GreekMythology

I INTRODUCTION

TempleofApolloatDidyma TheGreeksbuilttheTempleofApolloatDidyma,Turkey(about300bc).Thetemplesupposedlyhousedanoracle whoforetoldthefuturetothoseseekingknowledge.Thepredictionsoftheoracles,deliveredintheformofriddles, oftenbroughtunexpectedresultstotheseeker.WithIoniccolumnsreaching19.5m(64ft)high,theseruins suggesttheformergrandeuroftheancienttemple. BernardCox/BridgemanArtLibrary,London/NewYork

GreekMythology,setofdiversetraditionaltalestoldbytheancientGreeksabouttheexploitsofgods andheroesandtheirrelationswithordinarymortals. TheancientGreeksworshipedmanygodswithinaculturethattolerateddiversity.Unlikeotherbelief systems,Greekculturerecognizednosingletruthorcodeandproducednosacred,writtentextlike theBibleortheQuran.StoriesabouttheoriginsandactionsofGreekdivinitiesvariedwidely, depending,forexample,onwhetherthetaleappearedinacomedy,tragedy,orepicpoem.Greek mythologywaslikeacomplexandrichlanguage,inwhichtheGreekscouldexpressavastrangeof perceptionsabouttheworld. AGreekcitystatedevoteditselftoaparticulargodorgroupofgodsinwhosehonoritbuilttemples. Thetemplegenerallyhousedastatueofthegodorgods.TheGreekshonoredthecitysgodsin festivalsandalsoofferedsacrificestothegods,usuallyadomesticanimalsuchasagoat.Stories aboutthegodsvariedbygeographiclocation:Agodmighthaveonesetofcharacteristicsinonecity orregionandquitedifferentcharacteristicselsewhere.

II PRINCIPALFIGURESINGREEKMYTHOLOGY

Poseidon,RuleroftheSea RuleroftheseaandbrotherofZeus,PoseidonwasoneoftheOlympiangodsofGreekmythology.Heisusually representedinGreekartwieldingafishingspearknownasatrident.Inthislargebronzestatuefromabout460bc, Poseidonseemspoisedtostrikewithhistrident,whichtodayismissing.ThestatueisintheNational ArchaeologicalMuseuminAthens,Greece. Nimatallah/ArtResource,NY

Greekmythologyhasseveraldistinguishingcharacteristics,inadditiontoitsmultipleversions.The Greekgodsresembledhumanbeingsintheirformandintheiremotions,andtheylivedinasociety thatresembledhumansocietyinitslevelsofauthorityandpower.However,acrucialdifference existedbetweengodsandhumanbeings:Humansdied,andgodswereimmortal.Heroesalsoplayed animportantroleinGreekmythology,andstoriesaboutthemconveyedseriousthemes.TheGreeks consideredhumanheroesfromthepastclosertothemselvesthanweretheimmortalgods.

A Gods
GiventhemultiplicityofmythsthatcirculatedinGreece,itisdifficulttopresentasingleversionofthe genealogy(familyhistory)ofthegods.However,twoaccountstogetherprovideagenealogythat mostancientGreekswouldhaverecognized.OneistheaccountgivenbyGreekpoetHesiodinhis Theogony(GenealogyoftheGods),writteninthe8thcenturyBC.Theotheraccount,TheLibrary,is attributedtoamythographer(compilerofmyths)namedApollodorus,wholivedduringthe2nd centuryBC.

A1 TheCreationoftheGods

AccordingtoGreekmythsaboutcreation,thegodChaos(GreekforGapingVoid)wasthefoundation ofallthings.FromChaoscameGaea(Earth)thebottomlessdepthoftheunderworld,knownas TartarusandEros(Love).Eros,thegodoflove,wasneededtodrawdivinitiestogethersothey mightproduceoffspring.ChaosproducedNight,whileGaeafirstboreUranus,thegodoftheheavens, andafterhimproducedthemountains,sea,andgodsknownasTitans.TheTitanswerestrongand large,andtheycommittedarrogantdeeds.TheyoungestandmostimportantTitanwasCronus. UranusandGaea,whocametopersonifyHeavenandEarth,alsogavebirthtotheCyclopes,oneeyed giantswhomadethunderbolts.SeealsoCreationStories.

A2 CronusandRhea

RheaandCronus InGreekmythology,Cronuswastheruleroftheuniverse.Here,hiswifeRheahandshimastonewrappedin swaddlingclothesinplaceoftheirson,Zeus.Theportrayal,createdbetweenthe1stand3rdcenturies,isonthe baseofastonestatueattheMuseoCapitolinoinRome,Italy. ErichLessing/ArtResource,NY

UranustriedtoblockanysuccessorsfromtakingoverhissupremepositionbyforcingbackintoGaea thechildrenshebore.Buttheyoungestchild,Cronus,thwartedhisfather,cuttingoffhisgenitalsand tossingthemintothesea.FromthebloodyfoamintheseaAphrodite,goddessofsexuallove,was born. Afterwoundinghisfatherandtakingawayhispower,Cronusbecameruleroftheuniverse.But Cronus,inturn,fearedthathisownsonwouldsupplanthim.WhenhissisterandwifeRheagavebirth tooffspringHestia,Demeter,Hera,Hades,andPoseidonCronusswallowedthem.Onlythe youngest,Zeus,escapedthisfate,becauseRheatrickedCronus.Shegavehimastonewrappedin swaddlingclothestoswallowinplaceofthebaby.

A3 ZeusandtheOlympianGods

BustofZeus InGreekmythologyZeuswasrulerofboththeOlympiangodsandthehumanrace.Sometimesheisportrayedas ajustandmercifuldefenderoftheweak.Atothertimesheappearstobepassionate,inconstant,andvengeful. ThisancientGreekbustofZeusisintheNationalMuseuminNaples,Italy. THEBETTMANNARCHIVE/Corbis

Whenfullygrown,Zeusforcedhisfather,Cronus,todisgorgethechildrenhehadswallowed.With theirhelpandarmedwiththethunderbolt,ZeusmadewaronCronusandtheTitans,andovercame them.Heestablishedanewregime,basedonMountOlympusinnorthernGreece.Zeusruledthesky. HisbrotherPoseidonruledthesea,andhisbrotherHades,theunderworld.TheirsisterHestiaruled thehearth,andDemetertookchargeoftheharvest.ZeusmarriedhissisterHera,whobecamequeen oftheheavensandguardianofmarriageandchildbirth.AmongtheirchildrenwasAres,whosesphere ofinfluencewaswar. TwelvemajorgodsandgoddesseshadtheirhomesonMountOlympusandwereknownasthe Olympians.FourchildrenofZeusandonechildofHerajoinedtheOlympiangodsZeus,Hera, Poseidon,Hades,Hestia,Demeter,andAres.ZeussOlympianoffspringwereApollo,Artemis,Hermes, andAthena.HeragavebirthtoHephaestus.

A4 TheOffspringofZeus

Zeus'sConsortsandOffspring Zeus,theruleroftheGreekgods,hadmanyrelationshipswithGreekgoddessesandmortalwomenthatresulted inoffspring.ZeusevengavebirthtoachildwithoutamotherAthena,thegoddessofwisdom,sprangfromhis head.MetisisconsideredtobeAthenasmotherbecause,asonestoryrelates,shewasZeusspregnantwifewhen heswallowedherjustbeforeAthenaemergedfromhishead.ZeusmarriedhissisterHeraafterMetissdeath. MicrosoftCorporation.AllRightsReserved.

Zeushadnumerouschildrenbybothmortalandimmortalwomen.BythemortalSemelehehad Dionysus,agodassociatedwithwineandwithotherformsofintoxicationandecstasy.ByLeto,a Titan,ZeusfatheredthetwinsApolloandArtemis,whobecametwoofthemostimportantOlympian divinities.Artemisremainedavirginandtookhuntingasherspecialprovince.Apollobecame associatedwithmusicandprophecy.Peoplevisitedhisoracle(shrine)atDelphitoseekhisprophetic advice.BythenymphMaia,ZeusbecamefatherofHermes,theOlympiantrickstergodwhohadthe powertocrossallkindsofboundaries.Hermesguidedthesoulsofthedeaddowntotheunderworld, carriedmessagesbetweengodsandmortals,andwaftedamagicalsleepuponthewakeful. TwootherOlympiandivinities,HephaestusandAthena,hadunusualbirths.Heraconceived Hephaestus,theblacksmithgod,withoutamalepartner.SubsequentlyhesufferedthewrathofZeus, whooncehurledhimfromOlympusforcomingtotheaidofhismotherthisfalldownontotheisland ofLemnoscrippledHephaestus.ThebirthofAthenawasevenstranger.ZeusandMetis,daughterof theTitanOceanus,weretheparentsofAthena.ButGaeahadwarnedZeusthat,aftergivingbirthto thegirlwithwhomshewaspregnant,Metiswouldbearasondestinedtoruleheaven.Toavoidlosing histhronetoason,ZeusswallowedMetis,justasCronushadpreviouslyswallowedhisownchildren tothwartsuccession.MetisschildAthenawasbornfromtheheadofZeus,whichHephaestussplit openwithanaxe.Athena,anothervirgingoddess,embodiedthepowerofpracticalintelligencein warfareandcraftswork.ShealsoservedastheprotectorofthecityofAthens.

HermesHoldingtheInfantDionysus HermesHoldingtheInfantDionysus(about340bc)isattributedtotheGreeksculptorPraxiteles.Dionysus,the godofwine,hadtwodistinctaspectsecstasyandviolence.ThefollowersofDionysusoftenworshipedhimin drunkenrevelry.ThisstatueofhimasaninfantwithHermes,themessengerofthegods,wasoriginallymadefor theTempleofHeraatOlympia. BridgemanArtLibrary,London/NewYork

AnotherofZeusschildrenwasPersephonehermotherwasDemeter,goddessofgrain,vegetation, andtheharvest.OncewhenPersephonewasgatheringflowersinameadow,Hades,godofthe underworld,sawandabductedher,takingherdowntothekingdomofthedeadtobehisbride.Her griefstrickenmotherwanderedtheworldinsearchofherasaresult,fertilitylefttheearth.Zeus commandedHadestoreleasePersephone,butHadeshadcunninglygivenherapomegranateseedto eat.Havingconsumedfoodfromtheunderworld,Persephonewasobligedtoreturnbelowtheearth forpartofeachyear.Herreturnfromtheunderworldeachyearmeanttherevivalofnatureandthe beginningofspring.ThismythwastoldespeciallyinconnectionwiththeEleusinianMysteries,sacred ritualsobservedintheGreektownofElevssnearAthens.Theritualsofferedinitiatesinthemysteries thehopeofrebirth,justasPersephonehadbeenrebornafterherjourneytotheunderworld.

Athena DaughterofZeus,theruleroftheOlympiangods,AthenarankedasoneofthemostpowerfulgoddessesinGreek mythology.Athena(knownasMinervainRomanmythology)wasprotectorofnumerousGreekcities,especially Athens,andwasassociatedwithindustry,art,wisdom,andwarfare.InthetwomajorepicsofGreekantiquity,the IliadandtheOdyssey,AthenafoughtonthesideoftheGreeksintheTrojanWarandaidedOdysseusinhisreturn homefromthewar.TheGreeksdedicatednumerousbuildingsandshrinestoAthena,includingtheprominent templeinAthens,theParthenon.ThisancientstatueofAthenaisintheNationalArcheologicalMuseuminNaples, Italy. AraldodeLuca/Corbis

ManyGreekmythsreporttheexploitsoftheprincipalOlympians,butGreekmythsalsorefertoa varietyofotherdivinities,eachwiththeirparticularsphereofinfluence.Manyofthesedivinitieswere childrenofZeus,symbolizingthefactthattheybelongedtothenewOlympianorderofZeussregime. TheMuses,ninedaughtersofZeusandthegoddessofmemory,Mnemosyne,presidedoversong, dance,andmusic.TheFates,threegoddesseswhocontrolledhumanlifeanddestiny,andtheHorae, goddesseswhocontrolledtheseasons,wereappropriatelythechildrenofZeusandThemis,the goddessofdivinejusticeandlaw.FardifferentintemperamentweretheErinyes(Furies),ancientand repellentgoddesseswhohadsprungfromtheearthafterithadbeenimpregnatedwiththebloodof Uranussseveredgenitals.Terriblethoughtheywere,theErinyesalsohadalegitimateroleinthe world:topursuethosewhohadmurderedtheirownkin.

A5 DisruptiveDeities

BattleofLapithsandCentaurs InGreekmythology,thecentaurswerenotoriousforuncivilizedbehavior.WhentheLapithsneighborsofthe centaursinvitedthemtoaweddingfeast,theyattemptedtocarryoffthebrideandotherwomen.Theresulting battleisafavoritethemeinclassicalGreekart. ArtResource,NY

Humanexistenceischaracterizedbydisorderaswellasorder,andmanyofthemostcharacteristic figuresinGreekmythologyexertapowerfullydisruptiveeffect.Satyrs,whomtheGreeksimaginedas parthumanandparthorse(orpartgoat),ledlivesdominatedbywineandlust.Mythsdepictedthem ascompanionsofDionysuswhodrunkenlypursuednymphs,spiritsofnaturerepresentedasyoung andbeautifulmaidens.ManyofthejugsusedatGreeksymposia(drinkingparties)carryimagesof satyrs.

Dionysus,GreekGodofWine Dionysus,alsoknownasBacchus,wastheGreekgodofwineandwascelebratedinannualfestivals.InBacchus andAriadne,paintedbetween1518and1522bytheVenetianartistTitianandhangingintheNationalGallery, London,DionysusisshownwithAriadne,whomhemarried. ErichLessing/ArtResource,NY

Equallywild,butmorethreateningthanthesatyrs,werethesavagecentaurs.Thesemonsters, depictedashalfmanandhalfhorse,tendedtowarduncontrolledaggression.Thecentaursareknown forcombatwiththeirneighbors,theLapiths,whichresultedfromanattempttocarryofftheLapith womenataweddingfeast.ThiscombatwasdepictedinsculptureontheParthenon,atemple dedicatedtoAthenainAthens.

TheSirens InGreekmythologysirenswereseanymphswholuredsailorswiththeirsweetsinging,causingtheirshipsto founder.Odysseusovercamethetemptationbytyinghimselftohisshipsmastasshowninthispaintingby19th centuryFrenchartistLeonBellyintheMusedelHotelSandelininSaintOmer,France. Giraudon/ArtResource,NY

TheSirens,usuallyportrayedasbirdswithwomensheads,posedadifferentsortofthreat.These islanddwellingenchantressesluredmarinerstotheirdeathsbytheirresistiblebeautyoftheirsong. TheseafaringGreekheroOdysseusalonesurvivedthistemptationbyorderinghiscompanionsto blocktheirownears,tobindhimtothemastofhisship,andtoignoreallhisentreatiestobeallowed tofollowthelureoftheSirenssong.

B Mortals
TheGreekshadseveralmythstoaccountfortheoriginsofhumanity.Accordingtooneversion, humanbeingssprangfromtheground,andthisoriginexplainedtheirdevotiontotheland.According toanothermyth,aTitanmoldedthefirsthumanbeingsfromclay.TheGreeksalsohadastoryabout thedestructionofhumanity,similartothebiblicaldeluge.

B1 TheCreationofHumanBeings

CadmusSlayingtheDragon Cadmus,inGreekmythology,wasthefounderofthecityofThebes.Heisshownslayingadragonthatkilledhis companions.Cadmusthensowedthedragonsteethintheground,fromwhichsproutedarmedmen.Thesceneis depictedonagobletdatingfrom550bc,nowintheLouvreinParis. EricLessing/ArtResource,NY

ConflictingGreekmythstellaboutthecreationofhumanity.Somemythsrecounthowthepopulations ofparticularlocalitiessprangdirectlyfromtheearth.TheArcadians,residentsofaregionofGreece knownasArcadia,claimedthisdistinctionfortheiroriginalinhabitant,Pelasgus(seePelasgians).The ThebansboasteddescentfromearthbornmenwhohadsprungfromthespotwhereCadmus,the founderofThebes,hadsownthegroundwiththeteethofasacreddragon.Accordingtoanothertale, oneoftheTitans,Prometheus,fashionedthefirsthumanbeingfromwaterandearth.Inthemore usualversionofthestoryPrometheusdidnotactuallycreatehumanitybutsimplylentitassistance throughthegiftoffire. Anothertaledealtwithhumanitysrecreation.WhenZeusplannedtodestroyanancientraceliving onEarth,hesentadeluge.However,Deucalion,asonofPrometheus,andhiswifePyrrhatheGreek equivalentsofthebiblicalNoahandhiswifeputprovisionsintoachestandclimbedintoit.Carried acrossthewatersoftheflood,theylandedonMountParnassus.Afterthewatersreceded,thecouple gratefullymadesacrificestoZeus.HisresponsewastosendHermestoinstructthemhowto repopulatetheworld.Theyshouldcaststonesbehindthem.StonesthrownbyDeucalionbecame menthosethrownbyPyrrha,women.

B2 TheGreekPeople
Accordingtomyth,thevariouspeoplesofGreecedescendedfromHellen,sonofDeucalionand Pyrrha.OnegenealogyrelatedthattheDorianandtheAeolianGreekssprangfromHellenssons DorusandAeolus.TheAchaeansandIoniansdescendedfromAchaeosandIon,sonsofHellensother son,Xuthus.Thesefigures,intheirturn,producedoffspringwho,alongwithchildrenbornofunions betweendivinitiesandmortals,madeupthecollectionofheroesandheroineswhoseexploits constituteacentralpartofGreekmythology.

C Heroes
MythsaboutheroesareparticularlycharacteristicofGreekmythology.Manyoftheseheroeswerethe sonsofgods,andanumberofmythsinvolvedexpeditionsbytheseheroes.Theexpeditionsgenerally relatedtoquestsorcombats.Scholarsconsidersomeofthesemythspartlyhistoricalinnaturethat is,theyexplainedeventsinthedistantpastandwerehandeddownorallyfromonegenerationtothe next.TwoofthemostimportantofthesemihistoricalmythsinvolvethesearchfortheGoldenFleece andthequestthatledtotheTrojanWar.InothermythsheroessuchasHeraclesandTheseushadto overcomefearsomemonsters.

C1 JasonandtheGoldenFleece
JasonwasaherowhosailedintheshipArgo,withabandofheroescalledtheArgonauts,ona dangerousquestfortheGoldenFleeceattheeasternendoftheBlackSeainthelandofColchis. Jasonhadtofetchthisfamilyproperty,afleecemadeofgoldfromawingedram,inordertoregain histhrone.Adragonthatneversleptguardedthefleeceandmadethemissionnearlyimpossible. ThankstothemagicalpowersofMedea,daughteroftherulerofColchis,Jasonperformedthe impossibletasksnecessarytowinthefleeceandtotakeitfromthedragon.AfterwardMedeatook horriblerevengeonPelias,whohadkilledJasonsparents,stolenJasonsthrone,andsentJasonon thequestforthefleece.ShetrickedPeliassdaughtersintocuttinghimupandboilinghimina cauldron.Medeasstorycontinuedtoinvolvehorrificviolence.WhenJasonrejectedherforanother woman,Medeaoncemoreusedhermagictoavengeherselfwithextremecruelty.

C2 Meleager
Jasonandthesamegenerationofheroestookpartinanotheradventure,withMeleager,thesonof KingOeneusofCalydonandhiswifeAlthea.AtMeleagersbirththeFatespredictedthathewoulddie whenalogburningonthehearthwascompletelyconsumed.Hismothersnatchedthelogandhiditin achest.Meleagergrewtomanhood.Oneday,hisfatheraccidentallyomittedArtemis,thegoddessof thehunt,fromasacrifice.InrevengeArtemissentamightyboartoravagethecountry.Meleagerset outtodestroyit,accompaniedbysomeofthegreatestheroesoftheday,includingPeleus,Telamon,

Theseus,Jason,andCastorandPolydeuces.Theboarwaskilled.However,Meleagerkilledhis mothersbrothersinaquarrelaboutwhoshouldreceivetheboarskin.InherangerAltheathrewthe logontothefire,soendinghersonslifeshethenhangedherself.

C3 HeroesoftheTrojanWar

PinturicchiosTheReturnofUlysses IntheclassicalmythPenelopewaited20yearsforherhusband,Ulysses(theLatinnamefortheGreekhero Odysseus),toreturnfromtheTrojanWar.Duringhisabsence(whenhewaspresumeddead),shefendedoff suitorsbypromisingtochooseonewhenshefinishedweavingagarment.Buteachnightsheundidthedayswork onherloom.ItalianartistPinturicchiopaintedthefrescocalledTheReturnofUlysses(1509)forapalaceinSiena, Italy.ItwaslatertransferredtocanvasandisnowintheNationalGalleryinLondon.Thecanvasmeasures125.5x 152cm. NationalGalleryCollectionBykindpermissionoftheTrusteesoftheNationalGallery,London/Corbis

ThegreatestexpeditionofallwasthatwhichresultedintheTrojanWar.Theobjectofthisquestwas Helen,abeautifulGreekwomanwhohadbeenabductedbyParis,sonofKingPriamofTroy.Helens husbandMenelausandhisbrotherAgamemnonledanarmyofGreekstobesiegeTroy.Afterten years,withmanyheroesdeadonbothsides,thecityfelltothetrickoftheTrojanHorseagiant woodenhorsethattheGreeksbuiltandleftoutsidethegatesofTroywhiletheirarmypretendedto withdraw.NotknowingthatGreekheroeswerehidinginsidethehorse,theTrojanstookthehorseinto thecity.ThehiddenGreeksthenslippedout,openedthecitygatesandlettheirarmyin,thus defeatingTroy.TheIliad,anepicpoemattributedtoGreekpoetHomer,tellsthestoryoftheTrojan War.ThestorycontinuedwiththeOdyssey,anotherlongpoemattributedtoHomer,inwhichthe

GreekheroOdysseusmadehiswayhomeaftertheTrojanWar.Odysseusreturnedtohisfaithfulwife, Penelope,whereasAgamemnonreturnedtobemurderedbyhisfaithlesswife,Clytemnestra,andher lover. HistoriansconsideredtheTrojanWarentirelymythicaluntilexcavationsinTurkeyshowedthatthere hadbeencitiesonthesiteofTroyandthatfirehaddestroyedoneofthesecitiesataboutthetimeof theTrojanWar,sometimefrom1230BCto1180BC.

C4 HeraclesandTheseus

StruggleofHerculeswiththeHydraofLerna InthepaintingStruggleofHerculeswiththeHydraofLerna(1634,MuseodelPrado,Madrid,Spain),Spanish painterFranciscodeZurbarnshowedHerculesengagedinoneofhistwelvegreatlabors,battlinganineheaded serpentcalledtheHydra.Eachtimeoneofitsheadswascutoff,theHydrawouldgrowtwomoreinitsplace. StandingtoonesidewithatorchisHercules'snephewIolaus,who,accordingtooneversionofthestory,helpedto cauterizethenecksofthemonsterafterHerculescuttheheadsoff,therebypreventingthemfromgrowingback. ThePradoMuseum,Madrid/ArchivoFotograficoOronoz

ThedeedsoftheheroesHeracles(seeHercules)andTheseusexemplifyacentralthemeinGreek mythology:theconflictbetweencivilizationandwildsavagery.Eachheroconfrontedandovercame monstrousopponents,yetneitherenjoyeduncloudedhappiness.

TheseusandtheMinotaur GreekmythologicalheroTheseusrescuedAthenianyouthfromtheminotaur,abullthatwashalfhuman.His defeatofthebeastisdepictedonthisancientGreekcupfromtheMuseoArcheologicoinFlorence,Italy. Scala/ArtResource,NY

HeracleshadbeenanArgonautbutlefttheexpeditionafterbeingplungedintogriefatthelossofhis companionHylas.Inanotherstory,afitofmadnessledHeraclestokillhisownwifeandchildren.But heisbestknownforhisfeatsofprowessagainstbeastsandmonsters,whichbegansoonafterhis birth.Themostdifficultofthesefeatsareknownasthe12labors,whicharebelievedtorepresent effortstoconquerdeathandachieveimmortality.AlthoughHeraclesdied,hisfather,Zeus,gavehima placeonMountOlympus. TheseussuccessfullyslewtheMinotaur,amonsterthatwashalfmanandhalfbull.Onhisvoyage hometoAthens,however,heforgottohoistthewhitesailsthatwouldhavesignifiedthesuccessof hisadventure.Accordingtoonetale,TheseussheartbrokenfatherAegeus,seeingblacksails, believedhissonhaddied,andcommittedsuicide.TheAegeanSeainwhichhedrownedispresumably namedafterAegeus.

C5 Oedipus

OedipusandtheSphinx FrenchpainterJeanAugusteDominiqueIngreswasasuperbdraftsmanwhocreatednumerousdepictionsof historicalandmythologicalfigures.ShownhereishisOedipusandtheSphinx(1808),whichisintheLouvre museuminParis,France. Scala/ArtResource,NY

NoheroofGreekmythologyhasprovedmorefascinatingthanOedipus.Hedestroyedamonster,the Sphinx,byansweringitsriddle.Yethisultimatedownfallservedasaterrifyingwarningofthe instabilityofhumanfortune.Asababy,Oedipushadbeenabandonedonamountainsidebyhis parents,KingLaiusandQueenJocastaofThebes,becauseofaprophecythatthechildwouldgrowup tokillhisfatherandmarryhismother.Savedbythepityofashepherd,thechilditsidentity unknownwasrearedbythekingandqueenoftheneighboringcityofCorinth.Induecourse, Oedipusunwittinglyfulfilledtheprophecy,matchingthehorrificcrimeshehadcommittedwiththe equallyghastlyselfpunishmentofpiercinghisowneyeswithJocastasbroochpins.

III THENATUREOFGREEKGODSANDHEROES A GodsandGoddesses

Medusa GreekmythologytellsofthreeGorgons,ormonstrous,dragonlikesisterswithsnakesforhair,whowereshunned becausetheyturnedallwholookedatthemtostone.Theonlymortalofthethree,Medusa,waskilledwhenthe youngheroPerseusseveredherhead.Thismarblebust,attributedto17thcenturysculptorGianlorenzoBernini,is intheMuseodeiConservatoriinRome,Italy. THEBETTMANNARCHIVE/Corbis

InmanyrespectsthegodsandgoddessesofGreekmythologyresembledextraordinarilypowerful humanbeings.Theyexperiencedemotionssuchasjealousy,love,andgrief,andtheysharedwith humansadesiretoasserttheirownauthorityandtopunishanyonewhofloutedit.However,these emotionsanddesirestooksupernaturallyintenseformingodsandgoddesses.Asnumerousliterary descriptionsandartisticrepresentationstestify,theGreeksimaginedtheirgodstohavehumanshape, althoughthisformwasstronglyidealized. TheGreeks,moreover,modeledrelationshipsbetweendivinitiesonthosebetweenhumanbeings. ApolloandArtemiswerebrotherandsister,ZeusandHerawerehusbandandwife,andthesocietyof thegodsonMountOlympusresembledthatofanunrulyfamily,withZeusatitshead.Thegodscould temporarilyenterthehumanworld.Theymight,forexample,fallinlovewithamortal,asAphrodite didwithAdonisApollowithDaphneandZeuswithLeda,Alcmene,andDanae.Ortheymightdestroy amortalwhodispleasedthem,asDionysusdestroyedKingPentheusofThebesformockinghisrites.

Artemis,GoddessoftheHunt TheGreekgoddessArtemiswasassociatedwithhuntingandwildanimals.Shewasalsoconnectedtochildbirth, nature,theharvest,themoon,andtheprotectionofyoungwomen.Sheisseenhereinanearly17thcentury paintingbyFlemishartistPeterPaulRubens. Corbis

NotallGreekdivinitiesresembledhumanbeings.Theycouldalsobeuncanny,strange,andalien,a qualitymadevisibleinartisticrepresentationsofmonsters.Forexample,thesnakehairedGorgon Medusahadastarethatturnedhervictimstostone.TheGraeae,sistersoftheGorgons,weregray hairedoldcronesfrombirth.Theypossessedbutasingletoothandasingleeyebetweenthem. Typhoeuswasahideousmonsterfromwhoseshouldersgrewahundredsnakeheadswithdark, flickeringtongues.

VenusandAdonis AdoniswasaGreekmythologicalfigurenotedforhisgreatbeauty.HeisportrayedhereinVenusandAdonis, paintedin1582byItalianartistPaoloVeronese.ThepaintingisinthePradomuseuminMadrid,Spain. Scala/ArtResource,NY

EventhemajordeitiesofOlympusshowedaliencharacteristicsattimes.Arecurrentsignofdivine poweristheabilitytochangeshape,eitheronesownorthatofothers.Athenaoncetransformed herselfintoavulturePoseidononcetooktheformofastallion.Thisabilitycouldproveconvenient suchaswhenZeusassumedtheformofaswantowooLeda.ZeusturnedLycaon,adisrespectful king,intoawolftopunishhimforhiswickedness.Theabilitytoexercisepoweroverthecrossingof boundariesisacrucialfeatureofdivinepoweramongtheGreeks.

B Heroes

DeathofAchilles Achilles,aheroinGreekmythology,wasinvulnerabletoinjuryexceptononeofhisheels.Hisdeathfromanarrow intheheelisdepictedinthispaintingbyFlemishartistPeterPaulRubens.TheDeathofAchilles(16301632)isin theMuseumBoymansvanBeuningeninRotterdam,TheNetherlands. Kavaler/ArtResource,NY

Greekmythologyalsotoldhowdivinitiesinteractedwithheroes,acategoryofmortalswho,though dead,werebelievedtoretainpowertoinfluencethelivesoftheliving.Inmythsheroesrepresenteda kindofbridgebetweengodsandmortals.HeroessuchasAchilles,Perseus,andAeneaswerethe productsofaunionbetweenadeityandamortal.Thefactthatthegodsoftenintervenedtohelp heroesforexample,duringcombatindicatednottheheroesweaknessbuttheirspecialimportance. Yetheroeswerenottheequalsofthegods. WithalogiccharacteristicofGreekmyth,heroestypicallypossessedadefecttobalanceouttheir exceptionalpower.Forexample,thewarriorAchilles,herooftheTrojanWar,wasinvulnerableexcept intheheel.TheprophetCassandra,whowarnedtheTrojansofdangerssuchastheTrojanHorse, alwaysprophesiedthetruthbutwasneverbelieved.Heraclesconstitutedanextremeexampleofthis paradox:Hisawesomestrengthwasbalancedbyhistendencytobecomeavictimofhisown excessiveviolence.Nevertheless,thegodsallowedHeraclestocrosstheultimateboundarybygaining admissiontoOlympus.

IV THEFUNCTIONSOFGREEKMYTHOLOGY
Likemostothermythologicaltraditions,Greekmythsservedseveralpurposes.First,Greekmyths explainedtheworld.Second,theyactedasameansofexploration.Third,theyprovidedauthorityand legitimacy.Finally,theyprovidedentertainment.

A Explanation
Greekmythslentstructureandordertotheworldandexplainedhowthecurrentstateofthingshad originated.HesiodsTheogonynarratedthedevelopmentofthepresentorderoftheuniverseby relatingittoChaos,theoriginofallthings.Byacomplexprocessofviolence,struggle,andsexual attraction,theregimeledbyZeushadeventuallytakenover.AnotherpoembyHesiod,Worksand Days,explainedwhytheworldisfulloftrouble.Accordingtothepoemthefirstwoman,Pandora, openedajarwhoselidshehadbeenforbiddentolift.Asaresultofherdisobedienceallthediseases andmiseriespreviouslyconfinedinthejarescapedintotheworld.Suchamythalsomakesa statementaboutrelationshipsbetweenthesexesinHesiodsownworld.Scholarsassumethathe composedthepoemforalargelymaleaudiencethatwasreceptivetoatalethatputwomenatthe rootofallevil. Oneofthecommonesttypesofexplanationgiveninmythsrelatestoritual.Mythshelpedworshipers makesenseofareligiouspracticebytellinghowthepracticeoriginated.Aprimeexampleissacrifice, aritualthatinvolvedkillingadomesticatedanimalasanofferingtothegods.Theceremony culminatedinthebutchering,cooking,andsharingofthemeatofthevictim.Hesiodrecountsthe mythassociatedwiththisrite.Accordingtothismyth,thetrickyTitanPrometheustriedtooutwitZeus byofferinghimacunninglydevisedchoiceofmeals.Zeuscouldhaveeitheranapparently unappetizingdishanoxpaunch,whichhadtastymeatconcealedwithinoraseeminglydelicious one,gleamingfatontheoutside,whichhadnothingbutboneshiddenbeneath.Zeuschosethe seconddish,andeversincehumanbeingshavekeptthetastiestpartofeverysacrificefor themselves,leavingthegodsnothingbutthesavoroftherisingsmoke.

B Exploration

SophoclesOedipusRex Sophocles,consideredoneofthegreatestofallGreekdramatists,introducedseveralimportantadvancesinto Greektheaterduringthe5thcenturybc.Hisrichlydevelopedcharactersoftenexhibittragicflawsthatironically supporttheirunwelcomedestinies.InOedipusRex(OedipustheKing),Sophoclesdramatizedthefamousstoryof

Oedipus,theGreekmythologicalfigurewhokilledhisfather,theking,andmarriedhisownmother.Theblind prophetTeiresiasspeaksthewordsinthisexcerptatthepointintheplaywhenheisaskedtodivinewhohas offendedthegodsbykillingtheformerking(recitedbyanactor). (p)1992MicrosoftCorporation.Allrightsreserved./CulverPictures

Mythschartedpathsthroughdifficultterritory,examiningcontradictionsandambiguities.Forinstance, HomersIliadexplorestheconsequencesduringtheTrojanWaroftheGreekleaderAgamemnons decisiontodeprivethewarriorAchillesofhisallottedprize,afemaleslave.Achillesfeelsthat Agamemnonhasassailedhishonororworthbutwondershowfarheshouldgoinreaction.Isheright torefusetofight,ifthatmeansthedestructionoftheGreekarmy?Ishejustifiedinrejecting Agamemnonsofferofcompensation?Oneofthispoemsthemesexploresthelimitsofhonor. Thedramaticgenreoftragedyprovidestheclearestexampleofmythicalexploration(seeseeGreek LiteratureDramaandDramaticArts).ThegreatAthenianplaywrightsofthe5thcenturyBC Aeschylus,Sophocles,andEuripideswrotetragediesthatexploredsocialquestionsbyplacingthem, inextremeandexaggeratedform,inamythicalcontext.SophoclesstragicplayAntigoneconcerns justsuchanextremesituation.Twobrothershavekilledeachotherinbattle:Eteoclesdefendinghis homeland,andPolynicesattackingit.TheirsisterAntigone,indefianceofanedictbythecitysruler, attemptstoburyherostensiblytraitorousbrotherPolynices.Sophoclesraisesseveralmoralissues.Is Antigonejustifiedinseekingtoburyherbrother?Whichshouldprevail,areligiousobligationtotend andburyacorpse,oracityswellbeing?Theanswerstothesemoralissuesarefarfromclearcut,as wemightexpectfromaworkwhosesubtletyandprofundityhavesooftenbeenadmired.

C Legitimation
Mythsalsohadthefunctionoflegitimation.Aclaim,anaction,orarelationshipacquiredextra authorityifithadaprecedentinmyth.AristocraticGreekfamilieslikedtotracetheirancestrybackto theheroesorgodsofmythology.TheGreekpoetPindar,whowroteintheearly5thcenturyBC,offers ampleevidenceforthispreference.InhissongsPindarpraisedtheexploitsofcurrentvictorsinthe OlympianGamesbylinkingthemwiththedeedsoftheirmythicalancestors.Inaddition,twoGreek citystatescouldcementbondsbetweenthembyshowingthattheyhadanallianceinthe mythologicalpast.

D Entertainment

HomersIliad InthisexcerptfromHomersepicpoemtheIliad(translatedbyW.H.D.Rouse,andrecitedbyanactor)Trojan andGreekarmiesgatherfortheTrojanWar,theclassicbattleofWesternlore.Inthemeantime,themythological godsgathertodebatethefateofthehumanswhethertheywillallowthemtosettletheirdisputeinacivil manner,orwhethertheywillputtheforcesinmotionthatwillensuretotaldestructionforbothsidesandforan entirecivilization. CulverPictures/(p)1994MicrosoftCorporation.AllRightsReserved.

Finally,mythtellingwasasourceofenjoymentandentertainment.Homersepicscontainseveral descriptionsofaudiencesheldspellboundbythesongsofbards(poets),andrecitationsofHomers poemsalsocaptivatedaudiences.Publicperformancesoftragicdramawerealsohugelypopular, regularlydrawingsome15,000spectators.

V ORIGINSANDDEVELOPMENTOFGREEKMYTHOLOGY
OurknowledgeofGreekmythologybeginswiththeepicpoemsattributedtoHomer,theIliadandthe Odyssey,whichdatefromaboutthe8thcenturyBC eventhoughthestoriestheyrelateprobablyhave theiroriginsineventsthatoccurredseveralcenturiesearlier.Scholars,however,knowthattheorigins ofGreekmythologyreachevenfartherbackthanthat.

A OriginsofGreekMythology

PalaceatKnossos TheancientcityofKnossoswasacenteroftheMinoancivilization,anadvancedsocietyonCretenamedafter Minos,alegendaryCretanking.Skilledinsuchfieldsasengineeringandarchitecture,theMinoansconstructedthe palaceatKnossosin1700bc. WolfgangKaehler

Linguists(peoplewhostudylanguages)haveconcludedthatsomenamesofGreekdeities,including Zeus,canbetracedbacktogodsworshipedbyspeakersofProtoIndoEuropean,thecommon ancestoroftheGreek,Latin,andSanskritlanguages.Butitwouldbemisleadingtoregardthepeople whomayhavespokenthislanguageasoriginatorsofGreekmythologybecausemanyotherelements contributed. Archaeologistshaveshownthatmanyoftheplaceswheremythicaleventspresumablytookplace correspondtositesthathadhistoricalimportanceduringtheMycenaeanperiodofGreekhistory (secondhalfofthe2ndmillenniumBC).ScholarsthusconsideritlikelythattheMycenaeansmadea majorcontributiontothedevelopmentofthestories,evenifthiscontributionishardtodemonstrate indetail.SomescholarshavearguedthattheMinoancivilizationofCretealsohadaformative influenceonGreekmyths.ThemythoftheMinotaurconfinedinalabyrinthinthepalaceofKing Minos,forexample,mightbeamemoryofhistoricalbullworshipinthelabyrinthinepalaceatKnossos onCrete.However,thereislittleevidencethatCretanreligionsurvivedinGreece.Norhaveany ancientinscriptionsconfirmedthatMinoseverexistedoutsideofmyth. ScholarscandemonstrateinfluenceonGreekmythologyfromtheMiddleEastmuchmorereliablythan influencefromCrete.GreekmythologyowedmuchtoculturesinMesopotamiaandAnatolia,especially intherealmofcosmogony(originoftheuniverse)andtheogony(originofthegods).Totakeone example,aclearparallelexistsinanearlyMiddleEasternmythforGreekpoetHesiodsstoryabout thecastrationofUranusbyhissonCronusandthesubsequentoverthrowofCronusbyhissonZeus.

TheMiddleEasternmythtellsoftheskygodAnuwhowascastratedbyKumarbi,fatherofthegods. TheweatherandstormgodTeshub,inturn,displacedAnu.Scholarscontinuetobringtolightmore andmoresimilaritiesbetweenGreekandMiddleEasternmythologies.

B DevelopmentofGreekMythology
OurknowledgeofGreekmythscomesfromamixtureofwrittentexts,sculpture,anddecorated pottery.Scholarshavereconstructedstoriesthatcirculatedorallybyinferenceandguesswork. Homersepics,theIliadandtheOdyssey,standatthebeginningofGreekliterarytradition(seeGreek literature),eventhoughtheyalmostcertainlydependedonalengthyprevioustraditionoforalpoetry. TheIliadissetduringtheTrojanWaritfocusesontheconsequencesofaquarrelbetween AgamemnonandAchilles,twooftheleadingGreekwarriors.TheOdysseyisabouttheaftermathof theTrojanWar,whentheGreekheroOdysseusatlastreturnstohishomeontheislandofIthaca followingyearsofwanderinginwildandmagicallands.TheTrojanWarlaterprovidedsubjectmatter formanytragicdramasandforimageryoncountlesspaintedvases. HesiodsTheogony,composedinthe8thcenturyBC ataboutthesametimeastheHomericepics, gaveanauthoritativeaccountofhowthingsbegan.Thecreationoftheworld,describedbyHesiodin termsofpassionsandcrimesofthegods,isathemethatlaterGreekphilosopherssuchas EmpedoclesandPlatodevelopedbuttookinnewdirections.Thisconnectionservesasareminderthat mythologywasnotaseparateaspectofGreekculture,butonethatinteractedwithmanyotherfields ofexperience,particularlythewritingofhistory.Forexample,inthe5thcenturyBC Greekhistorian HerodotusemployednumerousthemesandstorypatternsfromGreekepicsandtragediesinwriting hishistoricalaccountofthewarbetweenGreeksandPersians(seePersianWars). AlthoughtheauthorityofHomerandHesiodremaineddominant,thepoeticretellingofmyths continuedthroughoutantiquity.Mythswereconstantlyremadeinthelightofnewsocialandpolitical circumstances.TheHellenisticperiodofGreekhistory(4thcenturyto1stcenturyBC)sawmanynew trendsinthetreatmentofmyths.Oneofthemostimportantwasthedevelopmentofmythography, thecompilationandorganizationofmythsonthebasisofparticularthemes(forexample,myths aboutmetamorphosis).SuchorganizationcorrespondedtoawishofnewlyestablishedHellenistic rulerstolendlegitimacytotheirregimesbyclaimingthattheycontinuedaculturaltraditionreaching backintoagreatpast. Artists,too,portrayedmyths.StatuesofgodsstoodinsideGreektemples,andreliefsculpturesof scenesfrommythologyadornedpedimentsandfriezesontheoutsideofthesetemples(seeGreekArt andArchitecture).AmongthebestknownexamplesaretheElginMarblesfromtheParthenonin Athens.ThesereliefsincludedepictionsofcombatbetweencentaursandLapiths. Othervisualrepresentationsofmythologyweremoremodestinsizeandscope.Thebestevidencefor theuseofmythologyinGreekpaintingcomesfrompaintedceramicvases.TheGreeksusedthese

vasesinavarietyofcontexts,fromcookerytofuneraryritualtoathleticgames.(Vasesfilledwithoil wereawardedasprizesingames.)InmostcasesscholarscansecurelyidentifytheimageryonGreek vasesasmythological,butsometimestheyhavenowayoftellingwhethertheartistintendedan allusiontomythologybecausemythbecamefusedwitheverydaylife.Forexample,doesa representationofawomanweavingsignifyPenelope,wifeofOdysseuswhospentherdaysataloom, ordoesitportraysomeoneengagedinaneverydayactivity? TheGreeksretoldmythsorally,aswellaspreservingtheminliteraryandartisticworks.TheGreeks transmittedtochildrentalesofmonstersandmythsofgodsandheroes.Oldmengatheredto exchangetalesinleschai(clubsorconversationplaces).Storytelling,whetherinwriting,art,or speech,wasattheheartofGreekcivilization.

VI THELEGACYOFGREEKMYTHOLOGY
MythologyformedacentralreferencepointinGreeksocietybecauseitwasinterwovenwithritualand otheraspectsofsocialexistence.Yetthequestionofhowfarpeoplebelievedthemythsisadifficult andprobablyunanswerableone.Someintellectuals,suchasGreekwriterPalaephatus,triedto interpretthemythsashavingfigurative(nonliteral)meanings.Writinginthe4thcenturyBC, PalaephatusinterpretedthestoriesofDiomedes,akingdevouredbyhisownmares,andofActaeon,a huntertornapartbyhisownhounds,asconcealingperfectlycredibleaccountsofyoungmenwhohad spenttoomuchmoneyontheiranimalsandsobeenfigurativelyeatenalivebydebt. Otherthinkers,suchasthe4thcenturyBC philosopherPlato,objectedtosomemythsonmoral grounds,particularlytomythsthattoldofcrimescommittedbythegods.Yetsuchskepticismseems hardlytohavealteredtheimaginativepowerandpersistenceofGreekmyths.Aslateasthe2nd centuryAD,theGreektravelerandhistorianPausaniasdescribedthemythsandcultsintheplaceshe visitedasiftheyconstitutedastilllivingcomplexofreligiousdiscourseandbehavior.

A AncientRomeandEarlyChristianity

DidoReceivingAeneas AccordingtotheRomanpoetVirgil,VenuscausedDidotofallinlovewiththeTrojanwarriorAeneaswhenhewas shipwreckedatCarthage.WhenhewasforcedtocontinuehisjourneytoRome,Didokilledherself.DidoReceiving AeneasandCupidDisguisedasAscanius,createdinthe1720sbyItalianartistFrancescoSolimena,isinthe NationalGalleryinLondon,England. FrancescoSolimena/TheNationalGallery,London/Corbis

TheancientRomanseventuallytookoverGreekcivilizationandconqueredGreece.Intheprocess, theyadaptedGreekmythology,andmythsremainedavehicleforreflectingonandcopingwiththe world.InhispoemtheAeneid,writteninthe1stcenturyBC,RomanpoetVirgilusedthethemeofthe wanderingTrojanheroAeneasandhiseventualfoundationofasettlementthatbecameRome.The AeneidnotonlycontinuesstorypatternsdevelopedinHomersepics,butitalsomakesfrequentand detailedallusionstothetextsofHomerandotherGreekwriters.ThelongpoemMetamorphosesby RomanpoetOvidembracesanenormousnumberofGreekmyths,reworkedintoacompositionthat laterhadunparalleledinfluenceonEuropeancultureoftheMiddleAgesandRenaissance.

TheJudgmentofParis TheJudgmentofParis(1635?)waspaintedbyFlemishartistPeterPaulRubens.Thepaintingisbasedonthe GreekmythinwhichtheshepherdParisisaskedbythreegoddessestodecidewhichofthemisthemostbeautiful. ThiseventultimatelyledtotheTrojanWar. BridgemanArtLibrary,London/NewYork

GreekmythologysurvivedduringChristianantiquitybyitsinterpretationasallegory(expressiveofa deeperorhiddenmeaning).EarlyChristiansincorporatedpaganstoriesintotheirownworldviewif theycouldreinterpretthestorytoexpressaconcealed,upliftingmeaning.Inthe5thcenturyAD,for example,LatinmythographerFulgentiusgaveanallegoricalreadingoftheJudgmentofParis.The GreekmythtoldofayoungTrojanshepherdfacedwithachoicebetweenthegoddessesHera,Athena, andAphrodite.EachgoddesstriedtobribeParistonameherthemostbeautiful:Heraofferingpower, Athenaofferingsuccessinbattle,andAphroditeofferingabeautifulwoman.Fulgentiusexplainedthat thechoicewasactuallyamoralone,betweenalifeofaction,alifeofcontemplation,andalife dominatedbylove.Theallegoricalapproachtothemythshasneverdiedoutwefindittodayinthe writingsofthosewhoregardmythsasexpressionsofbasic,universalpsychologicaltruths.For example,SigmundFreud,thefounderofpsychoanalysis,borrowedfromGreekmythologyin developinghisideasofhumanpsychosexualdevelopment,whichhedescribedintermsofanOedipus complexandanElectracomplex.SwisspsychiatristCarlJungbelievedthatcertainpsychicstructures hecalledarchetypeswerecommontoallpeopleinalltimesandgaverisetorecurringideassuchas mythologicalthemes.

B EuropeanArt,Music,andLiterature

BirthofVenus BirthofVenus(after1482),apaintingbyItalianartistSandroBotticelli,wascommissionedbyLorenzodeMedici. Thethemesofthishugeworkareamixtureofastrology,classicalmythology,andChristianity.Thestyleislinear, withflatspace,andtheoveralleffectisoneofgraceanddelicacy. BridgemanArtLibrary,London/NewYork

TheinfluenceofGreekmythologyonWesternart,music,andliteraturecanhardlybeexaggerated. Manyofthegreatestworksofpaintingandsculpturehavetakenmythsastheirsubject.Examples includetheBirthofVenus(after1482)byItalianRenaissancepainterSandroBotticelli,amarble sculptureofApolloandDaphne(16221625)byItalianbaroquesculptorGianlorenzoBernini,a terrifyingCronusDevouringOneofHisChildren(18201823)bySpanishpainterFranciscodeGoya, andLandscapewiththeFallofIcarus(about1558)byFlemishpainterPieterBruegel.IntheBruegel paintingpeasantscontinuewiththeirdailytoilobliviousofthemythologicaldramabeingplayedoutin theskyabove. Musicianstoo,especiallycomposersofoperaandoratorio,havefoundinspirationinancientmyths. OperaticdramatizationsofthesestoriesbeginwithOrfeo(Orpheus,1607)andIlritornod'Ulissein patria(TheReturnofUlyssestoHisHomeland,1641)byItaliancomposerClaudioMonteverdi.They continueintothe20thcenturywithElektra(1909)byGermancomposerRichardStraussandOedipus Rex(1927)byRussiancomposerIgorStravinsky. TheimpactofGreekmythologyonliteraturehasbeenincalculablygreat.Inthe20thcenturythestory ofthemurderousrevengeofOrestesonhismotherClytemnestra(forkillinghisfather,Agamemnon) hasinspiredwritersasdiverseasAmericandramatistEugeneONeill(inMourningBecomesElectra, 1931),AmericanbornpoetandplaywrightT.S.Eliot(inTheFamilyReunion,1939),andFrench philosopherandplaywrightJeanPaulSartre(inLesMouches[1943TheFlies,1946]).Amongthe mostnotableofallliteraryworksinspiredbyGreekmythologyisUlyssesbyIrishwriterJamesJoyce.

Inthisintricatenovel,Ulysses(Odysseus)becomesDublinresidentLeopoldBloom,whileBlooms wife,Molly,combinescharacteristicsoffaithfulPenelope(wifeofOdysseus)andseductiveCalypso(a seanymphwhoholdsOdysseuscaptiveonhisjourneyhome). TheinfluenceofGreekmythologyshowsnosignofdiminishing.Computergames(seeElectronic Games)andsciencefictionfrequentlyusecombatorquestorientedstorypatternsthathaveclear parallelsinclassicalmythology.Greekmythsdevelopedinaspecificancientsociety,buttheemotional andintellectualcontentofthestorieshasprovedadaptabletoabroadrangeofculturalcontexts. MicrosoftEncarta2008.19932007MicrosoftCorporation.Allrightsreserved.