 177. The small scale at A is termed a "center gauge," because it can be used to test

Measuring Tools

403

the truth of the taper of either a male or female lathe center. The two smaller nicks, or v's, indicate the shape
of a standard thread, and may be used as a guide for The cross grinding the point of a thread-cutting tool. y level which is show n at B is of marked utility in erecting,

as

it

will indicate absolutely if the piece it is

used to test

Fig. 177.

Measuring Appliances of Value in Airplane Repair Work.

'

is

level.

width

It will indicate if the piece is level as well as its length.

along

its

very simple attachment for use with a scale that enables the machinist to scribe lines along the length of a cylindrical piece is shown at Fig. 177, C. These are

merely small wedge-shaped clamps having an angular face to rest upon the bars. The thread pitch gauge which is shown at Fig. 177, D, is an excellent pocket tool for the mechanic, as it is often necessary to determine without loss of time the pitch of the thread on a bolt or in a nut. This consists of a number of leaves having serrations on one edge corresponding to the standard thread it is to be

404
used in measuring.

Aviation Engines

tool shown gives all pitches up The leaves may be folded in out of the way when not in use, and their shape admits of their being used in any position without the remainder of the set interfering with the one in use. The fine pitch
to 48 threads per inch.

The

gauges have. slim, tapering leaves of the correct shape to be used in finding the pitch of small nuts. As the tool is round when the leaves are folded back out of the way, it is an excellent pocket tool, as there are no sharp corners to wear out the pocket. Practical application of a Vernier having measuring heads of special form for measuring gear teeth
is

shown

at Fig. 176, A.

As
it

the action of
will not be

this tool has been previously explained, necessary to describe it further.

MICROMETER CALIPERS AND THEIR USE

Where great accuracy is necessary in taking measurements the micrometer caliper, which in the simple form will measure easily .001 inch (one-thousandth part of an inch) and when fitted with a Vernier that will measure .0001 inch (one ten- thousandth part of an inch), is used. The micrometer may be of the caliper form for measuring outside diameters or it may be of the form shown at
Fig. 176, B, for measuring internal diameters. The operation of both forms is identical except that the internal
is placed inside of the bore to be measured while the external form is used just the same as a caliper. The form outlined will measure from one and one-half to six and a half inches as extension points are provided to increase the range of the instrument. The screw has a

micrometer

movement

of one-half inch

and a hardened anvil

is

placed

in the end of the thimble in order to prevent undue wear at that point. The extension points or rods are accurately

made

in standard lengths

and are screwed

pushed

into the

body

of the instrument instead of being

in, this insur-

Two forms of micrometers ing firmness and accuracy. for external measurements are shown at Fig. 178. The

Micrometers and Their Use

405

top one is graduated to read in thousandths of an inch, while the lower one is graduated to indicate hundredths of a millimeter. The mechanical principle involved in the
construction of a micrometer is that of a screw free to

Oevefojxntrit

of

Sco/e on

Qoml

of Inch Micrometer

fin

of
<Scof6

on Borre/

of Afefa'c Micrometer

Tig. 178.

Standard Forms of Micrometer Caliper for External Measurements.

move

in a fixed nut.

An

opening to receive the work to

be measured is provided by the backward movement of the thimble which turns the screw and the size of the opening
is

indicated

by the graduations on the

barrel.

406

Aviation Engines

The article to be measured is placed between the anvil and spindle, the frame being held stationary while the thimble is revolved by the thumb and finger. The pitch of the screw thread on the concealed part of the spindle is 40 to an inch. One complete revolution of the spindle, moves it longitudinally one-fortieth, or twentytherefore, As will be evident from the five thousandths of an inch. development of the scale on the barrel of the inch micrometer, the sleeve is. marked with forty lines to the
inch,

each
.

of

these

lines

indicating

twenty-five

thou-

sandths. The thimble has a beveled edge which is graduWhen the instrument is ated into twenty-five parts. closed the graduation on the beveled edge of the thimble line on the barrel. should correspond to the marked If the micrometer is rotated one full turn the opening between the spindle and anvil will be .025 inch. If the thimble is turned only one graduation, or one twentyfifth of a revolution, the opening between the spindle and
anvil will be increased only of an inch).

by

.001 inch, (one-thousandth

of the dimensions of the airplane parts, of those of foreign manufacture or such parts especially as ball and roller bearings, are based on the metric system, the competent repairman should possess both inch

As many

and metric micrometers in order to avoid continual reference to a table of metric equivalents. With a metric micrometer there are fifty graduations on the barrel, these representing .01 of a millimeter, or approximately .004 inch. One full turn of the barrel means an increase of
half a millimeter, or .50 mm. (fifty one-hundredths). As it takes two turns to augment the space between the anvil

and the stem by increments of one millimeter, it will be it would not be difficult to divide the spaces on the metric micrometer thimble in halves by the eye, and thus the average workman can measure to .0002 inch plus or minus without difficulty. As set in the illustration, the metric micrometers show a space of 13.5 mm., The or about one millimeter more than half an inch.
evident that

Micrometers and Their Use

inch,

407

micrometer shown is set to five-tenths or five hundred one-thousandths or one-half inch. A little study of the foregoing matter will make if easy to understand th( action of either the inch or metric micrometer. Both of the micrometers shown have a small knurled knob at the end of the barrel. This controls the ratchet stop, which is a device that permits a ratchet to slip by a pawl when more than a certain amount of pressure is
applied, thereby preventing the measuring spindle from turning further and perhaps springing the instrument.

simple rule that can be easily memorized for reading the "inch micrometer is to multiply the number of vertical divisions on the sleeve by 25 and add to that the number of divisions on the bevel of the thimble reading from the zero to the line which coincides with the horizontal line on the sleeve. For example: if there are ten divisions visible on the sleeve, multiply this number by 25, then add the number of divisions shown on the bevel of the thim10. The micrometer is therefore opened 250 plus 10 equals 260 thousandths. equals Micrometers are made in many sizes, ranging from those having a maximum opening of one inch to special large forms that will measure forty or more inches. While it is not to be expected that the repairman will have use for the big sizes, if a caliper having a maximum opening of six inches is provided with a number of extension rods enabling one to measure smaller objects,

ble,

which

is

10x25

practically all of the measuring needed in repairing engine parts can be made accurately. Two or three smaller

micrometers having a maximum range of two or three inches will also be found valuable, as most of the measurements will be made with these tools which will be much easier to handle than the larger sizes.
TYPICAL TOOL OUTFITS
of tools necessary for repairing airplane engines depends entirely upon the type of the power

The equipment

408

Aviation Engines

all

plant and while the common hand tools can be used on forms, the work is always facilitated by having special

adapted for reaching the nuts and screws that would be hard to reach otherwise. Special spanners and socket wrenches are very desirable. Then again, the nature of the work to be performed must be taken into consideration. Eebuilding or overhauling an engine calls for considerably more tools than are furnished for making field
tools

repairs or minor adjustments.

supplied to

men working on

Curtiss

complete set of tools OX-2 engines and

JN-4 training biplanes is shown at Fig. 179. The tools are placed in a special box provided with a hinged cover and are arranged in the systematic manner outlined. The various tools and supplies shown are: A, hacksaw
B, special socket wrenches for engine bolts and nuts; C, ball pein hammers, four sizes; D, five assorted sizes of screw drivers ranging from very long for heavy work to short and small for fine work; -E, seven pairs of
blades;
pliers including combination in three sizes,

two pairs of and one round nose; F, two split pin excutting pliers tractors and spreaders; Gr, wrench set including three,
adjustable
five

monkey wrenches, one

Stilson or pipe wrench,

adjustable end wrenches and ten double end S wrenches; H, set of files, including flat, three cornered and half round; I, file brush; J, chisel and drift pin; K, three small punches or drifts; L, hacksaw frame; M, soldering copper; N, special spanners for propeller resizes

taining nuts;

0, special spanners;
stiff

long handle; Q, long handle, cleaning motor; E, gasoline blow torch; S, hand drill; U, flash lamp V, special puller T, spools of safety wire and castle wrenches; W, oil can; X, large adjustable
; ;

P, socket wrenches, bristle brushes for

monkey wrench; Y, washer and gasket

heavy twine.

cutter;

Z, ball of

In addition to the tools, various supplies, such as soldering acid, solder, shellac, valve grinding compound, bolts and nuts, split pins, washers, wood screws, etc., are provided.

410

Aviation Engines

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Special Hall-Scott Tools

411

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'-5 02

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o 3 3 $ S ^2 2 o S g .^-^.^ I S g^gSwOoioj^'^'O'rJcoco^^ Ilfl p ji 3 s> o * * P P o p. s P s n S 2

P-

'43 CO

CO

C rt O O

be-^ T3 bo
fS

f |.|?,g. S M 8
M
Q^

O
CO

O O O O O O

ooooo

fefe 5

00"

412

Aviation Engines

special tools and fixtures recommended by the Hall-Scott Company for work on their engines are clearly shown at Fig. 180. All tools are numbered and their uses

The

may

tion and explanatory

be clearly understood by reference to the illustralist given on pages 410 and 411.

OVERHAULING AIRPLANE ENGINES

After an airplane engine has been in use for a period ranging from 60 to 80 hours, depending upon the type, it is necessary to give it a thorough overhauling before it is returned to service. To do this properly, the engine is removed from the fuselage and placed on a special supporting stand, such as shown at Fig. 181, so it can be
placed in any position and completely dismantled. With a stand of this kind it is as easy to work on the bottom of the engine as on the top and every part can be instantly reached. The crank-case shown in place in illustration is in a very convenient position for scraping in the crank-shaft bearings. In order to look over the parts of an engine and to restore the worn or defective components it is necessary to take the engine entirely apart, as it is only when the power plant is thoroughly dismantled that the parts can be inspected or measured to determine defects or wear. If one is not familiar with the engine to be inspected, even though the work is done by a repairman of experience, it will be found of value to take certain precautions when dismantling the engine in order to insure that all
parts will be replaced in the same position they occupied before removal. There are a number of ways of identifying the parts, one of the simplest and surest being to mark them with steel numbers or letters or with a series
of center
tion

punch marks in order when reassembling. -This

to retain the proper relais of special importance

in connection with dismantling multiple cylinder engines as it is vital that pistons, piston rings, connecting rods,

valves,

and other cylinder parts be always replaced in

413

414
the

Aviation Engines

same cylinder from which they were removed,

it

beall

cause

is

cylinders.

uncommon to find equal depreciation in Some repairmen use small shipping tags

to

identify the pieces.

tags

may

This can be criticised because the become detached and lost and the identity of

Fig. 181.

Special Stand to

Make Motor

Overhauling

Work

Easier.

the piece mistaken. If the repairing is being done in a shop where other engines of the same make are being

worked

repairman should be provided with a large and key in which all of the smaller such as rods, bolts and nuts, valves, gears, valve parts,
on, the

chest fitted with a lock

springs, cam-shafts, etc., may be stored to prevent the possibility of confusion with similar members of other

Dismantling an Engine
engines.

415

All parts should be thoroughly cleaned with or in the potash kettle as removed, and wiped gasoline clean and dry. This is necessary to show wear which will

be

evidenced by easily identified indications in cases where the machine has been used for a time, but in others, the deterioration can only be detected by delicate measuring instruments. In taking down a motor the smaller parts and fittings such as spark-plugs, manifolds and wiring should be removed first. Then the more important members such as cylinders may be removed from the crank-case to give access to the interior and make possible the examination of the After the cylinders are pistons, rings and connecting rods. removed the next operation is to disconnect the connecting rods from the crank-shaft and to remove them and Then the crank-case -is the pistons attached as a unit.

dismembered, in most cases by removing the bottom half or oil sump, thus exposing the main bearings and crankshaft. The first operation is the removal of the inlet and In some cases the manifolds are exhaust manifolds. cored integral with the cylinder head casting and it is merely necessary to remove a short pipe leading from the carburetor to one inlet opening and the exhaust pipe from the outlet opening common to all cylinders. In order to
'

remove the carburetor

line

it is

necessary to shut off the gaso-

supply at the tank. and to remove the pipe coupling at the float chamber. It is also necessary to disconnect
the throttle operating rod. After the cylinders are removed and before taking the crank-case apart it is well
to

remove the water pump and magneto. The wiring on most engines of modern development is carried in conduits and usually releasing two or three minor fastenings
will

permit one to take off the plug wiring as a unit. The wire should be disconnected from both spark-plugs and magneto distributor before its removal. When the
cylinders are removed, the pistons, piston rings, and connecting rods are clearly exposed and their condition may

be readily noticed.

416
Before
it

Aviation Engines
disturbing
the

timing important that these be marked so that they will be replaced in exactly the same relation as intended
gears,
is

arrangement

of

the

by the engine designer. If the gears are properly marked the valve timing and magneto setting will be undisturbed when the parts are replaced after overhauling. With the
cylinders
off,
it

is

undue wear present

possible to ascertain if there is any in the connecting rod bearings at

either the wrist pin or crank-pin ends and also to form some idea of the amount of carbon deposits on the piston

top and back of the piston rings. Any wear of the timing gears can also be determined. The removal of the bottom plate of the engine enables the repairman to see if the main bearings are worn unduly. Often bearings may be taken up sufficiently to eliminate all looseness. In other cases they may be worn enough so that careful Where the crank-case is refitting will be necessary. divided horizontally into two portions, the upper one serving as an engine base to which the cylinders and in fact all important working parts are attached, the lower portion performs the functions of an oil container and cover for the internal mechanism. This is the construction generally followed.

DEFECTS IN CYLINDERS

After the cylinders have been removed and stripped of all fittings, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then The interior or bore carefully examined for defects.
should be looked at with a view of finding score marks, grooves, cuts or scratches in the interior, because there are many faults that may be ascribed to depreciation at this point. The cylinder bore may be worn out of round, which can only be determined by measuring with an internal caliper or dial indicator even if the cylinder bore shows no sign of. wear. The flange at the bottom of the cylinder by which it is held to the engine base may be cracked. The water jacket wall may have opened up due

Defects in Cylinders

417

to freezing of the jacket water at some time or other or it may be filled with scale and sediment due to the use of

impure cooling water.

The valve

seat

may

be scored or

pitted, while the threads holding the valve chamber cap may be worn so that the cap will not be a tight fit. The detachable head construction makes it possible to remove

obtain ready access to the piston tops for scraping out carbon without taking the main cylinder portion from the crank-case. When the valves need grinding the head may be removed and carried to the bench
that

member and

where the work may be performed with absolute assurance that none of the valve grinding compound will penetrate into the interior of the cylinder as is sometimes unavoidable with the I-head cylinder. If the cylinder should be scored, the water jacket and combustion head may be

saved and a new cylinder casting purchased at considerably less cost than that of the complete unit cylinder. The detachable head construction has only recently been applied on airplane engines, though it was one of the earliest forms of automobile engine construction. In
the early days it was difficult to procure gaskets or packings that would be both gas and water tight. The sheet

commonly used was too soft and blew out readnew gasket had to be made every time ily. the cylinder head was removed. Woven wire and asbestos packings impregnated with rubber, red lead, graphite and other filling materials were more satisfactory than the
asbestos

Besides a

soft sheet asbestos, but were prone to burn out if the water supply became low. Materials such as sheet copper or brass proved to be too hard to form a sufficiently yield-ing packing medium that would allow for the inevitable slight inaccuracies in machining the cylinder head and

The invention of the copper-asbestos gasket, which is composed of two sheets of very thin, soft copper bound together by a thin edging of the same material and having a piece of sheet asbestos interposed solved this problem. Copper-asbestos packings form an effective seal against leakage of water and a positive retencylinder.

418
tion

Aviation Engines

means for keeping the explosion pressure in the cylinder. The great advantage of the detachable head is
permits of very easy inspection of the piston tops combustion chamber and ready removal of carbon and
that
it

deposits.

CARBON DEPOSITS, THEIR CAUSE AND PREVENTION

Most authorities agree that carbon is the result of imperfect combustion of the fuel and air mixture as well as the use of lubricating oils of improper flash point. Lubricating oils that work by the piston rings may become decomposed by the great heat in the combustion chamber, but at the same time one cannot blame the lubricating oil for all of the carbon deposits. There is little reason to suspect that pure petroleum oil of proper body will deposit excessive amounts of carbon, though if the oil is mixed with castor oil, which is of vegetable origin, there would be much carbon left in the interior of the
combustion chamber.

Fuel mixtures that are too rich in

gasoline also produce these undesirable accumulations. very interesting chemical analysis of a sample of

carbon scraped from the interior of a motor vehicle engine shows that ordinarily the lubricant is not as much The analysis was to blame as is commonly supposed.
as follows:
Oil

14.3%
17.9

Other combustible matter Sand, clay, etc

Iron oxide

24.8 24.5
.

Carbonate of lime Other constituents

8.9 9.6

It is extremely probable that the above could be divided into two general classes, these being approximately 32.2% oil and 'combustible matter and a much larger

proportion, or 67.8% of earthy matter. The presence of such a large percentage of earthy matter is undoubtedly due to the impurities in the air, such as road dust which

Removal

of Carbon Deposits

419

has been sucked in through the carburetor. The fact that over 17-% of the matter which is combustible was not of an oily nature lends strong support to this view. There would not be the amount of earthy material present in the carbon deposits of an airplane engine as above stated because the air is almost free from dust at the high altitudes planes are usually flown. One could expect to find more combustible and less earthy matter and the carbon would be softer and more easily removed. It is very good
practice to provide a screen on the air intake to reduce the amounts of dust sucked in with the air as well as

observing the proper precautions relative to supplying

the proper quantities of air to the mixture and of not using any more oil than is needed to insure proper lubri-

cation of the internal mechanism.

USE OF CARBON SCRAPERS

It is

not unusual for one to hear an aviator complain

that the engine he operates is not as responsive as it was when new after he has run it but relatively few hours.

There does not seem to be anything actually wrong with the engine, yet it does not respond readily to the throttle and is apt to overheat. While these symptoms denote a

rundown condition of the mechanism, the trouble is often due to nothing more serious than accumulations of carThe remedy is the removal of this matter out of bon. place. The surest way of cleaning the inside of the motor thoroughly is to remove the cylinders, if these members

member

are cast integrally with the head or of removing the head if 'that is a separate casting, to expose all parts. In certain forms of cylinders, especially those of the

form,

it is

possible to introduce simple scrapers

down

through the valve chamber cap holes and through the spark-plug hole if this component is placed in the cylinder in some position that communicates directly to the
interior of the cylinder or to the piston top. No claim can be made for originality or novelty of this process as

420
is

Aviation Engines

has been used for

many
is

years on large stationary en-

gines.

The

first

step

to dismantle the inlet

and

ex-

haust piping and remove the valve caps and valves, although if the deposit is not extremely hard or present in large quantities one can often manipulate the scrapers in the valve cap openings without removing either the piping or the valves. Commencing with the first cylinder, the crank-shaft is turned till the piston is at the top of its stroke, then the scraper may be inserted, and the operation of removing the carbon started by drawing the As this is similar to a small tool toward the opening. the cutting edge will loosen some of the carbon and hoe, swab is made of a will draw it toward the opening. piece of cloth or waste fastened at the end of a wire and well soaked in kerosene to clean out the cylinder. When available, an electric motor with a length of flexible shaft and a small circular cleaning brush having wire bristles can be used in the interior of the engine. The electric motor need not be over one-eighth horsepower running 1,200 to 1,600 E. P. M., and the wire brush must, of course, be of such size that it can be easily in* serted through the valve chamber cap. The flexible shaft permits one to reach nearly all parts of the cylinder interior without difficulty and the spreading out and flattening of the brush insures that considerable surface will be

covered by that member.

BURNING OUT CARBON WITH OXYGEN

process of recent development that gives very good results in removing carbon without disassembling the motor depends on the process of burning out that ma-

by supplying oxygen to support the combustion and to make it energetic. A number of concerns are already offering apparatus to accomplish this work, and in fact any shop using an autogenous welding outfit may use the oxygen tank and reducing valve in connection
terial

with a simple special torch for burning the carbon.

Ke-

Carbon Removal
suits

421
is
little

have demonstrated that there

danger of

damaging the motor parts, and that the cost of oxygen and labor is much lower than the old method of removing the cylinders and scraping the carbon out, as well as
being very much quicker than the alternative process of using carbon solvent. The only drawback to this system is that there is no absolute insurance that every particle of carbon will be removed, as small protruding particles may be left at* points that the flame does not reach and

Trigger Valve

,'Ma'm Valve

Pressure

Where Carbon Deposits collect in Combust/on Head

Hose-

Regulator

Fig. 182.

Showing Where Carbon Deposits Collect in Engine Combustion How to Burn Them Out with the Aid of Oxygen. A Special Torch. B Torch Coupled to Oxygen Tank. C Torch in Use.
Chamber, and

cause pre-ignition and consequent pounding, even after the. oxygen treatment. It is generally known that carbon will burn in the presence of oxygen, which supports combustion of all materials, and this process takes advantage of this fact and causes the gas to be injected into the combustion chamber over a flame obtained by a match or

wax

taper.

suggested by those favoring this process that the night before the oxygen is to be used the engine be half tumbler given a conventional kerosene treatment.
li is

full of this liquid or of

denatured alcohol

is to

be poured

422
into each cylinder

Aviation Engines

and permitted

to

remain there over

night. precaution against fire, the gasoline is shut off from the carburetor before the torch is inserted in the cylinder and the motor started so that the gasoline in the pipe and carburetor float chamber will be consumed.

As a

done on one cylinder at a time. A note of caution was recently sounded by a prominent spark-plug manufacturer recommending that the igniter member be removed from the cylinder in order not to injure it by the heat developed. The outfits on the market consist of a special torch having a trigger controlled valve and

Work

is

a length of flexible tubing such as shown at Fig. 182, A, and a regulating valve and oxygen tank as shown at B. The gauge should be made to register about twelve

pounds pressure. The method of operation is very simple and is outlined at C. The burner tube is placed in the cylinder and the trigger valve is opened and the oxygen permitted to A lighted match circulate in the combustion chamber. or wax taper is dropped in the chamber and the injector tube is moved around as much as possible so as to cover a large area. The carbon takes fire and burns briskly in

The combustion of the carbon is accompanied by sparks and sometimes by flame if the deposit is of an oily nature. Once the carbon begins to burn the combustion continues without interruption as
the presence of the oxygen.

long as the oxygen flows into the cylinder. Full instructions accompany each outfit and the amount of pressure for which the regulator should be set depends upon 'the design of the torch and the amount of oxygen contained
in the storage tank.

REPAIRING SCORED CYLINDERS

has been run at any time without adequate lubrication, one or more of the cylinders may be found to have vertical scratches running up and down
If the engine

the cylinder walls.

The depth

of these will vary accord-

Repairing Scored Cylinders

423

ing to the amount of time the cylinder was without lubrication, and if the grooves are very deep the only remedy
to purchase a new member. Of course, if sufficient stock is available in the cylinder walls, the cylinders may be rebored and new pistons which are oversize, i.e., larger
is

than standard, may be fitted. Where the scratches are not deep they may be ground out with a high speed emery wheel or lapped out if that type of machine is not avail-

Wrist pins have been known to come loose, especially when these are retained by set screws that are not properly locked, and as wrist-pins are usually of hardened steel it will be evident that the sharp edge of that member can act as a cutting tool and make a pronounced groove in the cylinder. Cylinder grinding is a job that Requires skilled mechanics, but may be accomplished on any lathe fitted with an internal grinding attachment. While automobile engine cylinders usually have sufficient
able.

wall thickness to stand reboring, those of airplane engines seldom have sufficient metal to permit of enlarging the
tool. few thousandths of be ground out without danger, however. An airplane engine cylinder with deep grooves must be scrapped as a general rule. Where the grooves in the cylinder are not deep or where it has warped enough so the rings do not bear

bore very

much by a boring

an inch

may

equally at all parts of the cylinder bore, it is possible to obtain a fairly accurate degree of finish by a lapping process in which an old piston is coated with a mixture of
oil and is reciprocated up and down in the as well as turned at the same time. This may cylinder be easily done by using a dummy connecting rod having only a wrist pin end boss, and of such size at the other end so that it can be held in the chuck of a drill press.

fine

emery and

The cylinder casting is firmly clamped on the drill press table by suitable clamping blocks, and a wooden block is placed in the combustion chamber to provide a stop for the piston at its lower extreme position. The back gears are put in and the drill chuck is revolved slowly. All the

424

Aviation Engines

while that the piston is turning the drill chuck should be raised up and down by the hand feed lever, as the best results are obtained when the lapping member -is given

a combination of rotary and reciprocating motion.

VALVE* REMOVAL,

AND INSPECTION

One of the most important parts of the gasoline engine and one that requires frequent inspection and refitting to keep in condition, is the mushroom or poppet valve In overthat controls the inlet and exhaust gas flow. it is essential that these valves be removed from hauling their seatings and examined carefully for various defects which will be enumerated at proper time. The problem that concerns us now is the best method of removing theThese are held against the seating in the cylinder spring which exerts its pressure on the cylinder by a casting at the upper end and against a suitable collar held by a key at the lower end of the valve stem. In order to remove the valve it is necessary to first comvalve.
coil

press the spring by raising the collar -and pulling the retaining key out of the valve stem. Many forms of valve spring lifters have been designed to permit ready re-

moval of the valves.

When
the the

the cylinder
of

is

of the valve in-the-head form,

will

depend entirely upon followed. In the cylinder system Sturtevant cylinder design it is possible to remove the head from the cylinder castings and the valve springs may be easily compressed by any suitable means when the cylinder head is placed on the work bench where it can be easily worked on. The usual method is to place the head on a soft cloth with the valves bearing against the bench. The valve springs may then be easily pushed down with a simple forked lever and the valve stem key removed to release the valve spring collar. In the Curtiss
construction
(see Fig. 182%) and Hall-Scott engines it is not possible to remove the valves without taking the cylinder

method of valve removal

OX-2

Valve Removal and Inspection

425

off the crank-case, because the valve seats are machined directly in the cylinder head and the valve domes are cast

integrally with the cylinder. This means that if the valves need grinding the cylinder must be removed from the engine base to provide access to the valve heads which are inside of that member, and which cannot be reached

Water
fnlet.

Valve
-

Outlet

Exhaust
Valve Spring

Spring
/n/ef Port

pplied Wafer
'

Jacket

Cylinder

Water .Space
P"

m*~Cool Water Jn let

Cylinder

Base Flange

Fig.

182y2

Part Sectional View, Showing Valve Arrangement in Cylinder of Curtiss OX-2 Aviation Engine.

from the outside as

In the Curtiss

VX

true of the L-cylinder construction. engines, the valves are carried in deis

tachable cages which

may

be removed when the valves

need attention.
RESEATING AND TRUING VALVES

Much has been

despite the

mass of information given

said relative to valve grinding, and in the trade prints

426
it is

Aviation Engines

rather amusing to watch the average repairman or the engine user who prides himself on maintaining his own
this essential operation.

motor performing

The common

mistakes are attempting to seat a badly grooved or pitted valve head on an equally bad seat, which is an almost hopeless job, and of using coarse emery and bearing down with all one's weight on the grinding tool with the hope
of quickly wearing away the rough surfaces. The use of improper abrasive material is a fertile cause of failure to obtain a satisfactory seating. Valve grinding is not a

operation if certain precautions are taken before undertaking the work. The most important of these is to ascertain if the valve head or seat is badly scored or If such is found to be the case no ordinary pitted. amount of grinding will serve to restore the surfaces. In this event the best thing to do is to remove the valve from its seating and to smooth down both the valve head and the seat in the cylinder before attempt is made to
difficult

them together by grinding. Another important precaution is to make sure that the valve stem is straight, and that the head is not warped out of shape. A number of simple tools is available at the present
fit

time for reseating valves, these being outlined at Fig. is a simple fixture for facing off 183. That shown at the valve head. The stem is supported by suitable bearings carried by the body or shank of the tool, and the head is turned against an angularly disposed cutter which The valve head is set for the proper valve seat angle. is turned by a screw-driver, the amount of stock removed

from the head depending upon the location of the adjusting screw. Care must be taken not to remove too much metal, only enough being taken off to remove the most of the roughness. Valves are made in two standard
tapers, the angle being either 45 or 60 degrees. It is imperative that the cutter blade be set correctly in order that the bevel is not changed. set of valve truing and

valve-seat reaming cutters is

is

This at Fig. 183, B. to various size valve heads, as the cutter adaptable

shown

Valve Restoration

42?

blade D may be moved to correspond to the size of the valve head being trued up. These cutter blades are made

ooy

Fig. 183.

Tools for Restoring Valve

Head and

Seats.

and have a bevel at each end, one at 45 dethe other at 60 degrees. The valve seat reamer grees, shown at G will take any one of the heads shown at F.
of tool steel

428
It will also take

Aviation Engines

any one of the guide bars shown at H. of the guide bars is to fit the valve stem bearing in order to locate the reamer accurately and to insure that the valve seat is machined concentrically with

The function

normal center. Another form of valve seat reamer and a special wrench used to turn it is shown at C. The valve head truer shown at Fig. 183, D, is intended to be placed in a vise and is adaptable to a variety of valve head sizes. The smaller valves merely fit deeper in the conical depression. The cutter blade is adjustable and the valve stem is supported by a simple self-centering
its

In operation it is intended that the valve steni, which protrudes through the lower portion of the guide bearing, shall be turned by a drill press or bit stock while the valve head is set against the cutter by pressure of a pad carried at the end of a feed screw which is supported by a hinged bridge member. This can be swung out of place as indicated to permit placing the valve head against
bearing.

the cutter .or removing it. As the sizes of valve heads and stems vary considerably a "Universal" valve head truing tool must have

some simple means of centering the valve stem in order machining of the valve head. A valve head truer which employs an ingenious method of guiding the valve stem is shown at Fig. 183, E. The device consists of a body portion, B, provided with an external thread at the top on which the cutter head, A, is screwed. A number of steel balls, C, are carried in the grooves which may be altered in size by the adjustment nut, F, which screws in the bottom of the body portion, B. As
to insure concentric

F is screwed in against the spacer member E, the V-grooves are reduced in size and the steel balls, C, are pressed out in contact with the valve stem. As the
the nut
.

circle or annulus is filled with balls in both upper and lower portions the stem may be readily turned because it is virtually supported by ball bearing guides. When a larger valve stem is to be supported, the adjusting nut F, is screwed out which increases the size of the grooves

Valve Grinding Processes

429

and permits the balls, C, stem to be inserted.

to

spread out and allow the larger

VALVE GRINDING PROCESSES

Mention has been previously made of the importance

of truing both valve head and seat before attempt is made to refit the parts by grinding. After smoothing the valve seat the next step is to find some way of turning the valve.

Valve heads are usually provided with a screw-driver slot passing through the boss at the top of the valve or with two drilled holes to take a forked grinding tool. A combination grinding tool has been devised which may be used when either the two drilled holes or the slotted head form of valve is to be rotated. This consists of a special form of screw driver having an enlarged boss just above the blade, this boss serving to support a U-shape piece which can be securely held in operative position by the clamp screw or which can be turned out of the way if the screw driver blade is to be used. As it is desirable to turn the valve through a portion of a revolution and back again rather than turning it always in the same direction, a number of special tools has been designed to make this oscillating motion possible without trouble. A simple valve grinding tool is shown This consists of a screw-driver blade at Fig. 184, C. mounted in a handle in such a way that the end may
turn freely in the handle. pinion is securely fastened to the screw-driver blade shank, and is adapted to fit a race provided with a wood handle and guided by a bent bearing member securely fastened to the screw-driver handle. As the rack is pushed back and forth the pinion must be turned first in one direction and then in the other. valve grinding tool patterned largely after a breast This is worked in such a drill is shown at Fig. 184, D. manner that a continuous rotation of the operating crank will result in an oscillating movement of the chuck carrying the screw-driver blade. The bevel pinions which are

1.30

Aviation Engines

used to turn the chuck are normally free unless clutched chuck stem by the sliding sleeve which must turn with the chuck stem and which carries clutching members
to the

Valve

-Valve Cage
Va/ve

Stem

-Na/f

'Valve

Stem

Fig. 184.

Tools and Processes Utilized in Valve Grinding.

end to engage similar members on the bevel pinand lock these to the chuck stem, one at a time. The bevel gear carries a cam-piece which moves the clutch
at each

ions

Valve Grinding Processes

sleeve back

431

and forth as it revolves. This means that the pinion giving forward motion of the chuck is clutched to
the chuck spindle for a portion of a revolution of the gear and clutch sleeve is moved back by the cam and

clutched to the pinion giving a reverse motion of the chuck during the remainder of the main drive gear revolution.

sometimes happens that the adjusting screw on the valve lift plunger or the valve lift plunger' itself when L head cylinders are used does not permit the valve head to rest against the seat. It will be apparent that unless a definite space exists between the end of the valve stem and the valve lift plunger that grinding will be of little avail because the valve head will not bear properly against the abrasive material smeared on the valve seat. The usual methods of valve grinding are clearly outlined at Fig. 184. The view at the left shows the method of turning the valve by an ordinary screw driver and also shows a valve head at A, having both the drilled holes and the screw-driver slot for turning the member and two In the special forms of fork-end valve grinding tools. sectional view shown at the right, the use of the light spring between the valve head and the bottom of the valve chamber to lift the valve head from the seat whenever pressure on the grinding tool is released is clearly indicated. It will be noted also that a ball of waste or cloth is interposed in the passage between the valve chamber
It

and the cylinder interior to prevent the abrasive material from passing into the cylinder from the valve chamber. When a bitstock is used, instead of being given a true rotary motion the chuck is merely oscillated through the greater part of the circle and back again. It is necessary to lift the valve from its seat frequently as the grinding operation continues; this is to provide an even distribution of the abrasive material placed between the valve head and its seat. Only sufficient pressure is given to

the bitstock to overcome the uplift of the spring and to insure that the valve will be held against the seat. Where

432

Aviation Engines
it

the spring is not used

is possible

to raise the valve

hand which is placed under as the grinding is carried on. It is not always possible to lift the valve in this manner when the cylinders are in place on the engine base owing to the space between the valve lift plunger and the end
to time with the
it

from time

the valve stem to raise

of the valve stem.

In this event the use of the spring as

of
is

shown in sectional view will be desirable. The abrasive generally used is a paste made medium or fine emery and lard oil or kerosene. This

used until the surfaces are comparatively smooth, after which the final polish or finish is given with a paste of
emery, grindstone dust, crocus, or ground glass and erroneous impression prevails in some quarters that the valve head surface and the seating must have a mirror-like polish. While this is not necessary it is
flour
oil.

An

face of the head be smooth

at the completion of the

essential that the seat in the cylinder and the bevel surand free from pits or scratches

operation.

All traces of the

emery and oil should be thoroughly washed out of the valve chamber with gasoline before the valve mechanism is assembled and in fact it is advisable to remove the old grinding compound at regular intervals, wash the seat thoroughly and supply fresh material as the process is in
progress. The truth of seatings may be tested by taking some Prussian blue pigment and spreading a thin film of it over the valve seat. The valve is dropped in place and

given about one-eighth turn with a little pressure on the tool. If the seating is good both valve head and seat will be covered uniformly with color. If high spots exist, the heavy deposit of color will show these while the low spots will be made evident because of the lack of pigment. The grinding process should be continued until the test shows an even bearing of the valve head at all points of the cylinder seating. When the valves are held in cages it is possible to catch the cage in a vise and to turn the valve in any of the ways indicated. It is much
is

Depreciation In Valve Systems

easier to clean off the

433

emery and oil and there is absono danger of getting the abrasive material in the lutely
cylinder if the construction is such that the valve cage or cylinder head member carrying the valve can be re-

moved from

the cylinder. When valves are held in cages, the tightness of the seat may be tested by partially filling the cage with gasoline and noticing how much liquid oozes

out around the valve head.

The degree of moisture preseasily

ent indicates the efficacy of the grinding process. The valves of Curtiss OX-2 cylinders are

ground in by using a simple fixture or tool and working from the top of the cylinder instead of from the inside.

tube having a bore just large enough to go over the valve stem is provided with a wooden handle or taped at one end and a hole of the same size as that drilled through the valve stem is put in at the other. To use, the open end of the tube is pushed over the valve stem and a split pin pushed through the tube and stem. The valve may

be easily manipulated and ground in place by oscillating in the customary manner.

DEPRECIATION- IN VALVE OPERATING SYSTEMS

There are a number of points to be watched in the valve operating system because valve timing may be seriously interfered with if there is much lost motion at the various bearing points in the valve lift mechanism. The two conventional methods of opening valves are shown at
Fig. 185.

That at A is the type employed when the valve cages are mounted directly in the head, while the form at B is the system used when the valves are located in a
pocket or extension of the cylinder casting as is the case if an L, or T-head cylinder is used. It will be evident that there are several points where depreciation may take
place. The simplest form is that shown at B, and even on this there are five points where lost motion may be noted.

The periphery of the valve opening cam or

worn, though this
is

roller

may

be

not likely unless the roller or

cam has

434

Aviation Engines

been inadvertently left soft. The pin which acts as a bearing for the roller may become worn, this occurring quite often. Looseness may materialize between the bearing surfaces of the valve
.-Rocker Lever

lift

plunger and the plunger

Fulcrum.

Rocker
Valve

firm.

/ Fulcrum

Pin,

Valve Spring^

Pin.

Cage
Retaining, '

A
-Tappet
,.--,-

Nut

Rod

Vafve

Stem

Valve Plunger-' J|_,

Valve -Plunger

Guide .......

''Valve

-Operating Caws-

Fig. 185.

Outlining Points in Valve Operating Mechanism

ciation is

Where Depre-

Apt

to Exist.

guide casting, and there may also be excessive clearance between the top of the plunger and the valve stem. On the form shown at A, there are several parts added to those indicated at B. walking beam or rocker lever is necessary to transform the upward motion of the tappet rod to a downward motion of the' valve stem. The pin

Depreciation In Valve Systems

435

this member fulcrums may wear as will also the other pin acting as a hinge or bearing for the yoke end of the tappet rod. It will be apparent that if slight play existed at each of the points mentioned it might result in a serious diminution of valve opening. Suppose, for ex-

on which

ample, that there were .005-inch lost motion at each of

three bearing points, the total lost motion would be .015inch or sufficient to produce noisy action of the valve

mechanism.

When valve plungers of the adjustable form, such as shown at B, are used, the hardened bolt head in contact with the end of the valve stem may become hollowed out on account of the hammering action at that It is imperative that the top of this member be point. off true and the clearance between the valve stem ground and plunger properly adjusted. If the plunger is a nonadjustable type it will be necessary to lengthen the valve stem by some means in order to reduce the excessive The only remedy for wear at the various clearance. and bearing pins is to bore the holes out slightly hinges larger and to fit new hardened steel pins of larger diameter. Depreciation between the valve plunger guide and the valve plunger is usually remedied by fitting new plunger guides in place of the worn ones. If there is sufficient stock in the plunger guide casting as is sometimes the case when these members are not separable from the cylinder casting, the guide may be bored out and bushed with a light bronze bushing. common cause of irregular engine operation is due to a sticking valve. This may be owing to a bent valve stem, a weak or broken valve spring or an accumulation of burnt or gummed oil between the valve stem and the valve stem guide. In order to prevent this the valve stem must be smoothed with fine emery cloth and no burrs or shoulders allowed to remain on it, and the stem must also be straight and at right angles to the valve head. If the spring is weak it may be strengthened in some cases by stretching it out after annealing so that a larger space

will exist

between the

coils

and re-hardening.

Obviously

436
if

Aviation Engines
is

a spring

broken the only remedy

is

replacement of

the defective member.

Mention has been made of wear in the valve stem guide and its influence on engine action. When these members are an integral part of the cylinder the only method of compensating for this wear is to drill the guide out and fit a bushing, which may be made of steel tube. In some engines, especially those of recent development, the valve stem guide is driven or screwed into the cylinder casting and is a separate member which may be removed when worn and replaced with a new one. When the guides become enlarged to such a point that considerable play exists between them and the valve stems, they may be easily knocked out or unscrewed.
PISTON TROUBLES

an engine has been entirely dismantled it is very examine the pistons for deterioration. While it easy is important that the piston be a good fit in the cylinder it is mainly upon the piston rings that compression depends. The piston should fit the cylinder with but little looseness, the usual practice being to have the piston
If
to

about .001-inch smaller than the bore for each inch of piston diameter at the point where the least heat is presIt is necessary to ent or at the bottom of the piston. allow more than this at the top of the piston owing to its expansion due to -the direct heat of the explosion. The

clearance

is

.005-inch smaller than the

usually graduated and a piston that would be cylinder bore at the bottom

would be about .0065-inch at the middle and .0075-inch at If much more play than this is evidenced the the top. will "slap" in the cylinder and the piston will be piston worn at the ends more than in the center. Aluminum or alloy pistons require more clearance than cast iron ones do, usually 1.50 times as much. Pistons sometimes warp out of shape and are not truly cylindrical. This results in the high spots rubbing on the cylinder while the low

Piston and Ring Troubles

437

spots will be blackened where a certain amount of gas has leaked by. Mention has been previously made of the necessity of reboring or regrinding a cylinder that has become scored or scratched and which allows the gas to leak by the

piston rings. When the cylinder is ground out, it is necessary to use a larger piston to conform to the enlarged cylinder bore. Most manufacturers are prepared to fur-

nish orer-size pistons, there being four standard oversize dimensions adopted by the S. A. E. for rebored

These are .010-inch, .020-inch, cylinders. .040-inch larger than the original bore.

.030-inch,

and

The piston rings should be taken out of the piston grooves and all carbon deposits removed from the inside of the ring and the bottom of the groove. It is important
to

take this deposit out because

it

prevents the rings

from performing their proper functions by reducing the ring elasticity, and if the deposit is allowed to accumulate it may eventually result in sticking and binding of the
ring, this producing excessive friction or loss of compression. When the rings are removed they should be tested

to see if they retain their elasticity and it is also well to see that the small pins in some pistons which keep the

rings from turning around so the joints will not come in If no pins are found there is no line are still in place. cause for alarm because these dowels are not always

When fitted, they are utilized with rings having a butt joint or diagonal cut as the superior gas retaining qualities of the lap or step joint render the pins unused.

necessary.
If gas has been blowing

by the ring or

if

these

mem-

bers have. not been fitting the cylinder properly the points where the gas passed will be evidenced by burnt, brown or roughened portions of the polished surface of the

The point where this discoloration pistons and rings. will be noticed more often is at the thin end of an eccentric ring, the discoloration

being present for about %-inch or %-inch each side of the slot. It may be possible that

438

Aviation Engines

the rings were not true when first put in. This made it possible for the gas to leak by in small amounts initially which increased due to continued pressure until quite a

large area for gas escape had been created.

PISTON KING MANIPULATION

Eemoving piston rings without breaking them is a difficult operation if the proper means are not taken, .but is a comparatively simple one when the trick is known. The
tools required are very simple, being three strips of thin steel about one-quarter inch wide and four or five inches

long and a pair of spreading tongs made up of onequarter inch diameter keystock tied in the center with a copper wire to form a hinge. The construction is such that when the hand is closed and the handles brought together the other end of the expander spreads out, an action just opposite to that of the conventional pliers. The method of using the tongs and the metal strips is
the ring expander is clearly indicated at Fig. 186. At shown spreading the ends of the rings sufficiently to insert

the pieces of sheet metal between one of the rings and the piston. Grasp the ring as shown at B, pressing with the thumbs on the top of the piston and the ring will slide off easily, the thin metal strips acting as guide members to prevent the ring from catching in the other piston grooves.

Usually no difficulty is experienced in removing the top or bottom rings, as these members may be easily expanded and worked off directly without the use of a metal strip. When removing the intermediate rings, however, the metal strips will be found very useful. These are usually made

by

the repairman by grinding the teeth from old hacksaw blades and rounding the edges and corners in order to reduce the liability of cutting the fingers. By the use of the

three metal strips a ring

distorting
it

is removed without breaking or and practically no time is consumed in the

operation.

Piston Ring Manipulation

FITTING PISTON RINGS

439

Before installing new rings, they should be carefully grooves to which they are applied. The tools required are a large piece of fine emery cloth, a thin, flat file, a small vise with copper or leaden jaw clips, and a smooth hard surface such as that afforded by the top of a surface plate or a well planed piece of hard wood. After making sure that all deposits of burnt oil and carbon have been removed from the piston grooves, three rings are The ring is turned all selected, one for each groove. its circumference into the groove it is to fit, which around can be done without springing it over the piston as the outside edge of the ring may be used to test the width of the groove just as well as the inside edge. The ring should be a fair fit and while free to move circumferentially there should be no appreciable up and down motion. If the ring is a tight fit it should be laid edge down upon the piece of emery cloth which is placed on the surface plate and carefully rubbed down until it fits the groove it is to occupy. It is advisable to fit each piston ring individually and to mark them in some way to insure that they will be placed in the groove to which they are fitted. The repairman next turns his attention to fitting the The ring should be pushed ring in the cylinder itself. into the cylinder at least two inches up from the bottom and endeavor should be made to have the lower edge of the ring parallel with the bottom of the cylinder. If the ring is not of correct diameter, but is slightly larger than the cylinder bore, this condition will be evident by the
fitted to the

angular slots of the rings being out of line or by difficulty in inserting the ring if it is a lap joint form. If such is the case the ring is removed from the cylinder and placed
in the vise between soft metal
is

jaw clips. Sufficient metal from the edges of the ring at the slot until the edges come into line and a slight space exists between them when the ring is placed into the cylinremoved with a
fine file

der.

It is

important that this space be

left

between the

440

Aviation Engines

ends, for if this is not done when the ring becomes heated the expansion of metal may cause the ends to abut and the ring to jam in the cylinder.

necessary to use more than ordinary caution in replacing the rings on the piston because they are usually
It is

.-Thin

Metal

'Piston

Ring

Ring Expander

^Clamping

Ring--''

Fig. 186.

Method of Removing Piston Rings, and Simple Clamp

tate Insertion of Rings in Cylinder.

to Facili-

made

to break because of its brittleness.

of cast iron, a metal that is very fragile and liable Special care should

be taken in replacing new rings as these members are

Piston Ring Manipulation

441

more apt

This is probably acto break than old ones. counted for by the heating action on used rings which tends to anneal the metal as well as making it less springy. The bottom ring should be placed in position first which

accomplished by springing the ring open enough on the piston and then sliding it into place in the lower groove which on some types of engines is below the wrist pin, whereas in others all grooves are above that member. The other members are put in by a reversal of
is easily

to pass

and B. It is not always the process outlined at Fig. 186, necessary to use the guiding strips of metal when replacing rings as it is often possible, by putting the rings on
the piston a little askew and maneuvering them to pass the grooves without springing the ring into them. The

top ring should be the last one placed in position. Before placing pistons in the cylinder one should make sure that the slots in the piston rings are spaced equidistant on the piston, and if pins are used to keep the ring from turning one should be careful to make sure that these pins fit into their holes in the ring and that they are not

under the ring at any point. Practically all cylinders are chamfered at the lower end to make insertion of piston rings easier. The operation of putting on a cylinder casting over a piston really requires two pairs of hands, one
to manipulate the cylinder, the other person to close the

This may be done very a simple clamp member made of sheet brass or easily by iron and used to close the ring as indicated at Fig. 186, C. It is apparent that the clamp must be adjusted to each
rings as they enter the cylinder.
individual ring and that the split portion of the clamp must coincide with the split portion of the ring. The cylinder should be well oiled before any attempt is made to install the pistons. The engine should be run with more than the ordinary amount of lubricant for several hours after new piston rings have been inserted. On first start-

ing the engine, one may be disappointed in that the compression is even less than that obtained with the old rings. This condition will soon be remedied as the rings become

442
polished and
cylinder.

Aviation Engines
adapt themselves to the contour
WRIST PIN WEAR
of

the

While wrist pins are usually made of very tough steel, case hardened with the object of wearing out an easily renewable bronze bushing in the upper end of the connecting rod rather than the wrist pin it sometimes happens

members will be worn so that even the replacement of a new bushing in the connecting rod will not reduce the lost motion and attendant noise due to a
that these
is to fit new wrist pins the connecting rod is clamped to the wrist pin and that member oscillates in the piston bosses the wear will usually be indicated on bronze bush-

loose wrist pin. to the piston.

The only remedy

Where

ings which are pressed into the piston bosses. These are easily renewed and after running a reamer through them

of the proper size no difficulty should be experienced in replacing either the old or a new wrist pin depending upon the condition of that member. If no bushings are

provided, as in alloy pistons, the bosses can sometimes be bored out and thin bushings inserted, though this is not always possible. The alternative is to ream out the bosses and upper end of rod a trifle larger after holes are trued up and fit oversize wrist pins.

INSPECTION AND REFITTING OF ENGINE BEARINGS

While the engine is dismantled one has an excellent opportunity to examine the various bearing points in the engine crank-case to ascertain if any looseness exists due
to depreciation of the bearing surfaces.

As

will be evi-

dent, both main crank-shaft bearings and the lower end of the connecting rods may be easily examined for deterioration. With the rods in place, it is not difficult to

amount of lost motion by grasping the connectrod firmly with the hand and moving it up and down. ing After the connecting rods have been removed and the
feel the

Refitting

Engine Bearings

443

propeller hub taken off the crank-shaft to permit of ready handling, any looseness in the main bearing may be detected by lifting up on either the front or rear end of the crank-shaft and observing if there is any lost motion

between the shaft journal and the main bearing caps. It is not necessary to take an engine entirely apart to examine the main bearings, as in most forms these may be The symptoms readily reached by removing the sump. of worn main bearings are not hard to identify. If an engine knocks regardless of speed or spark-lever position, and the trouble is not due to carbon deposits in the combustion chamber, one may reasonably surmise that the main bearings have become loos.e or that lost motion may exist at the connecting rod big ends, and possibly at the
wrist pins. The main journals of any well resigned engine are usually proportioned with ample surface and will not wear unduly unless lubrication has been neglected.

The connecting rod bearings wear quicker than main bearings owing to being subjected to a greater unit stress, and it may be necessary to take these up.
the

ADJUSTING MAIN BEARINGS

the bearings are not worn enough to require the lost motion can often be eliminated by rerefitting moving one or more of the thin shims or liners ordinarily

When

used to separate the bearing caps from the seat. These are shown at Fig. 187, A. Care must be taken that an even number -of shims of the same thickness are removed from each side of the journal. If there is considerable lost motion after one or two shims have been removed, it will be advisable to take out more shims and to scrape the bearing to a fit before the bearing cap is tightened It may be necessary to clean up the crank- shaft up. journals as these may be scored due to not having received clean oil or having had bearings seize upon them.
It is not difficult to true

nals

if

the score

up the crank-pins or main jourmarks are not deep. A fine file and

,>-Emery Cloth

Shims,
"'

Box

Bearing

Cap

--'

Tig. 187.

Tools and Processes Used in Befitting Engine Bearings.

444

Refitting

Engine Bearings

445

be used, or a lapping tool such as deThe latter is preferable because picted at Fig. 187, B. the file and emery cloth will only tend to smooth the surface while the lap will have the effect of restoring the

emery

cloth

may

crank to proper contour. A lapping tool may be easily made, as shown at B, the blocks being of lead or hard wood. As the width of these are about half that of the crank-pin the tool may be

worked from

side to side as

it is

rotated.

An

abrasive

paste composed of fine emery powder and oil is placed between the blocks, and the blocks are firmly clamped to the crank-pin. As the lead blocks bed down, the wing nut should be tightened to insure that the abrasive will be held with some degree of pressure against the shaft. A liberal supply of new abrading material is placed between the lapping blocks and crank-shaft from time to time and the old mixture cleaned off with gasoline. It is necessary to maintain a side to side movement of the lapping tool in order to have the process affect the whole width of the The lapping is continued until a crank-pin equally. smooth surface is obtained. If a crank-pin is worn out
of true to any extent the only method of restoring
to
it
it

is

have proper circular form by a competent mechanic having the necessary machine tools A crank-pin truing to carry on the work accurately. tool that may be worked by hand is shown at Fig. 187, K. After the crank-shaft is trued the next operation is to
to
fit it

ground down

to the
fit

main bearings or rather

to scrape these

mem-

bers to

In order to bring the brasses it may be necessary to remove a little closer together, metal from the edges of the caps to compensate for the A very simple way of doing this is shown lost motion.
the shaft journal.
at Fig. 187, D.

piece of medium emery cloth is rested on the surface plate and the box or brass is pushed back

and forth over that member by hand, the amount of pressure and rapidity of movement being determined by the amount of metal it is necessary to remove. This is better than filing, because the -edges will be flat and there will be

446

Aviation Engines

no tendency for the bearing caps to rock when placed against the bearing seat. It is important to take enough off the edges of the boxes to insure that they will grip the crank tightly. The outer diameter must be checked with a pair of calipers during this operation to make sure that the surfaces remain parallel. Otherwise, the bearing brasses will only grip at one end and with such insufficient support they will quickly work loose, both in the bearing seat and bearing cap.
SCRAPING BRASSES TO FIT

To insure that the bearing brasses will be a good fit on the trued-up crank-pins or crank-shaft journals, they must be scraped to fit the various crank-shaft journals.
of scraping, while a tedious one, is not difficult, requiring only patience and some degree of care to do a good job. The surface of the crank-pin is smeared

The process

with Prussian blue pigment which is spread evenly over The bearings are then clamped tothe entire surface. in the usual manner with the proper bolts, and the gether crank-shaft revolved several times to indicate the high spots on the bearing cap. At the start of the process of scraping in, the bearing may seat only at a few points as shown at Fig. 187, G. Continued scraping will bring the bearing surface as indicated at H, whichr is a considerable improvement, while the process may be considered complete when the brass indicates a bearing all over as at I. The high spots are indicated by blue, as where the shaft does not bear on the bearing there is no color. The high spots are removed by means of a scraping tool of the form shown at Fig. 187, F, which is easily made from a worn-out file. These are forged to shape and ground hollow as indicated in the section, and are kept properly sharpened by frequent rubbing on an ordinary
oil

stone.

must be very keen. scrapers, shown at

To scrape properly, the edge of the scraper The straight and curved half-round M and N, are used for bearings. The

Refitting

Engine Bearings

447

curved surfaces, and

three-cornered scraper, outlined at 0, is also used on is of value in rounding off the sharp The straight or curved half-round type works corners. well on soft-bearing metals, such as babbitt, or white brass, but on yellow brass or bronze it cuts very slowly, and as soon as the edge becomes dull considerable pressure is needed to remove any metal, this calling for frequent

or curved surfaces by course, to obtain an desirable, with as little scraping as possible. evenly spotted bearing When the part to be scraped is first applied to the surface-plate, or to a journal in the case of a bearing, three or four "high" spots may be indicated by the marking The time required to reduce these high spots material. and obtain a bearing that is distributed over the entire surface depends largely upon the way the scraping is
flat

sharpening. When correcting errors on

it

hand- scraping,

is

of

started.

If the first bearing

marks indicate a decided

much time can be saved -by scraping areas than are covered by the bearing marks; this larger is especially true of large shaft and engine bearings, etc. An experienced workman will not only remove the heavy marks, but also reduce a larger area then, when the
rise in the surface,
;

tested again, the bearing somewhat.' If the tributed

is

appear at first "point bearings" are gradually enlarged, but a much longer time will be required to distribute them. The number of times the bearing must be applied to
these

marks will generally be disheavy marks which usually are simply removed by light scraping,

the journal for testing is important, especially box or bearing is large and not easily handled.

when the The time

required to distribute the bearing marks evenly depends largely upon one's judgment in "reading" these marks. In the early stages of the scraping operation, the marks should be used partly as a guide for showing the high areas, and instead of merely scraping the marked spot the surface surrounding it should also be reduced, unless The idea should it is evident that the unevenness is local.

448

Aviation Engines

be to obtain first a few large but generally distributed marks; then an evenly and finely spotted surface can be produced quite easily. In fitting brasses when these are of .the removable The upper half of the type, two methods may be used. base may be inverted on a suitable bench or stand engine and the boxes fitted by placing the crank-shaft in position, clamping down one bearing cap at a time and fitting each bearing in succession until they bed equally. From that time on the bearings should be fitted at the same time so the shaft will be parallel with the bottom of the cylinders. Considerable time and handling of the heavy crankshaft

may
is
?

be saved

if

a preliminary

fitting of the

bearing

brasses

penter s the crank-shaft attached to the bench as shown at C. The brasses are revolved around the crank-shaft journal and are scraped to fit wherever high spots are indicated until they begin to seat fairly. When the brasses assume a finished appearance the final scraping should be carried on with all bearings in place and revolving the crankWhen the shaft to determine the area of the seating. brasses are properly fitted they will not only show a full bearing surface, but the shaft will not turn unduly hard if revolved with a moderate amount of leverage. Bearings of white metal or babbitt can be fitted tighter than those of bronze, and care must be observed in supplying lubricant as considerably more than the usual

made by clamping them together with a carwood clamp as shown at Fig. 187, J, and leaving

amount is needed until the bearings are run in by several hours of test block work. Before the scraping process is started it is well to chisel an oil groove in the bearing Grooves are very helpful in as shown at Fig. 187, L. uniform distribution of oil over the entire width insuring of bearing and at the same time act as reservoirs to retain a supply of oil. The tool used is a round-nosed chisel, the effort being made to cut the grooves of uniform depth and having smooth sides. Care should be taken
not to cut the grooves too deeply, as this will seriously

'

Fitting Connecting

Rods

449

reduce the strength of the bearing bushing. The shape of the groove ordinarily provided is clearly shown at Fig. 187, Gr, and it will be observed that the grooves do not extend clear to the edge of the bearing, but stop about a quarter of an inch from that point. The hole through

which the

supplied to the bearing is usually drilled in such a way that it will communicate with the groove. The tool shown at Fig. 187, K, is of recent developoil is

ment, and is known as a "crank-shaft equalizer." This is a hand-operated turning tool, carrying cutters which are intended to smooth down scored crank-pins without using a lathe. The feed may be adjusted by suitable screws and the device may be fitted to crank-pins and shaft journals of different diameters by other adjusting screws. This device is not hard to operate, being merely clamped around the crank- shaft in the same manner as the lapping tool previously described, and after it has been properly adjusted it is turned around by the levers provided for the purpose, the continuous rotary motion removing the metal just as a lathe tool would.
-

FITTING CONNECTING EODS

In the marine type rod, which is the form generally used in airplane engines, one or two bolts are employed at each side and the cap must be removed entirely before the bearing can be taken off of the crank-pin. The tightness of the brasses around the crank-pin can never be determined solely by the adjustment of the bolts, as while it is important that these should be drawn up as tightly as possible, the bearing should fit the shaft without undue binding, even if the brasses must be scraped to insure a proper fit. As is true of the main bearings, the marine form of connecting rod in some engines has a number of liners or shims interposed between the top and lower portions of the rod end, and these may be reduced in

number when necessary to bring the brasses closer The general tendency in airplane engines is gether.

to-

to

450

Aviation Engines

main or connecting rod bearand when wear is noticed the boxes or liners are ings, removed and new ones supplied. The brasses are held in the connecting rod and cap by brass rivets and are generally attached in the main bearing by small brass machine screws. The form of box generally favored is
eliminate shims in either the

a brass sand casting rich in copper to secure good heat conductivity which forms a backing for a thin layer of white brass, babbitt or similar anti-friction metal. In fitting new brasses there are two conditions to be avoided, these being outlined at Fig. 188, B and C. In

Retaining Bolts

: "Retaining Bolts-

Retaining Bolts-

A
Fig.
188.

Showing Points

to

Observe
Brasses.

When

Fitting

Connecting

Bod

the case shown at C the light edges of the bushings are in contact, but the connecting rod and its cap do not meet. When the retaining nuts are tightened the entire strain is taken on the comparatively small area of the edges of the bushings which are not strong enough to withstand the strains existing and which flatten out quickly, permitting the bearing to run loose. In the example outthe edges of the brasses do not touch when This is not is drawn in place. good practice, because the brasses soon become loose in their retaining member. In the case outlined it is neceslined at

the connecting rod cap

Testing Sprung Cam-shaft

sary to
as well.
the cap
file

451

off the faces of the

rod and cap until these

meet, and

to insure contact of the edges of the brasses

In event of the brasses coming together before contact, as shown at C, the bearing halves should be reduced at the edges until both the caps and brasses meet against each other or the surfaces of the liners as shown at A.

and rod make

SPRUNG CAM-SHAFT
If the cam-shaft is sprung or twisted it will alter the valve timing to such an extent that the smoothness of operation of the engine will be materially affected. If this condition is suspected the cam-shaft may be swung on lathe centers and turned to see if it runs out and can

be straightened in any of the usual form of shaft-straightening machines. The shaft may be twisted without being sprung. This can only be determined by supporting one end of the shaft in an index head and the other end on a milling machine center. The cams are then checked to see that they are separated by the proper degree of anguThis process is one that requires a thorough larity. knowledge of the valve timing of the engine in question, and is best done at the factory where the engine was made. The timing gears should also be examined to see if the teeth are worn enough so that considerable back lash or lost motion exists between them. This is espewhere worm or spiral gears are used. cially important worn timing gear not only produces noise, but it will cause the time of opening and closing of the engine valves

to

vary materially.
PRECAUTIONS IN REASSEMBLING PARTS

When

all

of the essential components of a

power plant

have been carefully looked over and cleaned and all defects eliminated, either by adjustment or replacement of worn portions, the motor should be reassembled, taking

452

Aviation Engines

care to have the parts occupy just the same relative positions they did before the motor was dismantled. As each part is added to the assemblage care should be taken to

insure adequate lubrication of

all

new

points of bearing

by

squirting liberal quantities of cylinder oil

upon them

with a hand oil can or syringe provided for the purpose. In adjusting the crank-shaft bearings, tighten them one at a time and revolve the shafts each time one of the
bearing caps is set up to insure that the newly adjusted bearing does not have undue friction. All retaining keys and pins must be positively placed and it is good practice to cover such a part with lubricant before replacing it because it will not only drive in easier, but the part may be removed more easily if necessary at some future time. If not oiled, rust collects around it. "When a piece is held by more than one bolt or screw, especially if it is a casting of brittle material such as cast iron or aluminum, the fastening bolts should be tightened uniformly. If one bolt is tightened more than the rest it is liable to spring the casting enough to break it. Spring washers, check nuts, split pins or other locking means should always be provided, especially on parts which are in motion or subjected to heavy loads. Before placing the cylinder over the piston it is imperative that the slots in the piston rings are spaced equidistant and that the piston is copiously oiled before the cylinder is slipped over it. "When reassembling the inlet and exhaust manifolds it is well to use only perfect packings or gaskets and to avoid the use of those that seem to have hardened up or flattened out too much in If it is necessary to use new gaskets it is imservice. to employ these at all joints on a manifold, beperative cause if old and new gaskets are used together the new ones are apt to keep the manifold from bedding properly upon the used ones. It is well to coat the threads of all bolts and screws subjected to heat, such as cylinder head and exhaust manifold retaining bolts, with a mixture of graphite and oil. Those that enter the water jacket should

Reassembling Parts

453

be covered with white or red lead or pipe thread compound. Gaskets will hold better if coated with shellac before the manifold or other parts are placed over them. The shellac fills any irregularities in the joint and assists materially in preventing leakage after the joint is made

up and

the coating has a chance to set. Before assembling on the shaft, it is necessary to fit the bearings by scraping, the same instructions given for

restoring the contour of the main bearings applying just as well in this case. It is apparent that if the crank-pins are not round no amount of scraping will insure a true
bearing. point to observe is to make sure that the heads of the bolts are imbedded solidly in their proper position, and that they are not raised by any burrs or
particles of dirt under the head which will flatten out after the engine has been run for a time and allow the
bolts to slack off.

Similarly, care should be taken that there is no foreign matter under the brasses and the

box in which they

To guard against this the bolts seat. should be struck with a hammer several times after they are tightened up, and the connecting rod can be hit sharply several times under the cap with a wooden mallet or lead hammer. It is important to pin the brasses in place to prevent movement, as lubrication may be interfered with if the bushing turns round and breaks the corbetween the oil hole in the cap and brasses. Care should be taken in screwing on the retaining nuts to insure that they will remain in place and not slack off. Spring washers should not be used on either connecting rod ends or main bearing nuts, because these sometimes snap in two pieces and leave the nut slack. The best
rect register

method

of locking is to use well-fitting castellated nuts.

split

pins and

TESTING

BEARING PARALLELISM

than general directions regarding the proper degree of tightening for a connecting rod bearing, but as a guide to correct adjustment
It is not possible to give other

454
it

Aviation Engines
be said that

if the connecting rod cap is tightened connecting rod will just about fall over from a vertical position due to the piston weight when the bolts are fully tightened up, the adjustment will be

may

sufficiently so the

As previously stated, babbitt or white nearly correct. metal bearings can be set up more tightly than bronze, as the metal is softer and any high spots will soon be leveled down with the running of the engine. It is important that care be taken to preserve parallelism of the wrist-pins and crank-shafts while scraping in bearThis can be determined in two ways. That shown ings. at Fig. 189, A, is used when the parts are not in the engine assembly and when the connecting rod bearing is being fitted to a mandrel or arbor the same size as the
crank-pin. The arbor, which is finished very smooth and of uniform diameter, is placed in two blocks, which in An adturn are supported by a level surface plate. be tried, first at one side of justable height gauge may

is placed at the upper end of the then at the other, and any variation will connecting rod, be easily determined by the degree of tilting of the rod. This test may be made with the wrist-pin alone, or if the piston is in place, a straight edge or spirit level may

the wrist-pin which

be employed.

The

spirit level will readily

is

show any

in-

used in connection clination while the straight edge with the height gauge as indicated. Oi course, the surface plate must be absolutely level when tests are made. When the connecting rods are being fitted with the
crank-shaft in place in crank-case, and that member secured in the frame, a steel square may be used as it is reasonable to assume that the wrist-pin, and consequently the piston, it carries, should observe a true relation with the top of the engine base. If the piston side is at right

angles with the top of the engine base it is reasonable to assume that the wrist-pin and crank-pin are parallel. If the piston is canted to one side or the other, it will
indicate that the brasses have been scraped tapering, which would mean considerable heating and undue .fric-

Testing Bearing Parallelism

455

tion if the piston is installed in the cylinder on account of the pressure against one portion of the cylinder wall. If the degree of canting is not too great, the connecting

rods

may

be sprung very slightly to straighten up the

Height

/-Straight Edge

-Piston
'

Mandrel

......Connecting

Rod

Mandrel*
V-Block
V- Block

Surface Plate--'"
.-Piston

>

Cylinder

Bed

''

Front Bearing

Center Bearinq

\ _

"End Bearing

Fig.

189.

Methods of Testing

to Insure Parallelism
Fitting.

of Bearings After

piston, but this is a makeshift that is not advised.

The

height gauge method shown above may be used instead of the steel square, if desired, because the top of the crank-case is planed or milled true and should be parallel with the center line of the crank-shaft.

456

Aviation Engines
CAM-SHAFTS AND TIMING GEARS

Knocking sounds are also evident if the cam-shaft is loose in its bearings, and also if the cams or timing gears are loose on the shaft. The cam-shaft is usually
supported by solid bearings of the removable bushing If these type, having no compensation for depreciation. bearings wear the only remedy is replacement with new ones. In the older makes of cars it was general practice to machine the cams separately and to secure these to the cam-shaft by means of taper pins or keys. These members sometimes loosened and caused noise. In the event of the cams being loose, care should be taken to use new
keys or taper pins, as the case may be. If the fastening used was a pin, the hole through the cam-shaft will invariably be slightly oval from wear. In order to insure a tight job, the holes in cam and shaft must be reamed with the next larger size of standard taper reamer and a larger pin driven in. Another point to watch is the method of retaining the cam-shaft gear in place. On some engines the gear is fastened to a flange on the These are not apt to cam-shaft by retaining screws. become loose, but where reliance is placed on a key the cam-shaft gear may often be loose on its supporting

member.

in both gear

The only remedy and shaft and to

is
fit

to

enlarge the key slot a larger retaining key.

CHAPTER
Aviation Engine Types

XII

Division in Classes Anzani Engines Canton and Unne Engine Construction of Gnome Engines "Monosoupape" Gnome German "Gnome" Type Le Rhone Engine Renault Air-Cooled Engine Simplex Model "A" Hispana-Suiza Curtiss Aviation Motors Thomas-Morse Model 88 Engine Duesenberg Engine Aeromarine Six-Cylinder Wisconsin Aviation Engines Hall-Scott Engines Mercedes Motor Benz Motor Austro-Daimler Sunbeam-Coatalen.

AVIATION ENGINE TYPES

Inasmuch as numerous forms of airplane engines have been devised, it would require a volume of considerable size to describe even the most important developments
of recent years. As considerable explanatory matter has been given in preceding chapters and the principles involved in internal combustion engine operation considered in detail, a relatively brief review of the features of some of the most successful airplane motors should suffice to give the reader a complete enough understanding of the art so all types of engines can be readily recognized and the advantages and disadvantages of each

type understood, as well as defining the constructional features enough so the methods of locating and repairing the

common

engine and auxiliary system troubles

will be fully grasped..

engines can be divided into three main classes. One of the earliest attempts to devise distinctive power plant designs for aircraft involved the construction of engines utilizing a radial, arrangement of the

Aviation

cylinders or a star-wise disposition. Among the engines of this class may be mentioned the Anzani, B. E. P. and
the Salmson or Canton

and Unne forms.

is
457

The two former

Engines

are air-cooled, the latter design

water-cooled.

458

Aviation Engines

of this type have been built in cylinder numbers ranging from three to twenty. While the simple forms were

popular in the early days of aviation engine development, they have been succeeded by the more conventional The arrangements which now form the largest class. reason for the adoption of a star-wise arrangement of Smoothness cylinders has been previously considered. of running can only be obtained by using a considerable number of cylinders. The fundamental reason for the adoption of the star-wise disposition is that a better distribution of stress is obtained by having all of the pistons acting on the same crank-pin so that the crank-throw and pin are continuously under maximum stress. Some difficulty has been experienced in lubricating the lower cylinders in some forms of six cylinder, rotary crank, radial engines but these have been largely overcome so they are not as serious in practice as a theoretical consideration
.

would indicate. Another class of engines developed to meet aviation requirements is a complete departure from the preceding
though when the engines are at rest, it is difficult between them. This class includes engines having a star-wise disposition of the cylinders but the cylinders themselves and the crank-case rotate and the crank-shaft remains stationary. The important rotary, engine^ are the Gnome, the Le Ehone and the Clerget. By far the most important classification is that including engines which retain the approved design of the types of power plants that have been so widely utilized in automobiles and which have but slight modifications to increase reliability and mechanical strength and proThis class includes the duce a reduction in weight. vertical engines such as the Duesenberg and Hall-Scott
class,

to

differentiate

Mercedes, four-cylinder; the Wisconsin, Aeromarine, and Hall-Scott six-cylinder vertical engines and Benz,

and twelve-cylinder Vee designs such as the Curtiss, Renault, Thomas-Morse, Sturtevant, Sunbeam, and others.
the

numerous

eight-

Anzani Air-Cooled 'Engines

ANZANI ENGINES

459

The attention

of the mechanical world

was

first

di-

rected to the great possibilities of mechanical flight when Bleriot crossed the English Channel in July, 1909, in a

monoplane of his own design and construction, having power furnished by a small three-cylinder air-cooled engine rated at about 24 horse-power and having cylinders 4.13 inches bore and 5.12 inches stroke, stated to develop the power at about 1600 R.P.M. and weighing 145 pounds. The arrangement of this early Anzani engine is shown at Fig. 190, and it will be apparent that in 'the main, the lines worked out in motorcycle practice were followed to a large extent. The crank-case was of the usual vertically divided pattern, the cylinders and heads being cast in one piece and held to the crank-case by
the

passing through substantial flanges at the base. In order to utilize but a single crank-pin cylinder for the three cylinders it was necessary to use two forked
rods and one rod of the conventional type. The arrangement shown at Fig. 190, called for the use of counter-

stud bolts

balanced flywheels which were built up in connection with shafts and a crank-pin to form what corresponds to the usual crank-shaft assembly. The inlet valves were of the automatic type so that a very simple valve mechanism consisting only of the exhaust valve push rods was provided. One of the diffi-

arrangement of cylinders was that the For instance, in the are not evenly spaced. impulses forms where the cylinders were placed 60 degrees apart the space between the firing of the first cylinder and that next in order was 120 degrees crank- shaft rotation, after
culties

of this

which there was an interval of 300 degrees before the In order last cylinder to fire delivered its power stroke.
to increase the

air-cooled

power given by the simple three-cylinder engine a six-cylinder water-cooled type, as shown at Figs. 191 and 192, was devised. This was pracsame
in action as

tically the

the three-cylinder

except

460

Aviation Engines

O
faJO

I I O

A.G.HAGSTROM

N.Y.

Fig. 190a. Illustrations Depicting Wrong and Eight Methods of "Swinging the Stick" to Start Airplane Engine. At Top, Poor Position to Get Full Throw and Get Out of the Way. Below, Correct Position to Get Quick Turn Over of Crank-Shaft and Spring Away from Propeller.

461

462

Aviation Engines

was used and while the were not evenly spaced the number of exploexplosions sions obtained resulted in fairly uniform application of
that a double throw crank-shaft

power.

which

design of three-cylinder Anzani engine, used to some extent for school machines, is shown at Fig. 193. In this, the three-cylinders are symlatest
is

The

Fig. 191.

The Anzani Six-Cylinder Water-Cooled Aviation Engine.

metrically arranged about the crank-case or 120 degrees apart. The balance is greatly improved by this arrangement and the power strokes occur at equal intervals of 240 degrees of crank-shaft rotation. This method of construction is known as the design. By grouping two of

these engines together, as outlined at Fig. 194, which gives an internal view, and at Fig. 195, which shows the sectional view, and using the ordinary form of double

throw crank-shaft with crank-pins separated by 180 degrees, a six-cylinder radial engine is produced which runs

Anzani Aviation Engines

463

very quietly and furnishes a steady output of power.

peculiarity of the construction of this engine is in the method of grouping the connecting rod about the

The

common

crank-pin

without

using

forked

rods

or

the

"Mother rod" system employed in the Gnome engines. In the Anzani the method followed is to provide each

Cool ing Water Outlets

.Water Jacket
Water
Outlet

'*

Exhaust ValvQ

Connecting-' Rods.

A^\\

XN|

'Cylinder
A'

Crank-Shaft"''

^-Flywheel

Crank

Case--'

Fig. 192.

Sectional

View of Anzani Six-Cylinder Water-Cooled Aviation

Engine.

connecting rod big end with a shoe which consists of a portion of a hollow cylinder held against the crank-pin by split clamping rings. The dimensions of these shoes are so proportioned that the two adjacent connecting rods of a group of three will not come into contact even when the connecting rods are at the minimum relative angle. The three shoes of each group rest upon a bronze sleeve which is in halves and which surrounds the crank-pin

464

Aviation Engines

and rotates relatively to it once in each crank-shaft revolution. The collars, which are of tough bronze, resist the
is

inertia forces while the direct pressure of the explosions transmitted directly to the crank-pin bushing by the

shoes at the big end of the connecting rod.

The same

Valve Operating Rod

/Cylinder

No.

Intake Pipe

u- ,_

^~[=

<

Cylinder hold down Bolts

Cylinder No. 3Carburetor--'

.G.HAGSTROM
N.Y

Fig. 193.

Three-Cylinder Anzani Air-Cooled Y-Form Engine.

in the

method of construction, modified to some extent, is used LeKhone rotary cylinder engine. Both cylinders and pistons of the Anzani engines are

number

of cast iron, the cylinders being provided with a liberal of cooling flanges which are cast integrally. series of auxiliary exhaust ports is drilled near the base

Anzani Engine Construction

465

of each cylinder so that a portion of the exhaust gases

will flow out of the cylinder when the piston reaches the end of its power stroke. This reduces the temperature

of the gases passing around the exhaust valves

and pre-

,'Valve

Exhaust
Elbow-...
Induction Pipe

Cylinder hold

down Bolts --

Valve Rocker
^Valve Lift

Rod

Carburetor
A.G.HAGSTROM
N.Y.

Fig.

194.

Anzani Fixed Crank-Case Engine of the Six-Cylinder Form Utilizes Air Cooling Successfully.

vents warping of these members. Another distinctive feature of this engine design is the method of attaching the Zenith carburetor to an annular chamber surrounding the rear portion of the crank-case from which the intake pipes leading to the intake valves radiate. The magneto

466
is

Aviation Engines

the usual six-cylinder form having the armature geared to revolve at one and one-half times crank- shaft speed.
.

The Anzani aviation engines are also made and twenty-cylinder forms as shown at Fig. 196.

in tenIt will

Propeller^

Exhaust Valve

Rocker.

-Exhaust

Valve,

Push Rod

Section PC showing Construction of Connecting Rod Big Ends

'Magneto

Magneto Drive Gear

-Intake

Gas Passage

..-Carburetor

""

'Primary
'~~~

flir

Intake

Fuel Pipe

Cooled Cylinder
Fig. 195.

Sectional

View Showing Internal Parts of Six-Cylinder Anzani Engine, with Starwise Disposition of Cylinders.

467

468

Aviation Engines

be apparent that in the ten-cylinder form explosions will occur every 72 degrees of crank-shaft rotation, while in the twenty-cylinder, 200 horse-power engine at any in-

Fig.

197.

Application of R. E. P. Five-Cylinder Fan-Shape

Air-Cooled

Motor

to Early Monoplane.

stant five of the cylinders are always working and explosions are occurring every 36 degrees of crank-shaft
rotation.

On

the twenty-cylinder engine, two carburetors

Canton and Unne Engine

469

are used and two magnetos, which are driven at two and one-half times crank-shaft speed. The general cylinder and valve construction is practically the same, as in the

simpler engines.

CANTON AND UNNE ENGINE

This engine, which has been devised specially for aviation service, is generally known as the "Salmson" and is manufactured in both France and Great Britain.

a nine-cylinder water-cooled radial engine, the ninecylinders being symmetrically disposed around the crankshaft while the nine connecting rods all operate on a
It is

crank-pin in somewhat the same manner as the rods in the Gnome motor. The crank-shaft of the Salmson engine is not a fixed one and inasmuch as the cylinders do not rotate about the crank-shaft it is necessary for that member to revolve as in the conventional engine. The stout hollow steel crank-shaft is in two pieces and has a single throw. The crank-shaft is built up somewhat the same as that of the Gnome engine. Ball bearings are used throughout this engine as will be evident

comman

by inspecting

The the sectional view given at Fig. 199. nine steel connecting rods are machined all over and are
fitted at each end with bronze bushings, the distance between the bearing centers being about 3.25 times crank

length.

The method
is

crank-pin
design.
is

one

of connecting up the rods to the of the characteristic features of this

No "mother" rod

as

supplied in the

Gnome

used in this type inasmuch as the steel' cage or engine connecting rod carrier is fitted with symmetrically disposed big end retaining pins. Inasmuch as the carrier is mounted on ball bearings some means must be provided of regulating the motion of the carrier as if no means were provided the resulting motion of the pistons would be irregular. The method by which the piston strokes are made to
occur at precise intervals involves a somewhat lengthy and detailed technical explanation. It is sufficient to say

470

Aviation Engines

that an epicyclic train of gears, one of which is rigidly attached to the crank-case so it cannot rotate is used,

while other gears make a connection between the fixed gear and with another gear which is exactly the same

Fig. 198.

The Canton and Unne Nine-Cylinder Water-Cooled Radial

Engine.

size as the fixed

is

gear attached to the crank-case and which

carrier.

formed integrally with the connecting rod

is

The

action of the gearing

such that the cage carrying the

big end retaining pins does not rotate independently of

Canton and Unne Engine

the

471

crank-shaft, though, of course, the crank-shaft or rather crank-pin bearings must turn inside of the big

end carrier cage.

Cylinders of this engine are of nickel steel machined over and carry water-jackets of spun copper which The water are attached to the cylinders by brazing.
all

Rocker Lever--Valve Ro eker Support

Valve Stem

How One

Cam
Non-Rotating Crank Case
--Equalizing "
'

Operates Two Valves

Intermediate Planetary Pinions.--^

Gear

Train

--Fixed

Equalizing

Gear

CrankShaft

\?o to ry

-^Radial Ball

Bearings
sembly Drive Gear

'Cam Drive Gear

Fig. 199.

Crank Shaft Bearings

Sectional

View Showing Construction of Canton and Unne Water-Cooled Radial Cylinder Engine.

jackets are corrugated to permit the cylinder to expand The ignition is similar to that of the fixed crank freely.

rotating cylinder engine.

two spark type driven at

sufficient to ignite the

An ordinary magneto of the 1% times crank-shaft speed is

seven-cylinder form, while in the

472
nine-cylinder

Aviation Engines
engines
the
ignition

magneto

is

of

the

"shield" type giving four sparks per revolution.

The
Nickel

magneto

is

driven at

1%

times crank-shaft speed.

steel valves are

used and are carried in castings or cages

which screw into bosses in the cylinder head. Each is cam operated through a tappet, push rod and rocker arm, seven cams being used on a seven-cylinder One cam engine and nine cams on the nine-cylinder. serves to open both valves as in its rotation it lifts the tappets in succession and so operates the exhaust and inlet valves respectively. This method of operation involves the same period of intake and exhaust. In norvalve

mal engine practice the inlet valve opens 12 degrees and closes 20 degrees late. The exhaust opens 45 degrees early and closes 6 degrees late. This means about 188 degrees in the case of inlet valve and 231 delate

grees

crank-shaft

travel

for

exhaust

valves.

In

the

Salmson engine, the exhaust closes and the inlet opens at the outer dead center and the exhaust opens and the inlet closes at about the inner dead center. This engine is also made in a fourteen-cylinder 200 B. H. P. design which is composed of two groups of seven-cylinders, and it has been made in an eighteen-cylinder design of 600 The nine-cylinder 130 horse-power has a horse-power. cylinder bore of 4.73 inches and a stroke of 5.52 inches. Its normal speed of rotation is 1250 E. P. M. Owing to
the radial arrangement of the cylinders, the weight pounds per B. H. P.
is

but

CONSTRUCTION OF EARLY GNOME MOTOR

9'-

It cannot be denied that for a time one of the most

widely used of aeroplane motors was the seven-cylinder revolving air-cooled Gnome, made in France. For a total weight of 167 pounds this motor developed 45 to 47 horsepower at 1,000 revolutions, being equal to 3.35 pounds per horse-power, and has proved its reliability by securing many long-distance and endurance records. The same

473

474

Aviation Engines

engineers have produced a nine-cylinder and by combining two single engines a four teen-cylinder revolving Gnome, having a nominal rating of 100 horse-power, with which world's speed records were broken. still more

powerful engine has been made with eighteen-cylinders.

The nine-cylinder "monosoupape" delivers 100 horsepower at 1200 K. P. M., the engine of double that number
of cylinders is rated at about 180 horse-power. Except in the number of cylinders and a few mechanical details the fourteen-cylinder

motor

is

identical with

the seven-cylinder one; fully three-quarters of the parts

used by the assemblers would do just as well for one

motor as for the

other.

mands

of the

modern

to the greater power deairplane the smaller sizes of Gnome

Owing

engines are not used as much as they were except for school machines. There is very little in this motor that is common to the standard type of vertical motorcar engine. The cylinders are mounted radially round a circular crank-case; the crank-shaft is fixed, and the entire mass of cylinders and crank-case revolves around it as
outlined at
lubricating
oil

The explosive Fig. 200.' are admitted through

mixture and the the fixed hollow

crank-shaft, passed into the explosion chamber through an automatic intake valve in the piston head in the early pattern, and the spent gases exhausted through a me-

The chanically operated valve in the cylinder head. course of the gases is practically a radial one. peculiarity of the construction of the motor is that nickel steel

is

used throughout.

Aluminum

is

employed for the two

pump housings; the single compression ring known as the "obdurator" for each piston is made of brass; there are three or four brass bushes; gun metal is emoil

ployed for certain pins

the

rest

is

machined out of

practically a steel hoop, the depth depending on whether it has to receive it has seven or fourteen seven- or f ourteen-cylinders
steel.
is
;

chrome nickel

The crank-case

When holes bored as illustrated on its circumference. fourteen or eighteen cylinders are used the holes are

Gnome Engine
the other.

Details

475

bored in two distinct planes, and offset in relation one to

The cylinders of the small engine which have a bore of 4%o inches and a stroke of 4% inches, are machined
is

out of the solid bar of steel until the thickness of the walls only 1.5 millimeters .05905 inch, or practically % 6 inch.
fins

Each one has twenty-two

which gradually taper down as the region of greatest pressure is departed from. In
addition to carrying away heat, the fins assist in strengthening the walls of the cylinder. The barrel of the cylinslipped into the hole bored for it on the circumference of the crank-case and secured by a locking member in the nature of a stout compression ring, sprung onto a
is

der

groove on the base of the cylinder within the crank chamber. On each lateral face of the crank chamber are seven holes, drilled right through the chamber parallel with the crank-shaft. Each one of these holes receives a stout of such a diameter that it presses against locking-pin the split rings of two adjacent cylinders; in addition each cylinder is fitted with a key- way. This construction
not always followed, some of the early Gnome engines using the same system of cylinder retention as used on the latest "monosoupape" pattern. The exhaust valve is mounted in the cylinder head,
is

seating being screwed in by means of a On the fourteen-cylinder model the special box spanner. valve is operated directly by an overhead rocker arm with a gun metal rocker at its extremity coming in conFig. 201, its
tact with the extremity of the valve stem.

As

in standard

motor car

practice, the valve is opened under the lift of the vertical push rod, actuated by the cam. The distinctive feature is the use of a four-blade leaf spring with a forked end encircling the valve stems and pressing against a collar on its extremity. On the seven-cylinder

model the movement is reversed, the valve being opened on the downward pull of the push rod, this lifting the outer extremity of the main rocker arm, w hich tips a secondary and smaller rocker arm in direct contact with
r

476

Aviation Engines

The springs are the the extremity of the valve stem. same in each case. The two types are compared at
and B, Fig.
202.

..--

Valve Depressing

Exhaust Valve Spring,

Rocker
.Exhaust Valve

Spark
'Plug

Exhaust

Valve-'

Electrodes -~slnlet Valve

^.-Cooling

Flanges

-Piston

Rings

yU.-*

Cylinder

Valve Actuating Push Rod

Fig.

Sectional View of Early Type Gnome Cylinder and Piston 201. Showing Construction and Application of Inlet and Exhaust Valves.

The pistons, like the cylinders, are machined out of the solid bar of nickel steel, and have a portion of their wall cut away, so that the two adjacent ones will not come together at the extremity of their stroke. The head

.5?

PH

477

478

Aviation Engines

of the piston is slightly reduced in diameter and is provided with a groove into which is fitted a very light L-section brass split ring; back of this ring and carried within the groove is sprung a light steel compression As ring, serving to keep the brass ring in expansion. already mentioned, the intake valves are automatic, and are mounted in the head of the piston as outlined at Fig. The valve seating is in halves, the lower portion 202, C.

being
into

made

to receive the wrist-pin

and connecting rod,

and the upper portion, carrying the valve, being screwed The spring is composed of four flat blades, with it.

the hollowed stem of the automatic valve passing through their center and their two extremities attached to small
levers calculated to give balance against centrifugal force. The springs are naturally within the piston, and are lubri-

cated by splash from the crank chamber. They are of a delicate construction, for it is necessary that they shall be accurately balanced so as to have no tendency to fly open under the action of centrifugal force. The intake valve is withdrawn by the use of special tools through the
cylinder head, the exhaust valve being first dismounted. The fourteen-cylinder motor shown at Fig. 203, has a

two-throw crank-shaft with the throws placed at 180 deThe grees, each one receiving seven connecting rods.
parts are the same as for the seven-cylinder motor, the larger one consisting of two groups placed side by side. For each group of seven-cylinders there is one main connecting rod, together with six auxiliary rods. The main section, has connecting rod, which, like the others, is of bored with six holes machined with it two L-section rings 51% degrees apart to take the six other connecting

rods.

The cage

of the

main connecting rod

carries two

ball races, one on either side, fitting onto the crank-pin and receiving the thrust of the seven connecting rods.

The auxiliary connecting rods are secured in position in each case by a hollow steel pin passing through the two
rings.
It is evident that there is

a slightly greater angu-

larity for the six shorter rods,

known

as auxiliary con-

Gnome Engine

Details

479

480

Aviation Engines
;

necting rods, than for the longer main rods this does not appear to have any influence on the running of the motor. Coming to the manner in which the earliest design ex-

haust valves are operated on the old style motor, this at first sight appears to be one of the most complicated parts of the motor, probably because it is one in which standard practice is most widely departed from. Within the cylindrical casing bolted to the rear face of the crankcase are seven, thin flat-faced steel rings, forming female cams. Across a diameter of each ring is a pair of projecting rods fitting in brass guides and having their extremities terminating in a knuckle eye receiving the adjustable push rods operating the overhead rocker arms of the exhaust valve. The guides are not all in the same
plane, the difference being equal to the thickness of the steel rings, the total thickness being practically 2 inches. Within the female cams is a group of seven male cams
>

former and rotating within them. As the boss of the male cam comes into contact with the flattened portion of the ring forming the female cam, the arm is pushed outward and the exhaust valve opened through the medium of the push-rod and overhead rocker. This construction was afterwards changed to seven male cams and simple valve operating plunger and roller cam followers as shown at Fig. 204. On the face of the crank-case of the fourteen-cylinder motor opposite to the valve mechanism is a bolted-on end plate, carrying a pinion for driving the two magnetos and the two oil pumps, and having bolted to it the disEach group of tributor for the high-tension current. has its own magneto and lubricating seven-cylinders pump. The two magnetos and the two pumps are mounted on the fixed platform carrying the stationary crank-shaft, being driven by the pinion on the revolving crank chamber. The magnetos are geared up in the proportion of 4 to 7. Mounted on the end plate back of the driving pinion are the two high-tension distributor plates, each one with seven brass segments let into it and connection
of the
total thickness as the

same

Gnome Engine
made

Details

481

to the plugs by means of plain brass wire. wire passes through a hole in the plug and is wrapped round itself, giving a loose connection.

The
then

-_

Valve'

Actuating Tube

Revolving Planetary Pinions

Carri

\
^1
ff

-Valve Plunger Guide

^,

" Valve Plunger

HonRotative

Timing

Roller

Gear

Bearing

,'Fixed Crank-Shaft End

>

Crank- Sh aft Tie Bolt

Ball Bearing

**

Planetary Pinion Stud

Revolving Planetary Pinions

Cam

Case Flange'

Fig. 204.

Cam and Cam-Gear

Case of the

Gnome Seven-Cylinder

Revolving Engine.

482

Aviation Engines

good many people doubtless wonder why rotary engines are usually provided with an odd number of cylinders in preference to an even number. It is a matter of even torque, as can easily be understood from the accomFig. 205, A, represents a six-cylinder the radial lines indicating the cylinders. rotary engine, It is possible to fire the charges in two ways, firstly, in

panying diagram.

rotation, -1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, thus having six impulses in one revolution and none in the next; or alternately, 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6, in which case the engine will have turned through

Fig. 205.

Diagrams Showing Why An Odd Number of Cylinders for Eotary Cylinder Motors.

is

Best

an equal number of degrees between impulses 1 and 3, and 3 and 5, but a greater number between 5 and 2, even again between 2 and 4, 4 and 6, and a less number between 6 and 1, as will be clearly seen on reference to the diagram. Turning to Fig. 205, B, which represents a
If the cylinders fire alternately seven-cylinder engine. is obvious that the engine turns through an equal number of degrees between each impulse, thus, 1, 3, 5, 7, Thus supposing the engine to be revolv2, 4, 6, 1, 3, etc.
it

each alternate cylinder for instance, the point 1 on the diagram, and the passes,
ing, the explosion takes place as
is

ignition contact.

actually operated in this

way by

single

Gnome Engine
is

Details

483

The crank-shaft of the Gnome, as already explained, and hollow. For the seven- and nine-cylinder motors it has a single throw, and for the fourteen- and
fixed

eighteen-cylinder models has 'two throws at 180 degrees. It is of the built-up type, this being necessary on account

/ThroHle Lever
.Crctnk-Shaft

End

Tig.

206.

Simple Carburetor Used On Early Gnome Engines Attached to Fixed Crank-Shaft End.

of the distinctive mounting of the connecting rods. The carburetor shown at Fig. 206 is mounted at one end of the stationary crank-shaft, and the mixture is drawn in through a valve in the piston as already explained. There In many of the tests is neither float chamber nor jet. made at the factory it is said the motor will run with the extremity of the gasoline pipe pushed into the hollow

484

Aviation Engines

crank-shaft, speed being regulated entirely by increasing or decreasing the flow through the shut-off valve in the

base of the tank. Even under these conditions the motor has been throttled down to 'run at 350 revolutions without misfiring. Its normal speed is 1,000 to 1,200 revolutions a minute. Castor oil is used for lubricating the engine, the oil being injected into the hollow crank- shaft

.Ball Bearings^

Pump Drive Bear

.'Worm

Cam\,

''-Cam Shaft Drive Worm

Gear

Pump
Cylinder"'
Valve Plunger

Pump Plunger''

'Plunger Return

Springs
Oil Pipe

Fig. 207.

Sectional Views of the

Gnome

Oil

Pump.

through slight-feed fittings by a mechanically operated pump which is clearly shown in sectional diagrams at
Fig. 207.

The Gnome is a considerable consumer of lubricant, the makers' estimate being 7 pints an hour for the 100 horse-power motor; but in practice this is largely exceeded. The gasoline consumption is given as 300 to 350

grammes per horse-power.

teen-cylinder motor
is 220

weight of the fourwithout fuel or lubripounds

total

The

Gnome Engine
eating
oil.

Details

485

developed at 1,200 revolutions, and at this speed about 9 horse-power is lost in overcoming air resistance to cylinder rotation. While the Gnome engine has many advantages, on the other hand, the head resistance offered by a motor of this
Its full

power

is

Current Supply Brush

.-Secondary Wire

to

Plug

Spark Plug

"Magneto
Collector

Ring

Ma gnet-

Fig. 208.

Simplified

Diagram Showing Gnome Motor Magneto Ignition

System.

type
oil
oil

is considerable there is a large waste of lubricating due to the centrifugal force which tends to throw the
;

away from

the
is

the rotary motor

the gyroscopic effect of detrimental to the best working of the

cylinders;

aeroplane, and moreover it requires about seven per cent, of the total power developed by the motor to drive the

revolving cylinders around the shaft.

Of

necessity, the

486

Aviation Engines

compression of this type of motor is rather low, and an additional disadvantage manifests itself in the fact that there is as yet no satisfactory way of muffling the rotary type of motor.

GNOME "MONOSOUPAPE" TYPE

The latest type of Gnome engine is known as the "monosoupape" type because but one valve is used in
the cylinder head, the inlet -valve in the piston being dispensed with on account of the trouble caused by that

member on

The construction of this engines. latest type follows the lines established in the earlier designs to some extent and it differs only in the method
earlier

of charging. The very rich mixture of gas and air is forced into the crank-case through the jet inside the crank- shaft, and enters the cylinder when the piston is at its lowest position, through the half-round openings in the guiding flange and the small holes or ports machined in the cylinder and clearly shown at Fig. 210. The returning piston covers the port, and the gas is comThe exhaust is pressed and fired in the usual way. a large single valve in the cylinder head, which through gives rise to the name "monosoupape," or single-valve motor, and this valve also remains open a portion of the intake stroke to admit air into the cylinder and dilute the rich gas forced in from the crank-case interior. Aviators who have used the early form of Gnome say that the inlet valve in the piston type was prone to catch on fire if any valve defect materialized, but the "monosoupape" pattern is said to be nearly free of this danger. The bore of the 100 horse-power nine-cylinder engine is 110 mm., the piston stroke 150 mm. Extremely careful machine work and fitting is necessary. In many parts, tolerances of less than .0004" (four ten thousandths of an inch) are all that are allowed. This is about onesixth the thickness of the average human hair, and in other parts the size must be absolutely standard, no appreciable variation being allowable. The manufacture

Gnome Monosoupape Engine

of this engine establishes

487

engine production in this country. is needed in producing the finished

new mechanical standards of Much machine work

components from the

bar and forging.

The cylinders, for example, are machined from 6 inch solid steel bars, which are sawed into blanks 11 inches

Fig. 209.

The G. V. Gnome "Monosoupape" Nine-Cylinder Eotary Engine Mounted on Testing Stand.

in length and weighing about 97 pounds. The first operation is to drill a 2M.6 inch hole through the center of the
block.

heavy-duty

drilling

machine

performs

this

488

Aviation Engines

Gnome Monosoupape Engine

489

work, then the block goes to the lathe for further operations. Fig. 211 shows six stages of the progress of a cylinder, a few of the intermediate steps being omitted.

Fig. 211.

How a Gnome Cylinder is Reduced from Solid Chunk of Steel Weighing 97 Pounds to Finished Cylinder Weighing 5y2 Pounds.

These give, however, a good idea of the work done. The turning of the gills, or cooling flanges, is a difficult proposition, owing to the depth of the cut and the thin metal that forms the gills. This operation requires the utmost care of tools and the use of a good lubricant to prevent

490
the metal

Aviation Engines

from tearing as the

tools

approach their

full

gills are only 0.6 mm., or 0.0237 in., thick depth. at the top, tapering to a thickness of 1.4 mm. (0.0553 in.) at the base, and are 16 mm. (0.632 in.) deep. When the

These

machine work
pounds.

is

completed the cylinder weighs but

5%

GNOME FUEL SYSTEM, IGNITION AND LUBRICATION

The following description of the fuel supply, ignition and oiling of the "monosoupape," or single valve Gnome, " is taken from "The Automobile. Gasoline is fed to the engine by means of air pressure at 5 pounds per sq. in., which is produced by the air pump on the engine clearly shown at Fig. 210. A pressure gauge convenient to the operator indicates this pressure, and a valve enables the operator to control it. No The gasoline flows from the tank carburetor is used. a shut-off valve near the operator and through through a tube leading through the hollow crank- shaft to a spray

There is no throttle and as each cylinder always receives the same valve, amount of air as long as the atmospheric pressure is the same, the output cannot be varied by reducing the fuel supply, except within narrow limits. A fuel capacity of 65 gallons is provided. The fuel consumption is at the
nozzle located in the crank-case.
rate of 12 U. S. gallons per hour.

The high-tension magnetos, with double cam or two break per revolution interrupter, is located on the thrust plate in an inverted position, and is driven at such a speed as to produce nine sparks for every two revolutions; that
is
is,

at 2i/4

times engine speed.

is

Splitdorf

no distributor on the magmagneto collector brush of the magneto The high-tension neto. is connected to a distributor brush holder carried in the The brush in this brush bearer plate of the engine.
fitted.

There

holder is pressed against a distributor ring of insulating material molded in position in the web of a gear wheel

Gnome Monosoupape Engine

keyed to the thrust
plate,

491

which gear serves also for starting the engine by hand. Molded in this ring of in-

sulating material are nine brass contact sectors, connecting with contact screws at the back side of the gear,

from which bare wires connect

distributor revolves at engine engine speed as on ordinary engines,

to the spark-plugs. The speed, instead of at half

brush

is

brought

into

electrical

and the distributor connection with each

Fig. 212.

The Gnome Engine Cam-Gear Case, a Fine Example of Accurate Machine Work.

spark-plug every time the piston in the cylinder in which this spark-plug is located approaches the outer dead center. However, on the exhaust stroke no spark is being generated in the magneto, hence none is produced at the
spark-plug.

Ordinarily the engine is started by turning on the propeller, but for emergency purposes as in seaplanes or for a quick "get away" if landing inadvertently in enemy territory, a hand starting crank is provided. This is supported in bearings secured to the pressed steel carriers of the engine and is provided with a universal

492

Aviation Engines

joint between the two supports so as to prevent binding of the crank in the bearings due to possible distortion of the supports. The gear on this starting crank and the

one on the thrust plate with which

it

meshes are cut

Fig. 213.

G. V. Gnome "Monospupape," with Cam-Case Cover Removed to Show Cams and Valve-Operating Plungers with Roller Cam Followers.

is

with helical teeth of such hand that the starting pinion thrown out of mesh as soon as the engine picks up its cycle. A coiled spring surrounds part of the shaft of the starting crank and holds it out of gear when not in use.
Lubricating
pacity, and
oil is
if this

carried in a tank of 25 gallon catank has to be placed in a low position

German Gnome Type Engine

it

493

connected with the air-pressure line, so that the pump is not depended upon to get the From the bottom of the oil tank a pipe oil to the pump. leads to the pump inlet. There are two outlets from the pump, each entering the hollow crank-shaft, and there is a branch from each outlet pipe to a circulation indicator convenient to the operator. One of the oil leads feeds to the housing in the thrust plate containing the two rear ball bearings, and the other lead feeds through the crankpin to the cams, as already explained.
is

suction of the oil

Owing to the effect of centrifugal force and the fact that the oil is not used over again, the oil consumption of a revolving cylinder engine; is considerably higher than
Fuel consumption that of a stationary cylinder engine. is also somewhat higher, and for this reason the revolving cylinder engine is not so well suited for types of airplanes designed for long trips, as the increased weight of supplies required for such trips, as compared with
stationary cylinder type motors, more than offsets the high weight efficiency of the engine itself. But for short trips, and especially where high speed is required, as in
scout and battle planes or "avious de as the French say, the revolving cylinder engine chasse," has the advantage. The oil consumption of the Gnome
single

seated

engine is as high as 2.4 gallon per hour. Castor oil is used for lubrication because it is not cut by the gasoline mist present in the engine interior as an oil of mineral
derivation would be.

GEKMAN "QNOME" TYPE

at Fig. 214.

German adaptation of This is known

the

Gnome

design

is

shown

as the Bayerischen Motoren

Gesellshaft engine and the type shown is an early design rated at 50 horse-power. The bore is 110 mm., the stroke is 120 mm., and it is designed to run at a speed of 1,200

K. P. M.

It is

somewhat similar

in design to the early

Gnome

"valve-in-piston" design except that two valves

494

Aviation Engines

bb

FH

Le Rhone Rotary Motor

495

are carried in the piston top instead of one. The valve operating arrangement is different also, as a single four point cam is used to operate the seven exhaust valves. It is driven by epicyclic gearing, the cam being driven by

an internal gear machined integrally with

being turned at

it,

the

cam

Another engine speed. feature is the method of holding the cylinders on the The cylinder is provided with a flange that crank-case. registers with a corresponding member of the same diamtimes the
eter on the crank-case.

AU

is

bolted in place as shown,

section, split clamping ring this holding both flanges

firmly together and keeping the cylinder firmly seated against the crank-case flange. The "monosoupape" type

has also been copied and has received some application in Germany, but the most successful German airplanes are powered with six-cylinder vertical engines such as the Benz and Mercedes.

THE LE RHONE MOTOR

is a radial revolving cylinder that has many of the principles which are incorengine porated in the Gnome but which are considered to be an

The Le Ehone motor

improvement by many foreign aviators. Instead of having

but one valve in the cylinder head, as the latest type "monosoupape" Gnome has, the Le Rhone has two valves, one for intake and one for exhaust in each cylinder. By an ingenious rocker arm and tappet rod arrangement it is possible to operate both valves with a single push rod. Inlet pipes communicate with the crank-case at one end and direct the fresh gas to the inlet valve cage at the
.

Another peculiarity in the design is the method Instead of having a of holding the cylinders in place. vertically divided crank-case as the Gnome engine has
other.

and clamping both valves of the case around the cylinders, the crank-case of the Le Rhone engine is in the form of a cylinder having nine bosses provided with threaded openings into which the cylinders are screwed.

496

Aviation Engines
is

provided at the base of each cylinder and when the cylinder has been screwed down the proper amount it is prevented from further rotation about its own axis by a substantial lock nut which screws down
thread

Fig. 215.

Nine-Cylinder Revolving Le Rhone Type Aviation Engine.

The exagainst the threaded boss on the crank-case. ternal appearance of the Le Ehone type motor is clearly shown at Fig. 215, while the general features of construction, are clearly outlined in the sectional views given at Figs. 216 and 217.

497

498

Aviation Engines

The two main peculiarities of this motor are the method of valve actuation by two large cams and the distinctive crank-shaft and connecting rod big end construction. The connecting rods are provided with "feet"
or shoes on the end which
fit

bearing

metal

which

are

machined

into grooves lined with into crank discs

'--Ball

Bearing RockerShaft

Piston.
Cylinder
Valve Operating

=.

Rod

.-Operating

Rod Plunger
.~

Ignition Distributor

.-Current Supply Brush

Oil

Fixed
Crank-Shaft-

<

"Anchorage
~-

Plates-''

Ball Bearing

Rotary Crank Case

_._

Fig. 217.

Side Sectional

View of

I*e

Rhone Aviation Engine.

revolving on ball bearings and which are held together so that the connecting rod big ends are sandwiched between them by clamping screws. This construction is a modification of that used on the Anzani six-cylinder radial engine. There are three grooves machined in each crank
disc

of grooves. ascertained Figs. 218

and three connecting rod big ends fun in each pair The details of this construction can be readily

by reference to explanatory diagrams at and 219, A. Three of the rods which work

Le Rhone Rotary Motor

499

in the groove nearest the crank-pin are provided with The short shoes short shoes as shown at Fig. 219, B. in cylinders number 1, are used on the rods employed
4,

and

7.

The

set of connecting

rods that work in the

central grooves are provided with medium-length shoes

-Piston

Valve

Induction Pipe,
'

'
r

Rocker

^V

,-'A ir

Co o Iin g Fla ngfes

Exhaust Valve

Air Cooled / Cylinder--'

Connecting

Rod

..'Connecting

Rod

and Crankshaft
Assembly

Threads fo hold Cylinder

'

Crank Case'''

Valve liff Rods

Fig. 218.

View Showing Le Rhone Valve Action and Connecting Rod Big End Arrangement.

and actuate the pistons in cylinders numbers 3, 6, and 9. The three rods that work in the outside grooves have still longer shoes and are employed in cylinders numbers 2, The peculiar profile of the inlet and exhaust 5, and 8. cam plates are shown at C, Fig. 219, while the construction of the wrist-pin, wrist-pin bushing and piston are The method clearly outlined at the sectional view at E.

500
of valve actuation

Aviation Engines
clearly outlined at Fig. 220, which section through the cam case and also
is

shows an end a partial side elevation showing one of the valve operating levers which is fulcrumed at a central point and which

Short Rod End Feet on #l-4-7

Medium Rod End

Feet

on*3-6-9

Lonq Rod End Feet

on*Z-5-8

Arrangement of Curved Bearingson Connecting Rod Ends

/-

Diagram Showing Connecting Rod Assembly

Piston
..

Wrist Pin.-'

Into ke
Fig. 219.

Cam

Diagrams Showing Important Components of Le Rhone Motor.

has a roller at one end bearing on one cam while the roller or cam follower at the other end bears on the other cam. The valve rocker arm actuating rod is, of course,
operated by this simple lever and is attached to it in such a way that it can be pulled down to. depress the inlet valve and pushed up to open the exhaust valve.

Le Rhone Engine

D.etails

501

carburetor of peculiar construction is employed in the Le Khone engine, this being a very simple type as outlined at Fig. 221. It is attached to the threaded end of the hollow crank-shaft by a right and left coupling.
Rocker Shaft Actuator.^
Rocker'Shaff Bearing-''.'"",

Valve

Rocker-"'
.Inlet-

Exhaust

Valve -^

Valve

Valve Actuating Rod -

Air Cooled
Cylinder--:

Cam Drive Gear Internal

mmnX
Fixed CrankShaft

Cam
Drive Pinion-

Internal

Pinion

^Cam Plate Supporting

Ball Bearings

^'Internal Pinion

\
'Internal Gear

Fig. 220.

How

the

Cams

of the

Le Rhone Motor Can Operate Two Valves

with a Single Push Bod.

502

Aviation Engines

The fuel is pumped to the spray nozzle, the opening in which is controlled by a fuel regulating needle having a long taper which is lifted out of the jet opening when The amount of fuel the air-regulating slide is moved.
supplied the carburetor is controlled by a special needle valve fitting which combines a filter screen and which is shown at B. In regulating the speed of the Le Ehone

Slide Operating.

Link

Fuel Control
Bell

Crank .._
.-Link

Regulating Slide
Air Screen

Carburetor
-

~'
.-

Valve Stem

.'Right
;

and

'"'

Left Coupling

-.Stuffing-Box
\.

---Packing

-Needle Seating Spring

'

Fuel Feed

'-Fuel

Intake

^Regulating Needle

'Air

Entrance

\ *Spray
^Fuel

Nozzle
^"Filter Screen

Fuel Entrance-

Regulating Needle

A
Fig. 221.

B
at

The Le Ehone Carburetor

and Fuel Supply Regulating

Device at B.

engine, there are two possible means of controlling the mixture, one by altering the position of the air-regulating
slide,

which also works the metering needle in the

jet,

and

by controlling the amount of fuel supplied to the spray nozzle through the special fitting provided for that purpose.
the other

In considering the action of this engine one can refer to Fig. 222. The crank 0. M. is fixed, while the cylinders and the piston can turn about the crank- shaft center

Le Rhone Engine Action

503

turns around the crank-pin M, because of the eccentricity of the centers of rotation the piston will reciprocate in This distance is at its maximum when the cylinders.
the cylinder is above and at a minimum when it is above M, and the difference between these two positions
is

equal to the stroke, which

is

twice the distance of the

itself

crank-throw 0, M.
into the force

The explosion pressure resolves

exerted along the line of the connecting rod A, M, and also into a force N, which tends to make

\
Firing Order

1-3-5-7-9-2-4*6-8

Fig. 222.

Diagrams Showing Le Rhone Motor Action and Firing Order.

the cylinders rotate around point in the direction of An odd number of cylinders acting on one the arrow.

crank-pin is desirable to secure equally spaced explosions, as the basic action is the same as the Gnome engine.

The magneto is driven by a gear having 36 teeth attached to crank-case which meshes with 16-tooth pinion on armature. The magneto turns at 2.25 times crankcase speed. Two cams, one for inlet, one for exhaust, are mounted on a carrying member and act on nine rocker arms which are capable of giving a push-and-pull

504

Aviation Engines

motion to the valve-actuating rocker-operating rods. A gear driven by the crank-case meshes with a larger member having internal teeth carried by the cam carrier. Each cam has five profiles and is mounted in staggered

Top Dead Center

Bottom Dead Center

Fig. 223.

Diagram Showing Positions

of Piston in

Le Rhone Rotary

Cylinder Motor.

These give the nine fulcrumed levers the proper motion to open the inlet and exhaust The cams are driven at valves at the proper time. 4 %o or % of the motor speed. The cylinder dimensions and timing follows; the weight can be approximated by
relation to

the

other.

figuring 3 pounds per horse-power.

Renault Air-Cooled Vee Engine

80 H.
110 H.

505

.105

140

112
170

M/M M/M M/M M/M

bore
stroke

4.20" bore.
5.60" stroke. 4.48" bore.
6.80" stroke.

bore stroke
18"^ 35

Timing

Intake valve opening, lag Intake valve closing, lag Exhaust valve opening, lead Exhaust valve closing, lag Ignition time advance

18

0>
|
I

35

55
5

i-110
|

H. P.

45
5

^80
I

H. P.

26J

26J

THE RENAULT AIR-COOLED VEE ENGINE

Air-cooled stationary engines are rarely used in airplanes, but the Eenault Freres of France have for several years manufactured a complete series of such engines of
the general design

shown

at Fig.

225,

ranging from a

Opening of Inlet Valve

i\

Inlet Valve

Closing

Igri it/on

Point

Firing Order
1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8

Opening of Exhaust

D
Fig. 22*.

Exhaust

Voilve

Closing

Diagrams Showing Valve Timing of Le Rhone Aviation Engine.

v

506

Aviation Engines

low-powered one developed eight or nine years ago and rated at 40 and 50 horse-power, to later eight-cylinder

Blower Casing
'

flir-coolect

Cylinders
,-Hot Air Pipe to Carburetor

Casing
Fig. 225.

'Supporting Tubes

Diagrams Showing

How

Cylinder Cooling

is

Effected in

Renault Vee Engines.

models rated at 70 horse-power and a twelve-cylinder, or

twin
six,

cast iron

rated at 90 horse-power. The cylinders are of and are furnished with numerous cooling ribs

Renault Air-Cooled Vee Engine

507

which are cast integrally. The cylinder heads are separate castings and are attached to the cylinder as in early motorcycle engine practice, and serve to hold the cylinder in place on the aluminum alloy crank-case by a cruciform The yoke and four long hold-down bolts (Fig. 226).
,-Exhaust Valve Operating

Rod

Exhaust Valve

Eyhaus t
< Valve

Spark Plugs*.,
Cylinder hold

.-Spring

down

hluts-.

Inlet

Valve
:

%.-

Valve Spring

Cylinder

Hold down

Bolts-**.;'''

Supporting

Tube-''

Breather-

Crank Shaft
Oil

Pump
Oil

Drive Rod

Strainer

JL

Oil

Pump

Fig. 226.

End

Sectional

View

of Renault Air-Cooled Aviation Engine.

pistons are of cast steel and utilize piston rings of cast The valves are situated on the inner side of the iron. cylinder head, the arrangement being unconventional in
that the exhaust valves are placed above the inlet. The inlet valves seat in an extension of the combustion head

and are actuated by direct push rod and cam in the usual manner while an overhead gear in which rockers are oper-

508
ated by push rods The valve action

Aviation Engines
is

needed to actuate the exhaust valves. clearly shown in Figs. 226 and 227. The air stream "by which the cylinders are cooled is produced by a centrifugal or blower type fan of relatively large diameter which is mounted on the end of a crankshaft and the air blast is delivered from this blower into an enclosed space between the cylinder from which it In escapes only after passing over the cooling fins.
is

spite of the fact that considerable prejudice exists against air-cooling fixed cylinder engines, the Eenault has given

very good service in both England and France. As will be seen by the sectional view at Fig. 227, the steel crank-shaft is carried in a combination of plain
bearings inside the crank-case and by ball bearings at the ends. Owing to air cooling, special precautions are taken with the lubrication system, though the lubrication is not forced or under high pressure. An oil pump of the gear.wheel type delivers oil from the sump at the bottom of the crank-case to a chamber above, from which the oil flows by gravity along suitable channels to the various main It flows from the bearings into hollow rings bearings. fastened to the crank-webs, and the oil thrown from the whirling connecting rod big ends bathes the internal parts in an oil mist. In the eight-cylinder designs ignition is effected by a magneto giving four sparks per revolution and is accordingly driven at engine speed. In the
twelve-cylinder machine two magnetos of the ordinary revolving armature or two-spark type, each supplying The six cylinders, are fitted as outlined at Fig. 228.

carburetor
for

is

float

feed form.

Warm

air is

supplied

Winter and damp weather by air pipes surrounding The normal speed of the Renault the exhaust pipes. engine is 1,800 R. P. M., but as the propeller is mounted upon an extension of the cam-shaft the normal propeller speed is but half that of the engine, which makes it possible to use a propeller of large diameter and high efficiency. Owing to the air cooling, but low compression

may

be used, this being about 60 pounds per square inch,

^09

510

Aviation Engines

which, of course, lowers the mean effective pressure and makes the engine less efficient than water-cooled forms where it is possible to use compression "pressure of 100
/ Magnetos

/Distributor

Magneto

Engine
Tube

^
1

Supporting

Oil Filler and

Breather Pipe

Crank Case Lower

half and
Oil

Sump

Fig. 228.

End View

of Renault Twelve-Cylinder Engine Crank-Case,

Showing Magneto Mounting.

I a

511

512
or

Aviation Engines

more pounds per square inch. The 70 horse-power engine has cylinders with a bore of 3.78 inches and a stroke of 5.52 inches. Its weight is given as 396 pounds,
5.7 pounds per The same cylinder size is used on the horse-power. twelve-cylinder 100 horse-power and the stroke is the same. This engine in running order weighs 638 pounds, which figures approximately 6.4 pounds per B. H. P.

when

in

running order, which figures

SIMPLEX MODEL.

"A"

HISPANO-STJIZA

is of the water-cooled four-cycle Vee with eight cylinders, 4.7245 inch bore by 5.1182 inch type, stroke, piston displacement 718 cubic inches. At sea-level it develops 150 horse-power at 1,450 E. P. M. It can be run successfully at much higher speeds, depending

The Model

on propeller design and gearing, developing proportionately increased power. The weight, including carburetor, two magnetos, propeller hub, starting magneto and crank, but without radiator, water or oil or exhaust pipes, is
445 pounds. Average fuel consumption is .5 pound per horse-power hour and the oil consumption at 1,450 E. P. M. is three quarts per hour. The external appearance is

which is of built-up construction; the water jackets and valve ports are cast aluminum and the individual cylinders heat-treated steel forgings threaded into the bored holes
in each block,

shown at Fig. 230. Four cylinders are contained

aluminum castings. Each block after assembly is a number of protective coats of enamel, both inside given and out, baked on. Coats on the inside are applied
of the

The pistons are aluminum castings, under pressure. ribbed. Connecting rods are tubular, of the forked type. One rod bears directly on the crank-pin; the other rod has a bearing on the outside of the one first mentioned.
stiff is of the five-bearing type, very short, bored for lightness and for the oiling design, The crank-shaft extension is tapered for the system.

The crank-shaft
in
-

His pano- Suiza Engine

513

French standard propeller hub, which is keyed and locked to the shaft. This makes possible instant change of propellers. The case is in two halves divided on the
center line of the crank-shaft, the bearings being fitted between the upper and lower sections. The lower half
deep, providing a large oil reservoir and stiffening the engine. The upper half is simple and provides magneto supports on extension ledges of the two main faces.
is

The valves are

of large

diameter with hollow stems,

Fig. 230.

The Simplex Model

Hispano-Suiza Aviation Engine, a Very

Successful Form.

in cast iron bushings. They are directly operated a single hollow cam-shaft located over the valves. The by cam-shafts are driven from the crank-shaft by vertical shafts and bevel gears. The cam-shafts, cams and heads of the valve stems are all enclosed in oil-tight removable

working

housings of cast aluminum. The oil is Oiling is by a positive pressure system. taken through a filter and steel tubes cast in the case

main bearings, through crank-shaft to crank-pins. The fourth main bearing is also provided with an oil lead from the system and through tubes running up the
to

end of each cylinder block,

oil is

provided for the cam-

514
shafts,

Aviation Engines

cams and bearings.

The

surplus

oil

escapes

through the end of the cam-shaft where the driving gears are mounted, and with the oil that has gathered in the top casing, descends through the drive shaft and gears
to the

sump.
is

by two eight-cylinder magnetos firing two The magnetos are driven spark-plugs per cylinder. from each of the two vertical shafts by small bevel The carburetor is pinions meshing in bevel gears. mounted between the two cylinder blocks and feeds the two blocks through aluminum manifolds which are partly The engine can be equipped with a water-jacketed. geared hand crank-starting device.
Ignition

STURTEVANT MODEL 5A 140 HORSE-POWER ENGINE

These motors are of the eight-cylinder "V" type, fourstroke cycle, water-cooled, having a bore of 4 inches and a stroke of 5% inches, equivalent to 102 mm. x 140 mm. The normal operating speed of the crank-shaft is 2,000
shaft is driven through reducing gears which can be furnished in different gear ratios. The standard ratio is 5.3, allowing a propeller speed of 1,200 E. P. M.

E. P. M.

The propeller

The construction of the motor is such as to permit of the application of a direct drive. The change from the direct drive to gear drive, or vice versa, can be accomplished in approximately one hour.
The cylinders are cast in pairs from an aluminum alloy and are provided with steel sleeves, carefully fitted
into each cylinder.

perfect contact is secured between cylinder and sleeve; at the same time a sleeve can be replaced without injury to the cylinder proper. No difficulties due to expansion occur on account of the rapid

ways

transmission of heat and the fact that the sleeve is alat higher temperature than the cylinder. moulded asbestos gasket is placed between the cylinder copper

and the head, permitting the cooling water

to circulate

Sturtevant Model 5 A Engine

freely

515

same time insuring a tight joint. The cylinder heads are cast in pairs from an aluminum alloy and contain ample water passages for circulation of
and
at the

Trouble due to hot cooling water over the entire head. valves is thereby eliminated, a most important consid-

The eration in the operation of an aeroplane motor. water jacket of the head corresponds to the water jacket of the cylinders and large openings in both allow the unobstructed circulation of the cooling water. The cylinder heads and cylinders are both held to the base by six long bolts. The valves are located in the cylinder heads and are mechanically operated. The valves and valve
springs are especially accessible and of such size as to permit high volumetric efficiency. The valves are constructed of hardened tungsten steel, the heads and stems The valve rocker arms being made from one piece. located on the top of the cylinder are provided with

check nut enables the adjusting screws. screw to be securely locked in position, once the correct clearance has been determined. The rocker arm bearings are adequately lubricated by a compression grease cup: Cam-rollers are interposed between the cams and the push rods in order to reduce the side thrust on the push
adjusting
rods.

system of double springs is employed which greatly reduces the stress on each spring and insures utmost reliability. spring of extremely large diameter returns the valve; a second spring located at the cylinder base

handles

These springs, which the push rod linkage. under low stress, are made from the best of steel operate The and are given a special double heat treatment.

pistons are made from a special aluminum alloy; are deeply ribbed in the head for cooling and strength and

provided with two piston rings. These pistons are exceedingly light weight in order to minimize vibration and
prevent wear on the bearings. The piston pin is made of chrome nickel steel, bored hollow and hardened. It is allowed to turn, both in piston and connecting rod. The

516

Aviation Engines

piston rings are of special design, developed after years of experimenting in aeronautical engines.
all

The connecting rods are of "H" section, machined over from forgings of a special air-hardening chrome

nickel steel which, after being heat treated has- a tensile They are strength of 280,000 pounds per square inch.

consequently very strong and yet unusually light, and being machined all over are of absolutely uniform section, which gives as nearly perfect balance as can be obtained. The big ends are lined with white metal and the small ends are bushed with phosphor bronze. The connecting rods are all alike and take their bearings side by side on
the crank-pin, the
this

arrangement.

cylinders being offset to permit of The crank-shaft is machined from

the highest grade chrome nickel steel, heat treated in order to obtain the best properties of this material. It is 2% inches in diameter (57 mm.) and bored hollow

throughout, insuring maximum strength with minimum weight. It is carried in three large, bronze-backed white new method of producing these bearmetal bearings. insures a perfect bond between the two metals and ings eliminates breakage. The base is cast from an aluminum alloy. Great strength and rigidity is combined with light weight. The sides extend considerably below the center line of the

At crank-shaft, providing an extremely deep section. all highly stressed points, deep ribs are provided to distribute the load evenly and eliminate bending. The lower
half of the base is of cast
lightness.

alloy of extreme This collects the lubricating oil and acts as

aluminum

An oil-filtering screen of a small reservoir for same. area covers the entire surface of the sump. The large propeller shaft is carried on two large annular ball bearings driven from the crank- shaft by hardened chrome nickel steel spur gears. These gears are contained within an oil-tight casing integral with the base on the opposite
is

end from the timing gears. A ball -thrust bearing provided on the propeller shaft to take the thrust of

Sturtevant Model 5 A Engine

517

a propeller or tractor, as the case may be. In case of the direct drive a stub shaft is fastened direct to the crankshaft and is fitted with a double thrust bearing. The cam-shaft is contained within the upper half of the base between the two groups of cylinders, and is It is bored hollow supported in six bronze bearings. throughout and the cams are formed integral with the
shaft and ground to the proper shape and finish. An in the shape of cams has resulted important development

power at high speeds. The gears operating the cam-shaft, magneto, oil and water pumps are contained within an oil-tight casing and operate in a bath of oil. Lubrication is of the complete forced circulating sysin a maintained increase of

being supplied to every bearing under high This is pressure by a rotary pump of large capacity. from the crank-shaft. The oil passages operated by gears from the pump to the main bearings are cast integral with the base, the hollow crank-shaft forming a passage through the connecting rod bearings and the hollow camshaft distributing the oil to the cam-shaft bearings. The entire surface of the lower half of the base is covered with a fine mesh screen through which the oil passes before reaching the pump. Approximately one gallon of oil is contained within the base and this is continually circulated through an external tank by a secondary pump This also operated by an eccentric on the cam-shaft. draws fresh oil from the external tank which can be made of any desired capacity.
tem, the
oil

SPECIFICATIONS

MODEL 5A TYPE 8

Horse-power rating, 140 at 2,000 E. P. M.

102 mm. Bore, 4 inches 140 mm. Stroke, 5^ inches

of cylinders, 8. Arrangement of cylinders,

Number

"V."
by centrifugal pump.

Cooling, water.

Circulation

518

Aviation Engines

Cycle, four stroke. Ignition (double), 2 Bosch or Splitdorf magnetos. Water jacket manifold. Carburetor, Zenith duplex. forced. Oiling system, complete Circulating gear pump.

Normal crank-shaft
Propeller shaft, E. P. M.

speed, 2,000 E. P. M. crank-shaft speed at normal,

1,200

Stated power at 30" barometer, 140 B. H. P. Stated weight with all accessories but without water, 234 kilos. gasoline or oil, 514 pounds B. H. P., 3.7 pounds 1.68 kilos. Weight per Stated weight with all accessories with water, 550 pounds

-250 kilos. Weight per B. H.

kilos.

P.

with water,

3.95

pounds

= 1.79

THE CURTISS AVIATION MOTORS

The Curtiss

OX

motor has eight cylinders, 4-inch

bore, 5-inch stroke, delivers 90 horse-power at 1,400 turns, and the weight turns out at 4.17 pounds per horse-power.

This motor has cast iron cylinders with monel metal jackets, overhead inclined valves operated by means of two rocker arms, push-and-pull rods from the central cam-shaft located in the crank-case. The cam and push rod design is extremely ingenious and the whole valve construction turns out very light. This motor is an evolution from the early Curtiss type motor which was used by Glenn Curtiss when he won the Gordon Bennett Cup at Eheims. A slightly larger edition of this type motor is the OXX 5, as shown at Figs. 231 and 232, which has cylinders 4^ inches by 5 inches, delivers 100 horse-power at 1,400 turns and has the same fuel and

consumption as the OX type motor, namely, .60 pound of fuel per brake horse-power hour and .03 pound of lubricating oil per brake horse-power hour. The Curtiss Company have developed in the last two years a larger-sized motor now known as the V-2, which was originally rated at 160 horse-power and which
oil

Curtis s Aviation Motors

519

has since been refined and improved so that the motor gives 220 horse-power at 1,400 turns, with a fuel con5 sumption of %oo of a pound per brake horse-power hour and an oil consumption of .02 of a pound per brake horse-power hour. This larger motor has a weight of 3.45 pounds per horse-power and is now said to be giving
ive Action

Oil

Water-"" Jacketed
Intake Pipe

Gauge

arburetor

Fig. 231.

The Curtiss

OXX5 Aviation Engine is an Eight-Cylinder Type Largely Used on Training Machines.

The V-2 motor has drawn very satisfactory service. steel cylinders, with a bore of 5 inches and a stroke of 7 inches, with a steel water jacket top and a monel metal cylindrical jacket, both of which are brazed on to the Both these motors use side by cylinder barrel itself.
side connecting rods and fully forced lubrication. The cam-shafts act as a gallery from which the oil is distributed to the cam-shaft bearings, the main crank- shaft

520

Aviation Engines

bearings, and the gearing. Here again we find extremely short rods, which, as before mentioned, enables the height and the consequent weight of construction to be very

much

reduced.

For ordinary

flying at altitudes of 5,000

Propeller

Hub

A
Viewed
"From

Top

Removable Sump Screen

Carburetor

Viewed "from Bottom *

Fig. 232.

Water

ft pe

Top and Bottom Views of the Curtiss

Aviation Engine.

OXX5

100 Horse-Power

motors are sent out with an aluminum bolted between the cylinder and the crank-case in liner, order to give a compression ratio which does not result in pre-ignition at a low altitude. For high flying, howto 6,000 feet, the

ever, these

aluminum

liners are taken out and, the

com-

Thomas Morse Engine

521

pression volume is decreased to about 18.6 per cent, of the total volume. The Curtiss Aeroplane Company announces that it has
recently built, and is offering, a twelve-cylinder 5" x 7" motor, which was designed for aeronautical uses primarThis engine is rated at 250 horse-power, but it is ily. claimed to develop 300 at 1,400 E. P. M. Weights Motor, 1,125 pounds; radiator, 120 pounds; cooling water, 100 pounds; propeller, 95 pounds. Gasoline Consumption per Horse-power Hour, %o

pounds.
Oil
pints.

Consumption per Hour

at

Maximum Speed

Installation Dimensions

overall

width depth

84% 34% inches; overall depth, 40 at bed, 30% inches; height from bed, 21% from bed, 18% inches.
Overall length,
width,

inches;
inches;

inches;

THOMAS-MORSE MODEL 88 ENGINE

The Thomas-Morse Aircraft Corporation of Ithaca, N. Y., has produced a new engine, Model 88, bearing a close resemblance to the earlier model. The main features
of that model have been retained; in fact, many parts are interchangeable in the two engines. Supported by

the great development in the wide use of aluminum, the Thomas engineers have adopted this material for cylinder

main departure from previous accepted design. The marked tendency to-day toward a higher speed
construction, which adoption forms the

of rotation has been conclusively justified, in the opinion of the Thomas engineers, by the continued reliable per-

formance of engines with crank-shafts operating at speeds near 2,000 revolutions per minute, driving the propeller through suitable gearing at the most efficient speed.

High speed demands

to

that the closest attention be paid

the design of reciprocating and rotating parts and their adjacent units. Steel of the highest obtainable

522
tensile

Aviation Engines

strength must be used for connecting rods and piston pins, that they may be light and yet retain a Piston design is likewise sufficient factor of safety. to the same strict scrutiny. At the present subjected
day, aluminum alloy pistons operate so satisfactorily that they may be said to have come to stay. The statement often made in the past, that the gear-

ing down of an engine costs more in the weight of reduction gears and propeller shaft than is warranted by the increase in horse-power, is seldom heard to-day.

The mean effective pressure remaining the same, the brake horse-power of any engine increases as the speed. That is, an engine delivering 100 brake horse-power at 1,500 revolutions per minute will show 133 brake horsepower at 2,000 revolutions per minute, an increase of 33 brake horse-power. To utilize this increase in horsepower, a matter of some fifteen pounds must be spent in gearing and another fifteen perhaps on larger valves, Two per cent, may be assumed lost in bearings, etc. the gears. In other words, the increase in horse-power due to increasing the speed has been attained at the expense of about one pound per brake horse-power. The advantages of the eight-cylinder engine over the six and twelve, briefly stated, are lower weight per horse:

power, shorter length, simpler and stiffer crank-shaft, cam-shaft and crank-case, and simpler and more direct manifold arrangement. As to torque, the eight is superior to the six,

to

the

twelve
It

to

and yet in practice not enough inferior warrant the addition of four more
however,
be

cylinders.

recognized that the eight is subject to the action of inherent unbalanced inertia couples, which set up horizontal vibrations, impossible of total elimination. These vibrations are func-

must,

tions

of

the

reciprocating

mentioned, are cut

down

to

weights, which, the minimum.

as

already Vibrations

due to the
quantities

be and are

elasticity of crank-case, crank-shaft, etc., -can reduced in the Thomas engine to minor

by ample webbing of the crank-case and

judi-

Thomas -Morse Engine

cious

523

All things considered, actually so little difference to be discerned between the balance of a properly designed eight-cylinder engine and that of a six or twelve as to make a disthere
is

use of metal elsewhere.

cussion of the pros and cons

of practice.

more one

of theory than

The main
that
it is

criticisms of the

less efficient

L head cylinder engine are and heavier. This is granted, as it

More thorough investigation, relates to cylinders alone. however, based on the main desideratum, weight-power ratio, leads us to other conclusions, particularly with The valve gear must reference to high speed engines. not be forgotten. A cylinder cannot be taken completely away from its component parts and judged, as to its weight value, by itself alone. A part away from the whole becomes an item unimportant in comparison with the whole. The valve gear of a high speed engine is a too often overlooked feature. The stamp of approval has been made by high speed automobile practice upon the overhead cam-shaft drive, with valves in the cylinder head operated direct from the cam-shaft or by means of valve lifters or short rockers. The overhead cam-shaft mechanism applied to an eight-cylinder engine calls for two separate cam-shafts carried above and supported by the cylinders in an oiltight housing, and driven by a series of spur gears or bevels from the crank-shaft. It is patent that this valve gearing is heavy and complicated in comparison with the simple moving valve units of the L head engine, which are operated from one single cam-shaft, housed The inherently lower volurigidly in the crank-case. metric efficiency of the L head engine is largely overcome by the use of a properly designed head, large valves and ample gas passages. Again, the customary use of a dual ignition system gives to the L head a relatively better
in

opportunity for the advantageous placing of spark-plugs, order that better flame propagation and complete combustion may be secured.

524

Aviation Engines

The Thomas Model 88 engine is 4%-inch bore and 5%-inch stroke. The cylinders and cylinder heads are of aluminum, and as steel liners are used in the cylinders

Fig. 233.

End View

of Thomas-Morse 150 Horse-Power Aluminum Cylinder Aviation Motor Having Detachable Cylinder Heads.

the pistons are also

made of aluminum. This engine is than the earlier model of less power. actually lighter It weighs but 525 pounds, with self-starter. The general

Sixteen-V'alve Duesenberg Engine

525

features of design can be readily ascertained by study of the illustrations Fig. 233, which shows an end view Fig. 234, which is a side view, and Fig. 235, which out: ;

Fig. 234.

Side View of Thomas-Morse High Speed 150 Horse-Power Aviation Motor with Geared Down Propeller Drive.

lines

reduction gear-case supporting bearings.

the

and the propeller shaft

SIXTEEN-VALVE DUESENBERG ENGINE

This engine

is

a four-cylinder,

4%"x7",

125 horse-

at 2,100 E. P. M. of the crank-shaft and 1,210 E. P. M. of the propeller. Motors are sold on above actual power tests prove this motor capable of rating; developing 140 horse-power at 2,100 E. P. M. of the motor. The exact weight with magneto, carburetor, gear reduction and propeller hub, as illustrated, 509 pounds; without gear reduction, 436 pounds. This motor has

power

been produced as a power plant weighing 3.5 pounds per horse-power, yet nothing has been sacrificed in rigidity and strength. At its normal speed it develops 1 horse-

526

Aviation Engines

power for every

3.5 cubic inches piston displacement. are semi-steel, with aluminum plates enclosing Cylinders Pistons specially ribbed and made of water jackets. aluminum compound. Piston rings are special Magnalite Duesenberg design, being three-piece rings. Valves are

Fig.

235. The Reduction Gear-Case of Thomas-Morse 150 Horse-Power Aviation Motor, Showing Ball Bearing and Propeller Drive Shaft Gear.

" 1 tungsten steel, 1 % 6 inlets and 2" exhausts, two of each to each cylinder. Arranged horizontally in the head, allowing very thorough water- jacketing. Inlet valves in

Exhaust valves, seating directly in the cylinder are removable through the inlet valve holes. Valve head, stems lubricated by splash in the valve action covers. Valve rocker arms forged with cap screw and nut at
cages.

Siocteen-V alve

Dues enb erg Engine

Entirely
enclosed
entire valve mechanism.

527

upper end

to

adjust

clearance.
is

by

aluminum housing, as

Con-

necting rods are tubular, chrome nickel steel, light and Crank-shaft is one-piece forging, hollow bored, strong.
2i/2-inch

diameter

at

main bearings.

Connecting

rod

Front main bearings, 214-inch diameter, 3 inches long. inches long; intermediate main bearing, bearing, 3% Crank31/2 inches long rear main bearing, 4 inches long.
;

case of aluminum, barrel type, oil pan on bottom removable. Hand hole plates on both sides. Strongly webbed.

The oiling system of this sixteen-valve Duesenberg motor is one of its vital features. An oil pump located in the base and submerged in oil forces oil through cored passages to the three main bearings, then through tubes under each connecting rod into which the rod dips. The oil is thrown off from these and lubricates every part of the motor. This constitutes the main oiling system; it is supplemented by a splash system, there being a trough under each connecting rod into which the rod slips. The oil is returned to the main supply sump by gravity, where it is strained and re-used. Either system is in
operate the motor. pressure gauge is mounted for observation on a convenient part of the system. pressure of approximately 25 pounds is maintained by the pressure system, which insures effiitself sufficient to

cient lubrication at all speeds of the motor.

The troughs

under the connecting rods are so constructed that no matter what the angle of flight may be, oil is retained in each individual trough so that each connecting rod can dip up its supply of oil at each revolution.
AEROMARINE SIX-CYLINDER VERTICAL MOTOR
These motors are four-stroke cycle, six-cylinder verwith cylinder 4>i // bore by 5%" stroke. The general appearance of this motor is shown in illustratical type,

tion at Fig. 236.

This engine

is

rated at 85-90 horseof

this

power.

All

reciprocating and revolving parts

-528

Aviation Engines

motor are made of the highest grades of steel obtainable as are the studs, nuts and bolts. The upper and lower of crank-case are made of composition aluminum parts

minum

Lower crank-case is made of high grade alucomposition casting and is bolted directly to the upper half. The oil reservoir in this lower half casting provides sufficient oil capacity for five hours' continuous running at full power. Increased capacity can be procasting.

e-Water Pm'e

^tfuraijyfLiJB&HiBiyftLi
Magneto

Water

Pum.p
O'rt

Pump
The Six-Cylinder Aeromarine Engine.

Fig. 236.

vided
Oil is

if

needed to meet greater endurance requirements. forced under pressure to all bearings by means of

One side of this high-pressured duplex-geared pumps. delivers oil under pressure to all the bearings, pump while the other side draws the oil from the splash case
main sump. The oil reservoir is from the crank-case chamber. Under entirely separate no circumstances will oil flood the cylinder, and the oiling system is not affected in any way by any angle of flight or position of motor. An oil pressure gauge is placed
and delivers
it

to the

on instrument board of machine, which gives at

all

times

Aeromarine Aviation Engine

529

the pressure in oil system, and a sight glass at lower half of case indicates the amount of oil contained. The
oil

pump
is

is

very which

accessible.

external on magneto end of motor, and is An external oil strainer is provided,

removable in a few minutes' time without the

loss of

any oil. All oil from reservoir to the motor passes through this strainer. Pressure gauge feed is also attached and can be piped to any part of machine desired.

The cylinders are made of high-grade castings and are machined and ground accurately to size. Cylinders are bolted to crank-case with chrome nickel steel studs and nuts which securely lock cylinder to upper half of The main retaining cylinder studs go crank-case. through crank-case and support crank-shaft bearings so that crank-shaft and cylinders are tied together as one unit. Water jackets are of copper, %e" thick, electrically This makes a non-corrosive metal. Cooling deposited. is furnished by a centrifugal pump, which delivers 25 Pistons are made gallons per minute 1,400 E. P. M. cast iron, accurately machined and ground to exact dimensions, which are carefully balanced. Piston rings are semi- steel rings of Aeromarine special design. Connecting rods are of chrome nickel steel, H-section. Crank-shaft is made of chrome nickel steel, machined all
over,

and cut from

solid billet,

and

is

accurately bal-

anced through the medium of balance weights being forged integral with crank. It is drilled for lightness and There are seven plugged for force feed lubrication. main bearings to crank-shaft. All bearings are of highgrade babbitt, die cast, and are interchangeable and easily
replaced.

The main bearings

of

the

crank-shaft

are

provided with a single groove to take oil under pressure from pressure tube which is cast integral with case.

The Connecting rod bearings are of the same type. is hardened, ground and secured in congudgeon pin necting rod, and is allowed to work in piston. Cam-shaft is of steel, with cams forged integral, drilled for lightness and forced-feed lubrication, and
is

case-hardened.

530

Aviation Engines

Fig. 237.

The Wisconsin Aviation Engine, at Top, as Viewed from Carburetor Side. Below, the Exhaust Side.

Wisconsin Aviation Engine

531

The bearings

of cam-shaft are of bronze.

high-tension Bosch D. U. 6. carburetors are aluminum castings and are so designed that each carburetor feeds three cylinders, thereby insur-

Magneto, two The intake manifold for

ing easy flow of vapor at

all

speeds.

Weight, 420 pounds.

WISCONSIN AVIATION ENGINES

The new
of which
is

shown

six-cylinder Wisconsin aviation engines, one at Fig. 237, are of the vertical type,

Fig. 238.

Dimensioned End Elevation of Wisconsin Six Motor.

with cylinders in pairs and valves in the head. Dimensioned drawings of the six-cylinder vertical type are given at Figs. 238 and 239. The cylinders are made of aluminum alloy castings, are bored and machined and then fitted with hardened steel sleeves about %e inch in thickness. After these sleeves have been shrunk into
the
cylinders,

they are finished by grinding in place.

Gray iron valve seats are cast into the cylinders. The valve seats and cylinders, as well as the valve ports, are

532

Aviation Engines

The valves set entirely surrounded by water jackets. from the vertical, are in the heads at an angle of 25 made of tungsten steel and are provided with double
springs, the outer or
iliary to prevent

main spring and the inner or aux-

used as a precautionary measure a valve falling into the cylinder in remote case of a main spring breaking. The cam-shaft is made of one solid forging, case-hardened. It is carried in an
spring, which
is

Fig. 239.

Dimensioned Side Elevation of Wisconsin Six Motor.

top of the cylinders. This housing is split horizontally, the upper half carrying the chrome vanadium steel rocker levers. The lower half has an oil return trough cast integral, into which the
to

aluminum housing bolted

the

overflows and then drains back to the crankcase. Small inspection plates are fitted over the cams and inner ends of the cam rocker levers. The cam-shaft runs in bronze bearings and the drive is through verexcess
oil

tical shaft

and bevel gears.

is

'

The crank-case

made

of aluminum, the upper half

Wisconsin Aviation Engine

carrying the bearings for the crank-shaft.
half carries the
oil

533

The lower

of the oil except sump that circulating through the system at the time is carried. The crank- shaft is made of chrome vanadium steel of
in
all

which

The crank-pins and elastic limit of 115,000 pounds. ends of the shaft are drilled for lightness and the cheeks are also drilled for oil circulation. The crank-shaft runs in bronze-backed, Fahrig metal-lined bearings, four in number. A double thrust bearing is also provided, so that the motor may be used either in a tractor or pusher type of machine. Outside of the thrust bearing an annular ball bearing is used to take the radial load of the propeller. The propeller is mounted on a taper. At the opposite end of the shaft a bevel gear is fitted which drives the cam-shaft, through a vertical shaft, and also drives the water and oil pumps and magnetos. All gears
an

made of chrome vanadium steel, heat-treated. The connecting rods are tubular and machined from chrome vanadium steel forgings. Oil tubes are fitted to the rods which carry the oil up to the wrist-pins and The rods complete with bushings weigh 5% pistons. each. The pistons are made of aluminum alloy pounds and are very light and strong, weighing only 2 pounds
are
2 ounces each.

Two

leak-proof rings are fitted to each

hollow,
of hardened
steel,

piston.

The wrist-pins are

to turn either in the piston or the rod. bronze bushing is fitted in the upper end of the rod, but no bushing is fitted in the pistons, the hardened steel

and are free

wrist-pins
alloy.

making an

excellent bearing in the

aluminum

is

The water circulation is by centrifugal pump, which mounted at the lower end of the vertical shaft. The

water

is pumped through brass pipes to the lower end of the cylinder water jackets and leaves the upper end of the jackets just above the exhaust valves. The lubrir

cating system is one of the main features of the engines, being designed to w ork with the motor at any angle. The oil is carried in the sump, from where it is taken

534

Aviation Engines

by the oil circulating pump through a strainer and forced through a header, extending the full length of the crankFrom the case, and distributed to the main bearings. main bearings it is forced through the hollow crankshaft to the connecting rod big ends and then through

800

ZOO

400

600

800

1000

IZOO

1400

1600

1800

ZOOO ZZOO

Z400

Revolutions per Minu+e

Fig. 240.

Power, Torque and Efficiency Curves of Wisconsin Aviation Motor.

Wisconsin Aviation Engine

535

Another tubes on the rods to wrist-pins and pistons. lead takes oil from the main header to the cam-shaft The oil forced out of the ends of the cambearings. shaft bearings fills pockets under the cams and in the

cam rocker levers. The excess flows back through pipes and through the train of gears to the crank-case. A strainer is fitted at each end of the crank-case, through which the oil is drawn by separate pumps and returned to the sump. Either one of these pumps is large enough
Exhaust Closes Inlet Opens

Firing Order

4-2- 6- 3- S

Fig. 241.

Timing Diagram, Wisconsin Aviation Engine.

to take care of all of the return

is

perfect whether the motor splash is used in the crank-case, the system being a full force feed. An oil level indicator is provided, showing the amount of oil in the sump at all times. The oil pressure in these motors is carried at ten pounds, a
relief valve
is

so that the operation No is inclined up or down.

oil,

being fitted to hold the pressure constant. Ignition by two Bosch magnetos, each on a separate set of plugs fired simultaneously on opposite sides of the Should one magneto fail, the other would still cylinders. run the engine at only a slight loss in power. The Zenith double carburetor is used, three cylinders being supplied by each carburetor. This insures a higher volumetric
efficiency,

which means more power, as there

is

no over-

536

Aviation Engines

All parts of these motors are very accessible.

lapping of inlet valves whatever by this arrangement. The water

pumps, carburetors, magnetos, oil strainer or can be removed without disturbing other The lower crank-case can be removed for inparts. spection or adjustment of bearings, as the crank-shaft and bearing caps are carried by the upper half. The motor
oil

and

other

parts

supporting lugs are also part of the upper crank-case. The six-cylinder motor, without carburetors or magWith carburetor and magnetos, weighs 547 pounds. The weight of cooling netos, the weight is 600 pounds. water in the motor is 38 pounds. The sump will carry radiator can be 4 gallons of oil, or about 28 pounds. furnished suitable for the motor, weighing 50 pounds. This radiator will hold 3 gallons of water or about 25 pounds. The motor will drive a two-blade, 8 feet diameter by 6.25 feet pitch Paragon propeller 1400 revolutions per minute, developing 148 horse-power. The weight of This makes a total weight this propeller is 42 pounds. of motor, complete with propeller, radiator filled with water, but without lubricating oil, 755 pounds, or about

pounds per horse-power for complete power plant. fuel consumption is .5 pound per horse-power per The lubricating oil consumption is .0175 pound hour. per horse-power per hour, or a total of 2.6 pounds per hour at 1400 revolutions per minute. This would make the weight of fuel and oil, per hour's run at full power
5.1

The

at 1400 revolutions per minute, 76.6 pounds.

PKINCIPAL DIMENSIONS

Following are the principal dimensions of the cylinder motor:

six-

Bore

5 inches.

Stroke 6% inches. Crank-shaft diameter throughout 2 inches. Length of crank-pin and main bearings 3% inches. Diameter of valves 3 inches (2% inches clear).

Wisconsin Aviation Engine

537

Lift of valves y% inch. Volume of compression space 22 per cent, of total. Diameter of wrist-pins l%e inches.

Firing order 1-4-2-6-3-5.

The horse-power developed

minute
is

at

1200 revolutions per

revolutions per minute 140, at 130, 1400 revolutions per minute 148. 1400 is the maximum speed at which it is recommended to run these motors.
at 1300

TWELVE-CYLINDER ENGINE

twelve-cylinder V-type
this

being built by

engine illustrated, is also company, similar in dimensions of

The principal differences being in cylinders to the six. the drive to cam-shaft, which is through spur gears instead of bevel. hinged type of connecting rod is used

which does not increase the length of the motor and, at the same time, this construction provides 'for ample bearA double centrifugal water pump is provided for ings. this motor, so as to distribute the water uniformly to both sets of cylinders. Four magnetos are used, two for
each set of six cylinders. The magnetos are very accesThe sibly located on a bracket on the spur gear cover. are located on the outside of the motors, carburetors where they are very accessible, while the exhaust is in the center of the valley. The crank-shaft on the twelve is inches in diameter and the shaft is bored to reduce 2y2

Dimensioned drawings of the twelve-cylinder engine are given at Figs. 242 and 243 and should prove useful for purposes of comparison with other motors.
weight.

HALL-SCOTT AVIATION ENGINES

The following

specifications

of the Hall-Scott

"Big

engines apply just as well to the six-cylinder vertical types which are practically the same in construction except for the structural changes necessary to accommodate the two extra cylinders. Cylinders are cast

Four"

538

Aviation Engines

separately from a special mixture of semi-steel, having cylinder head with valve seats integral. Special attention has been given to the design of the water jacket around the valves and head, there being two inches of water

Tig. 242.

Dimensioned End View of Wisconsin Twelve-Cylinder Airplane

Motor.

The cylinder is annealed, rough space above same. machined, then the inner cylinder wall and valve seats ground to mirror finish. This adds to the durability of the cylinder, and diminishes a great deal of the excess
friction.

Hall- Scott Engines

Great care
is

539

taken in the casting and machining of have the bore and walls concentric cylinders, with each other. .Small ribs are cast between outer and inner walls to assist cooling as well as to transfer stresses
these
to

direct

from the explosion to hold-down bolts which run main bearing caps to top of cylinders. The are machined upon the sides so that when cylinders
from
steel

assembled

on the

crank-case

with grooved

hold-down

Fig. 243.

Dimensioned Side Elevation of Wisconsin Twelve-Cylinder Airplane Motor.

wafers

tightened, they form a solid block, greatly assistthe rigidity of crank-case. ing The connecting rods are very light, being of the I
type, milled from a solid Chrome nickel die forging. The caps are held on by two %"-20 thread Chrome nickel through bolts. The rods are first roughed out, then an'

beam

nealed.

Holes are

drilled, after

which the rods are hard-

The ened and holes ground parallel with each other. end is fitted with a gun metal bushing, while the piston crank-pin end carries two bronze serrated shells, which are tinned and babbitted hot, being broached to harden the babbitt. Between the cap and rod proper are placed

540

Aviation Engines
Crank-cases are cast of

laminated shims for adjustment.

the best

aluminum alloy, hand scraped and sand blasted inside and out. The lower oil case can be removed without breaking any connections, so that the connecting rods and other working parts can readily be inspected. An extremely large strainer and dirt trap is located in the center and lowest point of the case, which is easily removed from the outside without disturbing the oil pump or any working parts. A Zenith carburetor is provided. Automatic valves and springs are absent, making the adjustment simple and efficient. This carburetor is not A Hallaffected by altitude to any appreciable extent. Scott device, covered by U. S. Patent No. 1,078,919, allows the oil to be taken direct from the crank-case and run around the carburetor manifold, which assists carburetion
as well as reduces crank-case heat. Two waterproof four" Dixie " magnetos are provided. Both cylinder Splitdorf magneto interrupters are connected to a rock shaft integral with the motor,
sary.
It
is

making outside connections unnecesof note that with this independent

worthy

double magneto system, one complete magneto can become inoperative, and still the motor will run and continue to
give good power. The pistons as provided in the A-7 engines are cast from a mixture of steel and gray iron. These are extremely light, yet provided with six deep ribs under the

arch head, greatly aiding the cooling of the piston as well The piston pin bosses are located as strengthening it. very low in order to keep the heat from the piston head away from the upper end of the connecting rod, as well

where the piston fits the cylinder best. Three ^4" rings are carried. The pistons as provided in the A-7a engines are cast from aluminum
as to arrange

them

at the point

alloy.

Four 14" rings are

carried.

In both piston types

a large diameter, heat treated, Chrome nickel steel wristpin is provided, assembled in such a way as to assist the circular rib between the wrist-pin bosses to keep the
piston from being distorted from the explosions.

Hall-Scott Engines

541

system is known as the high pressure type, forced to the under side of the main bearings being with from 5 to 30 points pressure. This system is not affected by extreme angles obtained in flying, or whether the motor is used for push or pull machines. large is located in the lowest point of the oil sump, gear pump and being submerged at all times with oil, does away

The

oiling

oil

with troublesome stuffing boxes and check valves.

oil is first

The

drawn from the strainer in oil sump to the long around the intake manifold, then forced to the jacket main distributor pipe in crank-case, which leads to all main bearings. A bi-pass, located at one end of the distributor pipe, can be regulated to provide any pres-

sure required, the surplus oil being returned to the case. special feature of this system is the dirt, water and sediment trap, located at the bottom of the oil sump. This can be removed without disturbing or dismantling
oil

or any oil pipes. A small oil pressure gauge which can 'be run to the aviator's instrument is provided, This registers the oil pressure, and also deterboard. mines its circulation. The cooling of this motor is accomplished by the oil as well as the water, this being covered by patent No.
the

pump

This is accomplished by circulating the oil 1,078,919. around a long intake manifold jacket; the carburetion of gasoline cools this regardless of weather conditions. The Crank-case heat is therefore kept at a minimum. uniform temperature of the cylinders is maintained by/ the use of ingenious internal outlet pipes, running through the head of each of the six-cylinders, rubber hose connections being used so that any one of the cylinders may be removed without disturbing the others. Slots are cut in these pipes so that cooler water is drawn directly around the exhaust valves. Extra large water jackets are provided upon the cylinders, two inches of water The space is left above the valves and cylinder head. water is circulated by a large centrifugal pump insuring

ample circulation at

all

speeds.

542

Aviation Engines

The crank-shaft is of the five bearing type, being machined from a special heat treated drop forging of the

The forging is first drilled, highest grade nickel steel. then roughed out. After this the shaft is straightened, turned down to a grinding size, then ground accurately
extremely large considering general practice in the building of high speed engines of similar bore and stroke. The crank-shaft bearings are 2" in diameter by l 15Ae // long, excepting the rear main bearing, which is 4%" " Steel long, and front main bearing, which is 2% 6 long. oil scuppers are pinned and sweated onto the webs of the shaft, which allows of properly oiling the connecting rod bearings. Two thrust bearings are installed on the propeller end of the shaft, one for pull and the other for
size, over-size,

to

size.

The bearing surfaces are

of

push.

The propeller
is

is

driven by the crank-shaft flange,

which

securely held in place

upon the shaft by

six

These drive an outside propeller flange, the prokeys. peller being clamped between them by six through bolts. The flange is fitted to a long taper on crank-shaft. This enables the propeller to be removed without disturbing the bolts. Timing gears and starting ratchets are bolted to a flange turned integral with shaft.

The cam-shaft is of the one piece type, air pump It is made eccentric, and gear flange being integral. from a low carbon specially heat treated nickel forging, the cams is first roughed out and drilled entire length are then formed, after which it is case hardened and ground to size. The cam-shaft bearings are extra long, made from Parson 's White Brass. A small clutch is
;

milled in gear end of shaft to drive revolution indicator. The cam-shaft is enclosed in an aluminum housing bolted directly on top of all six cylinders, being driven by a
vertical shaft in connection with bevel gears. This shaft, in conjunction with rocker arms, rollers and other work-

ing parts, are oiled by forcing the oil into end of shaft, using same as a distributor, allowing the surplus supply to flow back into the crank-case through hollow vertical

Hall-Scott Engine Details

tube.

543

This supply

oils

the magneto

and pump gears.

cylin-

Extremely large Tungsten valves, being one-half the

der diameter, are seated in the cylinder heads. Large diameter oil tempered springs held in tool steel cups, The ports are very locked with a key, are provided.
large and short, being designed to .allow the gases to enter and exhaust with the least possible resistance. These

valves are operated by overhead one piece cam-shaft in connection with short Chrome nickel rocker arms. These

arms have hardened

hardened tool

tool steel rollers on

cam end with

This conr steel adjusting screws opposite. struction allows accurate valve timing at all speeds with

least possible weight.

CENSORED
GERMAN AIRPLANE MOTORS
In a paper on "Aviation Motors," presented by E. H. Sherbondy before the Cleveland section of the S. A. E. in June, 1917, the Mercedes and Benz airplane motor is
discussed in some detail and portions of the description
follow.

MERCEDES MOTOR

The 150 horse-power six-cylinder Mercedes motor is The 140 millimeters bore and 160 millimeters stroke. Mercedes company started with smaller-sized cylinders, namely 100 millimeters bore and 140 millimeters stroke,
The principal features of the design are six-cylinders. forged steel cylinders with forged steel elbows for gas passages, pressed steel water jackets, which' when welded

544

Aviation Engines

CENSORED

Argus Engine Construction

545

546

Aviation Engines

j*
!i

CO

O
Ifl

00

00

00

O o O

American Aviation Engine

547

05

Qo
CO CO

l5

op

00 oo

02

02

548

Aviation Engines

together forms the cylinder assembly, the use of inclined overhead valves operated by means of an overhead camshaft through rocker arms which multiply with the mois

By the use of steel cylinders, not only the weight greatly reduced, but certain freedom from distortion through unequal sections, leaks and cracks are
tion of the cam.

is necessarily very a sound job. In the details certainly expensive. of this construction there are a number of important things, such as finished gas passages, water-cooled valve guides and a very small mass of metal, which is waterOf course, it is neccooled, surrounding the spark-plug. essary to use very high compression in aviation motors in order to secure high power and economy and owing to the fact that aviation motors are worked at nearly their maximum, the heat flow through the cylinder, piston, and valves is many times higher than that encountered in

entirely avoided.

The construction

It is

automobile motors.

It

has been found necessary to de-

velop -special types of pistons to carry the heat from the center of the head in order to prevent pre-ignition. In the Mercedes motor the pistons have a drop forged steel

head which includes the piston boss and this head is screwed into a cast iron skirt which has been machined inside to secure uniform wall thickness. The carburetor used on this 150 horse-power Mercedes motor is precisely of the same type used on the Twin Six motor. It has two venturi throats, in the center of which is placed the gasoline spray nozzle of conventional type, fixed size orifices, immediately above which are placed two panel type throttles with side outlets. An idling or primary nozzle is arranged to discharge The carburetor above the top of the venturi throat. It is is of cast aluminum and is water jacketed. body
bolted directly to air passage passing through the top and bottom half of the crank-case which passes down through the oil reservoir. The air before reaching the

carburetor proper to some extent has cooled the oil in the crank chamber and has itself been heated to assist

Mercedes Engine Details

549

in the vaporization. The inlet pipes themselves are copAll the passages between the venturi throat and per.

the inlet valve have been carefully finished and polished. The only abnormal thing in the design of this motor is

the short connecting rod which is considerably less than twice the stroke and would be considered very bad practice
in

motor car engines.

short connecting rod, however,

Fig. 245.

Part Sectional View of 90 Horse-Power Mercedes Engine* Which is Typical of the Design of Larger Sizes.

possesses two very real virtues in that it cuts down height of the motor and the piston passes over the bottom dead center much more slowly than with a long rod. Other features of the design are a very stiff crankcase, both halves of which are bolted together by means of long through bolts, the crank- shaft main bearings are
seated in the lower half of the case instead of in the usual caps and no provision is made for taking up the main bearings. The Mercedes company uses a plunger

550
type of

Aviation Engines

pump having mechanically operated piston valves and it is driven by means of worm gearing. The overhead cam-shaft construction is extremely The cam-shaft is mounted in a nearly cylindrical light. cast bronze case and is driven by means of bevel gears The vertical bevel gear shaft from the crank-shaft. through which the drive is taken from the crank- shaft to the cam-shaft operates at one and one-half times the crank-shaft speeds and the reduction to the half-time
secured through a pair of bevels. On this vertical shaft there is mounted the water pump and a bevel gear for driving two magnetos. The water pump mounted on this shaft tends to steady the drive and avoid

cam-shaft

is

vibration in the gearing. The cylinder sizes of

Bore

six-cylinder

aviation

motors

which have been built by Mercedes are

Stroke

Horse-power

105 120 140 140

mm. mm. mm. mm.

140 140 150 160

mm. mm. mm. mm.

100 135 150 160

The largest of these motors has recently had its horsepower increased to 176 at 1450 K. P. M. This general
design of motor has been the foundation for a great many other aviation motor designs, some of which have proved very successful but none of which is equal to the original. Among the motors which follow more or less closely the scheme of design and arrangement are the Hall-Scott, the "Wisconsin motor, the Eenault water-cooled, the Pack-

Each of Christofferson and the Eolls-Koyce. these motors show considerable variation in detail. The Kolls-Eoyce and Eenault are the only ones who have used
ard, the

The Wisconsin the steel cylinder with the steel jacket. motor uses an aluminum cylinder with a hardened steel The Christofferson has liner and cast-iron valve seats.
Wisconsin with the exception that the valve seats are threaded into the alumi-

somewhat similar design

to the

The Benz Motor

551

num. jacket and the cylinder head has a blank end which is secured to the aluminum casting by means of the valve The Eolls-Koyce motors show small differseat pieces. ences in details of design in cylinder head and cam-shaft housing from the Mercedes on which it has taken out patents, not only abroad but in this country.

THE BE^Z MOTOR

In the Kaiser prize contest for aviation motors a fourcylinder Benz motor of 130 by 180 mm. won first prize, developing 103 B. H. P. at 1290 R. P. M. The fuel consumption was 210 grams per horse-power hour. Total The oil conweight of the motor was 153 kilograms. of a kilogram per horse-power hour. sumption was .02 This motor was afterward expanded into a six-cylinder
design and three different sizes were built. The accompanying table gives some of the details of weight, horse-power, etc.
Motor type Rated horse-power Horse-power at 1250 r.p.m Horse-power at 1350 r.p.m Bore in millimeters
Stroke in millimeters Offset of the cylinders in millimeters

B
85 88 95

FD
100 108 115 116 160
20

FF
150 150 160 130 180
20 225 10

106 150
18

Rate of gasoline consumption in grams Oil consumption in grams per b.h.p. hour
Oil capacity in kilo'grams Water capacity in litres

240
10 36
5

230
10
4

4%

y 2

The weight with water and

oil

but with two

magnetos, fuel feeder and air pump in 170 kilograms The weight of motors, including the water pump, two magnetos, double ignition, etc. 160 The weight of the exhaust pipe, complete in 4 kilograms The weight of the propeller hub in kilograms
.

200 190
4.8

245

230
5

3^4

The Benz cylinder is a simple, straightforward design and a very reliable construction and not particularly difficult to

manufacture.

The

cylinder

is

cast of iron without

552

Aviation Engines

a water jacket but including 45 degrees angle elbows to the valve ports. The cylinders are machined wherever possible and at other points have been hand filed and scraped, after which a jacket, which is pressed in two
halves, is gas welded by means of short pipes welded on The bottom and the top of the cylinders to the jacket.
galleries, and by this means separate water with their attendant weight and complication are pipes eliminated. Eubber rings held in aluminum clamps serve The whole constructo connect the cylinders together. The cylinder walls tion turns out very neat and light. are 4 mm. or %_$" thick and the combustion chamber is of cylindrical pancake form and is 140 mm. or 5.60 inch in The valve seats are 68 mm. in diameter and diameter. the valve port is 62 mm. in diameter.

become water

The passage joining the port

is

57

mm.

in diameter.

In order to insert the valves into the cylinder the valve stem is made with two diameters and the valve has to be cocked to insert it in the guide, which has a bronze bushing at its upper end to compensate for the smaller valve stem diameter. The valve stem is 14 mm. or %G" in diameter and is reduced at its upper portion to 9y mm. 2 The valves are operated through a push rod and rocker arm construction, which is % 6 " and exceedingly light. Kocker arm supports are steel studs with enlarged heads
roller is mounted double row ball bearing. at one end of the rocker arm to impinge on the end of the valve stem, and the rocker arm has an adjustable globe stud at the other end. The push rods are light steel tubes with a wall thickness of 0.75 mm. and have a hardened steel cup at their upper end to engage the rocker arm globe stud and a hardened steel globe at their lower
to take a

end

to socket in the roller plunger.

a' diameter of 26 mm. and is bored straight through 18 mm. and there is a spiral gear made integrally with the shaft in about the center of its

The Benz cam-shaft has

length for driving the There 10 mm. wide.

oil

gear. The cam faces are is also, in addition to the intake

'

pump

The Benz Motor

and exhaust cams, a
shaft is
set of half

553

compression cams.

The

longitudinally in its bearings an eccentric to put these cams into action.

moved

end of the shaft is a driving gear flange small in diameter and very thin. The flange is 68 mm. in diameter and 4 mm. thick and is tapped to take 6 mm. bolts. The total length of cam-shaft is 1038 mm., and it becomes a regular gun boring job to drill a hole of this
length.

by means of At the fore which is very

The cam-shaft gear

is

140

mm.

or

5%

inches outside

diameter. It has fifty-four teeth and the gear face is 15 / or 1 %2 '. The flange and web have an average thickness of 4 mm. or %2 r/ ancj, the web is drilled full of holes

mm.

interposed between the spur gear mounted on the camshaft and the cam-shaft gear. There is a gear which serves to drive the magnetos and tachometer, also the

pump. The shaft is made integrally with and has an eccentric portion against which the
air
roll

this

gear

air

pump

plunger impinges.

The seven-bearing crank-shaft is finished all over in a beautiful manner, and the shaft out of the particular motor we have shows no signs of wear whatever. The crank-pins are 55 mm. in diameter and 69 mm. long. Through both the crank-pin and main bearings there is drilled a 28 mm. hole, and the crank cheeks are plugged with solder. The crank cheeks are also built to convey the lubricant to the crank-pins. At the fore end of the
crank cheek there is pressed on a spur driving gear. There is screwed on to the front end of the shaft a piece which forms a bevel water pump driving gear and the starting dog. At the rear end of the shaft very close to the propeller hub mounting there is a double thrust bearing to take the propeller thrust. Long, shouldered studs are screwed into the top half of the crank-case portion of the case and pass clean
x

through the bottom half of the case.

stiff

The case

is

very

The three center bearing diaand well ribbed. phragms have double walls. The center one serves as a

554

Aviation Engines

duct through which water pipe passes, and those on either side of the center form the carburetor intake air passages and are enlarged in section at one side to take the carburetor barrel throttle. The pistons are of cast iron and carry three concentric
rings 1/4 inch wide on their upper end, which are pinned The top of the piston forms the frustum at the joint. of the cone and the pistons are 110 mm. in length. The
is machined inside and has a Kiveted to the piston head is a conical diaphragm which contacts with the piston pin when in place and serves to carry the heat off the center

lower portion of the skirt

wall thickness of 1

mm.

of the piston.

The

oil

pump assembly
oil

comprises a pair of plunger

pumps which draw

from a separate outside pump, and

constructed integrally with it is a gear pump which delivers the oil under about 60 pound pressure through a set of copper pipes in the base to the main bearings. The

plunger oil pump shows great refinement of detail. A worm wheel and two eccentrics are machined up out of one piece and serve to operate the plungers. Some interesting details of the 160 horse-power Benz motor, which is shown at Fig. 246, are reproduced from the "Aerial Age Weekly," and show how carefully the design has been considered.
horse-power, 167.5 B. H. P. Speed at maximum horse-power, 1,500 E. P. M. Piston speed .at maximum horse-power, 1,770 ft. per minute. Normal horse-power, 160 B. H. P. Speed at normal horse-power, 1,400 E. P. M.

Maximum

Piston speed at normal horse-power, minute.

1,656

ft.

per

Brake mean pressure at maximum horse-power, 101.2 pound per square inch. Brake mean pressure at normal horse-power, 103.4

pound per square

inch.

The Benz Motor

555

556

Aviation Engines

Specific power cubic inch swept 5.46 cubic inch; 160 B. H. P.

volume per B. H.

P.,

Weight of
etc., 5.0

piston, complete with

gudgeon

pin, rings,

pound.
of

Weight
4.99

connecting

rod,

complete

with bearings,

pound; 1.8 pound reciprocating. Weight of reciprocating parts per cylinder, 6.8 pound. Weight of reciprocating parts per square inch of

piston area, 0.33 pound. Outside diameter of inlet valve, 68 mm.; 2.68 inches. Diameter of inlet valve port (d), 61.5 mm.; 2.42 inches.

Maximum
Area

lift

of inlet valve

(7&),

11 mm., 0.443 inch.

of inlet valve opening (ndh), 21.25 square cm.; 3.29 square inches.
Inlet valve opens, degrees on crank, top dead center. Inlet valve closes, degrees on crank, 60 late; 35 mm.
late.

Outside diameter of exhaust valve, 68 mm., 2.68 inches.

Diameter of exhaust valve port

inches.

(cZ),

61.5

mm.; mm.;

2!42

Maximum
inch.

lift

or exhaust valve '(h)

11

0.433

Area

of exhaust valve opening

(ndJi), 21.25 square

early;

cm.; 3.29 square inches.

Exhaust valve opens, degrees on crank, 60

35
5

mm.

early.
closes,

Exhaust valve

degrees on crank,

16%

late;

mm.

late.

Length of connecting rod between

12.36 inches.

centers, 314

mm.;

Eatio connecting rod to crank throw, 3.49:1. Diameter of crank-shaft, 56 mm. outside, 2.165 inches;
28
28

mm.
mm. mm.

inside, 1.102 inches. inside, 1.102 inches.

Diameter of crank-pin, 55 mm. outside, 2.165 inches;

Diameter of gudgeon
19
pin, 30 inch. inside, 0.708

mm.

outside, 1.181 inches

Austro-Dcdmler Engine

557
;

Diameter of cam-shaft, 26 nun. outside, 1.023 inches

18

mm. inside, Number of

0.708 inch.
36.85

square cm.; 5.72 square inches. Projected area of gudgeon pin bearings, 22.20 square
cm.; 3.44 square inches.

crank-shaft bearings, 7. Projected area of crank-pin bearings,

Firing sequence, 1, 5, 3, 6, 2, 4. Type of magnetos, ZH6 Bosch. Direction of rotation of magneto from driving end, one clock, one anti-clock. early (16 mm. Magneto timing, full advance? 30
early).

Type
pint.

of carburetors (2)

Benz

design.

Fuel consumption per hour, normal horse-power, 0.57

Normal speed

of propeller, engine speed, 1,400 E. P.

M.

AUSTRO-DAIMLER ENGINE

One of the first very successful European flying engines which was developed in Europe is the Austro-Daimler, which is shown in end section in a preceding chapter. The first of these motors had four-cylinders, 120 by 140 millimeters, bore and stroke, with cast iron cylinders, overhead valves operated by mean's of a single rocker arm, controlled by two cams and the valves were closed by a single leaf spring which oscillates with the rocker arm. The cylinders are cast singly and have either copper or
steel jackets applied to them. The four-cylinder design was afterwards expanded to the six-cylinder design and still later -a six-cylinder motor of 130 by 175 millimeters This motor uses an offset crank-shaft, was developed. as does the Benz motor, and the effect of offset has been discussed earlier on in this treatise. The Benz motor also uses an offset cam-shaft which improves the valve operation and changes the valve lift diagram. The lubrication also is different than any other aviation motor, since

558

Aviation Engines

individual high pressure metering pumps are used to deliver fresh oil only to the bearings and cylinders, as was the custom in automobile practice some ten years .ago.

SUNBEAM AVIATION ENGINES

These very successful engines have been developed by Louis Coatalen. At the opening of the war the largest sized Coatalen motor was 225 horse-power and was of the L-head type having a single cam-shaft for operating
valves and

was an evolution from

the

twelve-cylinder

racing car which the -Sunbeam Since 1914 the Sunbeam built.

Company had previously Company have produced

engines of six-, eight-, twelve- and eighteen-cylinders from 150 to 500 horse-power with both iron and aluminum

For the last two years all the motors have had overhead cam-shafts with a separate shaft for operating the intake and exhaust valves. Cam-shafts are connected through to the crank-shaft by means of a train of spur gears, all of which are mounted on two double row ball bearings. In the twin six, 350 horse-power engine, operating at 2100 E. P. M., requires about 4 horse-power This motor gives 362 horseto operate the cam-shafts. at 2100 revolutions and has a fuel cousumption of power 5 Koo of a pint per brake horse-power hour. The cylinders are 110 by 160 millimeters. The same design has been expanded into an eighteen-cylinder which gives 525 horsepower at 2100 turns. There has also been developed a very successful eight-cylinder motor rated at 2220 horsepower which has a bore and stroke of 120 by 130 millimeters, weight 450 pounds. This motor is an aluminum Three block construction with steel sleeves inserted. valves are operated, one for the inlet and two for the exhaust. One cam-shaft operates the three valves. The modern Sunbeam engines operate with a mean effective pressure of 135 pounds with a compression ratio of 6 to 1 sea level. The connecting rods are of the articulated type as in the Eenault motor and are very short.
cylinders.

Sunbeam Aviation Engines

559

The weight of these motors turns out at 2.6 pounds per brake horse-power, and they are able to go through a 100 hour test without any trouble of any kind. The lubricating system comprises a dry base and oil pump for.

Fig.

247. At Top, the Sunbeam Overhead Valve 170 Horse-Power SixCylinder Engine. Below, Side View of Sunbeam 350 Horse-Power Twelve-Cylinder Vee Engine.

drawing the
to the filter

oil off from the base, whence it is delivered and cooling system. It then is pumped by a

separate high pressure gear pump through the entire motor. In these larger European motors, castor-oil is

560

Aviation Engines

Sunbeam Aviation Engines

used largely for lubrication.

561

It is said that without the use of castor-oil it is impossible to hold full power for five hours. Coatalen favors aluminum cylinders rather than cast iron. The series of views in Figs. 247 to 250

inclusive, illustrates the vertical,

the V-form;

narrow type of engine; and the broad arrow type wherein three

v
Fig. 249.

Sunbeam Eighteen-Cylinder Motor, Viewed from Pump and Magneto End.

rows, each of six-cylinders, are set on a common crankIn this water-cooled series the gasoline and oil case. consumption are notably low, as is the weight per horse-

power. In the eighteen-cylinder overhead valve SunbeamCoatalen aircraft engine of 475 brake horse-power, there are no fewer than half a dozen magnetos. Each magneto Two sparks are furnished to each cylinder is inclosed.

562-

Aviation Engines

from independent magnetos. On this engine there are also no fewer than six carburetors. Shortness of crankshaft, and therefore of engine length, and absence of

by the linking of the connectingThose concerned with three-cylinders in the broad arrow formation work on one crank-pin, the outer rods being linked to the central master one. In consequence
rods.

vibration are achieved

Fig. 250.

Propeller

End

of Sunbeam Eighteen-Cylinder 475 B.H.P. Aviation Engine.

of this arrangement, the piston travel in the case of the central row of cylinders is 160 mm., while the stroke of the pistons of the cylinders set on either side is in each

Inasmuch as each set of six-cylinders is balanced in itself, this difference in stroke completely does not affect the balance of the engine as a whole. The
case 168

mm.

Indicating Meters
duplicate
ignition

563

scheme also applies to the twelvecylinder 350 brake horse-power Sunbeam- Coatalen overhead valve aircraft engine type. It is distinguishable, incidentally, by the passage formed through the center of
each induction pipe for the sparking plug in the center cylinder of each block of three. In this, as in the eighteencylinder and the six-cylinder types, there are two camThese cam-shafts are shafts, for each set of cylinders. low pressure and are operated through a lubricated by train of inclosed spur wheels at the magneto end of the machine. The six-cylinder, 170 brake horse-power vertical
type employs the same general principles, including the detail that each carburetor serves gas to a group of threecylinders only. It will be observed that this engine presents notably little head resistance, being suitable for
multi-engined aircraft.
INDICATING METERS FOR AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

The proper functioning

of the

power plant and the

various groups comprising it may be readily ascertained at any time by the pilot because various indicating meters and pressure gauges are provided which are located on a dash or cowl board in front of the aviator, as shown at
Fig. 251. The speed indicator corresponds to the speedometer of an automobile and gives an indication of the speed the airplane is making, which taken in conjunction" with the
clock will

make

it

possible to determine the distance cov-

The altimeter, which is an aneroid outlines with fair accuracy the height above barometer, the ground at which a plane is flying. These instruments
ered at a
flight.

plane when in the air, and if the for cross-country flying, they may compass and a drift set. It will are purely navigating instruments

are furnished to enable the aviator to navigate the airmachine is to be used be supplemented by a

be evident that these, and only indicate the

motor condition

in

an indirect manner.
is to

The best way

of

keeping track of the motor action

watch the tachom-

564

Aviation Engines

Compressed Air-Starting Systems

eter

565

counter which is driven from the a flexible shaft. This indicates directly the engine by number of revolutions the engine is making per minute
or
revolution

up of the engine in normal something is not functioning as it should. The tachometer operates on the same principle as the speed indicating device or speedometer used in automobiles except that the dial is calibrated to show revolutions per minute instead of miles per hour. At the extreme right of the dash at Fig. 251 the spark advance
and, of course, any slowing
flights indicates that

throttle control levers are placed. These, of course, regulate the motor speed just as they do in an automobile. Next to the engine speed regulating levers is placed a push button cut-out switch to cut out the ignition and

and

stop the motor.

line.

Three pressure gauges are placed' in a

The one

of air on

at the extreme right indicates the pressure the fuel when a pressure feed system is used.
oil

pressure, while that nearest the center of the dash board is employed to show the air

The middle one shows

pressure available in the air starting system. It will be evident that the character of the indicating instruments will vary with the design of the airplane. If it was provided with an electrical starter instead of an air system electrical indicating instruments would have to be provided.

COMPRESSED AIR- STARTING SYSTEMS

Two forms

one in which the crank-shaft

of air- starting systems are in general use, is turned by means of an

air motor, the other class where compressed air is admitted to the cylinders proper and the motor turned over

because of the air pressure acting on the engine pistons. A system known as the "Never-Miss" utilizes a small double-cylinder air pump is driven from the engine by means of suitable gearing and supplies air to a substantial container located at some convenient point in the fuselage. The air is piped from the container to a dashcontrol valve and from this member to a peculiar form

566
of
air

Aviation Engines

motor mounted near the crank-shaft. The air motor consists of a piston to which a rack is fastened which engages a gear mounted on the crank shaft provided with some form of ratchet clutch to permit it to revolve only in one direction, and then only when the
turning faster than the engine crank-shaft. of operation is extremely simple, the dash-control valve admitting air from the supply tank to the top of the pump cylinder. When in the position shown in cut the air pressure will force the piston and rack down and set the engine in motion. variety of air motors are used and in some the pump and motor may be the same device, means being provided to change the pump to an air motor when the engine is to be turned- over.

gear

is

The method

The "Christensen" air starting system is shown at Figs. 252 and 253. An air pump is driven by the engine, and this supplies air to an air reservoir or .container
This container communicates attached to the fuselage. with the top of an air distributor when a suitable control valve is open. An air pressure gauge is provided to enable one to ascertain the air pressure available. The top of each cylinder is provided with a check valve, through which air can flow only in one direction, i.e., from the tank to the interior of the cylinder. Under explosive pressure these check valves close. The function of the distributor is practically the same as that of an ignition timer, its purpose being to distribute the air to the cylinders of the engine only in the proper firing order. All the while that the engine is running and the car is in motion the air pump is functioning, unless thrown out of action by an easily manipulated automatic control. When it is desired to start the engine a starting valve is opened which permits the air to flow to the top of the distributor, and then through a pipe to the check valve on top of the
cylinder about to explode. As the air is going through under considerable pressure it will move the piston down just ias the explosion would, and start the engine rotating. The inside of the distributor rotates and directs a charge

Air-Starting System

567

of air to the cylinder next to fire. In this way the engine is given a number of revolutions, and finally a charge of gas will be ignited and the engine start off on its cycle of To make starting positive and easier some operation.

Fig.

252. Parts of Christensen Air Starting System Shown at A, and Application of Piping and Check Valves to Cylinders of ThomasMorse Aeromotor Outlined at B.

gasoline is injected in with the air so an inflammable mixture is present in the cylinders instead of air only. This ignites easily and the engine starts off sooner than would

otherwise be the case. The air pressure required varies from 125 to 250 pounds per square inch, depending upon the size and type of the engine to be set in motion.

568

Aviation Engines

02 bO

I I
CO

Electric Starting Systems

569

ELECTEIC STARTING SYSTEMS

Starters
utilizing
electric

motors to turn over the

made and maintained

engine have been recently developed, and when properly in an efficient condition they an-' rfwer all the requirements of an ideal starting device. The capacity is very high, as the motor may draw current from a storage battery and keep the engine turning over for considerable time on a charge. The objection their use is that it requires considerable compliagainst cated and costly apparatus which is difficult to understand and which requires the services of an expert electrician to repair should it get out of order, though if battery ignition is used the generator takes the place of the usual ignition magneto. In the Delco system the electric current is generated by a combined motor-generator permanently geared to the engine. When the motor is running it turns the armature and the motor generator is acting as a dynamo, only supplying current to a storage battery. On account of the varying speeds of the generator, which are due to the fluctuation in engine speed, some form of automatic switch w^hich will disconnect the generator from the battery at such times that the motor speed is not sufficiently high to generate a current stronger than that delivered by the battery is needed. These automatic switches are the only -delicate part of the entire apparatus, and while

they requir.e very delicate adjustment they seem to perform very satisfactorily in practice. When it is desired to start the engine an electrical connection is established between the storage battery and the motor-generator unit, and this acts as a motor and turns the engine over by suitable gearing which engages the gear teeth cut into a special gear or disc attached to
the engine crank-shaft. When the motor-generator furnishes current for ignition as well as for starting the motor, the fact that the current can be used for this work

as well as starting justifies to a certain extent the rather

570

Aviation Engines

complicated mechanism which forms a complete starting and ignition system, and which may also be used for lighting if necessary in night flying. An electric generator and motor do not complete a self-starting system, because some reservoir or container for electric current must be provided. The current from the generator is usually stored in a storage battery from which it can be made to return to the motor or to the

same armature that produced

it.

The fundamental units

of a self-starting system, therefore, are a generator to produce the electricity, a storage battery to serve as a
reservoir,
shaft.

and an

electric

motor

to rotate the

motor crank-

Generators are usually driven by enclosed gearing, though silent chains are used where the center distance between the motor shaft and generator shaft is too great for the gears. An electric starter may be directly connected to the gasoline engine, as is the case where the

combined motor-generator replaces the fly-wheel in an

automobile engine. The not or may also drive the engine by means of a silent chain or by direct gear reduction. Every electric starter must use a switch of some kind

and most systems include an output regulator and a reverse current cut-out. The output
for starting purposes

regulator is a simple device that regulates the strength of the generator current that is supplied the storage batreverse current cut-out is a form of check tery. valve that prevents the storage battery from discharging

through the generator. Brief mention is made of electric starting because such systems will undoubtedly be incorporated in some future airplane designs. tion is already being experimented with.

Battery igni-

BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM PARTS

battery ignition system in its simplest form consists of a current producer, usually a set of dry cells or a storage battery, an induction coil to transform the low
tension current to one having sufficient strength to

jump

Battery Ignition System Parts

571

the air gap at the spark-plug, an igniter member placed in the combustion chamber and a timer or mechanical switch operated by the engine so that the circuit will be
closed only when it is desired to have a spark take place in the cylinders. Battery ignition systems may be of two forms, those in which the battery current is stepped up or intensified to enable it to jump an air gap between the

points of the spark plug, these being called "high tension" systems and the low tension form (never used on

airplane motors) in which the battery current is not intensified to a great degree and a spark produced in the cylinder by the action of a mechanical circuit breaker in the

combustion chamber. The low tension system is the simplest electrically but the more complex mechanically. The high tension system has the fewest moving parts but numerous electrical devices. At the present time all airplane engines use high tension ignition systems, the magneto being the most popular at the present time. The current distribution and timing devices used with modern

battery systems are practically the same as similar parts of a magneto.

INDEX
Action of Four-cycle Engine Action of Le Ehone Kotary Engine Action of Two-cycle Engine Action of Vacuum Feed System Actual Duration of Different Functions Actual Heat Efficiency Adiabatic Diagram Adiabatic Law
.

38 503 41 119 93
62 51 50 449 151 20
19

Adjustment of Bearings Adjustment of Carburetors Aerial Motors, Must be Light

Aerial Motors, Operating Conditions of Aerial Motors, Requirements of

19

Aeromarine Six-cylinder Engine Aeronautics, Division in Branches

Aerostatics
Air-cooled Engine Design

527
18
18

Air-cooling Advantages Air-cooling, Direct Method

.'...:

Air-cooling Disadvantages
Air-cooling Systems
Aircraft, Heavier
Aircraft,

229 231 228 231

223'

Than Air Lighter Than Air

17
18

Aircraft Types, Brief Consideration of Air Needed to Burn Gasoline

17

113

Airplane Airplane Airplane Airplane

Airplane,

Engine, Power Needed Engines, Overhauling Engine, How to Time Engine Lubrication

How

Supported

21 412 269 209 21

543 20
*

Airplane Airplane Airplane Airplane Airplane

Motors,

German

Motor Types Motors, Weight of Power Plant Installation

Types

21

324
18

Airplanes, Horse-power Used in Air Pressure Diminution, With Altitude

Altitude,

26

How

it-

Affects Mixture

Aluminum, Use in Pistons

573

144 153 297

574

Index
PAGE

American Aviation Engines, Statistics Anzani Badial Engine Installation Anzani Six-cylinder Star Engine Anzani Six-cylinder Water-cooled Engine Anzani Ten- and Twenty-cylinder Engines Anzani Three-cylinder Engine Anzani Three-cylinder Y Type
Argus Engine Construction Armature Windings Atmospheric Conditions, Compensating for Austro-Daimler Engine
Aviatics

546 344 465 459 468 459 462 545

168 143 557
18 527 465 469 219

Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation

Engine, Aeromarine Engine, Anzani Six-cylinder Star Engine, Canton and, Unne Engine Cooling Engine, Curtiss Engine Cylinders Engine, Early Gnome

519 233 472

Engine, German Gnome Type Engine, Gnome Monosoupape Engine, How To Dismantle Engine, How to Start Engine, Le Ehone Rotary

495 486 415 460 495 218 82 507 414 515

521 457 531 459 468 459 462 545 557 551
88

Engine Oiling Engine Parts, Functions of Engine, Renault Air-cooled Engine, Stand for Supporting
Engine, Sturtevant Engine, Thomas-Morse

Engine Types Engine, Wisconsin Engines, Anzani Six-cylinder Water-cooled Engines, Anzani Ten- and Twenty-cylinder Engines, Anzani Three-cylinder Engines, Anzani Y Type

Engines, Argus Engines, Austro-Daimler Aviation Engines, Benz. Aviation Engines, Four- and Six-cylinder Aviation Engines, German Aviation Engines, Hall-Scott

543

Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation Aviation

Engines, Hispana-Suiza Engines, Mercedes Engines, Overhauling Engines, Principal Parts of Engines, Starting Systems For
Engines,

539 512 543 412

80

Sunbeam

567 558

Index
B

575

PAGE

Balanced Crank-shafts Ball-bearing Crank-shaf fs

Battery Ignition Systems Baverey Compound Nozzle Bearings, Adjustment of Bearing Alignment Bearing Brasses, Fitting Bearing Parallelism, Testing Bearing Scrapers and Their Use Benz Aviation Engines Benz Engine Statistics
Berling Magneto Berling Magneto, Berling Magneto Berling Magneto Berling Magneto, Block Castings
Bolts,
,

318 319

...*!"

Adjustment of
Care
Circuits

Setting

571 137 449 453 450 453 446 551 551 174 180 180 176 178 234 269 452 240 49 48 180

Blowing Back Screwing Down Bore and Stroke Eatio

Boyles

Law

Brayton Engine Breaker Box, Adjustment of Breast and Hand Drills Burning Out Carbon Deposits
Bushings, Camshaft,

Wear

in

387 421 456

c
Calipers, Inside

and Outside

Followers, Types of Cams for Valve Actuation

Cam

Cam-shaft Bushings Cam-shaft Design Cam-shaft Drive Methods Cam-shaft Testing Cam-shafts and Timing Gears Canton and Unne Engine Carbon, Burning out with Oxygen Carbon Deposits, Cause of Carbon Eemoval Carbon Scrapers, How Used
Carburetion Principles Carburetion System Troubles Carburetor, Claudel ..." Carburetor, Compound Nozzle Zenith

398 260 259 456

313 261 451 456 469 421 418

.'

419 420 112

355 127 135

576

Index
PAGB

Carburetor, Concentric Float and Jet Carburetor, Duplex Zenith Carburetor, Duplex Zenith, Trouble in

Type

125 138 357 148 501 133 125 354 131 114 122 130 151 149

Carburetor Installation, In Airplanes

Carburetor,

Le Rhone

,
,

Carburetor, Master Multiple Jet Carburetor, Schebler

Carburetor Troubles,
Carburetor,

How

to Locate

Carburetor, Carburetors, Float Feed

Two Stage What it Should Do

.

Carburetors, Multiple Nozzle Carburetors, No*es on Adjustment Carburetors, Reversing Position of

Carburetors, Spraying Care of Dixie Magneto

Castor Oil, for Cylinder Lubrication Castor Oil, Why Used In Gnome Engines Center Gauge
Chisels,

Forms

of

Christensen Air Starting System

Circuits, Magnetic Classification of Engines

Claudel Carburetor

Cleaning Distributor Clearances Between Valve Stem and Actuators

Combustion Chamber Design Combustion Chambers, Spherical

120 188 205 211 403 384 567 161 458 127 180 261 239
76 378 44 260 301 565 69 68
72 71 25 52

Common

Tools, Outfit of

Comparing Two-cycle and Four-cycle Types

Compound Cam Followers Compound Piston Rings.

Compressed Air Starting System Compression, Factors Limiting
Compression, in Explosive Motors, Value of Compression Pressures, Chart for

Compression Temperature Computations for Horse-power Needed Computations for Temperature

Concentric Piston Ring Concentric Valves

Connecting Connecting Connecting Connecting Connecting Connecting Connecting

Rod Alignment, Testing Rod, Conventional Rod Forms Rod, Gnome Engine
Rods, Fitting

Rods for Vee Engines Rods, Le Rhone

299 255 454 308 305 305 449 310 498

Index
Connecting Rods, Master Constant Level Splash System Construction of Dixie Magneto
Construction of Pistons Conversion of Heat to Power

577
PAGE

'.

'....,

Cooling by Air Cooling by Positive Water Circulation Cooling, Heat Loss in Cooling System Defects
Cooling Systems Used Cooling Systems, Why Needed Cotter Pin Pliers
Crank-case, Conventional Crank-case Forms Crank-case, Gnome Crank-shaft, Built Up Crank-shaft Construction

Crank-shaft Design Crank-shaft Equalizer Crank-shaft Form

Crank-shaft,

Gnome Engine

Crank-shafts, Balanced Crank-shafts, Ball Bearing

Cross Level

Crude Petroleum, Distillates of

Curtiss Aviation Engines Curtiss Engine Installation Curtiss Engine Repairing Tools Cutting Oil Grooves

Cylinder Blocks, Advantages of Cylinder Block, Duesenberg Cylinder Castings, Individual Cylinder Construction Cylinder Faults and Correction Cylinder Form and Crank-shaft Design
Cylinder Head Packings Cylinder Head, Eemovable
Cylinder, I Cylinder,

310 215 186 288 58 223 224 66 358 223 219 384 320 320 323 315 315 315 449 315 483 318 319 403 Ill 519 328 408 448 237

Head Form

L Head Form
Oils

Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder

Cylinder,

235 234 233 416 238 417 239 248 248 206
20 99 475 248 235 482 423 245

Placing Placing in Retention,

Motor

Gnome T Head Form

Odd Number
in

Cylinders, Cast in Blocks Cylinders,

Rotary Engines
;

Cylinders, Repairing Scored Cylinders, Valve Location in

578

Index

D
PAGE

Defects in Cylinders Defects in Dry Battery Defects in Fuel System Defects in Induction Coil Defects in Magneto Defects in Storage Battery Defects in Timer Defects in Wiring and Eemedies Die Holder , Dies for Thread Cutting Diesel Motor Cards
Diesel System Direct Air Cooling
Dirigible Balloons

417 373 354 373 372 372 373 373 394 395
67

Dismantling Airplane Engine Distillates of Crude Petroleum

Division of Circle in Degrees Dixie Ignition Magneto Dixie Magneto, Care of

144 228 18 415 Ill 268 184 188 214 386 388 262 373 525 255 138

Draining Oil From Crank-case

Drilling Machines

Types and Use Driving Cam-shaft, Methods of Dry Cell Battery, Defects in Duesenberg Sixteen Valve Engine Duesenberg Valve Action Duplex Zenith Carburetor
Drills,

E
Early Early Early Early

Gnome Motor,

Construction of

Ignition Systems Types of Gas Engine

472 155
28 120 299 64 62 61

Vaporizer Forms Eccentric Piston Eing Economy, Factors Governing Efficiency, Actual Heat
Efficiency, Efficiency,

Maximum

Theoretical
.'

Mechanical

62
60 61

Efficiency of Internal Combustion Engine of Efficiency, Various Measures

Eight-cylinder Engine
Eight-cylinder Timing Diagram Relation of Electricity and Magnetism,
Electrical Ignition Best Electric Starting Systems
,

95 276 162
156 569 95

Engine, Advantages of

Type

Index
Engine Engine Engine Engine
Base Construction
Bearings, Adjusting Bearings, Refitting

579
319 443 442 330 38 40 93 353 344 344 332 342 84 80 369 347 221 369 358
345
353

Bed Timbers, Standard Engine, Four-cycle, Action of Engine, Four-cycle, Piston Movements in Engine Functions, Duration of Engine Ignition, Locating Troubles
Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine
Installation,

.'

.-

Gnome
Anzani Radial
Hall-Scott

Installation, Installation,
Installation,

Rotary Operation, Sequence of Parts and Functions

Starts Hard, Ignition Troubles Causing Stoppage, Causes of

Temperatures Trouble Charts

Troubles, Cooling Troubles, Hints For Locating Troubles, Ignition Troubles, Noisy Operation
:

Troubles, Oiling

Troubles Summarized Engine, Two-cycle, Action of Engines, Classification of Engines, Cylinder Arrangement Engines, Eight-cylinder V Engines, Four-cylinder Forms Engines, Graphic Comparison of Engines, Internal Combustion, Types of
Engines, Engines, Engines, Engines,
Multiple Cylinder, Power Delivery in Multiple Cylinder, Why Best Rotary Cylinder
Six-cylinder
.....'

359 357 350

41 458
31-32

95 88
33-34-35

30
91 83

Forms

107 88
96 449 270 475 270 56 74 27

.Engines, Twelve-cylinder
Equalizer, Crank-shaft

Exhaust Closing Exhaust Valve Design, Early Gnome Exhaust Valve Opening Explosive Gases, Mixtures of
Explosive Motors, Inefficiency in Explosive Motors, Why Best

F
Factors Governing Economy Eactors Limiting Compression Faults in Ignition
64
'. .

70

352

580
Figuring Horse-power Needed Files, Use and Care of First Law of Gases
Fitting Bearings Fitting Brasses

Index
PAGE

By

Scraping
'.

Fitting Connecting Eods Fitting

Main Bearings

Fitting Piston Eings Float Feed Carburetor Development Float Feed Carburetors

21 383 49 447 450 449 448 439 124 122

Force Feed Oiling System Forked Connecting Eods Four-cycle Engine, Action of Four-cycle Engine, Why Best Fourteen-cylinder Engine Four Valves Per Cylinder
Friction, Definition of

218 310
'

Fuel Fuel Fuel Fuel Fuel Fuel Fuel Fuel Fuel

Feed By Gravity Feed by Vacuum Tank Storage and Supply

Strainers,

38 45 474 284 302 116 117 116

141

Types of

Strainers, Utility of
.

System Faults System Installation, Hall-Scott

System,

Gnome
.

Utilization Chart

140 354 336 490 62

G
Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas
Engine, Beau de Eocha 'a Principles

Engine Development Engine, Early Forms of

Engine, Inventors of Engine, Theory of Gases, Compression of

Law of Gases, Second Law of Gaskets, How to Use

Gases, First

Needed to Burn Gas Engines, Parts of Gas Vacuum Engine, Brown 's German Airplane Motors
Gasoline, Air

59 28 48 29 47 49 49 50 452 113
80

28

German Gnome Type Engine Gnome Aviation Engine, Early Form Gnome Crank-shaft Gnome Cylinder, Machining Gnome Cylinder Eetention

Gnome Engine,

Fuel^ Lubrication and Ignition

543 495 472 483 489 475 490

Index
Gnome Gnome Gnome Gnome Gnome Gnome Gnome
Engine, German Type

581
495 344 482 474 480 278 486
46 116

Engine Installation * Firing Order

. .
.

Fourteen-Cylinder Engine Fourteen-cylinder Engine Details

.'

Monosoupape,

How

to

Time

Monosoupape Type Engine Graphic Comparison of Engine Types Graphic Comparison, Two- and Four-cycle Gravity Feed System
Grinding Valves

33-34-35

'.

429

H
Hall-Scott Aviation Engines Hall-Scott Engine Installation Hall-Scott Engine, Preparations For Starting Hall-Scott Engine- Tools

539 332
'341

Hall-Scott Lubrication System Hall-Scott Statistic Sheet

410 211

Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat

and

Its

Work

in Gas Engine Cylinder Given to Cooling Water

Loss, Causes of Loss in Airplane' Engine Loss in Wall Cooling

High Altitude, How it Affects Power High Tension Magneto Hints For Locating Engine Troubles
Hints for Starting Engine Hispana-Suiza Model A Engine Horse-power Needed in Airplane Horse-power Needed, How Figured

How An

Engine

is

Timed

544 54 69 78 74 221 65 144 172 345 361 512 21 22 277

I
Ignition, Electric
Ignition, Elements of Ignition of Gnome Engine

Ignition System, Battery

Ignition Systems, Early

Ignition System Faults Ignition, Time of

Ignition, Two Spark I Head Cylinders
-.

Gas Engines Indicating Meters, Engine Speed

Improvements
in

156 157 490 571 155 352 273 196 248 29 563

582

Index
PAGE

Indicating Meters, Oil and Air Pressure Indicator Cards, How To Eead Indicator Cards, Value of Individual Cylinder Castings Induction Coil, Defects in Inefficiency, Causes of

563 66 66 234 373

74
'

Valve Closing Inlet Valve Opening

Inlet

Engine 2 Engine Installation, Hall-Scott Engine Installation of Eotary Engines Intake Manifold Construction Intake Manifold Design Internal Combustion Engine, Efficiency of Internal Combustion Engines, Main Types of
Installation, Airplane Installation, Curtiss

OX

Inverted Engine Placing Isothermal Diagram Isothermal Law

.

-.

272 270 324 328 332 342 143 142 60, 62 30 325
51

48

K
Out of Combustion Chamber Keeping Knight Sleeve Valves
Oil

303

..266

L
Lag and Lead, Explanation
Lapping Crank-pins Lead Given Exhaust Valve
of

Leak Proof Piston Eings

Lenoir Engine Action

......

Le Le Le Le Le

Ehone Ehone Ehone Ehone Ehone

Cams and Valve Actuation

Carburetor

Connecting Eod Assembly, Distinctive Engine Action Eotary Engine

L Head

Cylinders

Liquid Fuels, Properties of Locating Carburetor Troubles Locating Engine Troubles Locating Ignition Troubles Locating Oiling Troubles Location of Magneto Trouble Losses in Wall Cooling Lost Power and Overheating, Summary of Troubles Causing Lubricants, Derivation of
Lubricants, Eequirements of

..

.^

268 445 270 301 48 500 501 498 503 495 248 110 354 350 353 357 181
65

363 204

204

Index
Lubricating Lubricating Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication
Lubrication,

588
PAGE

System

Classification
.'

Systems, Selection of By Constant Level Splash System By Dry Crank-case Method By Force Feed Best
of

Magneto

System, Gnome System, Hall-Scott System, Thomas-Morse

'.

Lubrication, Theory of

Why

Necessary

208 208 215 218 218 180 490 211 210 202 201

M
Magnetic Circuits Magnetic Influence Defined

Magnetic Lines of Force Magnetic Substances Magnetism, Flow Through Armature Magnetism, Fundamentals of Magnetism, Eelation to Electricity Magneto, Action of High Tension Magneto Armature Windings Magneto, Basic Principles of Magneto" Berling Magneto, Defects in

.-.

Magneto Distributor, Cleaning Magneto Ignition Systems Magneto Ignition Wiring Magneto Interrupter, Adjustment
Magneto, Low Voltage Magneto, Lubrication of Magneto Maintenance
Magneto, Method of Driving Magneto Parts* and Functions

of

Magneto, The Dixie Magneto Timing Magneto, Timing Dixie Magneto, Transformer System

'.

..

161 158 161 158 166 157 162 173 168 163 174 372 180 169 179 180 168 180 180 175 167 184 179 188 171
181

Magneto Trouble, Location of Magneto, True High Tension Magneto, Two Spark Dual Magnets, Forms of
Magnets, Magnets, Properties of

'

How

Produced

Main Bearings, Fitting

Manifold, Intake Master Multiple Jet Carburetor
."

172 177 160 162 159 448 143

.

133

584
Master Rod Construction

Index
PAGE

310
61

Maximum
Meaning

Theoretical Efficiency of Piston Speed

Measures of Efficiency

Measuring Tools Mechanical Efficiency Mercedes Aviation Engine Metering Pin Carburetor, Stewart Micrometer Caliper, Eeading Micrometer Calipers, Types and Use Mixture, Effect of Altitude on
Mixture, Proportions of Mixture, Starvation of

241 61 397 62 543 128 405 404 153

151 149

Monosoupape Gnome Engine Mother Eod, Gnome Engine Motor Misfires, Carburetor Faults Causing Motor Misfires, Ignition Troubles Causing Motor Eaces, Carburetor Faults Causing Motor Starts Hard, Carburetor Faults Causing Motor Stops In Flight, Carburetor Faults Motor Stops Without Warning, Ignition Troubles
Multiple Cylinder Engine, Why Best Multiple Nozzle Vaporizers Multiple Valve Advantages

-.-

486 305 374 370 374 374 374 370

83

'

1
'

129

286

N
Noisy Engine Operation, Causes of Noisy Operation, Carburetor Faults Causing Noisy Operation, Summary of Troubles Causing
359 374 365

O
Off-set Cylinders, Eeason for Oil Bi-pass, Function of

Draining From Crank-case Oil Grooves, Cutting

Oil,

Oil Pressure in Hall-Scott

System
.

Oil Pressure Eelief Bi-pass

243 213 214 448 214 213

Oiling System Defects Oils for Cylinder Lubrication

Oils for Hall-Scott

>57
206 215 204 37 295 67 412 252 359

Engine

Oils for Lubrication

Operating Principles of Engines Oscillating Pist.on Pin

Otto Four-cycle Cards Overhauling Aviation Engines Overhead Cam-shaft Location Overheating, Causes of

Index
p

585

PAGE

Panhard Concentric Valves

Petroleum, Distillates of
Piston,
Differential

255
Ill 291

Piston Pin Eetention Piston Ring Construction

'

Piston Eing Joints Piston Eing Manipulation Piston Eing Troubles Piston Rings, Compound Piston Eings, Concentric Piston Eings, Eccentric Piston Eings, Fitting Piston Eings, Leak Proof Piston Eings, Eeplacing Piston Speed in Airplane Engines Piston Speed, Meaning of Piston Troubles and Eemedies
Pistons,

293 298 299 438

.'

..:

Aluminum

Pistons, Details of Pistons for Two-cycle Engines Positive Valve Systems

Power, Affected by High Altitude

Power Delivery
Power,

in Multiple Cylinder Engines

'

437 301 299 299 439 301 441 241 241 436 296 288 289 283 145 91
58 21
26*

How

Obtained From Heat

Power Needed in Airplane Engines Power Used in Airplanes

Precautions in Assembling Parts Pressure Belief Fitting Pressures and Temperatures Principles of Carburetion Principles of Magneto Action
Properties of Cylinder Oils Properties of Liquid Fuels

452 213
63

112
163 207 110 226 226

Pump Circulation Systems Pump Forms

/....'.

B
Eadial Cylinder Arrangement Eeading Indicator Cards
.

103

Eeamers, Types and Use Eeassembling Parts, Precautions in Eemovable Cylinder Head Renault Air Coded Engine Renault Engine Details Repairing Scored Cylinders Requisites for Best Power Effect

67 392

451 239 507 508 423 59

586
Reseating and Truing Valves
Resistance, Influence of

Index
PAGE

426
22

Rotary Rotary Rotary Rotary Rotary Rotary

Cylinder Engines

107

Engine, Le Rhone Engines, Castor Oil for Engines, Installing Engines, Why Odd Number of Cylinders Engines, Why Odd Number of Cylinders Is Used

495 211
342
109 482

S
S. A. E.

Engine Bed Dimensions

Salmson Nine-cylinder Engine Scissors Joint Rods Scored Cylinders, Repairing

Scrapers, Types of Bearing Scraping Bearings to Fit
.
.-

'.

330 470 310 422

446 447
50 84

Second

Law

of Gases

Sequence of Engine Operation Shebler Carburetor

Six-cylinder Timing

125

Diagram

275 525 367

Sixteen Valve Duesenberg Engine

Skipping or Irregular Operation, Causes of Sliding Sleeve Valves Spark Plug Air Gaps, Setting
;

Spark Spark Spark Spark Spark Spark Spark

Plug, Design of

Plug, Mica Plug, Porcelain

Plugs, Defects in Plugs for Two Spark Ignition Plug, Special for Airplane Engine
.

Plug, Standard S. A. E. Spherical Combustion Chambers Splash Lubrication

Split Pin

Remover

Spraying Carburetors
Springiest Valves Springs, for Valves

Spring Winder Sprung Cam-shaft, Testing Stand for Supporting Engine Starting Engine, Hints for
Starting Hall-Scott Engine Starting System, Christensen

Starting Systems, Compressed Air

-.

Starting Systems, Electric

Statistics, American Engines Statistic Sheet, Hall-Scott Engines
'

266 197 193 194 193 371 197 199 195 76 215 384 120 280 263 384 451 414 361 341 567 565 569 546, 547 544

Index
Statistics of Benz Engine Steam Engine, Efficiency of Steam Engine, Why Not Used

587
551 59 27

Steel Scale, Machinists

'

Stewart Metering Pin Carburetor Storage Battery, Defects in Stroke and Bore Eatio Sturtevant Model 5A Engine

Summary of Engine Types Sunbeam Aviation Engines Sunbeam Eighteen-Cylinder Engine

399 128 372 240 515 30 588 561

T
Tap and Die Sets Taps for Thread Cutting Tee Head Cylinders
Temperature Computations Temperatures and Explosive Pressures Temperatures and Pressures
Temperatures, Operating Testing Bearing Parallelism Testing Connecting Eod Alignment Testing Fit of Bearings Testing Sprung Cam-shaft
'.'.'.".
,

397 394 247 52 64

63 221 453

'

Theory of Gas Engine Theory of Lubrication Thermo-syphon Cooling System Thomas-Morse Aviation Engine Thomas-Morse Lubrication System Thread Pitch Gauge

454 446 451 47

203 227 521

Time of Ignition
Timer, Defects in Times of Explosion Timing Dixie Magneto

Timing Gears, Effects of Wear Timing Magneto Timing Valves

Tool Outfits, Typical Tools for Adjusting and Erecting Tools for Bearing Work Tools for Curtiss -Engines Tools for Grinding Valves Tools for Hall-Scott Engines
Tools for Measuring Tools for Eeseating Valves
*
'.

210 403 273 373 56 188 456 179

267 408 378 445

Trouble in Carburetion System Trouble, Location of Magneto

408 430 410, 411 397 426 355 181

588
How
to Locate

Index
PAGE

Troubles, Engine,

345 353 357

172

Troubles, Ignition

Troubles in Oiling System True High Tension Magneto

Twelve-Cylinder Engines Two- and Four-Cycle Types, Comparison of Two-Cycle Engine Action

96 44 41 43
42

Two-Cycle Three-Port Engine Two-Cycle Two-Port Engine Two-Spark Ignition Two-Stage Carburetor Types of Aircraft Types of Internal Combustion Engines

196
131
17

30

V
Vacuum Fuel
Feed, Stewart Value of Compression Value of Indicator Cards Valve Actuation, Le Rhone Valve Design and Construction
119 69
66

500

Valve-Grinding Processes Valve-Lifting Cams Valve-Lifting ^lungers Valve Location Practice Valve Operating Means Valve Operating System, Depreciation in Valve Operation Valve Eemoval and Inspection Valve Seating, How to Test

256 429

259 260
245

252 433 258

424 432 263 270 278 270 269 277

267
258

Valve Valve Valve Valve Valve Valve Valve

Springs Timing, Exhaust Timing, Gnome Monosoupape Timing, Intake

Timing, Lag and Lead Timing Proceedure

Timing Practice

Valves, Electric Welded Valves, Flat and Bevel Seat Valves, Four per Cylinder Valves, How Placed in Cylinder Valves in Cages

257 284 247

Valves in Removable Heads

Valves, Materials Used for

249 249 258

Valves, Reseating Vaporizer, Simple Forms of

. .

..

426 120
102

Engines, Cylinder Arrangement in

Vernier,

How

Used

.401

Index

589

w
PAGE

Wall Cooling, Losses in Water Cooling by Natural Circulation

65

Water Cooling System Weight of Airplane Motors

Wiring, Defects in

227 224 21
373 179

Wiring Magneto Ignition System Wisconsin Engines

Wrenches, Forms of Wristpin Retention Wristpin Retention Locks
Wristpin

Wear and Remedy Z

531 380 293 295 442

Zenith Carburetor, Action of Zenith Duplex Carburetor, Troubles in Zenith Carburetor Installalion

137 356 139

CATALOGUE
Of
the

LATEST and

and

BEST

PRACTICAL

MECHANICAL

BOOKS
Including Automobile

and Aviation Books

Any

of these books will be sent prepaid to any part of the world, Remit by Draft, Postal Order, Express on receipt of price. Order or Registered Letter

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2

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West

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THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

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INDEX
PAGES
Air Brakes Arithmetic

PAGES
Link Motions
Liquid Air

Automobile Automobile Automobile Automobile Automobile Automobile Automobile Automobile Automobile

Books
Charts
Ignition Systems

21, 24 14, 25, 31 3, 4, 5, 6

6,

Lighting Questions and Answers Repairing

Starting Systems Trouble Charts
5,

Welding

Aviation Aviation Chart. Batteries, Storage Bevel Gear

7 5 5 4 4 5 6 5 7 7 5 9 7

Locomotive Boilers Locomotive Breakdowns Locomotive Engineering Machinist Book Magazine, Mechanical

Manual Training
Marine Engineering Marine Gasoline Engines Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Magazine Mechanical Movements Metal Work
Motorcycles Patents Pattern Making

22 21 22 22 21, 22, 23, 24 24, 25, 26 34 26 26 19 13, 14 34 25

12, 13
5,

19

Boiler-Room Chart Brazing

Cams
Carburetion Trouble Chart

Change Gear
Charts Coal

-.

6,

Coke Combustion
Compressed Air Concrete Concrete for Farm Use Concrete for Shop Use.
Cosmetics Cyclecars Dictionary Dies

19 6 19 7, 8 22 9

Perfumery
Perspective

20 27 27
13
28, 29

Plumbing
Producer Gas Punches Questions and Answers on Automobile Questions on Heating Railroad Accidents Railroad Charts Recipe Book
Refrigeration

19 13

22 10
10, 11, 12

11 11

27 5 12 12,13
13, 14

Rope Work Rubber Rubber Stamps

Repairing Automobiles

Drawing Drawing for Plumbers Drop Forging.

Saw

Filing
. .

28
13 14 14 14, 16

Dynamo

Building

Saws, Management of Sheet-Metal Works Shop Construction

.,

4 32 23 9 29 20 4 20 30 30 30 30
12, 13

Electric Bells Electric Switchboards Electric Toy Making Electric Wiring Electricity

15
.'

14, 15, 16 14, 15, 16, 17

Shop Management Shop Practice Shop Tools Sketching Paper

Soldering
Splices

25 25 25 25
t

14

Encyclopedia E-T Air Brake Every-day Engineering Factory Management Ford Automobile Ford Trouble Chart Formulas and Recipes Fuel Gas Construction Gas Engines Gas Tractor Gearing and Cams Glossary of Aviation Terms : Heating Horse-Power Chart. Hot-Water Heating House Wiring How to Run an Automobile Hydraulics
Ice and Refrigeration Ignition Systems

24 24 34
17 3 6 29 17 18 18, 19 33 19

and Rope Work

7 20
30, 31 31, 32

Steam Engineering Steam Heating

Steel

Storage Batteries

Submarine Chart
Switchboards Tapers
Telegraphy, Wireless

32 -5 9
14, 16

Telephone Thread Cutting Tool Making

7,12
31, 32
,

Toy Making
Train Rules Tractive Power Chart
Tractor,

Ignition-Trouble Chart India Rubber Interchangeable Manufacturing Inventions

Knots Lathe Work...

9 .31, 32 15, 17 3 5 20 5 6 30 24 20 20 20
,

Gas
Heating.
'

21 17 16 26 24 15 23 9 33

Turbines

Vacuum

Valve Setting
Ventilation

Watch Making
Waterproofing Welding with Oxy-acetylene Flame Wireless Telegraphy Wiring... Wiring Diagrams
5,
. :

33 32 22 31 33
12 33 17 14, 15
14

Any

of these books promptly sent prepaid to any address in the world on receipt of price.

HOW TO REMIT

By

Postal

Money

Order, Express

Money

Order,

Bank Draft

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CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

AUTOMOBILES AND MOTORCYCLES

The Modern Gasoline Automobile Its Design, Construction, and Operation, 1918 Edition. By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.
is the most complete, practical and up-to-date treatise on gasoline automobiles and their component parts ever published. In the new revised and enlarged 1918 edition, all phases of automobile construction, operation and maintenance are fully and completely described, and in language anyone can understand. Every part of all types of automobiles, from light cyclecars to heavy motor trucks and tractors, are described in a thorough manner, not only the automobile, but every item of it; equipment, accessories, tools needed, supplies and spare

This

parts necessary for its upkeep, are fully discussed. It is dearly and concisely written by an expert familiar with every branch of the automobile industry and the originator of the practical system of self-education on technical subjects. It is a liberal education in the automobile art, useful to all who motor for either business or pleasure. Anyone reading the incomparable treatise is in touch with all improvements that have been made in motor-car construction. All latest developments, such as high speed aluminum motors and multiple valve and sleeve-valve engines, are considered in detail. The latest ignition, forms of change speed gears, and final carburetor and lubrication practice is outlined. power transmission systems, and all latest chassis improvements are shown and described. This book is used in all leading automobile schools and is conceded to be the STANDARD

New

TREATISE. The chapter on Starting and Lighting Systems has been greatly enlarged, and many automobile engineering features that have long puzzled laymen are explained so clearly that the underlying principles can be understood by anyone. This book was first published six years ago and so much new matter has been added that it is nearly twice its original size. The only treatise covering various forms of war automobiles and recent developments in motortruck design as well as pleasure cars. This book is not too technical for the layman nor too elementary It is an incomparable work of reference for home or school. 1,000 6x9 pages, for the more expert. nearly 1,000 illustrations, 12 folding plates. Cloth bound. Price .$3.00
.

WHAT
"

IS

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It is the best book on the Automobile seen up to date." J. H. Pile, Associate Editor Automobile Trade Journal. Automobile Owner has use for a book of this character." The Tradesman. "Every "This book is superior to any treatise heretofore .published on the subject." The Inventive Age. " We know of no other volume that is so complete in all its departments, and in which the wide field of automobile construction with its mechanical intricacies is so plainly handled, both in the text and in the matter of illustrations." The Motorist. "The book is very thorough, a careful examination failing to disclose any point in connection with the automobile, its care and repair, to have been overlooked." Iron Age. "Mr. Page has done a great work, and benefit to the Automobile Field." W. C. Hasford, Mgr. Y. M. C. A-. Automobile School, Boston, Mass. "It is just the kind of a book a motorist needs if he wants to understand his car." American

Thresherman.

The Model T Ford Car, Its Construction, Operation and Repair. W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.
This
is

By VICTOR

a complete instruction book. All parts of the Ford Model T Car are described and the construction is fully described and operating principles made clear to everyone. Ford owner needs this practical book. You don't have to guess about the construction Every or where the trouble is, as it shows how to take all parts apart and how to locate and fix all faults. The writer, Mr. Pag6, has operated a Ford car for many years and writes from actual knowledge. Among the contents are: 1. The Ford Car: Its Parts and Their Functions. 2. The Engine and Auxiliary Groups. How the Engine Works The Fuel Supply System The Carburetor Making the Ignition Spark Cooling and Lubrication. 3. Details of Chassis. Gear Power Transmission Differential Gear Action Steering Gear Front Change Speed Axle Frame and Springs Brakes. 4. How to Drive and Care for the Ford. The Control System Explained Starting the Motor Driving the Car Locating Roadside Troubles Tire Repairs Oiling -the Chassis Winter Care of Car. 5. Systematic Location of Troubles and Remedies. Faults in Engine Faults in Carburetor Ignition Troubles Cooling and Lubrication System Defects Adjustment of Transmission Gear General Chassis Repairs. 95 illustrations, 300 pages, 2 large folding plates. Price $1.00
illustrated;

How

to

Run an

Automobile.

By VICTOR W. PAGE,

M.S.A.E.

made

This treatise gives concise instructions for starting and running all makes of gasoline automobiles, how to care for them, and gives distinctive features of control. Describes every step for shifting gears, controlling engines, etc. Among the chapters contained are: I. Automobile Parts and Their Functions. II. General Starting and Driving Instructions. III. Typical 1917 Control Systems. IV. Care of Automobiles. 178 pages. 72 specially
illustrations.

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Automobile Repairing Made Easy. By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E. A comprehensive, practical exposition of every phase of modern automobile repairing
tice.

pracOutlines every process incidental to motor car restoration. Gives plans for workshop construction, suggestions for equipment, power needed, machinery and tools necessary to carry on business successfully. Tells how to overhaul and repair all parts of all automobiles. Everything is explained so simpy that motorists and students can acquire a full working knowledge of automobile repairing. This work starts with the engine, then considers The clutch, change speed gearing carburetion, ignition, cooling and lubrication systems. and transmission system are considered in detail. Contains instructions for repairing all types of axles, steering gears and other chassis parts. Many tables, short cuts in figuring and rules of practice are given for the mechanic. Explains fully valve and magneto timing, "tuning" engines, systematic location of trouble, repair of ball and roller bearings, shop kinks, first aid to injured and a multitude of subjects of interest to all in the garage and repair business. This book contains special instructions on electric starting, lighting and ignition systems, tire repairing and rebuilding, autogenous welding, brazing and soldering, heat treatment of steel, latest timing practice, eight and twelve-cylinder motors, etc. 5%x8. Cloth. 1,056 pages, 1,000 illusPrice trations, 11 folding plates. $3.00

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Questions and Answers Relating to Modern Automobile Construction, Driving and Repair. By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.

practical self-instructor for students, mechanics and motorists, consisting of thirty-seven lessons in the form of questions and answers, written with special reference to the requirements of the non-technical reader desiring easily understood, explanatory matter relating to all branches of automobiling. The subject-matter is absolutely correct and explained in simple language. If you can't answer all of the following questions, you need this work. The answers to these and over 2,000 more- are to be found in its pages. Give the name of all important parts of an automobile and describe their functions. Describe action of latest types What is the difference between a "double" ignition system and a of kerosene carburetors. "dual" ignition system? Name parts of an induction coil. How are valves l-lmed? What is an electric motor starter and how does it work? What are advantages of worm drive gearing? Name all important types of ball and roller bearings. What is a "three-quarter" floating axle: What is a two-speed axle? What is the Vulcan electric gear shift? Name the causes of -lost power in automobiles. Describe all noises due to deranged mechanism and give causes How can you adjust a carburetor by the color of the exhaust gases? What causes "popping" in the carburetor? What tools and supplies are needed to equip a car? How do you drive various makes of cars? What is a differential lock and where is it used? Name different popular work at a popular price. 5^x7^systems of wire wheel construction, etc., etc. Price Cloth. 650 pages, 350 illustrations, 3 folding plates. $1.50
t

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"If
Press.

IS

SAID OF THIS BOOK:

Bristol

you own a car get this book." The Glassworker. "Mr. Page has the faculty of making difficult subjects plain and understandable."

"We

can name no writer better qualified to prepare a book of instruction on automobiles than Mr. Victor W. Pag6." Scientific American. "The best automobile catechism that has appeared." Automobile Topics. "There are few men, even with long experience, who will not find this book useful. Great pains have been taken to make it accurate. Special recommendation must be given to the Such excellent books as this illustrations, which have been made specially for the work. Engineering News. greatly assist in fully understanding your automobile."

The Automobilist's Pocket Companion and Expense Record. VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.

Arranged by

This book is not only valuable as a convenient cost record but contains much information of value to motorists. Includes a condensed digest of auto laws of all States, a lubrication schedule, hints for care of storage battery and care of tires, location of road troubles, anti-freezing interest to solutions, horse-power table, driving hints and many useful tables and recipes of all motorists. Not a technical book in any sense of the word, just a collection of practical Price facts in simple language for the everyday motorist. $1.00

......

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

Modern
Starting, Lighting

and Ignition Systems.

By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.E.

This practical volume has been written with special reference to the requirements of the nontechnical reader desiring easily understood, explanatory matter, relating to all types of automobile ignition, starting and lighting systems. It can be understood by anyone, even without electrical knowledge, because elementary electrical principles are considered before any attempt is made to discuss features of the various systems. These basic principles are clearly stated and illustrated with simple diagrams. All the leading systems of starting, lighting and ignition haw been described and illustrated with the co-operation of the experts employed by the manufacturers. Wiring diagrams are shown in both technical and non-technical forms. All symbols are fully explained. It is a comprehensive review of modern starting and ignition system practice, and includes a complete exposition of storage battery construction, care and repair. All types of starting motors, generators, magnetos, and all ignition or lighting systemunits are fully explained. Every person in the automobile business needs this volume. Among some of the subjects treated are: I. Elementary Electricity; Current Production; Flow; Circuits; Measurements; Definitions; Magnetism; Battery Action; Generator Action. II. Battery Magneto Ignition Systems. IV. Elementary Exposition of Starting Ignition Systems. III. System Principles. V. Typical Starting and Lighting Systems; Practical Application Wiring Diagrams; Auto-lite, Bijur, Delco, Dyneto-Entz, Gray and Davis, Remy, U. S. L., Westinghouse, Bosch-Rushmore, Genemotor, North-East, etc. VI. Locating and Repairing Troubles in Starting and Lighting Systems. VII. Auxiliary. Electric Systems; Gear-shifting by Electricity; Warning Signals; Electric Brake; Entz-Transmission, Wagner-Saxon Circuits, "WagnerStudebaker Circuits. 5)^x7^. Cloth. 530 pages, 2J7 illustrations, 3 folding plates.
;

Price

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Automobile Welding With the Oxy-Acetylene Flame.

along.

By M. KEITH DUNHAM.

This is the only complete book on the "why" and "how" of Welding with the Oxy-Acetylene Flame, and from its pages one can gain information so that he can weld anything that comes

No

used,

one can afford to be without this concise book, as it first explains the apparatus to be and then covers in detail the actual welding of all automobile parts. The welding of
iron, steel, copper, brass

and malleable iron is clearly explained, as well burn the carbon out of the combustion head of the motor. Among the I. contents Chapter Apparatus Knowledge. Chapter II. Shop Equipment and Initial Procedure. Chapter V. Chapter III. Cast Iron. Chapter IV. Aluminum. Steel. Chapter VI. Malleable Iron, Copper, Brass, Bronze. Chapter VII. Carbon BurnHow to Figure Cost of Welding and other Uses of Oxygen and Acetylene. Chapter VIII
aluminum, cast
as the proper
are:

way

to

ing.

167 pages, fully illustrated.

Price

$1.00

Storage Batteries Simplified.

By VICTOR W. PAG, M.S.A.E.

comprehensive treatise devoted entirely to secondary batteries and their maintenance,

repair

and

use.

the most up-to-date book on this subject. Describes fully the Exide, Edison, Gould, Willard, U. S. L. and other storage battery forms in the types best suited for automobile, stationary and marine work. Nothing of importance has been omitted that the reader should know about the practical operation and care of storage batteries. No details have been slighted. The instructions for charging and care have been made as simple as possible. Brief Synopsis of Chapters: Chapter I. Storage Battery Development; Types of Storage Batteries; .Lead Plate Types; The Edison Cell. Chapter II. Storage Battery Construction; Plates and Girds; Plante Plates; Faur6 Plates; Non-Lead Plates; Commercial Battery Designs. Chapter III. Charging Methods; Rectifiers; Converters; Rheostats; Rules for Charging. Chapter IV. Battery Repairs and Maintenance. Chapter V. Industrial Very Application of Storage Batteries; Glossary of Storage Battery Terms. 208 Pages. Price Fully Illustrated. $1.50 net.

This

is

Motorcycles, Side Cars and Cyclecars; their Construction, and Repair. By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.
The only complete work published

Management

Describes fully all for the motorcyclist and cyclecarist. leading types of machines, their design, construction, maintenance, operation and repair. treatise outlines fully the operation of two- and four-cycle power plants and all ignition, This carburetion and lubrication systems in detail. Describes all representative types of free engine clutches, variable speed gears and power transmission systems. Gives complete inConsiders fully electric self-starting and structions for operating and repairing all types. lighting systems, all types of spring frames and spring forks and shows leading control methods. For those desiring technical information a complete series of tables and many formula? to assist in designing are included. The work tells how to figure power needed to climb grades, overcome air resistance and attain high speeds. It shows how to select gear ratios for various and powers, how to figure braking efficiency required, gives sizes of belts and chains weights to transmit power safely, and shows how to design sprockets, belt pulleys, etc. This work also includes complete formulae for figuring horse-power, shows how dynamometer tests are

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO.

made, defines relative efficiency of air and water-cooled engines, plain and anti-friction bearRemember that you ings and many other data of a practical, helpful, engineering nature. get this information in addition to the practical description and instructions which alone are worth several times the price of the book. 550 pages. 350 specially made illustrations, 5 Price folding plates. Cloth. $1.50

WHAT
"Here
is

IS

SAID OF THIS BOOK:

a book that should be in the cycle repairer's kit." American Blacksmith. "The best way for any rider to thoroughly understand his machine, is to get a copy of this book; it is worth many times its price." Pacific Motorcyclist.

AUTOMOBILE AND MOTORCYCLE CHARTS

Chart. Location of Gasoline Engine Troubles Made Easy A Chart Showing Sectional View of Gasoline Engine. Compiled by VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.
It shows clearly all parts of a typical four-cylinder gasoline engine of the four-cycle type. It outlines distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the derangements apt to interfere with smooth engine operation. Valuable to students, motorists, mechanics, repairmen, garagemen, automobile salesmen, chauffeurs, motorboat owners, motor-truck and tractor drivers, aviators, motor-cyclists, and all others who have to do with gasoline power plants. It simplifies location of all engine troubles, and while it will prove invaluable to the novice, It should be on the walls of every public it can be used to advantage by the more expert. It can be carried in the and private garage, automobile repair shop, club house or school. automobile or pocket with ease, and will insure againct loss of time when engine trouble

manifests

itself.

It is prepared by a is a complete review of all motor troubles. More information for the money than ever before practical motorist for all who motor. offered. No details omitted. Size 25x38 inches. Securely mailed on receipt of JJ5 CCntS

This sectional view of engine

Chart.

Location of Ford Engine Troubles Made Easy. W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.

This shows clear sectional views depicting

Compiled by VICTOR

all portions of the Ford power plant and auxiliary groups. It outlines clearly all parts of the engine, fuel supply system, ignition group and cooling system, that are apt to give trouble, detailing all derangements that are liable to make an engine lose power, stact hard or work irregularly. This chart is valuable to students, owners, and drivers, as it simplifies location of all engine faults. Of great advantage as a^i instructor for the novice, it can be used equally well by the more expert as a work of reference and review. It can be carried in the tool-box or pocket with ease and will save its cost in labor eliminated the first time engine trouble manifests itself. Prepared with special reference to the average man's needs and is a practical review of all motor troubles because it is based on the actual experience of an automobile engineer-mechanic with the mechanism the chart It enables the non-technical owner or operator of a Ford car to locate engine describes. derangements by systematic search, guided by easily recognized symptoms instead of by guesswork. It makes the average owner independent of the roadside repair shop when tourMust be seen to be appreciated. Size 25x38 inches. Printed on heavy bond paper. ing. Price 25 cents
.

Chart. Lubrication of the Motor Car Chassis. PAGE, M.S.A.E.

Compiled by VICTOR W.

This chart presents the plan view of a typical six-cylinder chassis of standard design and all parts are clearly indicated that demand oil, also the frequency with which they must be lubricated and the kind of oil to use. A practical chart for all interested in motor-car mainPrice tenance. Size 24x38 inches. 25 Cents

Chart.

Location of Carbureton Troubles

all

Made

Easy.

Compiled by VICTOR

W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.
This chart shows
trouble,

how

to

parts of a typical pressure feed fuel supply system and gives causes of Size 24x38 inches. locate defects and means of remedying them.

Price

25 cents

Chart. Location of Ignition System Troubles VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.

In this diagram
are shown,
all

Made

Easy.

Compiled by
magneto current and eliminating

and suggestions are given them when found. Size 24x38 inches.

parts of a typical double ignition system using battery and for readily finding ignition troubles Price

25 Cents

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

Chart. Location of Cooling and Lubrication System Faults. VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.

Compiled by

This composite diagram shows a typical automobile power plant using pump circulated water-cooling system and the most popular lubrication method. Gives suggestions for curing all overheating and loss of power faults due to faulty action of the oiling or cooling group. Size 24x38 inches. Price }5 cents

Chart. Motorcycle Troubles M.S.A.E.

chart location outlines interfere

Made

Easy.

Compiled by VICTOR W. PAGE,

showing sectional view of a single-cylinder gasoline engine. This chart simplifies power-plant troubles. A single-cylinder motor is shown for simplicity. It distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the derangements apt to with smooth engine operation. This chart will prove of value to all who have to do with the operation, repair or sale of motorcycles. No details omitted. Size 30x20 inches.
of all

35 cents

AVIATION
Aviation Engines, their Design, Construction, Operation and Repair. Lieut. VICTOR W. PAGE, Aviation Section, S.C.U.S.R.

By

practical work containing valuable instructions for aviation students, mechanicians, squadron engineering officers and all interested in the construction and upkeep of airplane power plants. The rapidly increasing interest in the study of aviation, and especially of the highly developed internal combustion engines that make mechanical flight possible, has created a demand for a text-book suitable for schools and home study that will clearly and concisely explain the workings of the various aircraft engines of foreign and domestic manufacture. This treatise, written by a recognized authority on all of the practical aspects of internal combustion engine construction, maintenance and repair fills the need as no other book does. The matter is logically arranged; all descriptive matter is simply expressed and copiously illustrated so that anyone can understand airplane engine operation and repair even if without previous mechanical training. This work is invaluable for anyone desiring to become an

aviator or aviation mechanician. The latest rotary types, such as the Gnome, Monosoupape, and Le Rhone, are fully explained, as well as the recently developed Vee and radial types. The subjects of carburetion, ignition, cooling and lubrication also are covered in a thorough manner. The chapters on repair and maintenance are distinctive and found in no other book on this subject. Invaluable to the student, mechanic and soldier wishing to enter the aviation service. Not a technical book, but a practical, easily understood work of reference for all interested in aeronautical science. 576 octavo pages. 253 specially made engravings. Price, $3.00 net
.

GLOSSARY OF AVIATION TERMS

Termes D* Aviation, English-French, French-English. Compiled by Lieuts. VICTOR W. PAGE, A.S., S.C.U.S.R., and PAUL MONTARIOL of the French
Flying Corps, on duty on Signal Corps Aviation School, Mineola, L.
I.

complete, well illustrated volume intended to facilitate conversation between Englishspeaking and French aviators. A very valuable book for all who are about to -leave for duty
overseas.
for publication by Major W. G. Kilner, S.C., U.S.C.O. Signal Corps Aviation School. Hazlehurst Field, Mineola, L. I. This book should be in every Aviator's and Mechanic's Kit for ready reference. 128 pages. Fully illustrated with detailed engravings. Price $1.00

Approved

Aviation Chart. Location of Airplane Power Plant Troubles By Lieut. VICTOR W. PAGE, A.S., S.C.U.S.R.

Made

Easy.

trouble

large chart outlining all parts of a typical airplane power plant, showing the points where Intended espeis apt to occur and suggesting remedies for the common defects. . cially for Aviators and Aviation Mechanics on School and Field Duty. Price 50 Cents
.

BRAZING AND SOLDERING

Brazing and Soldering.
The only book

By JAMES
bow

F.

HOBART.

to handle any job of brazing or soldering that comes along; it tells you what mixture to use, how to make a furnace if you need one. Full of valuable kinks. The fifth edition of this book has just been published, and to it much new matter and a large number of tested formulae for all kinds of solders and 'fluxes have been added. Price Illustrated. 25 CCntS

that shows you just

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

CO.

CHARTS
Aviation Chart. Location of Airplane Power Plant Troubles By Lieut. VICTOR W. PAGE, A.S., S.C.U.S.R.

Made

Easy.

A large chart outlining all parts of a typical airplane power plant, showing the points where trouble is apt to occur and suggesting remedies for the common defects. Intended especially for Aviators and Aviation Mechanics on School and Field Duty. Price 5Q cents

....

Gasoline Engine Troubles Made EasyA Chart Showing Sectional View of Gasoline Engine. Compiled by Lieut. VICTOR \V. PAGE, A.S., S.C.U.S.R.
It shows clearly all parts of a typical four-cylinder gasoline engine of the four-cycle type. It outlines distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the derangements apt to interfere with smooth engine operation.

Valuable to students, motorists, mechanics, repairmen, garagemen, automobile salesmen, chauffeurs, motor-boat owners, motor-truck and tractor drivers, aviators, motor-cyclists, and all others who have to do with gasoline' power plants. It simplifies location of all engine troubles, and while it will prove invaluable to the novice, it can be used to advantage by the more expert. It should be on the walls of every public and private garage, automobile repair shop, club house or school. It can be carried in the automobile or pocket with ease and will insure against loss of time when engine trouble manifests itself.

This sectional view of engine is a complete review of all motor troubles. It is prepared by a practical motorist for all who motor. No details omitted. Size 25x38 inches. Price 25 Cents

Lubrication of the Motor Car Chassis.

This chart presents the plan all parts are clearly indicated lubricated and the kind of oil tenance. Size 24x38 inches.

view of a typical six-cylinder chassis of standard design and that demand oil, also the frequency with which they must be to use. A practical chart for all interested in motor-car mainPrice

...................
Made
Easy.

25 Cents

Location of Carburetlon Troubles

This chart shows
trouble,
all"

how

fuel supply system and gives causes of parts of a typical pressure feed f to locate defects and means of remedying them. Siz6 24x38 inches. Siz

25 cents

Location of Ignition System Troubles

In this chart
all

Made

Easy.

shown them when

are

parts of a typical double ignition system using battery and magneto current and suggestions are given for readily finding ignition troubles and eliminating found. Size 24x38 inches. Price 25 Cents

...............

Location of Cooling and Lubrication System Faults.

This composite chart shows a typical automobile power plant using pump circulated waterGives suggestions for curing all cooling system and the most popular lubrication method. overheating and loss of power faults due to faulty action of the oiling or cooling group. Size 24x38 inches. Price 25 Cents

...........................

Motorcycle Troubles Made Easy Cylinder Gasoline Engine.

25x38 inches.
Price

A Chart Showing Sectional View of SingleCompiled by VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E.

25 Cents

This chart simplifies location of all power-plant troubles, and will prove invaluable to all who have to do with the operation, repair or sale of motorcycles. No details omitted. Size

................. .........
Made
Easy.

Location of Ford Engine Troubles

PAGE, M.S.A.E.
This shows clear sectional views depicting

Compiled by VICTOR W.

all portions of the Ford power plant and auxiliary It outlines clearly all parts of the engine, fuel supply system, ignition group and groups. cooling system, that are apt to give trouble, detailing all derangements that are liable to make an engine lose power, start hard or \vork irregularly. This chart is valuable to students, owners, and drivers, as it simplifies location of all engine faults. Of great advantage as an instructor for the novice, it can be used equally well by the more expert as a work of reference and review. It can be carried in the toolbox or pocket with ease and will save its cost in labor eliminated the first time engine trouble manifests itself. Prepared with special reference to the average man's needs and is a practical review of all motor troubles because it is based on the actual experience of an automobile engineer-mechanic with the mechanism the chart describes. It enables the non-technical owner or operator of a Ford car to locate engine derangements by systematic search, guided by easily recognized symptoms instead of by guesswork. It makes the average owner independent of the roadside repair shop when touring. Must be seen to be appreciated. Size 25x38 inches. Printed on he"avy bond paper. Price . 25 cents

................... .............

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

A

Modern Submarine Chart with Two Hundred Parts Numbered and Named.
cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a Submarine of the You get more information from this chart, about the construction and operalatest type. details omitted everything is accurate tion of a Submarine, than in any other way. and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every detail, having been approved by Naval EnAll the machinery **nd devices fitted in a modern Submarine Boat are shown, and gineers.

No

to make the engraving more readily understood all the features are shown in operative form, with Officers and Men in the act of performing the duties assigned to them in service conENCYCLOPEDIA OF A SUBMARINE. It This CHART IS REALLY ditions. Mailed in a Tube for 25 cents is educational and worth many times its cost.

AN

Box Car Chart. A chart showing

proper

name given

the anatomy of a box car, having every part of the car numbered and ita in a reference list. Price 25 CCntS

Gondola Car Chart. A chart showing the

its

anatomy

proper reference

name given

of a gondola car, having every part of the car in a reference list. Price

numbered and

25 CCntS

Passenger-Car Chart.

chart showing the

its

anatomy
in

of a passenger-car, having every part of the car

numbered

and

proper

name given

a reference

list

25 Cents

Steel

Hopper Bottom Coal Car. A chart showing the anatomy of a steel

car

numbered and

its

proper

name given

Hopper Bottom Coal Car, having every part

in a reference
list.

of the

Price

25 COlltS

Tractive Power Chart.

chart whereby you can find the tractive power or drawbar pull of any locomotive without making a figure. Shows what cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and steam pressure affect the power. What sized engine you need to exert a given drawbar pull or anything you
Price

desire in this line.

50 Cents

Horse-Power Chart.
of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter of stroke, the steam pressure of cut-off, the revolutions, or whether conor non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and saves time and calcudensing lations. Especially useful to engineers and designers. Price 50 cents

Shows the horse-power

Boiler

Room
chart

Chart.
size

By GEO.

L.

FOWLER.

14x28 inches showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in a modern boiler room. The various parts are shown broken or removed, so that the internal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given a reference number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given in a glossary printed at the sides. This chart is really a dictionary of the boiler room the names of more than 200 parts being given. Price 25 cents
.

COKE
Modern Coking Practice, Including Analysis By J. E. CHRISTOPHER and T. H. BYROM.
This, the standard

of Materials

and Products.

work on the subject, has just been revised. It is a practical work for those engaged in Coke manufacture and the recovery of By-products. Fully illustrated with foldolates. It has been the aim of the authors, in preparing this book, to produce one which ing shall be of use and benefit to those who are associated with, or interested in, the modern developments of the industry. Among the Chapters contained in Volume I are: Introduction; Classification of Fuels; Impurities of Coals; Coal Washing; Sampling and Valuation of Coals, etc.; Power of Fuels; History of Coke Manufacture; Developments in the Coke Oven Design; Recent Types of Coke Ovens; Mechanical Appliances at Coke Ovens; Chemical and Physical Examination of Coke. Volume II covers fully the subject of By-Products.
Price, per

volume

$3.00 net

10

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

CO.

COMPRESSED AIR
Compressed Air in
This
is

All Its Applications.

By GARDNER D. Hiscox.

the most complete book on the subject of Air that has ever been issued, and its thirtyfive chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. It may be called an encyclopedia of compressed air. It is written by an expert, who, irr its 665 pages, has dealt with the subject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being omitted. Includes the physical properties of air from a vacuum to its highest pressure, its thermodynamics, compression, transmission and uses as a motive power, in the Operation of Stationary and Portable Machinery, in Mining, Air Tools, Air Lifts, Pumping of Water, Acids, and Oils; the Air Blast for Cleaning and Painting the Sand Blast and its Work, and the Numerous Appliances in which Compressed Air is a Most Convenient and Economical Transmitter of .Power for Mechanical Work, Railway Propulsion, Refrigeration, and the Various Uses to which Compressed Air has been applied. Includes forty-four tables of the physical properties of air, its compression, expansion, and volumes required for various kinds of work, and a list of patents on compressed air from 1875 to date. Over 500 illustrations, 5th Edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth bound. Price

$5.00

Half Morocco.

Price

$(J

.50

CONCRETE
Concrete Workers' Reference Books. A Series of Popular Handbooks for Concrete Users. Prepared by A. A. HOUGHTON 50 cents
The author, in preparing this Series, has not only treated on the usual types of construction, but explains and illustrates molds and systems that are not patented, but which are equal in value and often superior to those restricted by patents. These molds are very easily and cheaply constructed and embody simplicity, rapidity of operation, and the most successful results in the molded concrete. Each of these books is fully illustrated, and the subjects are exhaustively treated in plain English.

Concrete Wall Forms. By A. A. HOUGHTON. A new automatic wall clamp is illustrated with working
clamps, separators,
etc.,

drawings.
1

Other types
of Series)

of wall forms,

are also illustrated

and explained. .(No.

Price

50 Cents

Concrete Floors and Sidewalks.

The molds
for

By

A. A.

HOUGHTON.
of

molding squares, hexagonal and many other styles

fully illustrated

mosaic

floor

and

side-

walk blocks are

and explained.

(No. 2 of Series) Price

50 Cents

Practical Concrete Silo Construction.

By A. A. HOUGHTON. Complete working drawings and specifications are given for several styles of concrete silos, with illustrations of molds for monolithic and block silos. The tables, data, and information presented in this book are of the utmost value in planning and constructing all forms of concrete silos.

(No. 3 of Series) Price

50 Cents
Tiles. and roof tile is

Molding Concrete Chimneys, Slate and Roof

The manufacture
on
of all types of concrete slate

By

A. A.

HOUGHTON.
Valuable data

fully treated.

The construction all forms of reinforced concrete roofs are contained within its pages. A of concrete chimneys by block and monolithic systems is fully illustrated and described. number of ornamental designs of chimney construction with molds are shown in this valuable treatise. 4 of Series.) Price 50 Cents (No.

Molding and Curing Ornamental Concrete.

By A. A. HOUGHTON. The proper proportions of cement and aggregates for various finishes, also the method of and placing in the molds, are fully treated. An exhaustive treatise on thoroughly mixing this subject that every concrete worker will find of daily use and value. (No. 5 of Series.)
Price

50 cents

Concrete Monuments, Mausoleums and Burial Vaults.

The molding

By

A. A.

HOUGHTON.

of concrete monuments to imitate the most expensive cut stone is explained in this treatise, with working drawings of easily built molds. Cutting inscriptions and dePrice signs are also fully treated. (No. 6 of Series.) 50 Cents

Molding Concrete Bathtubs, Aquariums and Natatoriums. HOUGHTON.

of Series.)

By

A.

A.

Simple molds and instruction are given for molding many styles of concrete bathtubs, swimming-pools, etc. These molds are easily built and permit rapid and successful work. (No. 7
Price

50 Cents

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

Concrete Bridges, Culverts and Sewers. A number of ornamental concrete bridges with
center or core for bridges, culverts and for building. (No. 8 of Series.) Price

11

By

A. A.

HOUGHTON.

illustrations of molds are given. collapsible sewers is fully illustrated with detailed instructions

50 CCntS
A. A.

Constructing Concrete Porches.

By

HOUGHTON.

A number

of designs with working drawings of molds are fully explained so any one can eaily construct different styles of ornamental concrete porches without the purchase of expensive molds. (No. 9 of Series.) Price 50 cents

Molding Concrete Flower-Pots, Boxes, Jardinieres, Etc.

The molds

By A.

A.

HOUGHTON.

for producing many original designs of flower-pots, urns, flower-boxes, jardinieres, etc., are fully illustrated and explained, so the worker can easily construct and operate same. (No. 10 of Series.) Price 50 cents

Molding Concrete Fountains and Lawn Ornaments.

The molding

By

A. A.

HOUGHTON.

of a number of designs of lawn seats, curbing, hitching posts, pergolas, sun dials and other forms of ornamental concrete for the ornamentation of lawns and gardens, is fully illustrated and described. (No. 11 of Series.) Price 50 Cents

Concrete from Sand Molds*

By

A. A. HOUGHTON.

treating on a process which has heretofore been held as a trade secret by the few who possessed it, and which will successfully mold every and any class of ornamental concrete work. The process of molding concrete with sand molds is of the utmost practical value, possessing the manifold advantages of a low cost of molds, the ease and rapidity of operation, perfect details to all ornamental designs, density and increased strength of the concrete, perfect curing of the work without attention and the easy removal of the molds 192 pages. Fully illustrated regardless of any undercutting the design may have. Price $2.00
Practical

Work

Ornamental Concrete without Molds.

The

By

A. A.

HOUGHTON.

process for making ornamental concrete without molds has long been held as a secret, and now, for the first time, this process is given to the public. The book reveals the secret and is the only book published which explains a simple, practical method whereby the concrete worker is enabled, by employing wood and metal templates of different designs, to mold or model in concrete any Cornice, Archivolt, Column, Pedestal, Base Cap, Urn or Pier in a monolithic form right upon the job. These may be molded in units or blocks and then built up to suit the specifications demanded. This work :s fully illustrated, with detailed engravPrice ings. .$3.00

Concrete for the

Farm and
Farm and

in the Shop.
in the

By H. COLIN CAMPBELL,
new book from cover

C.E.,

E.M.

to cover, illustrating and describing in plain, simple language many of the numerous applications of concrete within the range of the home worker. Among -the subjects treated are: Principles of Reinforcing; Methods of Protecting Concrete so as to Insure Proper Hardening; Home-made Mixers; Mixing by Hand and Machine; Form Construction, Described and Illustrated by Drawings and Photographs; Construction of Concrete Walls and Fences; Concrete Fence Posts; Concrete Gate Posts; Corner Posts; Clothes Line Posts; Grape Arbor Posts; Tanks; Troughs; Cisterns; Hog Wallows; Feeding Floors and Barnyard Pavements; Foundations; Well Curbs and Platforms; Indoor Floors; Sidewalks; Steps; Concrete Hotbeds and Cold Frames; Concrete Slab Roofs; Walls for Buildings; Repairing Leaks in Tanks and Cisterns; and all topics associated with these subjects as bearing upon securing the best results from concrete are dwelt upon at sufficient length in plain every-day English so that the inexperienced person desiring to undertake a piece of concrete construction can, by following the number of condirections set forth in this book, secure 100 per cent, success every time. venient and practical tables for estimating quantities, and some practical examples, are also 149 pages. 51 illustrations. Price (5x7.) given. 75 Cents

"Concrete for the

Shop"

is

Popular Handbook for Cement and Concrete Users.

This
is

By MYRON H. LEWIS.

a concise treatise of the principles and methods employed in the manufacture and use of cement in all classes of modern works. The author has brought together in this work all the salient matter of interest to the user of concrete and its many diversified products. The matter is presented in logical and systematic order, clearly written, fully illustrated and free from involved mathematics. Everything of value to the concrete user is given, including kinds of cement employed in construction, concrete architecture, inspection and testing, waterproofing, coloring and painting, rules, tables, working and cost data. The book comIntroductory. Kinds of Cement and How They prises thirty-three chapters, as follow: are Made. Properties. Testing and Requirements of Hydraulic Cement. Concrete and Its Broken Stone and Gravel for Concrete. How to Proportion the Materials. Properties. Sand, How to Mix and Place Concrete. Forms of Concrete Construction. The Architectural and Concrete Residences. Artistic Possibilities of Concrete. Mortars, Plasters and Stucco, and How to Use Them. The Artistic Treatment of Concrete Surfaces. Concrete Building

12

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

Blocks.
tial

CO.

The Making of Ornamental Concrete. Concrete Pipes, Fences, Posts, etc. EssenHow to Design Reenforced ConFeatures and Advantages of Reenforced Concrete. crete Beams, Slabs and Columns. Explanations of the Methods and Principles in Designing Reenforced Concrete, Beams and Slabs. ReenSystems of Reenforcement Employed. forced Concrete in Factory and General Building Construction. Concrete in Foundation Work. Concrete Retaining Walls, Abutments and Bulkheads. Concrete Arches and Arch Bridges. Concrete Beam and Girder Bridges. Concrete in Sewerage and Draining Works. Concrete Tanks, Dams and Reservoirs. Concrete Sidewalks, Curbs and Pavements. Concrete in Railroad Construction. The Utility of Concrete on the Farm'. The Waterproofing of ConGrout of Liquid Concrete and Its Use. crete Structures. Inspection of Concrete Work. Cost of Concrete Work. Some of the special features of the book are: 1. The Attention Paid to the Artistic and Architectural Side of Concrete Work. 2. The Authoritative Treatment of the Problem of Waterproofing Concrete. 3. An Excellent Summary of the Rules The Valuable Cost Data and Useful Tables to be Followed in Concrete Construction. 4. given. A valuable Addition to the Library of Every Cement and Concrete User. Price

WHAT
"The
field of

IS

SAID OF. THIS BOOK:

Concrete Construction is well covered and the matter contained is well within the understanding of any person." Engineering-Contracting. "Should be on the bookshelves of every contractor, engineer, and architect in the land." National Builder.

Waterproofing Concrete.
Modern Methods
of

By MYRON H.

LEWIS.

Waterproofing Concrete and Other Structures. A condensed statement of the Principles, Rules, and Precautions to be Observed in Waterproofing and Dampproofing
Structures and Structural Materials.

Paper binding.

Illustrated.

Price

....

50 Cents

DICTIONARIES
Aviation Terms, Termes D'Aviation, English-French, French-English. Compiled by Lieuts. VICTOR W. PAGE, A.S., S.C.U.S.R., and PAUL MONTARIOL, of the French Flying Corps, on duty on Signal Corps Aviation School,
are confined to essentials, and special folding plates are included to show important airplane parts. The lists are divided in four sections as follows: 1. Flying Field Terms. 2.-^The Airplane. 3. The Engine. 4. Tools and Shop Terms. complete, well illustrated volume intended to facilitate conversation between English-speaking and French aviators. very valuable book for all who are about to leave for duty overall

Mineola, L. I. The lists contained

seas.

for publication by Major W. G. Kilner, S.C., TJ.S.C.O. Signal Corps Aviation School, This book should be in every Aviator's and Mechanic's Kit Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, L. I. 128 pages, fully illustrated, with detailed engravings. Price . . for ready reference.

Approved

$1.00

Standard Electrical Dictionary.

An
indispensable

By

T. O'CoNOR SLOANE.

Suitable alike for the student to all interested in electrical science. and professional. practical handbook of reference containing definitions of about 5,000 The definitions are terse and concise and include every distinct words, terms and phrases. term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An entirely new edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progress of this branch of science. Complete, concise and convenient. 682 pages, 393 illustrations. Price $3.00

work

DIES

METAL WORK
Modern Working
of Sheet Metals.

Dies: Their Construction and Use for the By J. V. WOODWORTH.

It is designed rapid production of the great variety of sheet-metal articles now in use. as a guide to the production of sheet-metal parts at the minimum of cost with the maximum of output. The hardening and tempering of Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by the use of dies in the power press are fully treated. Its 515 illustrations show dies, press fixtures and sheet-metal working devices, the descriptions of which are so clear and practical that all metal-working mechanics will be able to understand how to design, construct and use them. Many of the dies and press fixtures treated were either constructed by the author or under his supervision. Others were built by skilful mechanics and are in use in large sheet-metal establishments and machine shops. 6th Revised and Enlarged Edition. Price $3.00

most useful book, and one which should be in the hands of all engaged in the press working treating on the Designing, Constructing, and Use of Tools, Fixtures and Devices, together with the manner in which they should be used in the Power Press, for the cheap and
of metals;

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

Punches, Dies and Tools for Manufacturing in Presses. WORTH.

13

By

J.

V.

WOOD-

This work is a companion volume to the author's elementary work entitled "Dies: Their Construction and Use." It does not go into the details of die-making to the extent of the author's previous book, but gives a comprehensive review of the field of operations carried on by presses. A large part of the information given has been drawn from the author's personal It might well be termed an Encyclopedia of Die-Making, Punch-Making, Dieexperience. Sinking, Sheet-Metal Working, and Making of Special Tools, Sub-presses, Devices and Mechanical Combinations for Punching, Cutting, Bending, Forming, Piercing, Drawing, Compressing and Assembling Sheet-Metal Parts, and also Articles* of other Materials in Machine Tools.

2d Edition.

Price

$4.00
Steel.

Drop Forging, Die-Sinking and Machine-Forming of WOODWORTH.

This

By

J.

V.

is a practical treatise on Modern Shop Practice, Processes, Methods, Machine Tools, and Details treating on the Hot and Cold Machine-Forming of Steel and Iron into Finished Shapes: together with Tools, Dies, and Machinery involved in the manufacture of Duplicate Forgings and Interchangeable Hot and Cold Pressed Parts from Bar and Sheet Metal. This book fills a demand of long standing for information regarding drop-forgings, die-sinking and machine-forming of steel and the shop practice involved, as it actually exists in the modern drop-forging shop. The processes of die-sinking and force-making, which are thoroughly described and illustrated in this admirable work, are rarely to be found explained in such a clear and concise manner as is here set forth. The process of die-sinking relates to the engraving or sinking of the female or lower dies, such as are used for drop-forgings, hot and cold machine-forging, s wedging, and the press working of metals. The process of force-making relates to the engraving or raising of the male or upper dies used in producing the lower dies for the press-forming and machine-forging of duplicate parts of metal. In addition to the arts above mentioned the book contains explicit information regarding the drop-forging and hardening plants, designs, conditions, equipment, drop hammers, forging machines, etc., machine forging, hydraulic forging, autogenous welding and shop practice. The book contains eleven chapters, and the information contained in these chapters is just what will prove most valuable to the forged-metal worker. All operations described in the work are thoroughly illustrated by means of perspective half-tones and outline sketches of the machinery employed. 300 detailed illustrations. Price $2.50

DRAWING SKETCHING PAPER

Contains practical

Practical Perspective. By RICHARDS and COLVIN. Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical drawings in the only practical perspective Makes everything plain, so that any mechanic can understand a sketch or drawing isometric.
in this way. Saves time in the drawing room, and mistakes in the shops. examples of various classes of work. 4th Edition. Price

50 cents

Linear Perspective Self-Taught.

By HERMAN

T. C. KRAUS.

This work gives the theory and practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural, engineerPersons taking up the study of the subject by themselves will ing and mechanical drawings. be able, by the use of the instruction given, to readily grasp the subject, and by reasonable The arrangement of the book is good; the plate practice become good perspective draftsmen. is on the left-hand, while the descriptive text follows on the opposite page, so as to be readily The drawings are on sufficiently large scale to show the work clearly and are referred to. There*is included a self-explanatory chart which gives all information necesplainly figured. sary for the thorough understanding of perspective. This chart alone is worth many times over the price of the book. 2d Revised and Enlarged Edition. Price $2.50

Self-Taught Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. By F. L. SYLVESTER, M.E., Draftsman, with additions by ERIK OBERG, associate editor of "Machinery."
This is a practical treatise on Mechanical Drawing and Machine Design, comprising the first principles of geometric and mechanical drawing, workshop mathematics, mechanics, strength The author's aim has been of materials and the calculations and design of machine details. to adapt this treatise to the requirements of the practical mechanic and young draftsman and to present the matter in as clear and concise a manner as possible. To meet the demands of this class of students, practically all the important elements of machine design have been dealt with, and in addition algebraic formulas have been explained, and the elements of trigonometry treated in the manner best suited to the needs of the practical man. The book isdivided into 20 chapters, and in arranging the material, mechanical drawing, pure and simple, has been taken up first, as a thorough understanding of the principles of representing objects This is followed by the mathematics facilitates the further study of mechanical subjects. necessary for the solution of the problems in machine design which are presented later, and a introduction to theoretical mechanics and the strength of materials. The various practical elements entering into machine design, such as cams, gears, sprocket-wheels, cone pulleys, bolts, screws, couplings, clutches, shafting and fly-wheels, have been treated in such a way It as to make possible the use of the work as a text-book for a continuous course of study. 330 is easily comprehended and assimilated even by students of limited previous training.
pages, 215 engravings. Price

$3.00

16

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

to

CO.

How
.

Become a Successful Electrician. By Prof. T. O'CONOR SLOANE. Every young man who wishes to become a successful electrician should read this book. It tells in simple language the surest and easiest way to become a successful electrician. The studies to be followed, methods of work, field of operation and the requirements of the successful electrician are pointed out and fully explained. Every young engineer will find this an excellent stepping stone to more advanced works on electricity which he must master before success can be attained. Many young men become discouraged at the very outstart by atThis book serves tempting to read and study books that are far beyond their comprehension. as the connecting link between the rudiments taught in the public schools and the real study 18th Revised Edition, just issued. 205 of electricity. It is interesting from cover to cover.
Illustrated. Price

$1.00

Management
A

of

Dynamos.

By LUMMIS-PATERSON.

handbook of theory and practice. This work is arranged in three parts. The first part covers the elementary theory of the dynamo. The second part, the construction and action of the different classes of dynamos in common use are described; while the third .part relates to such matters as affect the nractical management and working of dynamos and motors. 4th Edition. 292 pages, 117 illustrations. Price $1.50

Standard Electrical Dictionary.

An
indispensable work to
all

By

T. O' CONOR SLOANE.

interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the student and professional. A practical handbook of reference containing definitions of about 5,000 The definitions are terse and concise and include every distinct words, terms and phrases. term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An entirely new edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progress of this branch of science. In The word or term defined is its arrangement and typography the book is very convenient. printed in black-faced type, which readily catches the eye, while the body of the page is in smaller but distinct type. The definitions are well worded, and so as to be understood by the non-technical reader. The general plan seems to be to give an exact, concise definition, and then amplify and explain in a more popular way. Synonyms are also given, and references to other words and phrases are made. very complete and accurate index of fifty pages is at the end of the volume; and as this index contains all synonyms, and as all phrases art in every reasonable combination of words, reference to the proper place in the body indexed It is difficult to decide how far a book of this character is to of the book is readily made. keep the dictionary form, and to what extent it may assume the encyclopedia form. For some purposes, concise, exactly worded definitions are needed; for other purposes, more extended descriptions are required. This book seeks to satisfy both demands, and does it with considerable success. 682 pages, 393 illustrations. 12th Edition. Price $3.00
.

Storage Batteries Simplified.

By VICTOR W.

PAGE, M.E.

on storage battery operating principles, repairs' and applications. greatly increasing application of storage batteries in modern engineering and mechanical work has created a demand for a book that will consider this subject completely and excluThis is the most thorougli and authoritative treatise ever published on this subject. sively. It is written in easily understandable, non-technical language so that any one may grasp the basic principles of storage battery action as well as their practical industrial applications. All electric and gasoline automobiles use storage batteries. Every automobile repairman, dealer or salesman should have a good knowledge of maintenance and repair of these important elements of the motor car mechanism. This book not only tells how to charge, care for and rebuild storage batteries but also outlines all the industrial uses. Learn how they run street cars, locomotives and factory trucks. Get an understanding of the important functions they perform in submarine boats, isolated lighting plants, railway switch and signal systems, marine applications, etc. This book tells how they are used in central station standby service, for starting automobile motors and in ignition systems. Every practical use of the modern storage battery is outlined in this treatise. 320 pages, fully illustrated. Price . . . $1.50

The

complete treatise

Switchboards.
of things.

JR. who wants to know the practical side up all sorts and conditions of dynamos, connections and circuits, and shows by diagram and illustration just how the switchboard should be connected. Includes direct and alternating current boards, als'o those for arc lighting, incandescent and power 2nd Edition. circuits. Special treatment on high voltage boards for power transmission.
This book appeals to every engineer and electrician
It takes

By WILUAM BAXTER,

190 pages, Illustrated.

Price

$1.50

Telephone Construction, Installation, Wiring, Operation and Maintenance.

By W. H. RADCLIFFE and H.

C. GUSHING.

This book is intended for the amateur, the wireman, or the engineer who desires to establish a means of telephonic communication between the rooms of his home, office, or shop. It deals only with such things as may be of use to him rather than with theories. Gives the principles of construction and operation of both the Bell and Independent instruments; approved methods of installing and wiring them; the means of protecting them from lightning and abnormal currents; their connection together for operation as series or bridging stations; and rules for their inspection and maintenance. Line wiring and the wiring and operation of special telephone systems are also treated. Intricate mathematics are avoided, and all apparatus, circuits and systems are thoroughly described. The appendix

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

17

contains definitions of units and terms used in the text. Selected wiring tables, which are very Among the subjects treated are Construction, Operation, and helpful, are also included. Installation of Telephone Instruments; Inspection and Maintenance of Telephone Instru-

ments; Telephone Line Wiring; Testing Telephone Line Wires and Cables; Wiring and Operation of Special Telephone Systems, etc. 2nd Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 223
pages, 154 illustrations

$1.00

Wireless Telegraphy

and Telephony Simply Explained.

By ALFRED

P.

MORGAN.
is undoubtedly one of the most complete and comprehensible treatises on the subject ever published, and a close study of its pages will enable one to master all the details of tht, The author has filled a long-felt want and has succeeded wireless transmission of messages. in furnishing a lucid, comprehensible explanation in simple language of the theory and practice of wireless telegraphy and telephony. Among the contents are: Introductory; Wireless Transmission and Reception The Aerial System, Earth Connections The Transmitting Apparatus, Spark Coils and Transformers, Condensers, Helixes, Spark Gaps, Anchor Gaps, Aerial Switches The Receiving Apparatus, Tuning and Coupling, Tuning Coils, Loose Couplers, Variable Condensers, Detectors, etc. Miscellaneous Apparatus, Telephone Receivers, Range of Stations, Directive Wave Systems Static Interference Wireless Telephones, Sound and Sound Waves, The Vocal Cords and Ear Wireless Telephone, How Sounds Are Changed into Electric Waves ^Wireless Tele154 pages, 156 engravings. Price phones, The Apparatus Summary. $1.00

This

Wiring a House.

By HERBERT

PRATT.

Shows a house already built; tells just how to start about wiring it; where to begin; what wire to use; how to run it according to Insurance Rules; in fact, just the information you need. Directions apply equally to a shop. 4th Edition. Price 5 CClllS

FACTORY MANAGEMENT, ETC.

Modern Machine Shop Construction, Equipment and Management.
O. E. PERRIGO, M.E. The only work published that describes the modern machine shop or manufacturing plant

By

from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product is shipped. By a careful study of its thirty-two chapters the practical man may economically build, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modern machine shop or manufacturing establishment. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modern shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of modern shop methods, time and cost systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. It. is the most complete all-around book of its kind ever published. It is a practical book for practical men, from the apprentice in the shop to the president in the office. It minutely describes and illustrates the most simple and yet the most efficient time and cost system yet devised. 2nd Revised and Enlarged Edition, just issued. 384 pages, 219 illustrations. Price $5.00
. .
.

FUEL
Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke.
and Locomotive Steam

By WM. M. BARR.

This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the combustion of the common fuels found in the United States, and deals particularly with the conditions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous coals in Stationary
Boilers.

presentation of this 'important subject is systematic and progressive. The arrangement book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended accurate answers, which describe in language, free from technicalities, the several processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods for furnace construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat from any given quality of coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price . $1.00

The

of the

Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy. By BOOTH and KERSHAW.

complete treatise for all interested in smoke prevention and combustion, being based on German work of Ernst Schmatolla, but it is more than a mere translation of the German much being added. The authors show as briefly as possible the principles of fuel combustion, the methods which have been and are at present in use, as well as the proper scientific methods for obtaining all the energy in the coal and burning it without smoke. Considerable space is also given to the examination of the waste gases, and several of the representative English and American mechanical stoker and similar appliances are described. The losses carried away in the waste gases are thoroughly analyzed and discussed in the Appendix, and abstracts are also here given of various patents on combustion apparatus. The book is complete and contains much of value to all who have charge of large plants. 194 pages.
the
treatise,

Illustrated.

Price

$.5()

18

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO.

GAS ENGINES AND GAS

By GARDNER D. Hiscox. Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines. VICTOR W. PAGE, M.E. Every user of a Just issued New 1918 Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
this book.

Revised by
gas engine needs

Simple, instructive and right up-to-date. The only complete work on the subject. Tells all about internal combustion engineering, treating exhaustively on the. design, conand practical application of all forms of gas, gasoline, kerosene and crude petroleumstruction Describes minutely all auxiliary systems, such as lubrication, carburetion and oil engines. Considers the theory and management of all forms of explosive motors for staignition. tionary and marine work, automobiles, aeroplanes and motor-cycles. Includes also Producer Gas and Its Production. Invaluable instructions for all students, gas-engine owners, gasengineers, patent experts, designers, mechanics, draftsmen arid all having to do with the modern power. Illustrated by over 400 engravings, many specially made from engineering drawings, all in correct proportion. 650 pages, 435 engravings. Price $2.50 net

....

The Gasoline Engine on the Farm: XENO W. PUTNAM.

Its Operation,

Repair and Uses.

By

This is a practical treatise on the Gasoline and Kerosene Engine intended for the man who wants to know just how to manage his engine and how to apply it to all kinds of farm work to the best advantage. This book abounds with hints and helps for the farm and suggestions for the home and houseThere is so much of value in this book that it is impossible to adequately describe it wife. in such small space. Suffice to say that it is the kind of a book every farmer will appreciate and every farm home ought to have. Includes selecting the most suitable engine for farm work, its most convenient and efficient installation, with chapters on troubles, their remedies, and how to avoid them. The care and management of the farm tractor in plowing, harrowing, harvesting and road grading are fully covered; also plain directions are given for handling the tractor on the road. Special attention is given to relieving farm life of its drudgery by applying power to the disagreeable small tasks which must otherwise be done by hand. Many home-made contrivances for cutting wood, supplying kitchen, garden, and barn with water, loading, hauling and unloading hay, delivering grain to the bins or the feed trough are included; also full directions for making the engine milk the cows, churn, wash, sweep the house and clean the windows, etc. Very fully illustrated with drawings of working parts and cuts snowing Stationary, Portable and Tractor Engines doing all kinds of farm work. All money-making farms utilize power. Learn how to utilize power by reading the pages of this book. It is an aid to the result getter, invaluable to the up-to-date farmer, student, blacksmith, implement dealer and, in fact, all who can apply practical knowledge of stationary gasoline engines or gas tractors to advantage. 530 pages. Nearly 180 engravings. Price $2.00

WHAT
"Am much

IS

SAID OF THIS BOOK:

pleased with the book and find it to be very complete and up-to-date. I will heartily recommend it to students and farmers whom I think would stand in need of such a work, as I think it is an exceptionally good one." N. S. Gardiner, Prof, in Charge, Clemson Agr. College of S. C.; Dept. of Agri. and Agri. Exp. Station, Clemson College, S. C. "I feel that Mr. Putnam's book covers the main points which a farmer should know." R. T. Burdick, Instructor in Agronomy, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.

Gasoline Engines: Their Operation, Use and Care.

The

By

A.

HYATT VERRILL.

simplest, latest and most comprehensive popular work published on Gasoline Engines, describing what the Gasoline Engine is; its construction and operation; how to install it; how to select it; how to use it and how to remedy troubles encountered. Intended for Owners, Operators and Users of Gasoline Motors of all kinds. This work fully describes and illustrates the various types of Gasoline Engines used in Motor Boats, Motor Vehicles and Stationary Work. The parts, accessories and appliances are described with chapters on ignition, fuel, lubrication, operation and engine troubles. Special attention is given to the care, operation and repair of motors, with useful hints and suggestions on emergency repairs and makeshifts. complete glossary of technical terms and an alphabetically arranged table of troubles and their symptoms form most valuable and unique features of this manual. Nearly every illustration in the book is original, having been made by the author. Every page is full of interest and value. book which you cannot afford to be without. 275 pages, 152 specially made

engravings.

Price

$1.50

Gas Engine Construction, or How to Build a Half-horsepower Gas Engine. By PARSELL and WEED. A practical treatise of 300 pages describing the theory and principles of the action of Gas
Engines of various types and the design and construction of a half-horsepower Gas Engine, with illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with the dimensioned working drawings, giving clearly the sizes of the various details; for the student, the scientific investigator, and the amateur mechanic. This book treats of the subject more from the standpoint of The principles of operation of Gas Engines are clearly and practice than that of theory. simply described, and then the actual construction of a half-horsepower engine is taken up, step by step, showing in detail the making of the Gas Engine. 3rd Edition. 300 pages.

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

How
to

19

Run and
C.

Install

Two- and Four-Cycle Marine Gasoline Engines.

By

VON CULIN.

Revised and enlarged edition just issued. The object of this little book is to furnish a pocket instructor for the beginner, the busy man who uses an engine for pleasure or profit, but who does not have the time or inclination for a technical book, but simply to thoroughly understand how to properly operate, install and care for his own engine. The index refers to each Being a quick reference to find the cause, remedy trouble, remedy, and subject alphabetically. and prevention for troubles, and to become an expert with his own engine. Pocket size. Paper binding. Price 25 CCIltS

Modern Gas Engines and Producer Gas

A

Plants.

By

R. E. MATHOT.

guide for the gas engine designer, user, and engineer in the construction, selection, purchase, More than one book on gas engines installation, operation, and maintenance of gas engines. has been written, but not one has thus far even encroached on the field covered by this book. work is a practical guide. Recognizing the need of a volume that Above all, Mr. Mathot's would assist the gas engine user in understanding thoroughly the motor upon which he depends for power, the author has discussed his subject without the help of any mathematics and without elaborate theoretical explanations. Every part of the gas engine is described in detail, tersely, clearly, with a thorough understanding of the requirements of the mechanic. Helpful suggestions as to the purchase of an engine, its installation, care, and operation, form a most valuable feature of the work. 320 pages, 175 detailed illustrations. Price . . . $2. 50

The Modern Gas

A

Tractor.

By VICTOR W.

PAGE, M.E.

all types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene and oil tractors. Considers design and construction exhaustively, gives complete instructions for care, operation and The best and latest repair, outlines all practical applications on the road and in the field. work on farm tractors and tractor power plants. A work needed by farmers, students, blacksmiths, mechanics, salesmen, implement dealers, designers and engineers. 2nd Edition, Re504 pages, 228 illustrations, 3 folding plates. Price vised. $2.00

complete treatise describing

GEARING AND CAMS

Bevel Gear Tables.

By D. AG. ENGSTROM.

once commend itself to mechanics and draftsmen. Does away with all the trigonometry and fancy figuring on bevel gears, and makes it easy for anyone to lay them There are 36 full-page tables that show every necessary dimenor make them just right. out No puzzling, figuring or guessing. Gives sion for all sizes or combinations you're apt to need. all the angles (including cutting angles), and the correct cutter to use. A placing distance, copy of this prepares you for anything in the bevel-gear line. 3rd Edition. 66 pages. Price $1.00

book that

will at

Change Gear
A
practical

Devices.

By OSCAR

E. PERRIGO.

book for every designer, draftsman, and mechanic interested in the invention and development of the devices for feed changes on the different machines requiring such mechanism. All the necessary information on this subject is taken up, analyzed, classified, sifted, and concentrated for the use of busy men who have not the time to go through the masses of irrelevant matter with which such a subject is usually encumbered and select such information as will
be useful to them. It shows just what has been done, how it has been done, when it was done, and who did it. It saves time in hunting up patent records and re-inventing old ideas. 88 pages. 3rd Edition,

^ice

$1.00

Drafting of Cams.
The
you on the
Edition.

By Louis

ROTTILLION.

laying out of cams

is a serious problem unless you know how to go at it right. This puts 3rd right road for practically any kind of cam you are likely to run up against. Price 35 (Tilts

HYDRAULICS
Hydraulic Engineering.

By GARDNER D.

Hiscox.

on the properties, power, and resources of water for all purposes. Including the measurement of streams, the flow of water in pipes or conduits; the horsepower of falling water, turbine and impact water-wheels, wave motors, centrifugal, reciprocating and air-lift pumps. With 300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical tables. All who are interested in water-works development will find this book a useful one, because it is an entirely practical treatise upon a subject of present importance and cannot fail in having a far-reaching influence, and for this reason should have a place in the working library of every engineer. Among the subjects treated are: Historical Hydraulics; Properties of Water; Measurement of the Flow of Streams;
treatise

23

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

CO.

Flow from Sub-surface Orifices and Nozzles; Flow of Water in Pipes; Siphons of Various Kinds; Dams and Great Storage Reservoirs; City and Town Water Supply; Wells and Their Reinforcement; -Air-lift Methods of Raising Water; Artesian Wells; Irrigation of Arid Districts; Water Power; Water Wheels; Pumps and Pumping Machinery; Reciprocating Pumps; Hydraulic Power Transmission; Hydraulic Mining; Canals; Ditches; Conduits and Pipe 320 pages. Price Lines; Marine Hydraulics; Tidal and Sea Wave Power, etc. $4.00
.
.

ICE
This
is

AND REFRIGERATION
By
A.
J.

Pocketbook of Refrigeration and Ice Making.

WALLIS-TAYLOR.

one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the subject of

It explains the properties and refrigerating effect of the difrefrigeration and cold storage. ferent fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the construction and insulation of cold rooms with their required pipe surface for different degrees of cold; freezing mixtures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all kinds of provisions, cold storage charges for all classes of goods, ice making and storage of ice, data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and condition required in the installment and operation of a New edition just published. Price refrigerating plant. $1.50

INVENTIONS PATENTS
Inventors' Manual:

How

to

Make

a Patent Pay.

This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking out their patents and disposing of them. It is not in any sense a Patent Solicitor's Circular nor a Patent Broker's Advertisement. No advertisements of any description appear in the work. It is a book containing a quarter of a century's experience of a successful inventor, together with notes based upon the experience of many other inventors. Among the subjects treated in this work are: How to Invent. How to Secure a Good Patent. Value of Good Invention. How to Exhibit an Invention. How to Interest Capital. How Value of Design Patents. Value of Foreign Patents. to Estimate the Value of a Patent. Value of Small inventions. Advice on Selling Patents. Advice on the Formation of Stock Advice on the Formation of Limited Liability Companies. Advice on Disposing Companies. Advice as to Patent Attorneys. Advice as to Selling Agents. Forms of of Old Patents. Assignments. License and Contracts. State Laws Concerning Patent Rights. 1900 Census Revised Edition. 120 pages. of the United States by Counts of Over 10,000 Population.
Price

$1.00

KNOTS
Knots, Splices and Rope Work.
This
is

By

A.

HYATT VERRILL.

a practical book giving complete and simple directions for making all the most useful and ornamental knots in common use, with chapters on Splicing, Pointing, Seizing, Serving, etc. This book is fully illustrated with 154 original engravings, which show how each knot, The book will be found of the greatest tie or splice is formed, and its appearance when finished. value to Campers, Yachtsmen, Travelers, Boy Scouts, in fact, to anyone having occasion to use or handle rope or knots for any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and practical, and is not only a guide, but a teacher. It is the standard work on the subject. Among the contents are: 1. Cordage, Kinds of Rope. Construction of Rope, Parts of Rope Cable and Bolt Rope. Strength of Rope, Weight of Rope. 2. Simple Knots and Bends. Terms Used in Handling Rope. 3. Ties and Hitches. 4. Noose, Loops and Mooring Seizing Rope. Knots. 5. Shortenings, Grommets and Salvages. 6. Lashings, Seizings and Splices. 7. Fancy Knots and Rope Work. 128 pages, 150 original engravings. 2nd Revised Edition.
Price
.

75 cents

LATHE WORK
Lathe Design, Construction, and Operation, with Practical Examples of Lathe Work. By OSCAR E. PERRIGO. A new, revised edition, and the only complete American work on the subject, written by a
man who knows
how
illustrations.

not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to do it, and It is strictly up-to-date in its descriptions and to convey this knowledge to others. Lathe history and the relations of the lathe to manufacturing are given; a description of the various devices for feeds and thread-cutting mechanisms from early also efforts in this direction to the present time. Lathe design is thoroughly discussed, including back gearing, driving cones, thread-cutting gears, and all the essential elements of the modern lathe. The classification of lathes is taken up, giving the essential differences of the several types of lathes including, as is usually understood, engine lathes, bench lathes, speed lathes, forge lathes, gap lathes, pulley lathes, forming lathes, multiple-spindle lathes, rapid-reduction lathes, precision lathes, turret lathes, special lathes, electrically driven lathes,

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

etc.

21

In addition to the complete exposition on construction and design, much practical matter on lathe installation, care and operation has been incorporated in the enlarged newAll kinds of lathe attachments for drilling, milling, etc., are described and complete instructions are given to enable the novice machinist to grasp the art of lathe operation A number of difficult machining operations as well as the principles involved in design. are described at length and illustrated. The new edition has nearly 500 pages and 350 illusedition.
trations.

Price

$2.50

WHAT
"This
is

IS

SAID OF THIS BOOK:

a lathe book from beginning to end, and is just the kind of a bo9k which one dea masterly treatment of the subject in hand." Engineering News. be of exceptional interest to any one who is interested in lathe practice, as one very seldom sees such a complete treatise on a subject as this is on the lathe." Canadian Machinery.
lights to consult "This work will
+*

Practical Metal Turning.

By JOSEPH

G. HORNEB.

work of 404 pages, fully illustrated, covering in a comprehensive manner the modern pracmachining metal parts in the lathe, including the regular engine lathe, its essential design, its uses, its tools, its attachments, and the manner of holding the work and performThe modernized engine lathe, its methods, tools and great range of accuing the operations. rate work. The turret lathe, its tools, accessories and methods of performing its functions. Chapters on special work, grinding, tool holders, speeds, feeds, modern tool steels, etc. Second edition
tice of
'

$3.50

Turning and Boring Tapers.

Fourth edition

By FRED H. COLVIN.
25 CClltS

There are two ways to turn tapers; the right way and one other. This treatise has to do with the right way; it tells you how to start the work properly, how to set the lathe, what tools to use and how to use them, and forty and one other little things that you should know.

LIQUID AIR
Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases.

By

T.

O'CONOR SLOANE.

This book gives the history of the theory, discovery and manufacture of Liquid Air, arid. contains an illustrated description of all the experiments that have excited the wonder of It shows how liquid air, like water, is carried hundreds of audiences all over the country. It tells what may be expected from it in the near miles and is handled in open buckets.
future.

book that renders simple one of the most perplexing chemical problems of the century. Startling developments illustrated by actual experiments. It is not only a work of scientific interest and authority, but is intended for the general reader, Second edition. 365being written in a popular style easily understood by every one.
pages.

Price

$2.00

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING
Air-Brake Catechism.
This book
is

By ROBERT H. BLACKALL.

a standard text-book. It covers the Westinghouse Air-Brake Equipment, including the No. 5 and the No. 6 E.-T. Locomotive Brake Equipment; the (Quick SerThe operation of vice) Triple Valve for Freight Service; and the Cross-Compound Pump. all parts of the apparatus is explained in detail, and a practical way of finding their peculiarities and defects, with a proper remedy, is given. It contains 2,000 questions with their answers, which will enable any railroad man to pass any examination on the .subject of Air Brakes. Endorsed and used by air-brake instructors and examiners 9n. nearly every railroad in the United States. Twenty-sixth edition. 411 pages, fully illustrated with Price colored plates and diagrams.

$2.00

American Compound Locomotives.

By FRED H.

COLVIN.

The only book on compounds for the engineman or shopman that shows in a plain, practical way the various features of compound locomotives in use. Shows how they are made, what to do when they break down or balk. Contains sections as follows: A Bit of History. Theory of Compounding Steam Cylinders. Baldwin Two-Cylinder Compound. Pittsburgh Two-Cylinder Compound. Rhose Island Compound. Richmond Compound. Rogers Compound. Schenectady Two-Cylinder Compound. Vauclain Compound. Tandem Compounds. Baldwin Tandem. The Colvin-Wightman Tandem. Balanced Scbenectady Tandem. Locomotives. Baldwin Balanced Compound. Plans for Balancing. Locating Blows. Breakdowns. Reducing Valves. Drifting. Valve Motion. Disconnecting. Power of Compound Locomotives. Practical Notes. Fully illustrated and containing ten special "Duotone" inserts on heavy Plate Paper, show142 pages. Price ing different types of Compounds. ..... $1.00
.

22

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

CO.
By ROBERT

Application of Highly Superheated Steam to Locomotives. GARBE.

practical book which cannot be recommended too highly to those motive-power men who are anxious to maintain the highest efficiency in their locomotives. Contains special chapters on Generation of Highly Superheated Steam; Superheated Steam and the Two-Cylinder Simple Engine; Compounding and Superheating; Designs of Locomotive Superheaters; Experimental and Constructive Details of Locomotives Using Highly Superheated Steam. Working Results. Illustrated with folding plates and tables. Cloth. Price $3.50

....

Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke.

By WM. M. BARR.

This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the combustion of the common fuels found in the United States and deals particularly with the conditions- necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous coal in Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers. Presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The arrangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended accurate answers, which describe in language free from technicalities the several processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods of furnace construction for obtaining the greatest Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. quantity of heat from any given quality of coal. Price $1.00

Diary of a Round-House Foreman.

By

T. S. REILLY.

Containing a fund of inThis is the greatest book of railroad experiences ever published. formation and suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, etc., that one cannot Price 176 pages. afford to miss. 1 .00

Link Motions, Valves and Valve Setting.

of

By FRED H.

COLVIN, Associate Editor

"American Machinist."

handy book for the engineer or machinist that clears up the mysteries of valve setting. Piston and slide valves Shows the different valve gears in use, how they work, and why. A book that every railroad man in the of different types are illustrated and explained. Contains chapters on Locomotive Link Motion, motive-power department ought to have. Valve Movements, Setting Slide Valves, Analysis by Diagrams, Modern Practice, Slip of
Block Slice Valves, Piston Valves, Setting Piston Valves, Joy-Allen Valve Gear, Walschaert Valve Gear, Gooch Valve Gear, Alfree-Hubbell Valve Gear, etc., etc. Fully illustrated.
Price

50 cents

Locomotive Boiler Construction.

The

By FRANK

A. KLEINHANS.

construction of boilers in general is treated and, following this, the locomotive boiler Shows all types is taken up in the order in which its various parts go through the shop. of boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, such as life of riveting, punches and dies; work done per day, allowance for bending and flanging sheets and other data. Including the recent Locomotive Boiler .Inspection Laws and Examination Questions with Contains chapters on Laying-Out Work; Flangtheir answers for Government Inspectors. ing and Forging; Punching; Shearing; Plate Planing; General Tables; Finishing Parts; Boiler Details; Smoke-Box Details; Assembling Bending; Machinery Parts; Riveting; and Calking; Boiler-Shop Machinery, etc., etc. There isn't a man who has anything to do with boiler work, either new or repair work, who The manufacturer, superintendent, foreman and boiler worker doesn't need this book. all need it. No matter what the type of bioler, you'll find a mint of information that you wouldn't be without. Over 400 pages, five large folding plates. Price $3.00

Locomotive Breakdowns and their Remedies. vised by WM. W. WOOD, Air-Brake Instructor.
edition.

By GEO.

ReL. FOWLER. Just issued. Revised pocket

It is out of the question to try and tell you about every subject that is covered in this pocket Just imagine all the common troubles that an engineer edition of Locomotive Breakdowns. may expect to happen some time, and then add all of the unexpected ones, troubles that could occur, but that you have never thought about, and you will find that they are all treated with the very best methods of repair. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions and Answers on the Air Brake are all included. 312 8th Revised Edition. Fully illustrated. Price pages. $1.00

Locomotive Catechism.
The

By ROBERT GRIMSHAW.

revised edition of "Locomotive Catechism," by Robert Grimshaw, is a New Book from Cover to C9yer. It contains twice as many pages and double the number of illustrations of previous editions. Includes the greatest amount of practical information ever published on the construction and management of modern locomotives. Specially Prepared Chapters on the Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear, the Air-Brake Equipment and the Electric Headlight are given.

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

It

23

commends itself at once to every Engineer and Fireman, and to all who are going in for examination or promotion. In plain language, with full, complete answers, not only all the questions asked by the examining engineer are given, but those which the young and less experienced would ask the veteran, and which old hands ask as "stickers." It is a veritable Encyclopedia of the Locomotive, is entirely free from mathematics, easily understood and thoroughly up to date. Contains over 4,000 Examination Questions with their Answe 825 pages, 437 illustrations, and 3 folding plates. 28th Revised Edition. Price

Practical Instructor and Reference Book for Locomotive Firemen and Engineers. By CHAS. F. LOCKHART. An entirely new book on the Locomotive. It appeals to every railroad man, as it tells him how tilings are done and the right way to do them. Written by a man who has had years of The information practical experience in locomotive shops and on the road firing and running.
given in this book cannot be found in any other similar treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with their answers are included, which will prove specially helpful to those preparing Practical information on: The Construction and Operation of Locomotives, for examination. Breakdowns and their Remedies, Air Brakes and Valve Gears. Rules and Signals are handled As a book of reference it cannot be excelled. The book is divided in a thorough manner. 2. General Description of the Locomotive. in to six parts, as follows: 1. The Fireman's Duties. 4. Air Brakes. 5. Extracts from Standard Rules. 3. Breakdowns and their Remedies. The 851 questions have been carefully selected and arranged. 6. Questions for Examination. These cover the examinations required by the different railroads. 368 pages, 83 illustrations. Price $1.50

Prevention of Railroad Accidents^ or Safety in Railroading. BRADSHAW.

By GEORGE

This book is a heart-to-heart talk with Railroad Employees, dealing with facts, not theories, and showing the men in the ranks, from every-day experience, how accidents occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated with seventy original photographs and drawings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No visionary schemes, no ideal pictures. Just Plain Facts and Practical Suggestions are given. Every railroad employee who reads the book is a better and safer man to have in railroad service. It gives just the information which All railroad employees should will be the means of preventing many injuries and deaths. 169 pages. Pocket size. procure a copy, read it, and do their part in preventing accidents. Fully illustrated. Price 50 cents

Train Rule Examinations

This
is

Made

Easy.

By

G. E. COLLINQWOOD.

the only practical work on train rules in print. Every detail is covered, and puzzling points are explained in simple, comprehensive language, making it a practical treatise for the Train Dispatcher, Engineman, Trainman, and all others who have to do with the movements Contains complete and reliable information of the Standard Code of Train Rules of trains. Shows Signals in Colors, as used on the different roads. Explains fully the for single track. practical application of train orders, giving a clear and definite understanding of all orders which may be used. The meaning and necessity for certain rules are explained in such a manner that the student may know beyond a doubt the rights conferred under any orders he may receive or the action required by certain rules. As nearly all roads require trainmen to pass regular examinations, a complete set of examination questions, with their answers, are These will enable the student to pass the required examinations with credit to included. 2nd Edition, Revised. 256 pages, fully illustrated, himself and the road for which he works. with Train Signals in Colors. Price $1.25

The Walschaert and Other Modern Radial Valve Gears By WM. W. WOOD.
If

for Locomotives.

of this book, as the author takes the plainest form 9f a steam engine a stationary engine in the rough, that will only turn its crank in one direction and from it builds up, with the reader's help, a modern locomotive equipped with the Walschaert Valve Gear, complete. The points discussed are clearly illustrated: Two large folding plates that show the positions of the valves of both inside or outside admission type, as well as the links and other parts of the gear when the crank is at nine different points in its revolution, are especially valuable in making the movement clear. These employ sliding cardboard models which are contained in a pocket in the cover. The book is divided into five general divisions, as follows: 1. Analysis of the gear. 2. De3. Advantages of the gear. 4. Questions and answers relating signing and erecting the gear. to the Walschaert Valve Gear. 5. Setting valves with the Walschaert Valve Gear; the three primary types of locomotive valve motion; modern radial valve gears other than the Walschaert ; the Hobart All-free Valve and Valve Gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns:

you would thoroughly understand the Walschaert Valve Gear you should possess a copy

the Improved Baker-Pilliod Valve Gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns. questions with full answers given will be especially valuable to firemen and engineers in preparing for an examination for promotion. 245 pages. 3rd Revised Edition. Price $1.50

the Baker-Pilliod Valve Gear;

The

24

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

Air-Brake Instructor.

CO.

Westinghouse E-T Air-Brake Instruction Pocket Book.

Here

By WM. W. WOOD,

It is without doubt is a book for the railroad man, and the man who aims to be one. the only complete work published on the Westinghouse E-T Locomotive Brake Equipment. Written by an Air-Brake Instructor who knows just what is needed. It covers the subject thoroughly. Everything about the New Westinghouse Engine and Tender Brake Equipment, including the standard No. 5 and the Perfected No. 6 style of brake, is treated in detail. Written in plain English and profusely illustrated with Colored Plates, which enable one to The best book ever published trace the flow of pressures throughout the entire equipment. on the Air Brake. Equally good for the beginner and the advanced engineer. Will pass any examination. It informs and enlightens you on every point. Indispensable one through any to every enginernan and trainman. Contains examination questions and answers on the E-T equipment. Covering what the E-T Brake is. How it should be operated. What to do when defective. Not a question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion, on either the No. 5 or the No. 6 E-T equipment, If you want to thoroughly understand the E-T that is not asked and answered in the book. equipment get a copy of this book. It covers every detail. Makes- Air-Brake troubles and examinations easy. Price $1.50

MACHINE-SHOP PRACTICE
American Tool Making and Interchangeable Manufacturing. By WOODWORTH. A "shoppy" book, containing no theorizing, n'o problematical or experimental devices.
J.

V.

There

are no badly proportioned and impossible diagrams, no catalogue cuts, but a valuable collection of drawings and descriptions of devices, the rich fruits of the author's own experience. In its 500-odd pages the one subject only, Tool Making, and whatever relates thereto, is dealt with. The work stands without a rival. It is a complete, practical treatise, on the art of American Tool Making and system of interchangeable manufacturing as carried on to-day in the United States. In it are described and illustrated all of the different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices, and special appliances which are in general use in all machinemanufacturing and metal-working establishments where economy, capacity, and interchangeThe science of jig making ability in the production of machined metal parts are imperative. is exhaustively discussed, and particular attention is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling arid milling fixtures and other devices in which the parts to be machined are located and fastened within the contrivances. All of the tools, fixtures, and devices illustrated and described have been or are used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill presses, lathes, patented machinery, typewriters, electrical apparatus, mechanical appliances, "brass goods, composition parts, mould products, sheet-metal articles, drop-forgings, jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. 531 pages. Price $4.00

HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL ENGINEERING AND ALLIED TRADES. EDITED by JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I., M.E.
This set of five volumes contains about 2,500 pages with thousands of illustrations, including diagrammatic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. This W9rk covers the The best known experts in all branches entire practice of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The Cyclopedia is admirably well adapted of engineering have contributed to these volumes. to the needs of the beginner and the self-taught practical man, as well as the mechanical The work will engineer, designer, draftsman, shop superintendent, foreman, and machinist. be found a means of advancement to any progressive man. It is encyclopedic in scope, thorough and practical in its treatment on technical subjects, simple and clear in its descriptive matter, and without unnecessary technicalities or formulae. The articles are as brief as may be and yet give a reasonably clear and explicit statement of the subject, and are written by men who have had ample practical experience in the matters of which they write. It tells you all you want to know about engineering and tells it so simply, so clearly, so concisely, that one cannot help but understand. As a work of reference it is without a peer. Complete set of five volumes, price $25 .00
.

The Modern Machinist.

By JOHN

T. USHER.

This is a book, showing by plain description and by profuse engravings made expressly for the work, all that is best, most advanced, and of the highest efficiency in modern machineshop practice, tools and implements, showing the way by which and through which, as Mr. Maxim says, "American machinists have. become and are the finest mechanics in the world. Indicating as it does, in every line, the familiarity of the author with every detail of daily experience in the shop, it cannot fail to be of service to any man practically connected with the shaping or finishing of metals. There is nothing experimental or visionary about the book, all ^devices being in actual use and giving good results. It might be called a compendium of shop methods, showing a variety of special tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many mechanics, from the superintendent down to the man at the bench. It will be found a valuable addition to any machinist's library, and should be consulted whenever a new or difficult job is to be done, whether it is boring, milling, turning, or planing, as they are all treated in a practical manner. Fifth edition. 320 pages. 250 illustrations. Price 2.50

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

THE WHOLE FIELD OF MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS COVERED BY MR. HISCOX'S TWO BOOKS

25

We publish two books by Gardner D. Hiscox that will keep you from "inventing' things that have been done before, and suggest ways of doing things that you have not thought of before. Many a spends time and money pondering over some mechanical problem, only to learn, after he has solved the problem, that the same thing has been accomplished and put in practice by others long before. Time and money spent in an effort to accomplish what has already been accomplished are time and money LOST. The whole field of mechanics, every known mechanical movement, and practically every device are covered by these two books. If the thing you want has been invented, it is illustrated in them. If it hasn't been invented, then you'll find in them the nearest things to what you want, some movements or devices that will apply in your case, perhaps; or which will give you a key from which to work. No book or set of books ever published is of more real value to the Inventor, Draftsman, or practical Mechanic than the two volumes described below.
1

man

Mechanical Movements, Powers, and Devices.

This
is

By GARDNER D. Hiscox.

a collection of 1,890 engravings of different mechanical motions and appliances, accompanied by appropriate text, making it a book of great value to the inventor, the draftsman, and to all readers with mechanical tastes. The book is divided into eighteen sections or chapters, in which the subject-matter is classified under 'the following heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmission of Power; Measurement of Power; Steam Power; Air Power Appliances; Electric Power and Construction; Navigation and Roads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Controlling Motion; Horological; Mining; Mill and Factory Appliances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices; Miscellaneous Devices, etc. 15th Edition. 400 octavo pages. Price

$3.00

Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movements and Novelties of Construction.

By GARDNER D. Hiscox.

This is a supplementary volume to the one upon mechanical movements. Unlike the first volume, which is more elementary in character, this volume contains illustrations and descriptions of many combinations of motions and of mechanical devices and appliances found in different lines of machinery, each device being shown by a line drawing with a description showing its working parts and the method of operation. From the multitude of devices described and illustrated might be mentioned, in passing, such items as conveyors and elevators, Pony brakes, thermometers, various types of boilers, solar engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers, evaporators, Corliss and other valve gears, governors, gas engines, water motors of various descriptions, air ships, motors and dynamos, automobile and motor bicycles, railway lock signals, car couplers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech-block mechanism for heavy guns, and a large accumulation of others of equal importance. One thousand specially made Price engravings. 396 octavo pages. Fourth edition.

$3.00

Machine-Shop Tools and Shop

A

Practice.

By W. H. VANDERVOORT/

work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describing in every detail the construction, opera tion and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. Includes chapters on filing, fitting and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps and dies; the lathe and its tools: planers, shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering; useful data and tables. Sixth edition. gearing, belting and transmission machinery;
Price

$3.00

Machine- Shop Arithmetic.

This
is

By COLVIN-CHENEY.

of the things you have to do with daily. It tells you plainly about: how to find areas in figures; how to find surface or volume of balls or spheres; handy ways for calculating; about compound gearing; cutting screw threads on any lathe; drilling for taps; speeds of drills; taps, emery wheels, grindstones, milling cutters, etc.; all about the Metric system with conversion tables; properties of metals; strength of bolts and nuts; decimal equivalent of an inch. All sorts of machine-shop figuring and 1,001 other things, any one of which ought to be worth more than the price of this book to you, as it saves you the trouble of bothering the boss. 6th Edition. 131 pages. Price 50 Cents

an arithmetic

Modern Machine-Shop Construction, Equipment and Management.

OSCAR E. PERRIGO.
The only work published

By

that describes the .Modern Shop or Manufacturing Plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product is shipped. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modern shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modern Shop Methods, time and cost systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all-round book of its kind ever published. Second Edition, Revised. 384 large quarto pages. 219 original and specially made illustrations. 2nd Revised and Enlarged Edition. Price $5 00

.......

26

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

CO.

Modern Milling Machines: Their Design, Construction, and Operation. By JOSEPH G. HORNER.
This book describes and illustrates the Milling Machine and its .work in such a plain, clear and forceful manner, and illustrates the subject so clearly and completely, that the up-todate machinist, student or mechanical engineer cannot afford to do without the valuable information which it contains. It describes not only the early machines of this class, but notes their gradual development into the splendid machines of the present day, giving the design and construction of the various types, forms, and special features produced by prominent manufacturers, American and foreign. 304 pages, 300 illustrations. Cloth. Price... $4.00

" Shop Kinks."

A

By ROBERT GRIMSHAW.

book of 400 pages and 222 illustrations, being entirely different from any other book on Departing from conventional style, the author avoids universal machine-shop practice. or common shop usage and limits his work to showing special ways of doing things better, more cheaply and more rapidly than usual. As a result the advanced methods of represenThis book shows tative establishments of the world are placed at the disposal of the reader. the proprietor where large savings are possible, and how products may be improved. To the employee it holds out suggestions that, properly applied, will hasten his advancement. No shop can afford to be without it. It bristles with valuable wrinkles and helpful suggestions. It will benefit all, from apprentice to proprietor. Every machinist, at any age, should
study
its

pages.

Fifth edition.

Price

$2.50

Threads and Thread Cutting.

This clears up

By COLVIN and

STABEL.

of the mysteries of thread-cutting, such as double and triple threads, Contains a lot of useful hints and several internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Third edition. Price tables. 25 cent S

many

MANUAL TRAINING
Economics of Manual Training.

By Louis ROUILLION.

.The only book published that gives just the information needed by all interested in Manual Shows exactly what is needed Training, regarding Buildings, Equipment, and Supplies. Gives for all grades of the work from the Kindergarten to the High and Normal School. in Manual Training Work and tells just what it ought to itemized lists of everything used Contains 174 pages, and is fully illustrated. cost. Also shows where to buy supplies, etc.

Second

edition.

Price

$1.50

MARINE ENGINEERING
The Naval
Architect's and Shipbuilder's Pocket Book of Formulae, Rules, and Tables and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's Handy Book of Reference. By CLEMENT MACKROW and LLOYD WOOLLARD.
The eleventh Revised and Enlarged Edition
issued.

of this most comprehensive work has just been It is absolutely indispensable to all engaged in the Shipbuilding Industry, as it condenses into a compact form all data and formulae that are ordinarily required. The book is completely up to date, including among other subjects a section on Aeronautics. 750 pages, limp leather binding. Price $5.00 net

Marine Engines and

BAUER, LESLIE
treatise boilers.

Boilers:
S.

Their Design and Construction. ROBERTSON and S. BRYAN DONKIN.

By DR.

G.

In the words of Dr. Bauer, the present work owes its origin to an oft felt want of a condensed embodying the theoretical and practical rules used in designing marine engines and the construction The need of such a work has been felt by most engineers engaged and working of marine engines, not only by the younger men, but also by those of greater exot the perience. The fact that the original German work was written by the chief engineer all respects thorfamous Vulcan Works, Stettin, is in itself a guarantee that this book is oughly up-to-date, and that it embodies all the information which is necessary for the design and construction of the highest types of marine engines and b9ilers. It may be said that the motive power which Dr. Bauer has placed in the fast German liners that have been turned out of late years from the Stettin Works represent the very best practice in marine engineering ot the present day. The work is clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; Ine while the character of the plans, drawings, tables, and statistics is without reproach. illustrations are careful reproductions from actual working drawings, with some well- executed of completed engines and boilers. 744 pages, 550 illustrations and numphotographic views

erous tables.

Cloth.

Price

$9.00 net

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

MINEYG
Ore Deposits, with a Chapter on Hints to Prospectors.

27

By

J.

P. JOHNSON.

This book gives a condensed account of the ore deposits at present known in South Africa. It is also intended as a guide to the prospector. Only an elementary knowledge of geology and some mining experience are necessary in order to understand this work. With these qualifications, it will materially assist one in his search for metalliferous mineral occurrences and, so far as simple ores are concerned, should enable one to form some idea of the possiIllustrated. Cloth. Price bilities of any he may find. $2 00

Practical Coal Mining.

By

T. H. COCKIN.

An

important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustrations, complete with practical details, which will intuitively impart to the reader not only a general knowledge of the principles The treatise is positively of coal mining, but also considerable insight into allied subjects. up-to-date in every instance, and should be in the hands of every colliery engineer, geologist, mine operator, superintendent, foreman, and all others who are interested in or connected with the industry. 3d Edition. Cloth. Price $2.50

Physics and Chemistry of Mining.

By

T. H. BYROM.
him valuable
assistance in

practical

work

colliery

managers'

for the use of all preparing for examinations in mining or qualifying for certificates. The aim of the author in this excellent book is to place clearly

before the reader useful and authoritative data which will render

his studies. The only work of its kind published. The information incorporated in it will prove of the greatest practical utility to students, mining engineers, colliery managers, and 160 all others who are specially interested in the present-day treatment of mining problems. pages, illustrated. Price $2.00

PATTERN MAKING
Practical Pattern Making. This book, now in its second
subject of pattern

By

F.

W. BARROWS.

edition, is a comprehensive and entirely practical treatise on the making, illustrating pattern work in both wood and metal, and with definite instructions on the use of plaster of parts in the trade. It gives specific and detailed descriptions of the materials used by pattern makers, and describes the tools, both those for the bench and the more interesting machine tools, having complete chapters on the Lathe, the Circular Saw, and the Band Saw. It gives many examples of pattern work, each one fully illustrated and explained with much detail. These examples, in their great variety, offer much that will be found of interest to all pattern makers, and especially to the younger ones, who are seeking information on the more advanced branches of their trade. In this second edition of the work will be found much that is new, even to those who have long practised this exacting trade. In the description of patterns as adapted to the Moulding Machine many difficulties which have long prevented the rapid and economical production of castings are overcome; and this great, new branch of the trade is given much space. Stripping plate and stool plate work and the less expensive vibrator, or rapping plate work, are all explained in detail. Plain, every-day rules for lessening the cost of patterns, with a complete system of cost keeping, a detailed method of marking, applicable to all branches of the trade, with complete information showing what the pattern is, its specific title, its cost, date of production, material of which it is made, the number of pieces and core-boxes, and its location in the pattern safe, all condensed into a most complete card record, with cross index. The book closes with an original and practical method for the inventory and valuation of patterns. Containing nearly 350 pages and 170 illustrations. Price

$2*00

PERFUMERY
Perfumes and Cosmetics: Their Preparation and Manufacture.
ASKINSON, Perfumer.

By

G.

W.

comprehensive treatise, in which there has been nothing omitted that could be of value to the perfumer or manufacturer of toilet preparations. Complete directions for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling-salts, sachets, fumigating pastilles; preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cosmetics, hair dyes and other toilet articles are given, also a detailed description of aromatic substances; their nature, tests of purity, and wholesome manufacture, including a chapter on synthetic products, with formulas for their use. A book of general as well as professional interest, meeting the wants not only of the drugand perfume manufacturer, but also of the general public. Among the contents are: The History of Perfumery. 2. About Aromatic Substances in General. 3. Odors from the Vegetable Kingdom. 4. The Aromatic Vegetable Substances Employed in Perfumery.

rt

5. The Animal Substances Used in Perfumery. 6. The Chemical Products Used in Perfumery. 7. The Extraction of Odors. 8. The Special Characteristics of Aromatic Substances. 9. The 10. Synthetic Products. Adulteration of Essential Oils and Their Recognition. 11. Table 12. The Essences or Extracts Employed of Physical Properties of Aromatic Chemicals. in Perfumery. 13. Directions for Making the Most Important Essences and Extracts.

28

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

"

CO.

15. The Manufacture of Handkerchief Perfumes. 16. For14. The Division of Perfumery. 17. Ammoniacal and Acid Perfumes. 18. Dry Permulas for Handkerchief Perfumes. 20. The Perfumes Used for Fumigation. 21. An19. Formulas for Dry Perfumes. 22. Classification of Odors. 23. Some Special tiseptic and Therapeutic Value of Perfumes. Products. 24. Hygiene and Cosmetic Perfumery. 25. Preparations for the Care Perfumery 27. Formulas for Emulsions. 28. Formulas for 26. Manufacture of Casein. of the Skin. Cream. 29. Formulas for Meals, Pastes and Vegetable Milk. 30. Preparations Used for 32. Pomades and Hair Oils. 31. Formulas for Hair Tonics and Restorers. the Hair. 34. Hair Dyes and Depila33. Formulas for the Manufacture of Pomades and Hair Oils. Wax Pomades, Bandolines and Bri'lliantines. 36. Skin Cosmetics and 35. tories. Face Lotions. 37. Preparations for the Nails. 38. Water Softeners and Bath Salts. 39. Preparations for the Care of the Mouth. 40. The Colors Used in Perfumery. 41. The UtenFourth edition, much enlarged and brought up to date. Nearly sils Used in the Toilet. 400 pages, illustrated. Price $5.00

fumes.

'

WHAT
"The most

IS

SAID OF THIS BOOK:

satisfactory work on the subject of Perfumery that we have ever seen." feel safe in saying that. here is a book on Perfumery that will not disappoint you, for it has practical and excellent formulae that are within your ability to prepare readily." recommend the volume as worthy of confidence, and say that no purchaser will be disappointed in securing from its pages good value for its cost, and a large dividend on the same, even if he should use but one per cent, of its working formulae. There is money in it for every user of its information." Pharmaceutical Record.

"We "We

PLUMBING
Mechanical Drawing for Plumbers. By R. M. STAEBUCK. A concise, comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of mechanical
various modern applications to the work of all who are in any way connected with the plumbing trade. Nothing will so help the plumber in estimating and in explaining work to customers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his position to positions of greater responsibility. Among the chapters contained are: 1. Value to plumber of knowledge of drawing; tools required and 2. Perspective versus mechanical their use; common views needed in mechanical drawing. drawing in showing plumbing construction. 3. Correct and incorrect methods in plumbing 4. Floor and cellar plans and elevation; scale drawing; plan and elevation explained. drawings; use of triangles. 5. Use of triangles; drawing of fittings, traps, etc. 6. Drawing plumbing elevations and fittings. 7. Instructions in drawing plumbing elevations. 8. The drawing of plumbing fixtures; scale drawings. 9. Drawings of fixtures and fittings. 10. Inking of drawings. 11. Shading of drawings. 12. Shading of drawings. 13. Sectional drawings; drawing of threads. 14. Plumbing elevations from architect's plan. 15. Elevations of separate parts of the plumbing system. 16. Elevations from the architect's plans. 17. Drawings 18. Architect's plans and plumbing elevations of residence. of detail plumbing connections. 20. Plumbing 19. Plumbing elevations of residence (continued); plumbing plans for cottage. 22. 21. Plans and plumbing elevations for six-flat building. 'roof connections. elevations; Drawing of various parts of the plumbing system; use of scales. 23. Use of architect's scales. in the illustrations of country plumbing. 25. Drawing of wrought-iron 24. Special features 26. Drawing of piping to illustrate heating systems. piping, valves, radiators, coils, etc. 150 illustrations. Price $1.50

drawing in

its

Modern Plumbing
Canada.

Illustrated.

By

R.

M. STARBUCK.

This book represents the highest standard of plumbing work. It has been adopted and used as a reference book by the United States Government in its sanitary work in Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippines, and by the principal Boards of Health of the United States and
It gives connections, sizes and working data for all fixtures and groups of fixtures. It is helpIt gives ful to the master plumber in demonstrating to his customers and in figuring work. the mechanic and student quick and easy access to the best modern plumbing practice. Suggestions for estimating plumbing construction are contained in its pages. This book represents, in a word, the latest and best up-to-date practice and should be in the hands of every architect, sanitary engineer and plumber who wishes to keep himself up to the minute on Contains following chapters, each illustrated with a this important feature of construction. full-page plate: Kitchen sink, laundry tubs, vegetable wash sink; lavatories, pantry sinks, contents of marble slabs; bath tub, foot and sitz bath, shower bath; water closets, venting of water closets; low-down water closets, water closets operated by flush valves, water closet range; slop sink, urinals, the bidet; hotel and restaurant sink, grease trap; refrigerators, safe wastes, laundry waste, lines of refrigerators, bar sinks, soda fountain sinks; horse stall, connections for drum traps; connections for S traps, venting; frost-proof water closets; soil-pipe connections; supporting of soil pipe; main trap and fresh-air inlet; floor drains and cellar drains, subsoil drainage; water closets and floor connections; local venting; connections for bath rooms; connections for bath rooms, continued; examples of poor practice; roughing work ready for test; testing of plumbing systems; method of continuous venting; continuous venting for two-floor work; continuous venting for two lines of fixtures on three or more floors; continuous venting of water closets; plumbing for cottage house; construction for cellar piping; plumbing for residence, use of special fittings; plumbing for two-flat house; plumbing for apartment building", plumbing for double apartment building; plumbing for office building; plumbing for public toilet rooms; plumbing for public toilet rooms, continued; plumbing for bath establishment; plumbing for engine house, factory plumbing; automatic flushing for schools, factories, etc.; use of flushing valves; urinals for public toilet rooms; the Durham system, the destruction of nines bv electrolysis; construction of work

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

without use of lead;

29

automatic sewage lift; automatic sump tank; country plumbing; construction of cesspools; septic tank and automatic sewage siphon; water supply for country house; thav/ing of water mains and service by electricity; double boilers; hot water supply of lar^e buildings; automatic control of hot-water tank; suggestions for estimating plumbing construction. 407 ootavo pages, fully illustrated by 57 full-page engravings. Third, revised and enlarged edition, just issued. Price $4.00

Standard Practical Plumbing. By R. M. STARED CK. A complete practical treatise of 450 pages, covering the subject

of

branches, a large amount of space being devoted to a very complete and practical treatment of the subject of Hot Water Supply and Circulation and Range Boiler Work. Its thirty Chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of, making it an ii.dispenEabif> work to the master plumber, the journeyman plumber, and the apprentice plumber, containing chapters on: the plumber's tools; wiping solder; composition and use; joint wiping; lead work; traps; siphonage of traps; venting; continuous venting; house sewer and sewer connections; house drain; soil piping, roughing; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor, yard, cellar drains, rain leaders, etc. fixture wastes; water closets; ventilation; improved plumbing connections; residence plumbing; plumbing for hotels* schools, factories, stables, etc.; modern country ' plumbing; filtration of sewage and water supply hot and cold supply; range boilers; circulation; circulating pipes; range boiler problems; hot water for large buildings; water lift and its use; multiple connections for hot water boilers; heating of radiation by supply system; theory for the plumber; drawing for the plumber. Fully illustrated by 347 engravings.
;

Moderr Plumbing

in al> its

$3.00

RECIPE BOOK
Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas and Processes. Edited by GARDNER D. Hiscox.
published, including over 10,000 selected chemical, technological, and practical recipes and processes. the most complete Book of Formulas ever published, giving thousands of recipes for the manufacture of valuable articles for everyday use. Hints, Helps, Practical Ideas, and It covers every branch of the useful arts and Secret Processes are revealed within its pages. tells thousands of ways of making money, and is just the book everyone should have at his
scientific,

The most valuable Tecbno-chemical Formula Book

is.

This

command.

Modern in its treatment of every subject that properly falls within its scope, the book may truthfully be said to present the very latest formulas to be found in the arts and industries, and to retain those processes which long experience has proven worthy of a permanent record. TO present here even a limited number of the subjects which find a place in this valuable work would be difficult. Suffice to say that in its pages will be found matter of intense interest and immeasurably practical value to the scientific amateur and to him who wishes to obtain a knowledge of the many processes used in the arts, trades and manufacture, a knowledge which will render his pursuits more instructive and remunerative. Serving as a reference book to the small and large manufacturer and supplying intelligent seekers with the information necessary to conduct a process, the work will be found of inestimable worth to the Metallurgist, the Photographer, the Perfumer, the Painter, the Manufacturer of Glues, Pastes, Cements, and Mucilages, the Compounder of Alloys, the Cook, the Physician, the Druggist, the Electrician, the Brewer, the Engineer, the Foundryman, the Machinist, the Potter, the Tanner, the Confectioner, the Chiropodist, the Manicurist, the Manufacturer of Chemical Novelties and Toilet Preparations, the Dyer, the Electroplater, the Enameler, the Engraver, the Provisioner, the Glass Worker, the Goldbeater, the Watchmaker, the Jeweler, the Hat Maker, the Ink Manufacturer, the Optician, the Farmer, the Dairyman, the Paper Maker, the Wood and Metal Worker, the Chandler and Soap Maker, the Veterinary Surgeon, and the Technologist in general. mine of information, and up-to-date"in every respect. book which will prove of value as it covers every branch of the Useful Arts. to Every home needs this book; every office, every factory, every store, every public and private enterprise should have a copy. 800 pages. Price $3.00

EVERYONE,

EVERYWHERE

WHAT

IS

SAID OF THIS BOOK:

Formulas, and Processes duly received. I am glad to have a copy of it, and if I could not replace it, money couldn't buy it. It is the best M. E. TRUX, Sparta, Wis. thing of the sort I ever saw." (Signed) " There are few persons who would not be able to find in the book some single formula that would repay several times the cost of the book." Merchants' Record and Show Window. " I purchased your book, Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas and ProcWM. H. MURRAY, Bennington, Vt. esses,' about a year ago and it is worth its weight in gold."

"Your Twentieth Century Book

of Recipes,

'

"ONE OF THE WORLD'S MOST USEFUL BOOKS"

my
I got one of your 'Twentieth Century Books of Foitnulas,' and have made I am alone since my husband's death with two small children living from it ever since. to care for and am trying so hard to support them. I have customers who take from me Toilet Articles I put up, following directions given in the book, and I have found everyone of them to be fine." MRS. J. H. MCMAKEN, West Toledo, Ohio.

"Some time ago

30

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

CO.

RUBBER
Rubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of India Rubber.
O'CONOR SLOANE.

By

T.

This book gives full details on all points, treating in a concise and simple manner the elements of nearly everything it is necessary to understand for a commencement in any branch of the India Rubber Manufacture. The making of all kinds of Rubber Hand Stamps, Small Articles of India Rubber, U. S. Government Composition, Dating Hand Stamps, the Manipulation of Sheet Rubber, Toy Balloons, India Rubber Solutions, Cements, Blackings, Renovating, Varnish, and Treatment for India Rubber Shoes, etc.; the Hektograph Stamp Inks, and Miscellaneous Notes, with a Short Account of the Discovery, Collection and Manufacture of India Rubber, are set forth in a manner designed to be readily understood, the explanations being Including a chapter on Rubber Tire Making and Vulcanizing; also a plain and simple. chapter on the uses of rubber in Surgery and Dentistry. 3rd Revised and Enlarged Edition. 175 pages. Illustrated

$1.00

SAWS
Saw
Filing

and Management of Saws.

By ROBERT GRIMSHAW.
A

practical hand-book on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering, and the brazing of band Baws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. handy book for those who have charge of saws, or for those mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals with the proper and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many useful hints and rules for gumming, shape setting, and filing, and is a practical aid to those who use saws for any purpose. Complete tables of proper shape, pitch, and saw teeth as well as sizes and number of teeth of various saws are included. 3rd Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated. Price

$1.00

STEAM ENGINEERING
American Stationary Engineering.

By W.

E. CRANE.

This book begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. A plain talk on eyery-day work about engines, boilers, and their accessories. It is not intended to be scienAll formulas are in simple form so that any one understanding plain tific or mathematical. arithmetic can readily understand any of them. The author has made this the most practical book in print; has given the results of his years of experience, and has included about all that has to do with an engine room or a power plant. You are not left to guess at a single point. You are shown clearly what to expect under the various conditions; how to secure the best results; ways of preventing "shut downs" and repairs; in short, all that goes to make up the requirements of a good engineer, capable of taking charge of a plant. It's plain enough, for practical men and yet of yalue to those high in the profession. A partial list of contents is: The boiler room, cleaning boilers, firing, feeding; pumps, inspection and repair chimneys, sizes and cost; piping; mason work; foundations; testing cement;
;

pistons and piston rings; bearing metal; hardened copper; drip pipes from cylinder testing lubricants; rules and tables, inbelts, how made, care of; oils; greases; cluding steam tables; areas of segments; squares and square roots; cubes and cube root; areas and circumferences of circles. Notes on: Brick work; explosions; pumps; pump valves; heaters, economizers; safety valves; lap, lead, and clearance. Has a complete ex. amination for a license, etc., etc. 3rd Edition. 345 pages, illustrated. Price .
tools;

jacket;

Engine Runner's Catechism. By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. A practical treatise for the stationary engineer, telling how to

erect, adjust, and run the principal steam engines in use in the United States. Describing the principal features of various special and well-known makes of engines: Temper Cut-off, Snipping and Receiving Foundations, Erecting and Starting, Valve Setting, Care and Use, Emergencies, Erecting and Adjusting Special Engines. The questions asked throughout the catechism are plain and to the point, and the answers are given in such simple language as to be readily understood by anyone. All the instructions given are complete and up-to-date; and they are written in a popular style, without any technicalities or mathematical formulae. The work is of a handy size for the pocket, clearly and well printed, nicely bound, and profusely illustrated. To young engineers this catechism will be of great value, especially to those who may bg preparing to go forward to be examined for certificates of competency; and to engineers generally it will be of no little service, as they will find in this volume more really practical and useful information than is to be found anywhere else within a like compass. 387 pages. 7th Edition. Price $2.00

................ ..............

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

Modern Steam Engineering
Hiscox.
in Theory

31

and

Practice.

By GARDNER D.

This is a complete and practical work issued for Stationary Engineers and Firemen, dealing with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam, refrigerating machinery, dynamos, motors, elevators, air compressors, and all other branches with which the modern engineer must be familiar. Nearly 200 questing with their answers on steam and electrical engineering, likely to be asked by the Examining Board, are included. Among the chapters are: Historical: steam and its properties; appliances for the generation of steam; types of boilers; chimney and its work; heat economy of the feed water; steam pumps and their work; incrustation and its work; steam above atmospheric pressure; flow of steam from nozzles; superheated steam and its work; adiabatic expansion of steam; indicator and its work; steam engine proportions; slide valve engines and valve motion; Corliss engine and its valve gear; compound engine and its theory; triple and multiple expansion engine; steam turbine; refrigeration; elevators and their management;. cost of power; steam engine troubles; electric power and electric plants. 487 pages, 405 engravings. 3rd Edition.
Price

$3.00

Steam Engine Catechism.

By ROBERT GRIMSHAW.

This unique volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on the question and answer principle but it contains formulas and worked-out answers for all the Steam problems that appertain to operation and management of the Steam Engine. Illustrations of various valves and valve gear with their principles of operation are given. Thirty-four Tables that are indispensable to every engineer and fireman that wishes to be progressive and is ambitious to become master It is a most valuable instructor in the service of Steam of his calling are within its pages. Engineering. Leading engineers have recommended it as a valuable educator for the beginner as well as a reference book for the engineer. It is thoroughly indexed for every detail. Every essential question on the Steam Engine with its answer is contained in this valuable : work. 16th Edition. Price 82.00

Steam Engineer's Arithmetic.

A
for the

By COLVIN-CHENEY.
steam engineer.

Shows how to work the problems of the practical pocket-book engine room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horsepower of engines and boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas and circumferences; steam tables; has a dictionary of engineering terms. Puts you on to all of the little kinks in figuring whatever there is to figure around a power plant. Tells you about the heat unit; absolute zero; adiabatic expansion; duty of engines; factor of safety; and a thousand and one other things; and everything is plain and simple not the hardest way to figure, but the easiest. 2nd Edition. Price . . 50 Cents

Engine Tests and Boiler

Efficiencies.

By

J.

BUCHETTI.

This work fully describes and illustrates the method of testing the power of steam engines, turbines and explosive motors. The properties of steam and the evaporative power of fuels. Combustion of fuel and chimney draft; with formulas explained or practically computed. 255 pages, 179 illustrations. Price $3.00

Horsepower Chart.
Shows the horsepower, of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter of stroke, the steam pressure of cut-off, the revolutions, or whether condensing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and saves time and calculations. Price Especially useful to engineers and designers. 50 Cents

STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATION

Practical Steam,
This book
is

Hot-Water Heating and Ventilation.

By

A. G. KING.

the standard and latest work published on the subject and has been prepared for the use of all engaged in the business of steam, hot-water heating, and ventilation. It is an Tells how to get heating contracts, how to install heating and original and exhaustive work. ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be used, with "Tricks of the Trade" for shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation and cost and such tables and information as make it an indispensable work for everyone interested in steam, hot-water heating, and ventilation. It describes all the principal systems of steam, hot-water, vacuum, vapor, and vacuum-vapor heating, together with the new accelerated systems of hot-water circulation, including chapters on up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heatII. Heat. ing and ventilation. Containing chapters on: I. Introduction. III. Evolution of artificial heating apparatus. IV. Boiler surface and settings. V. The chimney flue. VI. Pipe and fittings. VII. Valves, various kinds. VIII. Forms of radiating surfaces. IX.

32

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING

CO.

Locating of radiating surfaces. X. Estimating radiation. XI. Steam-heating apparatus. XII. Exhaust-steam heating. XIII. Hot-water, heating. XIV. Pressure systems of hot-water work. XV. Hot-water appliances. XVI. Greenhouse heating. XVII. Vacuum vapor and vacuum exhaust heating. XVIII. Miscellaneous heating. XIX. Radiator and pipe connecXX. Ventilation. XXI. Mechanical ventilation and hot-blast heating. XXII. tions. Steam appliances. XXIII. District heating. XXIV. Pipe and boiler covering. XXV. Temperature regulation and heat control. XXyi. Business methods. XXVII. Miscellaneous. XXVIII. Rules, tables, and useful information. 367 pages, 300 detailed engravings. 2nd Edition Revised. Price $3.00

Five

Hundred Plain Answers to Direct Questions on Steam, Hot-Water, Vapor and Vacuum Heating Practice. By ALFRED G. KING.
This work, jnst off the press, is arranged in question and answer form; it is intended as a guide and text-book for the younger, inexperienced fitter and as a reference book for all This book tells "how" and also tells "why". No work of its kind has ever been fitters. It answers all the questions regarding each method or system that would be published. asked by the steam fitter or heating contractor, and may be used as a text or reference book, and for examination questions by Trade Schools or Steam Fitters' Associations. Rules, data, tables and descriptive methods are given, together with much other detailed information of daily practical use to those engaged in or interested in the various methods of heating. Valuable to those preparing for examinations. Answers every question asked relating to modern Steam, Hot-Water, Vapor and Vacuum Heating. Among the contents are: The Theory and Laws of Heat. Methods of Heating. Chimneys and Flues. Boilers for Heating. Boiler Trimmings and Settings. Radiation. Steam Heating. Boiler, Radiator and Pipe Connections for Steam Heating. Hot Water Heating. The Two-Pipe Gravity System of Hot Water Heating. The Circuit System of Hot Water Heating. The Overhead System of Hot Water Heating. Boiler, Radiator and Pipe Connections for Gravity Systems of Hot Water Heating. Accelerated Hot Water Heating. Expansion Tank Connections. Domestic Hot Water Heating. Valves and Air Valves. Vacuum Vapor and Vacuo-Vapor Heating. Mechanical Systems of Vacuum Heating. Non-Mechanical Vacuum Systems. Vapor Systems. AtmosHeating Greenhouses. Information, Rules and Tables. pheric and Modulating Systems. 200 pages, 127 illustrations. Octavo. Cloth. Price $1 .50

STEEL
Steel:
Its Selection, Annealing,

Hardening, and Tempering.

MARKHAM.

By

E. R.

This work was formerly known as "The American Steel Worker," but on the publication of the new, revised edition, the publishers deemed it advisable to change its title to a more suitable one. It is the standard work on Hardening, Tempering, and Annealing Steel of all kinds. This book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal steel for everything on earth. It doesn't tell how to temper one class of tools and then leave the treatment of another kind of tool to your imagination and judgment, but it gives careful instructions It tells for every detail of every tool, whether it be a tap, a reamer or just a screw-driver. about the tempering of small watch springs, the hardening of cutlery, and the annealing of In fact, there isn't a thing that a steel worker would want to know that isn't included. dies. It is the standard book on selecting, hardening and tempering all grades of steel. Among the chapter headings might be mentioned the following subjects: Introduction; the workman; steel; methods of heating; heating tool steel; forging; annealing; hardening baths; baths for hardening; hardening steel; drawing the temper after hardening; examples of hardening; pack hardening; case hardening; spring tempering; making tools of machine 400 steel; special steels; steel for various tools; causes of trouble; high-speed steels, etc.
^

pages.

Very

fully illustrated.

Fourth

edition.

Price

$2.50

Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, and Forging of Steel. WORTH.

By

J.

V.

WOOD-

A new

ing, forging, welding,

work treating in a clear, concise manner all modern processes for the heating, annealhardening and tempering of 'steel, making it a book of great practical value to the metal-working mechanic in general, with special directions for the successful and tempering of all steel tools used in the arts, including milling cutters, taps, thread hardening dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheetmetal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery, and metal-cuttina; tools of all descripIn this work the simplest tion, as well as for all implements of steel both large and small. and most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes are given. The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be adapted are concisely presented, and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, also the special methods for the hardening and tempering of special brands. A chapter devoted to the different processes for case-hardening is also included, and special reference made to the adaptation of machinery steel for tools of various kinds. Fourth edi288 pages. 201 illustrations. Price tion. $2.50

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

33

TRACTORS
The Modern Gas
A
Tractor.

By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.E.

A

all types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene and oil tractors. Considers design and construction exhaustively, gives complete instructions for care, operation and repair, outlines all practical applications on the road and in the field. The best and work needed by farmers, students, latest work on farm tractors and tractor power plants. blacksmiths, mechanics, salesmen, implement dealers, designers, and engineers. Second edition, revised and enlarged. 504 pages. Nearly 300 illustrations and folding plates. Price $2.00

complete treatise describing

TURBINES
Marine Steam Turbines. By DR. G. BAUER and E. LUDWIG and H. VOGEL.
Translated from the
tical

O. LASCHE.

Assisted

by

German and edited by M. G. S. Swallow. The book is essentially pracand discusses turbines in which the full expansion of ste^am passes through a number of separate turbines arranged for driving two or more shafts, as in the Parsons system, and turbines in which the complete expansion of steam from inlet to exhaust pressure occurs in a turbine on one shaft, as in the case of the Curtis machines. It will enable a designer to carry out all the ordinary calculation necessary for the construction of steam turbines, hence it fills a want which is hardly met by larger and more theoretical works. Numerous tables, curves and diagrams will be found, which explain with remarkable lucidity the reason why turbine blades are designed as they are, the course which steam takes through turbines of various types, the thermodynamics of steam turbine calculation, the influence of vacuum on steam consumption of steam turbines, etc. In a word, the very information which a designer and builder of steam turbines most requires. Large octavo, 214 pages. Fully illustrated and containing eighteen tables, including an entropy chart. Price, net $3.50

WATCH MAKING
Watchmaker's Handbook.
No work
issued can

By CLAUDIUS SAUNIER.

compare with this book for clearness and completeness. It contains 498 pages and is intended as a workshop companion for those engaged in watch-making and allied mechanical arts. Nearly 250 engravings and fourteen plates are included. This is the standard work on watch-making. Price $3 .00

WELDING
Automobile Welding with the Oxy- Acetylene Flame.

By M. KEITH DUNHAM.

Explains in a simple manner apparatus to be used, its care, and how to construct necessary shop equipment. Proceeds then to the actual welding of all automobile parts, in a manner understandable by every one. Gives principles never to be forgotten. Aluminum, cast iron, steel, copper, brass, bronze, and malleable iron are fully treated, as well as a clear explanation of the proper manner to burn the carbon out of the combustion head. This book is of utmost value, since the perplexing problems arising when metal is heated to a melting point are fully explained and the proper methods to overcome them shown. 167 pages, fully illustrated.

Price

$1.00

Every Practical
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us enter your subscription to the best mechanOnly one dollar magazine on the market. Subscribe today to a year for twelve numbers.
ical

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Everyday Engineering

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magazine devoted to practical mechanics for everyday men. to popularize engineering as a science, teaching the elements

of applied mechanics and electricity in a straightforward and understandable manner. The magazine maintains its own experimental laboratory where
first tried

the devices described in articles submitted to the Editor are

out and

tested before they are published. This important innovation places the standard of the published material very high, and it insures accuracy and dependability.

The magagine is the only one in this country that specializes in practical model building. Articles in past issues have given comprehensive designs for many model boats, including submarines and chasers, model steam and gasoline This feature is a permanent engines, electric motors and generators, etc., etc.
one in this magazine.

Another popular department is that devoted to automobiles and airplanes. Care, maintenance, and operation receive full and authoritative treatment. Every article is written from the practical, everyday-man, standpoint rather than from
that of the professional.
it instructs. It is a journal of practical, deinformation given in such a style that it may be readily assimilated and applied by the man with little or no technical training. The aim is to place before the man who leans toward practical mechanics, a series of concise, crisp, readable talks on what is going on and how it is done. These articles are profusely

The magazine entertains while

pendable

illustrated with clear, snappy photographs, specially posed to illustrate the subject in the magazine's own studio by its own staff of technically-trained illustrators and editors.

The

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY

Return
This book
is

to desk

from which borrowed.

DUE on the last date stamped below. NGINEER1NG LIBR/

OC

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27

1953

LD

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ering

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY