Design of Structural Steel Pipe Racks

RICHARD M. DRAKE and ROBERT J. WALTER

ABSTRACT
Pipe racks are structures in petrochemical, chemical and power plants that are designed to support pipes, power cables and instrument cable
trays. They may also be used to support mechanical equipment, vessels and valve access platforms. Pipe racks are non-building structures that
have similarities to structural steel buildings. The design requirements found in the building codes are not clear on how they are to be applied to
pipe racks. Several industry references exist to help the designer apply the intent of the code and follow expected engineering practices. This
paper summarizes the building code and industry practice design criteria, design loads and other design consideration for pipe racks.

Keywords: non-building structures, pipe, racks, support, design

P ipe racks are structures in petrochemical, chemical and

power plants that support pipes, power cables and instru-
ment cable trays. Occasionally, pipe racks may also support
To allow maintenance access under the pipe rack, trans-
verse frames (bents) are typically moment-resisting frames
that support gravity loads and resist lateral loads transverse
mechanical equipment, vessels and valve access platforms. to the pipe rack. See Figure 1 for a typical pipe bent. Al-
Pipe racks are also referred to as pipe supports or pipeways. though the bent is shown with fixed base columns, it can also
Main pipe racks transfer material between equipment and be constructed with pinned base columns if the supported
storage or utility areas. Storage racks found in warehouse piping can tolerate the lateral displacement.
stores are not pipe racks, even if they store lengths of piping. The transverse frames are typically connected with lon-
gitudinal struts. If diagonal bracing is added in the vertical
plane, then the struts and bracing act together as concentri-
cally braced frames to resist lateral loads longitudinal to the
pipe rack. See Figure 2 for an isometric view of a typical
pipe rack.
If the transverse frames are not connected with longitu-
dinal struts, the pipe rack is considered to be “unstrutted.”
The frame columns act as cantilevers to resist lateral loads
longitudinal to the pipe rack.

Fig 1. Typical transverse frame (bent).

Richard M. Drake, S.E., SECB, Senior Fellow, Structural Engineering, Fluor

Enterprises, Inc., Aliso Viejo, CA (corresponding author). E-mail: rick.drake@
fluor.com
Robert J. Walter, S.E., P.E., Principal Civil/Structural Engineer, CB&I Steel
Plate Structures, Plainfield, IL. E-mail: rwalter@cbi.com Fig. 2. Typical four-level pipe rack consisting of eight
transverse frames connected by longitudinal struts.

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 DESIGN CRITERIA the weight of piping, piping insulation, cable tray, pro-
cess equipment and vessels plus their contents (fluid
In most of the United States, the governing building code
load). The piping and cable tray loads may be based on
is the International Building Code (IBC) (ICC, 2009). The
actual loads or approximated by using uniform loads.
scope of this code applies to buildings and other structures
The PIP Structural Design Criteria recommends a
within the governing jurisdiction. The IBC prescribes struc-
uniformly distributed load of 40 psf for pipe, which
tural design criteria in Chapters 16 through 23. These de-
is equivalent to 8-in.-diameter schedule 40 pipes filled
sign criteria adopt by reference many industry standards
with water at 15-in. spacing. Other uniform loads may
and specifications that have been created in accordance with
be used based on client requirements and engineering
rigorous American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
judgment. For cable tray levels, a uniform distributed
procedures.
load of 20 psf for a single level of cable trays and 40
By reference, many loads are prescribed in ASCE 7
psf for a double level of cable trays may be used unless
(ASCE, 2006). Similarly, most structural steel material ref-
actual loading is greater.
erences are prescribed in AISC 360 (AISC, 2005b). Most
structural steel seismic requirements are prescribed in AISC • Empty dead load (De): The empty weight of piping,
341 (AISC, 2005a) and AISC 358 (AISC, 2006, 2009). piping insulation, cable tray, process equipment and
The IBC and its referenced industry standards and specifi- vessels. When using approximate uniform loads, 60%
cations primarily address buildings and other structures to a of the operating dead load for piping levels is typically
lesser extent. Design criteria for non-building structures are used. Engineering judgment should be used for cable
usually provided by industry guidelines. These guidelines tray levels.
interpret and supplement the building code and its refer-
• Test dead load (Dt): The empty weight of the pipes
enced documents. In the case of pipe racks, additional de-
plus the weight of the test medium.
sign criteria are provided by Process Industry Practices, PIP
STC01015 (PIP, 2007) and ASCE guidelines for petrochem- The use of large approximate uniform loads may be conser-
ical facilities (ASCE, 1997a, 1997b). In this article, the IBC vative for the sizing of members and connections. However,
requirements govern. The aforementioned industry stan- conservatively large uniform loads can become unconserva-
dards and specifications apply because they are referenced tive for uplift, overturning and period determination.
by the IBC. The PIP practices and ASCE guidelines may be
used for pipe racks because they supplement the IBC and Live Loads (L)
the referenced industry standards and specifications. How-
ever, the PIP practices and ASCE guidelines are not code- Live loads are defined in the IBC as “Those loads produced
referenced documents. by the use and occupancy of the … structure, and do not
include construction or environmental loads such as wind
DESIGN LOADS load, snow load, rain load, earthquake load, flood load, or
Dead Loads (D) dead load.” Live loads are prescribed in IBC Section 1607,
with no reference to ASCE 7 or any industry standard or
Dead loads are defined in the IBC as “the weight of materi- specification.
als of construction … including, but not limited to … struc- The minimum live loads applied to platforms and stairs
tural items, and the weight of fixed service equipment, such that are part of the pipe rack structure shall meet the mini-
as cranes, plumbing stacks and risers, electrical feeders …” mum loads per IBC Table 1607.1:
Dead loads are prescribed in the IBC Section 1606, with no
reference to ASCE 7 or any industry standard or specification. • Stairs: Per item 35, “stairs and exits—all others” shall
The PIP Structural Design Criteria prescribes specific be designed for a 100-psf uniform load or a 300-lb
dead loads for pipe racks. Pipe racks and their foundations point load over an area of 4 in.2, whichever produces
should be designed to support these loads applied on all the greater load effects.
available rack space, unless other criteria is provided by the • Platforms: Per item 39, “Walkways and elevated plat-
client. forms” shall be designed for 60-psf uniform load.
• Structure dead load (Ds): The weight of materials The PIP Structural Design Criteria also prescribes specific
forming the structure and all permanently attached live loads which may be applicable to platforms and stairs
appurtenances. This includes the weight of fire pro- that are part of the pipe racks. These loads are higher than
tection material, but does not include the weight of required by the IBC Building Code:
piping, cable trays, process equipment and vessels.
• Stairs: Design for separate 100-psf uniform load and
• Operating dead load (Do): The operating dead load is 1,000-lb concentrated load.

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 • Platforms: Design for separate 75-psf uniform load • Evaluate drift limits in accordance with ASCE 7,
and 1,000-lb concentrated load assumed to be uni- Chapter 12.
formly distributed over an area 22 ft by 22 ft.1
• Consider pipe racks to be non-building structures in
Either of the preceding design criteria is acceptable and may accordance with ASCE 7, Chapter 15.
be reduced by the reduction in live loads provisions of IBC.
• Consider the recommendations of Guidelines for Seis-
Often, the live load design criteria are specified by the cli-
mic Evaluation and Design of Petrochemical Facilities
ent and may be larger to accommodate additional loads for
(ASCE, 1997a).
maintenance.
• Use occupancy category III and an importance fac-
Thermal Loads (T ) tor (I ) of 1.25, unless specified otherwise by client
Thermal loads are defined in the IBC as “Self-straining forc- criteria.
es arising from contraction or expansion resulting from tem- • Consider an operating earthquake load (Eo). This is the
perature change.” Thermal loads may be caused by changes load considering the operating dead load (Do) as part
in ambient temperature or may be caused by the design (op- of the seismic effective weight.
erating) temperature of the pipe.
The PIP Structural Design Criteria prescribes specific • Consider an empty earthquake load (Ee). This is the
thermal loads for pipe racks: load considering the empty dead load (De) as part of
the seismic effective weight.
• Thermal forces (T ): The self-straining thermal forces
caused by the restrained expansion of the pipe rack The ASCE Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation and Design
structural members. of Petrochemical Facilities is based on the 1994 Uniform
Building Code (UBC) (ICBO, 1994), and references to vari-
• Pipe anchor and guide forces (Af): Pipe anchors and ous seismic load parameters are based on obsolete allowable
guides restrain the pipe from moving in one or more stress design equations not used in the IBC. Nevertheless,
directions and cause expansion movement to occur at this document is a useful resource for consideration of earth-
desired locations in a piping system. Anchor and guide quake effects.
loads are determined from a stress analysis of an in-
dividual pipe. Beams, struts, columns, braced anchor Wind Loads (W)
frames and foundations must be designed to resist ac-
Wind loads are prescribed in IBC Section 1609. This section
tual pipe anchor and guide loads.
references ASCE 7 as an acceptable alternative to the IBC
• Pipe friction forces (Ff): These are friction forces on requirements. Most design practitioners use the ASCE  7
the pipe rack structural members caused by the sliding wind load requirements.
of pipes in response to thermal expansion due to the The PIP Structural Design Criteria prescribes that wind
design (operating) temperature of the pipe. For fric- loads for pipe racks are determined in accordance with
tion loads on individual structural members, use the ASCE 7 and the following:
larger of 10% of the total piping weight or 40% of the
• Wind drift with the full wind load should not exceed
weight of the largest pipe undergoing thermal move-
the pipe rack height divided by 100.
ment: 10% of the total piping weight assumes that the
thermal movements on the individual pipes do not oc- • Consider partial wind load (Wp). This is the wind load
cur simultaneously; 40% of the largest pipe weight as- determined in accordance with ASCE  7 based on a
sumes steel-on-steel friction. wind speed of 68 mph. This wind load should be used
in load combination with structure dead loads (Ds) and
Earthquake Loads (E) test dead loads (Dt).
Earthquake loads are prescribed in IBC Section 1613. This The ASCE Wind Guideline (ASCE, 1997b) recommends
section references ASCE 7 for the determination of earth- that wind loads for pipe racks are determined in accordance
quake loads and motions. Seismic detailing of materials pre- with ASCE 7 and the following:
scribed in ASCE 7 Chapter 14 is specifically excluded from
this reference. Seismic detailing of structural steel materials • Calculate wind on the pipe rack structure, neglecting
are prescribed in IBC Chapter 22. any shielding. Use a force coefficient of Cf = 1.8 on
The PIP Structural Design Criteria prescribes that earth- structural members, or alternatively use Cf = 2.0 be-
quake loads for pipe racks are determined in accordance low the first level and Cf = 1.6 above the first level.
with ASCE 7 and the following: • Calculate transverse wind on each pipe level. The trib-
utary height for each pipe level should be taken as the

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 pipe diameter (including insulation) plus 10% of the below consider only the load types typically applicable to
pipe rack transverse width. The tributary area is the pipe racks (D, L, T, W and E ). Loads usually not applicable
tributary height times the tributary length of the pipes. to pipe racks are roof live (Lr), snow (S ), rain (R ), ice (Di)
Use a minimum force coefficient of Cf = 0.7 on pipes. and lateral earth pressure (H ).
• Calculate transverse wind on each cable tray level. The 1.4(D + F ) [IBC Eq. 16-1]
tributary height for each pipe level should be taken as
1.2(D + T ) + 1.6L [IBC Eq. 16-2]
the largest tray height plus 10% of the pipe rack trans-
verse width. The tributary area is the tributary height 1.2D + (0.5L or 0.8W ) [IBC Eq. 16-3]
times the tributary length of the cable tray. Use a mini-
1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L [IBC Eq. 16-4]
mum force coefficient of Cf = 2.0 on cable trays.
1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L [IBC Eq. 16-5]
Rain Loads (R) 0.9D + 1.6W [IBC Eq. 16-6]
Rain loads are prescribed in IBC Section 1611. The IBC re- 0.9D + 1.0E [IBC Eq. 16-7]
quirements are intended for roofs that can accumulate rain
water. Pipe rack structural members, piping and cable trays The PIP Structural Design Criteria prescribes specific
do not accumulate rain water. Unless the pipe rack supports strength load combinations for pipe racks. However, the PIP
equipment that can accumulate rain water, rain loads need load combinations do not consider platforms as part of a pipe
not be considered. rack structure and do not include live loads. The following
combinations have been modified by the authors to include
Snow Loads (S) live loads for pipe racks that may have platforms. These load
combinations are judged to be consistent with the IBC load
Snow loads are prescribed in IBC Section 1608. This section combinations and include loads not considered by the IBC.
references ASCE 7 for the determination of snow loads. The
IBC provisions are intended for determining snow loads on 1.4(Ds + Do + Ff + T + Af )
roofs. Typically, pipe racks are much different than building 1.4(Ds + Dt)
roofs, and the flat areas of a pipe rack where snow can accu-
mulate vary. Thus, engineering judgment must be used when 1.2(Ds + Do + Ff + T + Af ) + 1.6L
applying snow loads. 1.2(Ds + Do + Af ) + (1.6W or 1.0Eo) + 0.5L
The flat-roof snow load could be used for determining the
snow load on a pipe rack. The area to apply the snow load 1.2(Ds + Dt) + 1.6Wpartial
depends on what is in the pipe rack and how close the items 0.9(Ds + De) + 1.6W
are to each other. For example, if the pipe rack contains cable
trays with covers, the area could be based on the solidity 0.9(Ds + Do) + 1.2Af + 1.0Eo
in the plan view. If the pipe rack only contains pipe with 0.9(Ds + De) + 1.0Ee
large spacing, the area would be small because only small
amounts of snow will accumulate on pipe. To evaluate effects of these load combinations, they must
By using this approach, combinations with snow load usu- be further expanded to consider the possible directions that
ally do not govern the design except in areas of heavy snow lateral loads may occur. For example, wind loads would be
loading. In areas of heavy snow loading, the client may pro- applied in all four horizontal directions. In addition, lateral
vide snow load requirements based on their experience. loads must consider multiple gravity load conditions.

Ice Loads (Di) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Layout
Atmospheric ice loading is not a requirement of the IBC
code. However, atmospheric ice load provisions are pro- An elevated multi-level pipe rack may be required for plant
vided in ASCE 7, Chapter 10. It is recommended that ice layout, equipment or process reasons. Multiple levels are not
loading be investigated to determine if it may influence the mandatory; it is simply a question of space. As long as the
design of the pipe rack. required space beneath the pipe rack for accessibility and
road crossings has been taken into account, the rack can re-
Load Combinations main single level. However, in most cases, multiple levels
will be required. Within plant units, most process pipes are
Load combinations are defined in IBC Section 1605, with connected to related unit equipment. Placing these pipes in
no reference to ASCE 7 or any industry standard or speci- the lower levels results in shorter pipe runs, savings on pip-
fication. The IBC strength load combinations that are listed ing costs and better process flow conditions.

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 There are two main purposes of the cantilevers outside the systems, and the choices are special steel moment frame
pipe-rack columns: (1) to support sloping nonpressure pipes (SMF), intermediate steel moment frame (IMF) and ordi-
and (2) to support lines connecting adjacent equipment on nary steel moment frame (OMF).
the same side of the pipe rack. In both cases, using cantile- In the longitudinal direction, if braced frames are present,
vers allows long straight runs of level pressure piping and the choices are usually special steel concentrically braced
electrical work without interruption. frame (SCBF) and ordinary concentrically braced frame
Ambient thermal loads are typically neglected for pipe (OCBF), although there is nothing to preclude choosing steel
racks because they are often insignificant to other loads. eccentrically braced frames (EBF) or buckling-restrained
However, there may be cases where they should be consid- braced frames (BRBF). If braced frames are not present, the
ered, such as project sites in locations with extreme tempera- choices in the longitudinal direction are one of the cantile-
ture ranges. If thermal loads are considered for long pipe vered column systems.
racks, structure expansion joints should be placed approxi- In both directions, the seismic system selected must be
mately 200 to 300 ft apart. These expansion joints could be permitted for the SDC and for the pipe rack height. ASCE
provided by either omitting the struts at one bay or by using Table 15.4-1 footnotes (italics below) permit specific height
long-slotted holes in the strut-to-column connections in the limits for pipe racks detailed for specific seismic systems:
bay. If expansion joints are provided, each pipe rack section
• With R = 3.25: Steel ordinary braced frames are per-
between joints should have at least one bay of horizontal and
mitted in pipe racks up to 65 ft (20 m).
vertical bracing near the center of the section.
Based on the authors’ experience, adjustments to the lay- • With R = 3.5: Steel ordinary moment frames are per-
out can also be used to help prevent vibration of piping due mitted in pipe racks up to a height of 65 ft (20 m) where
to wind in long pipe racks. Harmonic pipe vibration is re- the moment joints of field connections are constructed
duced if every seventh bent is spaced at approximately 80% of bolted end plates. Steel ordinary moment frames are
of the typical bent spacing. permitted in pipe racks up to a height of 35 ft (11 m).
• With R = 4.5: Steel intermediate moment frames are
Seismic
permitted in pipe racks up to a height of 65 ft (20 m)
ASCE 7 defines a non-building structure similar to build- where the moment joints of field connections are con-
ings as a “Non-building Structure that is designed and con- structed of bolted end plates. Steel intermediate mo-
structed in a manner similar to buildings, that will respond to ment frames are permitted in pipe racks up to a height
strong ground motion in a manner similar to buildings, and of 35 ft (11 m).
have basic lateral and vertical seismic force resisting sys-
tems similar to buildings.” Examples of non-building struc- Period Calculations
tures similar to buildings include pipe racks.
The fundamental period determined from ASCE 7 Chapter
As a non-building structure, consideration of seismic ef-
12 equations is not relevant for non-building structures, in-
fects on pipe racks should be in accordance with ASCE 7
cluding pipe racks, because it does not have the same mass
Chapter 15. ASCE 7 Chapter 15 refers to Chapter 12 and
and stiffness distributions assumed in the Chapter 12 empiri-
other chapters, as applicable.
cal equations for building structures. It is acceptable to use
any analysis method that accurately models the mass and
Seismic System Selection
stiffness of the structure, including finite element models
Select seismic-force-resisting-system (SFRS), design pa- and the Rayleigh method. The determination of the pipe rack
rameters (R, Ωo, Cd), and height limitations from either period can be affected by the stiffness of the piping leaving
ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 or ASCE 7 Table 15.4-1. Use of the pipe rack. When this stiffness is not accounted for in the
ASCE 7 Table 15.4-1 permits selected types of non-building period calculation, it is recommended that the calculated pe-
structures that have performed well in past earthquakes to be riod be reduced by 10%.
constructed with less restrictive height limitations in Seismic
Design Categories (SDC) D, E and F than if ASCE 7 Table Analysis Procedure Selection
12.2-1 was used. Note that ASCE 7 Table 15.4-1 includes
options where seismic detailing per AISC 341 is not required ASCE 7 Chapter 12 specifies when a dynamic analysis is
for SDC D, E or F. For example, ordinary moment frames of required. The philosophy underlying this section is that dy-
steel can be designed with R = 1 without seismic detailing namic analysis is always acceptable for design. Static proce-
per AISC 341. The AISC 341 seismic detailing requirements dures are allowed only under certain conditions of regularity,
can also be avoided in SDC B and C for structural steel sys- occupancy and height.
tems if R = 3 or less, excluding cantilevered column systems. A dynamic analysis procedure is required for a pipe rack
The transverse bents are usually moment-resisting frame if it is assigned to SDC D, E, or F and it either:

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 • has T ≥ 3.5Ts, or be divided by the quantity (R/I). ASCE 7 does not allow you
to scale down MRSA force levels to ELF force levels be-
• exhibits horizontal irregularity type 1a or 1b or verti-
cause the ELF procedure may result in an underprediction
cal irregularity type 1a, 1b, 2, or 3 (see ASCE 7 Chap-
of response for structures with significant higher mode par-
ter 12).
ticipation. On the other hand, when the MRSA base shear
A dynamic analysis procedure is always allowed for a pipe is less than 85% of the ELF base shear, the MRSA results
rack. The most common dynamic analysis procedure used must be scaled up to no less than 85% of the ELF values.
for pipe racks is the Modal Response Spectrum Analysis This lower limit on the design base shear is imposed to ac-
(ASCE 7 Chapter 12). The Equivalent Lateral Force Proce- count for higher mode effects and to ensure that the design
dure (ASCE 7 Chapter 12) is allowed for a pipe rack struc- forces are not underestimated through the use of a structural
ture if a dynamic analysis procedure is not required. The model that does not accurately represent the mass and stiff-
Simplified Alternative Structural Design Criteria for Simple ness characteristics of the pipe rack.
Bearing Wall or Building Frame Systems is not appropriate
and should not be used for pipe racks. VMRSA ≥ 0.85VELF (1)

Equivalent Lateral Force Method Analysis

Drift
The Equivalent Lateral Force (ELF) procedure is a static
analysis procedure. The basis of the ELF procedure is to To obtain amplified seismic displacements, the displace-
calculate the effective earthquake loads in terms of a base ment results calculated from the elastic analysis must be
shear, which is dependent on the structure’s mass (effective multiplied by the quantity Cd /I to account for the expected
seismic weight), the imposed ground acceleration, the struc- inelastic deformations. The displacement results must be
ture dynamic characteristics, the structure ductility, and the multiplied by Cd for checking pipe flexibility and structure
structure importance. The base shear is then applied to the separation. The displacement results must multiplied by the
structure as an equivalent lateral load vertically distributed quantity Cd /I when meeting the drift limits of Table 12.12-1.
to the various elevations using code prescribed equations It is important that the drift of pipe racks is compared to
that are applicable to building structures. Using this verti- other adjacent structures where piping and cable trays run.
cal distribution of forces, seismic design loads in individual The piping and cable tray must be flexible enough to accom-
members and connections can be determined. modate the movements of the pipe rack and other adjacent
ASCE 7 determines design earthquake forces on a strength structure.
basis, allowing direct comparison with the design strength of
individual structural members. Seismic Detailing Requirements
The selection of a seismic-force-resisting system from
Modal Response Spectra Analysis
ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 invokes seismic detailing require-
It is acceptable to use Modal Response Spectrum Analysis ments prescribed in ASCE 7 Chapter 14. Because ASCE
(MRSA) procedure for the analysis of pipe racks. It may 7 Chapter 14 is specifically excluded by the IBC, seismic
be required to use a dynamic analysis procedure, such as detailing requirements for structural steel systems shall be
MRSA, if certain plan and/or vertical irregularities are iden- taken from IBC Chapter 22 and AISC 341. The selection of
tified. The basis of MRSA is that the pipe rack’s mass (ef- a seismic-force-resisting system from ASCE 7 Table 15.4-1
fective seismic weight) and stiffness are carefully modeled, directly invokes seismic detailing requirements prescribed in
allowing the dynamic analysis of multiple vibration modes, AISC 341.
resulting in an accurate distribution of the base shear forces AISC 341 includes seismic detailing requirements for
throughout the structure. The MRSA shall include sufficient each structural steel system listed in the ASCE 7 tables. In
number of modes in order to obtain a minimum of 90% mass general, there is a relationship between R values and seismic
participation. Two MRSA runs would be required. The first detailing requirements. Lower R values and higher earth-
run would include the operating dead load (Do) as the seis- quake design forces are accompanied by minimal seismic
mic effective weight to determine the operating earthquake detailing requirements. Higher R values and lower earth-
load (Eo). The second run would include the empty dead load quake design forces are accompanied by more restrictive
(De) as the seismic effective weight to determine the empty seismic detailing requirements to provide greater ductility.
earthquake load (Ee). AISC 341 prescribes that beams in OMF systems do not
The MRSA input ground motion parameters (SDS, SD1) are require lateral bracing beyond those requirements prescribed
used to define the ASCE 7 elastic design response spectrum. in AISC 360. However, beams in IMF and SMF systems
To obtain “static force levels,” the MRSA force results must have progressively more restrictive requirements for lateral

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 bracing of beams that can only be met by the addition of a frame. As a result, the pipe rack must be treated as a nonre-
horizontal bracing system at each pipe level. For this reason, dundant structure.
it may be more economical to select an OMF system for the
• For a transverse bent to qualify for ρ = 1.0, it would
transverse bents.
need to have four or more columns and three or more
AISC 341 prescribes that beam-to-column connections
bays at each level. This would ensure that the loss of
for IMF and SMF systems must be based on laboratory test-
moment resistance at both ends of a single beam would
ing. OMF beam-to-column connections may be either calcu-
not result in more than a 33% loss of story strength.
lated to match the expected plastic moment strength of the
Otherwise, ρ = 1.3.
beam or based on laboratory testing. AISC 358 prescribes
specific requirements for laboratory tested systems appro- • For an individual longitudinal braced frame to qualify
priate for use in seismic moment frame systems. One of the for ρ = 1.0, it would need to have two or more bays
systems included in AISC 358 is the bolted end plate mo- of chevron or X-bracing (or four individual braces) at
ment connection, commonly used in pipe rack construction. each level on each frame line. This would ensure that
These connections are popular in industrial plants because the loss of an individual brace or connection would
they involve no field welding. See Figure 3 for the AISC 358 not result in more than a 33% loss of story strength
extended end plate connections. nor cause an extreme torsional irregularity (type 1b).
Supplement No. 1 to AISC 358 adds another laboratory Otherwise, ρ = 1.3.
tested connection that does not involve field welding, the If the pipe rack is provided with a horizontal bracing sys-
bolted flange plate moment connection (along with two ad- tem that would serve as a diaphragm and provide a load path
ditional connections). This type of connection is not used in for lateral transfer, the pipe rack can be treated as a redun-
pipe racks because it is not practical to support piping at the dant structure.
bolted top flange plates.
• For a pipe rack to qualify in the transverse direction
Redundancy in SDC A, B or C for ρ = 1.0, it would need to have horizontal bracing
between all transverse bents and a minimum of four
In accordance with ASCE 7 for all structures, ρ = 1.0. transverse bents required. Otherwise, ρ = 1.3.

Redundancy in SDC D, E or F • For a pipe rack to qualify in the longitudinal direc-

tion for ρ = 1.0, there would need to be a minimum of
The typical pipe rack has no horizontal bracing system that four transverse bents, and each longitudinal frame line
would serve as a diaphragm. If one individual bent fails, would need to have two or more individual braces at
there is no load path for lateral force transfer to the adjacent each level. Otherwise, ρ = 1.3.

(a) Four-bolt (b) Four-bolt (c) Eight-bolt

unstiffened, 4E unstiffened, 4ES stiffened, 8ES

Fig. 3. Extended end plate connections as shown in AISC 358-05.

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 Wind Coatings
Most of the wind provisions in ASCE 7 pertain to the deter- The coatings used for pipe racks are typically specified by
mination of wind forces on buildings. Section 6.5.13 per- the client to match the rest of the facility and to meet de-
tains to open structures such as pipe racks. The shape fac- mands of the environment. The following coating systems
tors provided previously in this article are based on ASCE are typically used:
7 Figure 6-21. • Hot dip galvanizing: Hot dip galvanizing is the most
commonly used coating because it usually provides
Pressures and Forces the lowest life-cycle cost. The disadvantage is that field
Usually, wind pressures are applied to all structural elements welding should be avoided to minimize repair of galva-
of a pipe rack with no shielding in the four horizontal direc- nizing and the safety issues with welding of galvanized
tions. However, it is common practice to omit wind loads materials. Connections and members must be detailed to
on horizontal bracing or other interior horizontal members mitigate the temperature effects of hot dip galvanizing.
when they are enclosed by beams and stringers in all four • Paint: Paint can be shop or field applied. Painted struc-
directions. This is a reasonable approach considering that tural steel usually has a higher life-cycle cost.
wind loads are already applied on the beams or stringers sur- • Hot dip galvanized and painted: For extremely corrosive
rounding the interior members, the bracing members are not environments, such as locations with frequent salt spray,
perpendicular to the wind direction, and the piping and tray both hot dip galvanizing and compatible paint systems
above the horizontal member further shield these members. are used.
The determination of the wind force on piping and cable For the coating system to perform properly, all members and
trays, which assumes shielding, has already been provided connections must use an orientation and be detailed to avoid
earlier in this article. These loads are typically applied as a the collection of water. Where water accumulation cannot
point load at the midspan of the beam supporting the piping be avoided, drain holes must be provided. Some member
and cable trays. combinations such as back-to-back angles or tees should be
Where pipe racks include platforms, the beams support- avoided. These types of configurations cannot be repainted
ing the handrail would include the wind load based on the without disassembling.
area of the handrail. The torsion due to the wind load on the
handrail is usually negligible. The clips and bolts attaching Fire Protection
the handrail posts to the supporting beam should be sized for Fire protection can be provided by passive systems or active
the moment due to wind. The wind load may be larger than systems. There are many commercially available tested and
the point loads required per IBC 1607.7 or ASCE 7 Section listed passive systems. Systems are usually rated for two to
4.4 when light fixtures, cable trays or conduit are attached to four hours. Typical passive systems include normal weight
the handrail posts. concrete, lightweight concrete, spray-on cementitious coat-
The bolted end plate moment connection is commonly ings and intumenscent coatings. Coatings may be shop or
used for the beam-to-column connections in pipe rack con- field applied. Active systems, such as fire water spray sys-
struction. These connections are popular in industrial plants tems, are less common. The type of system selected depends
because they involve no field welding. Design of these con- on client preference and economics. It also may be dictated
nections for wind loads is prescribed in AISC Steel Design by the industry specific standards provided by the National
Guide 4 (Murray and Sumner, 2003). These connections are Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
very similar to those used in AISC 358 and share common The design of the pipe rack is required to take into account
laboratory test results and procedural steps. Figure 3 is also the following considerations when fire protection systems or
applicable for the AISC Steel Design Guide 4 extended end coatings are used:
plate connections.
• Additional dead weight, which must be included in the
Drift dead load of the structure (Ds) and included in the seis-
mic mass.
Drift limitations for wind loads are typically limited to the
lesser of either a drift limit ratio as a function of pipe rack • Additional wind load due to the increased size of the
height or the amount of displacement that the piping can member profile with fire proofing.
tolerate. The acceptable drift limit ratio varies based on the • Connection types and geometry, which may require
specific industry or owner. A typical drift limit ratio is the offsets to accommodate members with shop applied
pipe rack height divided by 100. fire protection.
Piping flexibility and the resulting loads to adjacent struc-
tures or equipment must also be considered. • Structural steel coating selection to be compatible with

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 fire protection system. Fire protection material should load even though the piping analysis may indicate no lateral
not be considered as a coating that will prevent corro- load. Pipe supports acting as pipe guides or axial line stops
sion. Fire protection material may accelerate corrosion should also have friction loads applied to the support beam
if improperly detailed or applied. in addition to the guide or axial line stop load.
When guides or other types of supports apply concentrat-
• The stiffness of fire protection materials cannot be
ed forces or moments to the top flange, the top flange must
used to resist loads.
be checked for local bending effects. The reaction of a typi-
cal pipe shoe support is assumed to act over the beam web
Cold Spill Protection
and would not cause local flange bending.
For pipe racks supporting piping that contains low-tempera- Pipe anchors and guides that resist forces are usually pres-
ture or cryogenic fluid, cold spill protection may be required. ent in pipe racks. Bracing may be required if the pipe rack
The requirements are usually dictated by the client or indus- beams cannot provide the necessary strength and stiffness to
try standards. Typically, full-weight concrete or cementitious accommodate the forces.
spray-on coatings used for fire protection are used for cold Pipe anchors that resist moments should be avoided in
spill protection. Currently, a few industry standards have re- elevated pipe racks. It is usually difficult and expensive to
quirements pertaining to cold spill protection, but they are provide the required torsional strength and stiffness to resist
subject to interpretation. There are few guidelines provided moments.
for the volume or duration of the cold spill and little infor-
mation on the effectiveness of fire proofing materials used Interface between Cable Trays
for cold spill protection. The locations and the type of cold and Support Beams
spill protection are often specified by the client. The same
Cable trays can be directly supported on the support beam
design considerations used for fire protection must be used
steel, or Unistrut can be used between the beam and the
when cold spill protection is to be provided.
cable tray.

Support Beams Torsion on Support Beams

Beams that support pipe and cable trays have several consid- Horizontal loads from piping or cable tray loads are usually
erations for their proper design. Support beams are typically applied perpendicular to the top flange of the support beam.
the beams of the transverse bents and may also include the These loads do not pass through the shear center of the beam
stringers running longitudinally. and a torsional loading is created. The resulting torsional
loading should be evaluated in accordance with methods
Lateral Bracing of Support Beams provided in AISC Steel Design Guide 9 (Seaburg and Carter,
1997). The torsional stresses should be combined with other
Piping and cable trays do not act as reliable lateral bracing
stresses as prescribed in AISC 360.
for the compression flange of support beams. Piping is typi-
cally not attached to the support beam, and friction alone
Stability Analysis and Design
cannot provide reliable restraint against lateral torsional
Acceptable Methods
buckling (LTB). Piping thermal movements may also help
cause LTB rather than prevent it. Cable trays should not be AISC 360 allows several methods for the stability analysis
considered as lateral bracing because they do not sufficiently and design of frames:
prevent movement in the longitudinal direction of the pipe
• Second-Order Elastic Analysis
rack.
• Second-Order Analysis by Amplified First-Order
Interface between Pipes and Support Beams Elastic Analysis

There are many configurations in which pipes may be sup- • Direct Analysis Method
ported and restrained. Vertical supports, intended to support If properly applied, all three methods are appropriate for use
gravity loads, may also have horizontal loads due to friction. for pipe racks. The first two methods are acceptable for use
The friction could be a result of thermal, operating, wind provided that the ratio of second-order drift to first-order
or seismic loads on the piping. Note that friction loads due drift is less than or equal to 1.50. The Direct Analysis Meth-
to wind and seismic conditions must be considered for the od is always acceptable.
design of the supporting member but are not considered as When using the first two methods, effective length factors
resisting the wind or seismic force for the pipe. (K) need to be calculated to determine the column strengths.
The support beam should be designed for some friction

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 Unstrutted Pipe Racks To quantify this conservatism, eigenvalue analyses were
performed to determine effective length factors for unstrut-
As previously discussed, pipeways may or may not include
ted columns in typical pipe rack configurations with equal
longitudinal struts connecting the columns of the transverse
loads at each level (see Figure 4).
frames. Pipe racks without longitudinal struts are called un-
strutted pipe racks. The transverse frame columns of unstrut- • For a single-level pipe rack loaded as shown in Figure
ted pipe racks will act as cantilevered columns in the longi- 4, the effective length factor is determined to be 2.0. In
tudinal direction. accordance with AISC recommendations, use K = 2.1.
The “classical” differential equation solution for column
• For a two-level pipe rack loaded equally at each level
buckling for cantilevered columns is based on the assump-
as shown in Figure 4, the effective length factor is de-
tion that the axial column stress is constant for the entire
termined to be 1.80. Consistent with AISC recommen-
length of the column. The effective length factor is deter-
dations, use K = 1.9.
mined to be 2.0, rounded up for design to 2.1 to account for
less than full fixity at the base. • For a three-level pipe rack loaded equally at each level
In the case of pipe racks, the axial load is usually applied as shown in Figure 4, the effective length factor is de-
to the cantilevered columns at multiple locations as reactions termined to be 1.61. Consistent with AISC recommen-
from the supported beams. The axial stress is minimum at dations, use K = 1.7.
the free end and maximum at the fixed end. As a result, us-
Commercial software can be used to perform the eigenvalue
ing an effective length of K = 2.1 for unstrutted pipe rack
analysis necessary to determine effective length factors for
columns can be conservative.
other axial stress conditions. In the absence of commercial
software, the recommended values may be used as guidance
for arriving at an appropriate effective length factor.
The Direct Analysis Method does not involve the deter-
mination of effective length factors, and is recommended for
use with unstrutted pipe racks.

Column Bases
Column base plates in the transverse (moment frame) direc-
tion may be designed as either fixed or pinned. Fixed column
bases must be used for unstrutted pipe racks.
In general, the fixed base condition results in smaller
structural steel sections and larger foundations with smaller
calculated lateral frame deflections. Pinned base conditions
result in heavier structural steel sections and smaller founda-
tions with larger calculated lateral frame deflections.
The most common practice is to assume that the base of
the column acts as a pinned connection. Even though the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) re-
quires a minimum of four anchor rods and the strength to
resist a small moment, sufficient rotational stiffness is not
provided to consider the base as a fixed connection. The
combination of the flexibility of the base plate, the elastic
deformation of the anchor rods, and the rotation of the foun-
dation due to lateral loads usually allows enough rotation at
the base for the base to act as a pinned connection when the
larger wind and seismic loads are applied.
To minimize layout errors, the base plate is usually square
with a square and concentric anchor rod hole pattern.

Fig. 4. Calculated effective length factors,

K, for unstrutted pipe rack columns.

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 Foundations AISC (2005b), AISC 360-05, Specification for Structural
Steel Buildings, American Institute of Steel Construction,
The foundation type to be used will be dictated by site soil
Chicago, IL.
conditions. Foundation design parameters are normally stated
in the project design specifications based on a site geotech- AISC (2006), AISC 358-05, Prequalified Connections for
nical investigation report. Typically, independent spread Special and Intermediate Steel Moment Frames for Seis-
footings or pile caps are used at each column. Combined mic Applications, American Institute of Steel Construc-
foundation or grade beams could be used for the columns of tion, Chicago, IL.
transverse frames and/or braced frames if the column spac- AISC (2009), AISC 358-05s1, Supplement No. 1 to Prequal-
ing is not too large. Building codes may require that pile ified Connections for Special and Intermediate Steel Mo-
caps be connected with grade beams. ment Frames for Seismic Applications, American Institute
of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.
CONCLUSION ASCE (1997a), Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation and De-
Pipe racks are not only non-building structures that have sign of Petrochemical Facilities, American Society of
similarities to structural steel buildings but also have ad- Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
ditional loads and design considerations. The requirements ASCE (1997b), Wind Loads on Petrochemical Facilities,
found in the building codes apply and dictate some of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
design requirements. Some code requirements are not clear ASCE (2006), ASCE 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for
on how they are to be applied to pipe racks, because most Buildings and Other Structures, Including Supplement
are written for buildings. Several industry references exist to No. 1, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
help the designer apply the intent of the code and follow ex-
ICBO (1994), Uniform Building Code, International Confer-
pected engineering practices. Engineering practices vary and
ence of Building Officials, Whittier, CA.
are, at times, influenced by client requirements and regional
practices. Additional and updated design guides are needed ICC (2009), International Building Code, International
so that consistent design methods are used throughout the Code Council, Whittier, CA.
industry. Murray, T.M. and Sumner, E.A. (2003), Steel Design Guide
No. 4, Extended End-Plate Moment Connections—Seis-
REFERENCES mic and Wind Applications, 2nd ed., American Institute
AISC (2005a), AISC 341-05, Seismic Provisions for Struc- of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.
tural Steel Buildings, Including Supplement No. 1, Amer- PIP (2007), PIP STC01015, Structural Design Criteria, Pro-
ican Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL. cess Industry Practices, Austin, TX.
Seaburg, P.A. and Carter, C.J. (1997), Steel Design Guide
No. 9, Torsional Analysis of Structural Steel Members,
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.

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