Un ited St at es

Department of
Agriculture
I Forest Service
Equipment
Development
Cen t er
Missoul a, Mont .
Hand Drilling and
B eaking Rock
/ for Wilderness Trail
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Photo courtesy of th e Un iversity of Montana Mansfield Library Archives.
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Hand Drilling and
Breaking Rock
for Wilderness Trail Maintenance
by
Dale Mrkich
Forestry Technician
Jerry Oltman
Project Leader
August 1984
Contents
Page
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Description of Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Drilling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Breaking Rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Rock Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Wedges (Plugs) and Feathers. . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
Miscellaneous Tips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
Picking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Drilling Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
Drilling Hammers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
Wedges and Feathers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
Picks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
Sources of Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
Drilling Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
Drilling Hammers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Wedge and Feather Sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Picks. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 24
Conversion Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25
Bibliography " 27
Information contained in this report has been developed for the
guidance of employees of the Forest Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, its contractors, and its cooperating Federal and State
agencies. The Department of Agriculture assumes no responsibility for
the interpretation or use of this information by other than its own
employees.
The use of trade, firm, or corporation names is for the information
and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an
official evaluation, conclusion, recommendation, endorsement, or
approval of any product or service to the exclusion of others which
may be suitable.
Courtesy of the University of Montana Mansfield L ibrary Archives.
Percussive or hammer drilling is most often used to drill rock.
In Forest Service trail work, gasoline-powered hammer drill ing
is common. Hand drilling is sometimes necessary however,
because machines cannot be used. This manual describes
elementary tools and techniques for hand drilling rock.
Although hand drilling is slow work, it is a safe and simple
way to prepare rocks for breaking with explosives, wedge
and feather sets or expansion chemicals, or to accept anchor
bolts. The driller drives the steel by methodical hammering
and turning. When the hammer strikes the head of the steel,
the bit is forced against the rock. After each blow of the
hammer, the driller turns the steel slightly and strikes it again .
With each blow the bit chips small amounts of rock that
collect in the hole as "drilling dust." The driller removes the
dust by adding water to the hole, which creates a mud that
sticks to the sides of the steel. To clear the mud, the driller
removes the steel and raps it against the rock. The procedure
is continued until the hole is deep enough ; longer steel is
substituted as the hole lengthens.
Introduction
The steel is manipulated with one hand while the other hand
hammers (single jacking), or the steel is manipulated by two
hands while another person hammers (double jacking) . This
manual describes correct techniques, discusses proper tool
maintenance, and includes sources of tools and a bibliography.
Although hand drilling is not commonly used in the Forest
Service, it can effectively remove rock from trails and does
observe the Chief's direct ive to resurrect, develop, and
utilize primitive skills in wilderness management. Hand
drilling skills have been all but forgotten; we hope to preserve
them with this manual.
No cost comparisons have been made between hand drilling
and gasoline-powered drill ing. Initial tool costs are much less
for hand drilling, however, and the techniques can be learned
by unskilled or low salary employees. Since gasoline-powered
drills are prohibited in wilderness, hand drilling allows wilder-
ness managers to maintain trails without violating wilderness
guidelines.
Hand drilling is an etfecuve method for maintaining forest trails.
Description of Tools
Hand Drilling Steel
Nomenclature
Rod
Bit
Bit Gage
Effective length
Shank
The rod is high carbon octagonal stee l
bar, 3/4 to 7/8 inches wide . Length
may vary from 10 inches to several feet .
The bit is the sharpened end of the rod.
The cutting edge is flared on 7/8 inch
steel to a length of 1%inches. Other
thicknesses of rod have similarly pro-
portioned cutting edges.
The effective length is the length of the
steel that is available for drilling, the
total length less the shank or hand
hold area.
The shank is the area near the head
where the driller or holder grips the
steel.
Star pattern bit
Head
Plastic caps
Cutting edge angle
Bits
Star Pattern
Straight Pattern
The head is the end of the rod opposite
the cutting edge, and receives the blow
of the hammer.
These are convenient for protecting
sharpened cutting edges during trans-
portation and storage. The top cap also
keeps ragged edges from snagging other
items.
This angle must be precisely maintained
during sharpening and recondit ioning
so the cutting edge remains in the
center of the rod .
Two perpendicular cutting edges, flared
and raised slightly. intersect at the cen-
ter of the bit. These are common on
modern drilling steel .
These have a single flared, slightly
raised, cutting edge. They are old style
bits, and may be found in second hand
or antique stores.
bit
Straight pattern bit
head- -
We have not arbitrarily chosen this size rod. Water gels approved for
Forest Service blasting are packaged in polyester cartridges. The length
of these varies, but the smallest available diameter package is t inch.
A t% inch hole is the minimum size that could easily accept that
package.
Hand Drilling Hammers
Head
Striking faces
Handle
Single jack
Nomenclature
The double face hammer head is made
of heat-treated, high carbon steel.
The two striking faces should have
beveled edges and should be heat
treated.
Wood handles are usually made of
hickory. They should have a tight, knot-
free grain that runs parallel to the
wedge slot. Other handles are made of
fiberglass, or are a forged extension of
the head .
These are also called 'club' or hand drill-
ing hammers. Handles are commonly
10 inches long, and heads weigh either
3 or 4 pounds. The short handle is
uniquely suited to hand drilling because
it resists breaking better than longer
ones, and it facilitates accuracy by
requiring the hand to be close to the
head.
Single jack
Engineer's hammer These are also called long handle single
jacks. They come with a 14inch handle
attached to a 3- or 4-pound head, and
work well for the drilling technique we
call modified double jacking.
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Double jack These large driving sledges have 36-inch
handles and 6- or a-pound heads.
Because their use requires considerable
expertise from both the driller and
holder, we recommend that you use
single jacking or modified double jack-
ing until safety and proficiency with
the double jack can be assured.
Engineer's hammer
Double jack
Wedge and Feathers
Wedge
Blade
Feathers
Nomenclature
This is a heat-treated steel rod that is
generally the same diameter as the
drilling steel.
Wedges have a pointed, flattened blade
opposite a head that receives the blow
of the hammer.
These are half round pieces of forged
steel with a curved top, blunt bottom,
and a flat inside edge running their
entire length.
Wedge and feathers
The Problem
A proposed trail may cross a rock face or, afte r prolonged
trail use, hazardous points of solid rock often protrude into
the tread. A trail is built in rock by cutting some rock away
to form a ledge or by removing the rock entirely. Sometimes
rocks may be chipped flat with a pick.
Hand drilling helps remove rock three ways : (1) A rock may
be split into chunks of manageable size by steel drilled into a
natural seam; (2) If the steel in the seam does not split the
rock by itself, the hole may be fitted with the wedge and
feathers. The wedge is driven between the feathers with a
hammer until the rock breaks; (3) Finally a hole may be used
to prepare a rock for blasting. In gene ral, the larger the rocks,
the more likely you will use explosives to move them.
Although most large rocks are moved with explosives, we will
not discuss the safe and effective use of explosives in this
manual. For this information we recommend the Forest
Service Blasters Handbook.
1
Explosives are most efficient.
however, when used in drilled holes.
There are several considerations that make hand drilling a
preferable alternative to other drilling. Gasoline-powered
rock drills are expensive. and trail operations often do not
have enough drilling work to justify costly equipment. More-
over these machines are noisy, heavy to backpack into
remote areas, and tedious to use when they are there. Ferry-
ing in gasoline-powered drills and supplies must usually be
coordinated with a packer. And since motorized equipment
is prohibited in wilderness. permission to use power drills
must be secured in advance.
In short. many small drilling jobs are delayed because of
economic, logistical, or policy considerations. Personnel
trained to use hand drilling equipment could accomplish
these small drilling jobs economcially without violat ing the
spir it of the 1964 Wilderness Act.
1U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. 1980. Blaster's
Handbook . FSH 7109.51 , 146 p. Washington, D.C .
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History
The building blocks for the Egyptian pyramids and obelisks
were obtained by using hammers and wooden wedges to
extract large sect ions of stone in carefully measured shapes
and sizes. The wedges had a hole in the middle for holding
and carrying.
Miners from the time of the Roman Empire though the
Middle Ages often applied a "fire setting" system to break
rock . A rock face was exposed to intense heat followed by a
quick dousing with water. The sudden cooling caused the
rock to crack and split along natural seams. Sometimes a
suspended wooden ram with a hard stone ball on its front
was used to open a hole in the center of a rock face. and the
face was chipped into it radially.
Gun powder was first used to break rock during the Middle
Ages, In 1683 a Saxon named Hemming Hutman used a drill
forged of wrought iron with an inset bit of tempered steel to
hammer holes in the rock at critical points. The charges placed
in the holes broke the rock more effectively than those laid
on or near it.
The early history of our country contains many accounts of
legendary 'hammer and steel' drillers who were experts at
both single and double jacking. Single jacking involved an
individual holding and turning the steel with one hand while
hitting the steel with a small hammer held in the other hand,
Single jack drilling, circa 1850. (Photo reprinted
courtesy of Compressed A ir Magazine.)
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'Down hole' double [ackinq, early 1800's.
Ambidexterity was very helpful for the single jack driller
because he could work longer by shifting the hammer from
one hand to the other to distribute the work. In double jack-
ing one or two dr illers hit a drilling steel with large sledge
hammers while a holder turned the steel slightly after each
blow. As the hole deepene d, the holder substituted longer
steels in a way that did not interrupt the driller's disciplined
rhythm.
Since every mechanical advantage gained by drillers was con -
sidered desirable, hand drilling was generally abandoned as
soon as pneumatic drills were developed. Still some hand
drilling methods wer e retained by prospectors for small
budget rock work. Drilling and breaking rock with hand tools
is discussed in Forest Service manuals up to 1923, and in
pros pecting handbooks as recently as 1943.
Some of the older techniques are not applicable today. For
example, we consider double jacking unsafe for inexperi enced
drillers. Since most of today's hand drilling will be done by
beginners, we suggest you use either singl e jacking or modi-
fied double jacking, a technique we developed. Both of these
methods are safe, effective, and readily learned.
'Up hole' double jacking, early 1800's. (Photos
reprinted courtesv of Compressed Air Magazine.)
A prospector single jacking, circa 1910. (Photo
reprinted courtesv of Compressed Air Magazine.)
Every section of rock has its own character, and experience
and common sense will help determine the most effective
method of dealing with it. Take time to carefully evaluate
the rock's structure. Consider whether the rock is solid or
'seamy', stratified horizontally or vertically, or is igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic before decid ing where and how
to attack it. Work with, not against, the rock.
Technique
The importance of properly planning the hole in advance,
that is, deciding where and how deep to place it, cannot be
overemphasized. Rock usually splits to the first horizontal
seam below the drill bit or tip of the wedge. Proper place-
ment will help assure that the rock will break at the proper
angle and in the right place while using the least t ime and
energy. Using the shortest steel necessary will also save time
and energy.
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Courtesy of the University of Montana Mansfield Libf7Jry Archives.
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Drilling
Always wear safety equipment, including safety glasses or
goggles and gloves, when drilling.
1. A special, short-handled hammer called a single jack
is used for one-handed drilling. Hammer heads weigh either
3 or 4 pounds, and handles are 10 inches long. The short
handle helps you place blows accurately.
A long-handled single jack, an engineer's hammer with a 14-
inch handle and a 3- or 4-pound head, for example, can be
used for two-handed drilling with another worker holding
the steel. The proximity of both hands to the steel required
by the handle assures that accuracy and safety are not sacri-
ficed. We call this technique modified double jacking.
2. The driller will be kneeling on one or both knees, or
sitting. If modified double jacking is used, the holder should
position himself across the steel from the driller, and wear
gloves on both hands.
Assume a comfortable position and change positions and
tasks regularly to help minimize stiffness in legs, arms, and
back. Knee pads could be an asset.
Single jack driller at work.
Modified double jacking team at work.
3. Grasp the hammer firmly and hit the steel squarely.
When collaring (starting) a hole, work deliberately and slowly,
placing each blow carefully. Although a drill hole is usually
started with a drilling steel, it can also be started by chipping
slightly with a pick. In the beginning dust and rock chips are
difficult to minimize. Be patient when collaring; a hammering
rhythm is much easier to maintain after the hole has been
started.
Establish your rhythm as soon as possible. Drilling with a
regular rhythm will be more productive than driving the
steel with powerful strokes in sporadic bursts of effort. Hard
hitting causes you to tire quickly and experience cramping
prematurely. It also causes the steel to stick in the hole. Take
frequent rests to prevent cramps, and do not ignore signs of
fatigue. Let the tools and gravity do the work.
Any rest that can be afforded your 'hammer-holding' hand
while single jacking will help conserve your energy. A wrist
thong may be attached to the end of the handle to help drill
at unusual or difficult angles. The thong is looped around
your wrist and lets you rest your grip a moment after each
stroke. On the backstoke the fingers may be opened and the
grip relaxed, allowing the handle to swing free but restrained
from dropping by the thong. At the end of the backstroke
the fingers close around the handle to prepare for the next
swing.
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Old tim" miner using a single jack equipped with wrist thong, early 1800's.
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4. A hole is drilled because rock is chipped by the con-
cussion of the bit from the blow of the hammer. Grip the
steel firmly but not tightly during each blow. Hand drilling
produces very little shock in the ' st eel-holdi nq' hand. The
holder in a modified double jacking operation will also find
that only a small amount of shock is transmitted from the
blow of the hammer. Always wear gloves while holding, in
case of a glancing blow.
After each stroke, turn the drill about liB-revolution; this
is called 'shaking' the steel. Drill steel is usually octagonal
in shape, so turn the steel so the next flat side faces you.
There is a slight recoil of the steel after each blow, and it is
after the recoil that shaking is performed. Lift the steel
slightly before turning. If the steel is not turned, the bit will
sink straight into the cut and jam in the hole. When shaking,
allow your grip to relax slightly after each rotation. Regain
your grip before the next blow.
Difficulty in shaking the steel, especially in 'down' holes,
indicates that the rock dust in the bottom interferes with
the cutting edge of the bit against the rock. With two hands
turning the steel, teams may go for longer periods before
clearing cuttings from the hole. Water is helpful for remov-
ing cuttings from holes.
5. Regularly add small amounts of water to minimize dust
from drilling and keep the drill steel cool and the temper
intact. This keeps particles in ' down' holes in solution so
they won't hinder the progress of the drill. Water creates a
mud that sticks to the steel and is withdrawn from the hole
with the steel. The adhering mud is removed by rapping the
steel sharply against the rock. Holes are periodically flushed
clean by bouncing the steel in the hole while adding water to
create an agitating motion. The generous use of water allows
the drilling action to force cuttings out of the hole as quickly
as they are generated. Minimize unpleasant splashing by
wrapping a small rag around the rod at the top of the hole.
Keep the rag loose so shaking is not impeded.
Using water in a drilled hole.
10
Removing cuttings from deep holes may require more water
than is readily available. In this case, small amounts of water
may be used to create the mud, and a long-handled spoon can
extract it. Oldtime miner's spoons were forged from various
lengths of iron rod . They had a handle opposite a flattened,
slightly curved end approximately 'Yo inches wide and up to 6
inches long. These spoons were used for clearing holes of cut-
tings and for retrieving sticks of powder from misfired holes.
The pointed tip on the handle end was used to thoroughly
clean holes before loading and to pack explosives in the holes.
Today similar soft metal "powder spoons", made of 31B-inch
iron rod in lengths up to 8 feet, are sometimes still used in
underground mines. We made a 3D-inch long version of the
"powder spoon" for trail work. We also made a spoon from
a piece of aluminum tubing Y2" inch in diameter and about 22
inches long. We flattened and shaped one end so it had a flat
edge roughly perpendicular to the rod handle. This spoon
worked well for cleaning 1%-inch holes up to 16 inches de ep . Our version of the miner's powderspoon had
a 30 inch handle and a 6 inch spoon .
The aluminum spoon we made had a 22 inch handle and a 5/8 inch spoon .
6. Carefully select the points at which holes will be placed.
Use natural points of weakness, and keep in mind your total
breaking needs for the project. Evaluate the site and proceed
accordingly. If you plan to remove a rock entirely, position
the holes as perpendicular as possible to the largest face
parallel to its strata (see A below). If the rock is to remain in
place with only parts removed, a different technique is used
(see 8 below).
The same principles can be applied if a prospective trail tread
crosses a rock face.
PROSPECTIVE TRAIL TREAD
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ROCK
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A. If the rock looks and feels solid, drill to remove it
comptetet v.
A. Drilled holes are perpendicular to ttie surface being
worked. If wedge and teethers are used in thi tnstence
tbev will be less likely to be unduly stressed, because
the compression forces of the rock are more evenly
distributed on them. This rock will probably be split
into chunks tbet will allow irs complete removal.
Arrows indicare probable direction of splittino.
B. The drilled hole is nor perpendicular ro the surface
being worked. Splirring will be both less predicrable
and less efficienr in tnis situetion. Be aware also tbst
when you work the wedge into the hole ir will be
more prone ro bending or breaking because the com-
pression forces are distributed unevenly. You have
already determined rhar only a section of the rock
will be removed. Thar is whar you can expect to
happen here. Arrows indicate probable direction of
sphering.
B. If the rock is westbered, seamy, or soit, perhaps you
can chip it flar.
Placing holes in trail tread.
Drilled holes in rock.
Breaking Rock
Except when using explosives rock is split or broken by
stressing it beyond its tensile strength. Rock is stronger in
compression than in tension. For example, most rock will
support a heavy load upon it, but can be pulled apart rela-
tively easily. Moreover, different rocks have different tensile
strengths; that is, some are easier to break than others. When
breaking rock, stress it at points of natural weakness.
Seamy rock will usually break irregularly because it has no
major points of natural weakness. Moreover, holes drilled in
seamy rock sometimes slip because the layers shift both
horizontally and vertically. This causes the steel to jam in
the hole or a feather to be bound on one side against the
wedge. You can best avoid this by carefully placing holes, by
keeping them as straight as possible, and by attempting to
determine in advance what will happen when the rock breaks.
Sometimes, however, a new hole must be drilled to free a
jammed steel or wedge and feather set. Be careful to avoid
extra stresses on jammed tools while working to free them.
A knowledge of rock types will also help you plan the job,
procure tools, place the holes, and will indicate what to
expect when drilling.
Rock Types
This manual offers no 'hard and fast' rules about hole spacing
and drilling depth necessary to break specific types of rock.
This information is best gained from experience, depending
on what is encountered and what is required at a job site.
The general categories of rock that follow give broad hints
about what to expect when drilling them.
Soft Rock
1. Shale-Clay, mud, and silt that is consolidated into a
finely laminated structure.
2. Shist-Crystalline rock with component minerals
arranged in a roughly parallel manner.
Medium Hard Rock
1. Sandstone-Sedimentary rock, usually quartz sand,
cemented by silica, iron oxide, or calcium carbonate.
2. Limestone-Sedimentary rock that is formed by the
accumulation of organic remains consisting mainly of
calcium carbonate.
3. Marble-Metamorphic limestone that has been crystal-
lized by a pronounced change in heat, pressure, and
water content.
Hard Rock
1. Bluestone-Bluish gray metamorphic rock similar to
sandstone.
2. Gneiss- Laminated metamorphic rock similar to granite.
3. Granite-Naturally igneous rock formed of crystallized
quartz and orthoclase.
4. Basalt- Dense igneous rock that consists of feldspar
and various minerals.
1
Wedges (Plugs) and Feathers
Wedges and feathers are tools designed to split rock when
driven into a drilled hole or natural crack. The wedge fits in
the hole between two feathers whose flat sides form a guide
that prevents the wedge from jamming as it is driven into the
hole. Use wedge and feathers as follows : Position the feathers
in the hole so the flat sides of the wedge will be parallel to
the line along which the break will occur. Drive the wedge
into the slot between the feathers until the rock cracks, or
until it sticks in the rock. Then tap the wedge lightly back
and forth along the inside edges of the feathers until it is
freed. Remove the wedge and , if riecessarv. begin again. Pro-
ceed slowly to allow the tools time to do their work.
Correctly placing the wedge and feathers.
To be effective, wedges and feathers must be correctly sized.
The diameter of the wedge rod and feathers at the point
where the rod meets the feathers must exceed the diameter
of the hole. Driving the wedge between the feathers forces
them against the sides of the hole and splits the rock.
Avoid unnecessary stresses on wedges and feathers by drilling
holes as straight as possible. Straight holes help keep wedges
and feathers from binding or jamming in the hole.
4 A
Miscellaneous Tips
Drilling and splitting a large rock not free to move when split
calls for additional care. If a hole is placed in the middle of
the rock, one side may shift and jam, bend, or break the steel
or the feathers and wedge. Similarly, splitting a rock that is
supported only at the ends can shear tools if it breaks and
slides suddenly. In instances like these, start holes from an
open edge and work toward the middle. A hole drilled near
the side of a large rock 18 to 24 inches from an edge will
indicate how you should proceed.
Holes drilled in these lateral locations will be
less likely to jam steel or wedges and feathers
than one drilled in the middle.
Picking
Pick heads have a pointed tip for exposing and enlarging
points of natural weakness in rocks. Many times soft and
medium hard rock can be broken with a pick so that no drill -
ing is required.
When using a pick, be careful to maintain control of the head
at all times. Avoid raising the pick overhead while swinging.
This wastes energy needed for sustained operation, sacrifices
accurate placement of th e tip, and creates a safety hazard for
th e operator and others. The narrow heavy pick head cannot
be easily controlled or directed from these heights.
Avoid using the pick as a prying tool ; use crowbars instead.
If picking or prying a natural seam does not split the rock,
use a drilling steel or a wedge and feathers in the hole. Always
wear safety glasses or goggles when picking to guard against
flying chips of rock.
chisel tip
Picks are effective tools for breaking rock .
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Conscientious tool maintenance is essential to safe dr illing
and increases tool life. Drilling steel must be sharp and tools
must be reconditioned periodically. Pick heads must be kept
Maintenance
sharp. hammer faces smooth, and handles sturdy Wedges and
feathers should be carefully protected.
Courtesy of the University of Montana Mansfield Library Archives.
Drilling Steel
Sharpening
Make sure that your steel is straight. Bent steel is nearly
impossible to use effectively and a poorly placed blow could
glance and cause an injury. Keep the steel sharp. Sharp steel
helps you work safely and efficiently.
Use a double cut file or grinder to redress steel that is not
badly worn. Maintain existing edge bevels as much as possible.
In the field file the heads smooth and cutting edges sharp.
Use a completed hole as a holder. Insert the steel upside
down and brace it with your knee or foot. Your partner may
also hold the steel while you file. Always wear gloves when
sharpening or holding.
When using a grinder, remember to avoid excessive heating
of the steel that could draw temper and soften the bit . Be
aware that forged tools are harder on the outside than they
are at their core. Careless or excessive grinding or filing can
expose the core and cause premature dulling.
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Using a hole as a holder.
One worker may hold the steel while the other
files .
Reconditioning and Tempering
The facilities and expertise of a blacksmith will almost
certainly be required to completely recondition dull drilling
steel. Here is an historical account describing how a
blacksmith worked:
"Drills are sharpened, first by forging to the right shape
and to give a sharp edge; this edge, however, by many
smiths is not hammered sufficiently sharp, and they
use either a file or a grindstone to give the required
edge. The point is then heated to a glowing red and
dipped in cold water for a few seconds to harden the
steel; the edge is then rubbed on sand to clean it. The
smith examines for the colour, and dips at a pale straw
colour to make it hard, or at a dark blue, which makes
it a little tougher. If, after the first cooling, there is not
sufficient heat in the drill for these colours to show on
the edge, it must be reheated in the fire. When the drill
is dipped for tempering, it may remain in the water till
cold. The exact colour at which steel has to be dipped
varies with the quality of the steel, and also, no doubt,
with the nature of the work, but a little practice will
soon show." (Lupton, 1906).
Special variations in the temper and length of steel were
sometimes required to drill particularly hard rock .
Modern hand drilling steel has similar forging requirements.
In the reconditioning process it is important for the black-
smith to be able to control the hardness of steel by temper-
ing. In general, the harder the steel, that is, the more cohesive
the particles of metal, the more resistant the tool will be to
wear. If the steel is made too hard, however, it may become
brittle and break during use.
Standards for the hardness of tempered steel have been
established that guide smiths to the correct hardness for a
tool based on its usual range of applications. Hardness is
measured by pressing on tempered surfaces with specific
shapes under a known pressure. The amount of pressure that
the tempered metal is able to withstand before an indenta-
tion is made becomes a measure of its hardness. The best
known measures of hardness of tempered steel for tools are
Rockwell and Brinell hardness. Rockwell hardness tests
measure the indentation of a diamond cone (Rc). or a steel
ball of a specified diameter (Rb). on a tempered surface.
Brinell hardness tests measure only with a ball (HB) (see
chart p, 26).
The steel on the tool's surface is slightly harder than the steel
in the middle. This is because during the quench the particles
on the surface are more radically affected; they are more
cohesive than those in the middle or slightly beneath the sur-
face. The key to tempering is to retain the desired toughness
at the center of the tool. The softer core assures a strong tool,
while the hard exterior provides the cutting edge or protec-
tive shield.
Complete Reconditioning
Here is a description of a modern tool reconditioning process:
Forging
1. Heat the point to a yellow color (1800 to 1900
0F
/982
to 1038
0C),
for the length necessary to forge. Be care-
ful not to heat too far back on the steel; th is is the
most common cause of premature breaking after recon-
ditioning. Do not attempt to forge below a cherry red
color, (1450
0F
/790
0C)
(see chart p. 26).
2. Rework tools only to their original design.
3. After forging all ow the tool to cool to room
temperature.
Hardening
1. Reheat the point to a cherry red color 1% to 2 inches
back from the cutting edge, making sure to overlap the
forging depth.
Quenching
1. Quench in water, or in a brine or oil solution. Maintain
the quench at a temperature of 75 to 1OOoF/24 to 38C,
to achieve Rockwell hardness (Rc) 60 to 65, Brinell
hardness (HBI 600 to 652.
Tempering
1. Withdraw the tool from the quench with sufficient
heat remaining in it to draw the temper. A shade of
brown or dark yellow is best.
2. Rub the point clean with emery.
3. When a light straw color appears, (430
0F/2220C),
complete the quench.
4. If drawing facilities are available, reheat to 425
0F
/
218C, and hold for 1 hour to ach ieve Rc 56 to 60,
HB 555 to 600.
Miscellaneous Tips
1. Temperatures will vary among types of tool steel.
2. This operation should be undertaken only by or under
the close supervision of an experienced blacksmith who
knows the specific requirements of the steel he uses.
3. Wear adequate protective clothing, including eye pro-
tection and gloves, at all times.
If your drilling steel includes short 'starters' and longer
'seconds', the smith should make the cutting bits diminish
slightly in width as the rods increase in length. This is
necessary to prevent jamming when a new length of steel is
started in the hole. A drilled hole gradually decreases in
diameter as the tool wears. The bore-hole is not a true
cylinder, but the frustum of an elongated cone. If the head
of the steel becomes mushroomed from extended use, it
should be reshaped by the blacksmith during reconditioning.
The bore-hole is not a true cylinder, but the
frustum of an elongated cone.
Defective Steel and Prolonged Safe Use
Although drilling steel is designed to perform in demanding
applications, few products are subjected to more stress in
service. Hand-hammered percussion tools for drilling and
wedging must endure the same punishment as the rock being
worked, so some failures may be expected.
Defective steel is likely to fail early on due to the severe
stresses from the blows of the hammer, although some break
after considerable service without having been defective. To
insure long life and safe use of drilling steel, avoid these
common causes of premature failure:
1. Using steel for an unintended purpose. Prying with the
steel, for example, will bend it and render it unsafe and
ineffective.
2. Allowing steel to overheat in service. This will draw
temper and cause cutting edges to soften and dull.
3. Failing to keep the steel sharp. This causes extra stress
on the rod.
4. Redressing steel inadequately or improperly. Tools
improperly forged and rehardened or excessively filed will
dull quickly, mushroom prematurely, and break before
giving a full measure of service.
Drilling Hammers
Using hammers with cracked handles, loose heads, or ch ipped
faces is a safety hazard as well as a reflection of poor mainte-
nance. Examine handles to insure that they are tight on heads
and free of cracks. If handles have been poorly maintained or
neglected, take time to repair or replace them before begin-
ning a drilling job.
Striking faces should be smooth and evenly worn. Drilling
hammers have hard tempered faces designed to strike softer
drilling steel heads. The head of the steel mushrooms and the
hammer face remains smooth. If a hammer face becomes
pitted or chipped, however, carefully grind it smooth. Work
slowly to avoid damaging the shallow temper of the face.
Discard badly worn hammers. Some hammers have faces
tempered soft to mushroom with use. These allow workers to
safely hammer hard metals without the hammer face chipping.
Mushroomed hammer heads can also be reconditioned by a
blacksmith.
Wedges and Feathers
Wedge and feather sets should generally be treated like drilling
steel. Avoid using wedges alone to break rock. Wedge tips are
not tempered hard enough to start holes. Hammer wedges
primarily on the heads, and avoid striking feathers as much as
possible. Remember also that wedge and feathers break rock
with friction and stress, so overheating can occur.
Picks
When sharpening picks grind the tips to a point 1/8-inch
square. This will make a sharp, effective point that is strong
enough to resist breaking. Before sharpening secure the head
in a vise or special jig. Sharpen with an electric grinder or a
'l G-inch mill bastard file. Badly damaged picks can also be
reforged by a blacksmith.
An oval-tapered eye and handle allow pick heads to tighten
when swung, while remaining removable for sharpening,
transporting, and handle replacement. A small screw in the
handle just below the head will further fasten heads to
handles.
Pick secured for sharpening without a vise.
Drilling Steel
1. Senter Tool Service, Portland, Oreg., manufactures
hand drilling steel and others tools to individual specifications.
The steels are generally one-piece units with a sharpened edge
for drilling and a head for receiving the blow of the hammer.
The cutting edges can be made in various styles, although star
pattern bits are most common. The steels can also be made
with removable bits if a rod of greater than 1-3/8 inches is
ordered. The latter may be larger than necessary for most
trail work, but detachable bits may be preferred in some
situations. Senter Tool Service maintains a complete black-
smith shop, so all types of steel can be returned to them for
Sources of Supply
reconditioning. Used steel that is sometimes available in
second-hand stores can also be reconditioned there. In
addition they will manufacture hammers to your specifica-
tions, along with a large variety of other hand tools not
commonly found on the market.
2. Local blacksmith shops are usually equipped to manu-
facture and recondition drilling steel, and although they may
not routinely fill orders for hand tools, they are often willing
to help.
Courtesv of the Universitv of Montana Mansfield Library Archives.
Drilling Hammers
General Services Administration
(branch office)
Local hardware stores
Senter Tool Service, Inc.
5413 NE Columbia Blvd.
Portland, Oreg. 97218
(503) 381- 1151
Stanley Tools
(Div. of Stanley Works)
Box 1800
New Britain, Conn. 06050
(203) 225-5111
True Temper Corp.
1623 Euclid Ave.
Cleveland, Ohio 44115
(216) 969-3366
Wedge and Feather Sets
ABEMA
Box 775
Norwalk, Conn. 06856
(203) 846-2003
Atlas-Copco Corp.
610 Industrial Ave.
Wayne, N.J. 07652
(201) 696-0554
Senter Tool Service, Inc.
5413 NE Columbia Blvd.
Portland, Oreg. 97218
(503) 281-1151
Picks
Ben Meadows Co.
Box 80549
Atlanta, Chamblee, Ga. 30366
(404) 455-0907
Easco Tools, Inc.
6721 Baymeadow Dr.
Glen Burnie, Md. 21061
(301) 760-2200
Forestry Suppliers, Inc.
Box 8397
Jackson, Miss. 39204
(601) 354-3565
Sears Roebuck and Co.
(local outlet)
Union Fork and Hoe Co.
500 Dublin Ave.
Columbia, Ohio 43216
(614) 228-1791
Warren Group
(Div. of Warren Tool Corp.]
Box 68
Hiram, Ohio 44234
(216) 569-3224
Woodings-Verona Tool Works
Box 126
Verona, Pa. 15147
(412) 828-7000
Conversion Tables
DECIMAL AND MILLIMETER EQUIVALENTS
DECIMALS MILLIMETERS DECIMALS MILLIMETERS
46 1 8110
47 I 8504
48 1 8898
4919291
50 1 9685
51 20079
52 '} 0412
5320BIl6
54 2 1'160
liS 21654
r)f] 2:lDH
5/ IIUl
rIB 12835
501 iJlla
sn IJfin
hI /.1IJ1!i
hl2HU9
f;) 24803
1i4 ,',lit]
Ii I 'J 41
til; /',9H4
61 ;h3lH
fiR 26/12
6927165
Ill} 15S9
71 21953
1228346
13 2 H740
74 29134
7529528
76-29921
77 3 0315
78 -3 0709
79 -31102
80- 31496
81 -J 1890
82 -32283
8J- J 2677
84- J JO)l
85- 33465
86- J J858
87 - 3 4252
88 - 34646
89 35039
90 -J 54JJ
91 35827
92 36220
9336614
94 37008
9537402
96 3 7795
97 38189
98 38583
99 38976
100 J 9J70
1 0039
2 - OU19
3 0118
0157
5 0197
s 0236
7 0]11;
8 0315
9
1 0]94
2 alRI
3 l1Hl
15/5
5 1%9
5 iJL2
1 n',h
8 J ! 0
q 3'143
\0 ]'1]/
11 -1311
12 -1114
13 511 H
14 2
15 5906
!Ii fi,qq
\7 b69]
18 1081
19 1480
20 1814
21- 826B
n 866\
13 9055
24 - 9449
25- 9843
26-1 02J6
27 -1 06JO
28-1 1024
29 -1 1417
30 1 1811
n05
32-12598
33-\2992
34- 1 ]]86
35 I 3780
36 - 1 4113
]7 - 14567
3B \ 4961
]9-15354
40 1 5148
41 16\42
42 - 1 6535
43 -, 6929
44 - 1 1313
I, 45 1 7117
0254 mm 001"
33
17 640.515625 13.097
32
35- .53125 -13.494
9 64 .546875 -13.891
16 37- 5625 -14.288
1964-578125 -14.684
-32-- .59375 -15.081
39
8-
64
- .609375 '-15478
.6250 15.875
41
21 64 - .640625 - 16.272
32 43 .65625 16 669
11 64 .671875 17.066
16 45.
6875
17.463
23 64 .703125 17.859
32 -47 .71875 18256
fH.
4
- .734375-18.653
I .7500 -19.050
I
':}- .765625 19.447
! #---- .78125 -19.844
I 51
. 13
64
.796875 - 20.241
16--- .8125- 20.638
.828125 - 21.034
27
32 55 .84375 - 21431
e-f
4 .859375-21.828
.8750 - 22.225
: - .890625 22.622
-H-- .90625 23.019
.921875 -23.416
15 _ .9375 -23.813
16- 61
.953125 24.209
31 64 .96875 -24606

32 .984375 25.003
1.000 - 25.400
1 mm '" ,03937"
3
16
METRIC CONVERSION CHART
When Multiply
Symbol You Know By To Find Symbol
in. Inches 25.4 millimeters mm.
mm. millimeters .039 inches In.
in. inches 2.54 centimeters em.
em. centimeters .394 inches In.
ft. feet 30.48 centimeters em.
em. centimeters .033 feet ft .
ft. feet .305 meters m.
m . meters 3.281 feet It.
yd. yards .914 meters m.
m. meters 1.094 yards yd.
oz. ounces 28.35 grams g.
g. grams .035 ounces oz.
lb. pounds .454 kilograms kg.
kg. kilograms 2.205 pounds lb.
INCANDESCENT COLORS
AND TEMPERATURES
COLOR c
Black Red .
Dark Blood Red .
Dark Cherry Red .
Medium Cherry Red .
Full Cherry Red .
Light Cherry .
Salmon .
Light Salmon .
Yellow .
Light Yellow .
White ..
990
1050
1175
1250
1375
1550
1650
1725
1825
1975
2220
533
565
634
676
745
843
899
940
995
1078
1203
COLORS OF
TEMPERING HEATS
COLOR
Light Straw . . . . . . . . .
Straw .
Dark Straw .
Yellow Brown .
Dark Brown .
Brown Purple .
Dark Purple .
Bright Blue .
Full Blue .
Dark Blue .
430
450
470
490
510
520
530
550
560
600
c
222
232
244
255
265
271
277
288
293
316
HARDNESS TESTING CONVERSION TABLE
Rockwell C Brinell Rockwell C Brinell
120 Cone 3000 Kg 120 Cone 3000 Kg
150 Kg 10MMBall 150 Kg 10 MM Ball
156 32 302
159 33 311
163 34 321
166 35 332
170 36 340
174 37 351
179 39 364
183 40 375
187 41 387
192 43 402
10 196 44 418
12 202 45 430
14 207 46 444
17 212 48 460
19 217 49 477
21 223 50 495
22 228 52 512
23 235 54 532
24 241 56 555
25 248 58 578
26 255 60 600
27 262 62 627
28 269 65 652
29 277 66 683
30 293 68 744
31 293 68 744
Bibliography
Mining Books
Foster, C. LeNeve. A Textbook of Ore and Stone Mining
(Charles Griffing Co., Ltd.) 1901.
Ihlseng, M.C. A Manual of Mining (John Wiley and Sons,
New York) 1901.
Lupton, Arnold. Mining (Longman's, Greene, & Co., London)
1906.
Young, George. Elements of Mining (McGraw-Hili, Inc.,
New York) 1946.
Young, Otis E. Black Powder and Hand Steel (University of
Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma) 1975.
Young, Otis E. Western Mining (University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman, Oklahoma) 1970.
Mining Handbooks
Atlas Copco Company. Rock Drilling Manuals. V.I "Theory
and Technique" and V.II "Drill Steel Applications" (Atlas
Copco Co., Wayne, N.J.) 1979.
Lock, C.G. Warnford. Miner's Pocket-Book. (Spon and
Chamberlin, London and New York) 1896.
Von Bernewitz, M. W. Handbook for Prospectors and
Operators of Small Mines. (McGraw-Hili, lnc., London
and New York) 1943.
Trail Manuals that Reference Rock Work
Arthur, Guy B. Construction of Trails (CCC Project Train-
ing 7, Feb. 1937). (U.S. Dept. of Interior, Washington,
D.C.)
Proudman, Robert D. AMC Guide to Trail Building and
Maintenance (Appalachian Mountain Club, Pinkham
Notch Camp, N.H.) 1977.
USDA-Forest Service. Trail Construction on the National
Forests 1915 (Washington, D.C.).
USDA Forest Service. Trail Construction on the National
Forests 1923 (Washington, D.C.).
')"7