Oman (In English)
Oman (In English)
Oman (In English)
MAGAZINE
Sultanate of Oman
Special Issue
10
The forts and castles of Oman
18
Defending the frankincense trade
53
The khanjar symbol of Oman
ICOMAM the International Committee of Museums of Arms and Military History - is an International Committee of ICOM the International Council of Museums. It provides a forum for museums worldwide: To encourage scientific research about arms and armour and military collections, both in specialised and general museums and in military collections. To stimulate a proper, professional standard of collection care, management, conservation and use in line with internationally recognised good practice and ICOM guidelines. To promote the highest standards in display and interpretation. To encourage networking and partnerships between museums and research the world over. ICOMAM achieves its goal by holding triennial congresses and intermediate symposia on relevant topics. ICOMAM has over 260 members, representing museums in more than 50 countries world-wide, including such famous institutions as the Royal Armouries of Leeds, the French Muse de l'Arme, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Muse de l'Arme et d'Histoire Militaire in Brussels, the Hofjagd- und Rstkammer of Vienna, the Real Armeria of Madrid, the Topkapi Sarayi Museum in Istanbul. Membership has increased over the past ten years including a larger share of museums outside of Europe and America. Also some so-called Battlefield Museums are members of this international contact group. ICOMAM is directed by an International ruling body called the Executive Board. The ICOMAM approach to the conservation and study of relevant artefacts is scientific, dispassionate, objective and humanistic. It aims to assess the importance of weaponry in world history as a major sociological phenomenon touching on all the aspects of politics, economics and social behaviour including its artistic spin-offs and its relationship with our cultural heritage and its interpretation in the world today. http://www.klm-mra.be/icomam/
Published by in association with ICOMAM Hawthorne Cottage Moorfield Road LEEDS LS12 3SE UK
Design by Dazeye
ICOM is the international organisation of museums and museum professionals which is committed to the conservation, continuation and communication to society of the world's natural and cultural heritage, present and future, tangible and intangible. http://icom.museum/
smithbrown@basiliscoe.fsnet.co.uk
Welcome to this special edition of MAGAZINE the newsletter of ICOMAM, the International Committee of Museums of Arms and Military History, published to inform members of its activities and publicize these to the wider world. Robert Douglas Smith Ruth Rhynas Brown EDITORS
18
24 Nizwa Fort
40 Nakhal Fort
28 Jabreen Castle
43 Barka Castle 47 Taqah Castle 49 Mirbat Castle 50 Sadah Castle
04 Preface
06 Introduction
19 Al-Baleed
18 Defending the frankincense trade 22 The falaj system water for life 47 Castles of Dhofar: Still a living tradition
Contents
40
57 The date palm as a weapon of war 59 Slings and sling-making 61 Bait Al Zubair Museum 73 The Martini Henry rifle 78 Bayt ar Ridayah
89 Swords 90 Shields 91 Ceremony
65 The Sultans Armed Forces Museum at Bait Al Falaj 69 Historic firearms of Oman 86 Historic artillery in Oman 97 Acknowledgements
81 Al Hazm Castle and its artillery collection 89 Swords, shields and ceremony 93 Omani crafts and craftsmen
73
Sultanate of Oman
reat ideas catch ones attention; especially those that make people look at things differently and give greater insight into a particular subject or even give a totally new perspective. This was the Ministry of Tourisms thinking when it contacted the International Committee of Museums of Arms and Military History (ICOMAM) to see if they were interested in doing an independent expert review of the many collections held in Omans public museums, forts and castles, but with the added request that the ICOMAM dedicate an entire edition of their Magazine to the Sultanate of Oman. The Ministry felt that an expert review of its expanding portfolio of restored forts and arms collections was timely, especially as a means of assessing their wider value in a global context. Also, the fact that many of our arms and collections are displayed in their original settings gives them added appeal, and we were very keen to communicate this to other museums specialists in the first instance.
4 MAGAZINE SPECIAL ISSUE
The project has been exciting from many perspectives. The knowledge transfer between ICOMAM and our historic sites team has been great, and this has led to new insights that we can share for the first time through this publication. This publication itself will also become a valuable resource for our education and marketing programs because culture is at the heart of Omans tourism strategy. The Ministry of Tourism is delighted to be the custodian of an increasing portfolio of magnificent forts and castles, with many hosting exquisite collections. We have just opened new exhibits at Jabreen Castle, and plans are well advanced for the opening of the restored Bayt Ar Ridaydah which includes a comprehensive small arms exhibition, and Al Hazm Castle that houses a world class cannon collection. These treasures will make a significant contribution to Omans tourism and educational sectors for many generations ahead. On behalf of Omans Ministry of Tourism, we hope you enjoy this special edition on the Sultanate of Oman.
ith its bi-annual magazine publication, ICOMAM is unique. Several international ICOM committees produce newsletters or publish a more or less regular bulletin informing the members about past or upcoming events; others limit themselves to the regular updating of their website. However, with The Magazine, the seventh issue of which is now before you, ICOMAM has chosen a different route. This is not just another e-magazine dropping into an electronic mailbox because the mail address is on some mailing list. No, here one is advised by e-mail that a new issue of The Magazine is available for download through the ICOMAN website. As each number is presented as a pdf file, the reader can either read the issue on screen or print it, take it away and file it. Many colleagues tell me they opt for the latter: printing, reading and filing it away. From its outset The Magazine has been designed as a periodical offering more than merely the latest news about the organisation. Short articles about what is going on at our respective museums and what is occupying us on a daily basis: these are the subjects covered and as one image often says more than a thousand words, pictures and illustrations are very important. The Magazine in that way reports on temporary exhibitions, on the refurbishment of galleries and collections and the publication of books. However, the editors go one step further and call upon us, the specialists, to give our opinions: which are our favourite collection items, which publications do we deem to be indispensable tools, how do we use the new media? This cocktail is topped off with interesting articles and notes which do not fit the traditional scientific format of the serious journals in our area of interest. And we should not forget the information about ICOMAM itself, its congresses, its meetings and publications. The current issue is different. It is dedicated to what appears, to most of us, to be a distant country with mysterious collections and it contains both general cultural pieces as well as articles in our field of interest. By concentrating on the Sultanate of Oman this issue focuses on a relatively unknown country. You will probably be surprised to learn that Oman established contacts with the wider world from earliest times and that many vestiges of these contacts are still traceable today. Now that The Magazine has concentrated on the military heritage of one country, we hope that other countries will seize the opportunity of presenting themselves to us in the future. The Magazine is not dissimilar from a Swiss army knife: its a multifunctional tool geared to all opportunities. Enjoy the read!
Piet De Gryse Chairman of ICOMAM Senior Curator, Royal Military Museum, Brussels
vec la publication bisannuelle de son Magazine, lICOMAM est unique en son genre. Divers comits internationaux de lICOM envoient des lettres de contact ou publient un bulletin plus ou moins rgulier informant les membres des vnements passs ou venir. Dautres se limitent la mise jour dun site Internet. Cependant, avec The Magazine, dont ceci est dj le numro 7, lICOMAM suit rsolument un autre cap. Il ne sagit pas dun simple magazine consultable en ligne arrivant dans une bote courriel parce que ladresse se retrouve sur une liste denvoi. Non, ici, un courriel annonce la sortie dun nouveau numro du Magazine, celui-ci tant tlchargeable par le biais du site Internet de lICOMAM. Puisque le Magazine est prsent sous format pdf, le lecteur peut donc soit consulter le numro sur son cran, soit limprimer et le conserver. Beaucoup de collgues me disent privilgier la seconde option: impression, lecture et conservation. Ds sa cration, le Magazine a t conu comme une feuille de contact visant plus loin que la seule prsentation de donnes relatives lorganisation. De petits articles sur la vie dans nos muses respectifs, sur les choses qui nous occupent chaque jour: voil ce qui figure en bonne place. Et puisquune image en dit parfois plus long que le texte, notre publication fait la part belle aux illustrations et aux photos. Le Magazine parle ds lors de nouvelles expositions temporaires, de ramnagement de collections ou de salles, de publication de livres. Et les concepteurs sont
Preface
Y P T
artoum
D A N
Cairo
CYPRUS
T U R K E Y
Sinai
ISRAEL JORDAN
LEBANON
he Sultanate of Oman is situated in the extreme southeast corner of the Arabian Peninsular and shares borders with the United Arab Emirates in the north, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the west and the Republic of Yemen to the southwest. The countrys 3,165 kilometre coastline overlooks the strategic Strait of Hormuz and the entrance to the Gulf in the north and runs from the Sea of Oman to the Arabian Sea and finally, to the Indian Ocean in the far southwest. Situated astride the Tropic of Cancer, Oman dominates some of the oldest and most important
Sultanate of Oman
alls plus loin encore, en nous donnant la parole, nous, les spcialistes: quelles sont nos pices favorites, quelles publications nous semblent indispensables dans notre travail journalier, que pensons-nous des nouveaux mdias? Loffre est complte par de courtes contributions ponctuelles qui ne trouveraient pas leur place dans le format habituel des publications scientifiques traditionnelles. En outre, le Magazine procure des informations sur lICOMAM, ses congrs, ses rencontres, ses publications. Le numro que vous avez sous les yeux aujourdhui est nanmoins diffrent. Il est presque totalement consacr ce qui est, pour la plupart dentre nous, un pays lointain avec des collections mystrieuses, et reprend tant des lments de porte gnrale que des ralisations rcentes dans notre domaine dintrt. En se concentrant sur le sultanat dOman
Introduction
SYRIA I R A Q
ARMENIA
Addis Abeba
ERITREA
Mecca
S A U D I
Baghdad
AZERBAIJAN
KUWAIT
Y E M E N
A R A B I A
Riyadh
C A S P I A N S E A
SOMALIA
a l b R u
BAHRAIN
i a l K h
QATAR
Tehran
lf Gu
UNITED ARAB E M I R AT E S
Abu Dhabi
of en Ad
T U R K M E N I S TA N A
ra
Salalah
Dubai
St
it
of
O M A N
Se
Muscat
a of Oman
AFGHANISTA
Sur
TAR
(situ sur la cte sud-est de la pninsule arabique, entour de lArabie saoudite, des Emirats arabes unis et de linstable Ymen), ce numro thmatique braque les projecteurs sur un pays relativement mconnu. Vous serez certainement surpris de lire quOman a eu de nombreux contacts avec lEurope occidentale et que ces contacts, dont dinnombrables traces subsistent, remontent loin dans le temps. Le Magazine vous propose donc ici un premier numro consacr un pays spcifique. Nous esprons que dautres pays, moins connus pour leur patrimoine militaire, entendront lappel du large, embrayeront le pas et dcideront de se prsenter nous. Au fond, notre Magazine ressemble un peu un couteau suisse: cest un outil multifonctionnel qui sattaque toutes les opportunits qui lui sont prsentes. Nous vous souhaitons bonne lecture. sea trading routes in the world. With an area of 309,500 square kilometres, it is also criss-crossed by the ancient north-south and east-west overland Arabian trade routes. Endowed with a natural beauty unparalleled in the Gulf region, the Sultanate boasts a striking diversity of landscapes, ranging from the lush, fertile plains of southernmost Dhofar to the arid dunes of the Eastern Sands. Sweeping in a long arc from northwest to southeast, the rugged Hajar mountain range rises to a height of 3,000 metres, effectively separating the northern coastal plain Omans most populous region from the interior of the country.
Thumrayt Salalah
Ras al Madrakah
Masirah
Ibri
A R A B I A N S E A
O M A N
Al Duqm Al Hazm Nizwa
Se
a of Oman
Muscat Masirah Sur
A R A B I
S E A
muz
Gulf
of
Su
h e
ez
lf
Ho
rmu
Watchtowers are a prominent feature of the landscape guarding towns and villages as well as the passes through the mountains.
Introduction
Outside the larger cities, the landscape is dominated by smaller towns and villages, often guarded by an ancient watchtower, surrounded by groves of date palms, irrigated by manmade water channels, aflaj
Muscat, the modern capital city, sits virtually astride the Tropic of Cancer at the intersection of ancient trade routes.
The other major population centre, in the south around Salalah where coconuts and bananas flourish, is very different. This area borders the Indian Ocean and is open to the monsoon from late June to October.
Sultanate of Oman
A country as old as history itself, Oman has made significant contributions to human civilisation. Now a modern nation, it has long been an influential maritime and political power with far-reaching contacts including Africa, China, the United States, Britain and Europe. Historical studies show that Oman was among the first countries to embrace Islam voluntarily during the time of the Prophet Mohammed. His messenger, Amr bin AlAas, was
Hospitality at Al Hazm
welcomed by the joint rulers of Oman, Jaifar and Abed Al Julandi, and from that time Oman became a bastion of Islam, helping to spread the message to many parts of the world, particularly East and Central Africa. In the Middle Ages the Imams of Nizwa were important figures in both the religious and secular world, making it an important cultural centre. However Nizwa was not the only important city; Muscat, Sohar and Sur were ports which Marco Polo knew and mentioned in his writings. In 1507 the Portuguese seized control of long stretches of the Omani coast, although their rule did not extend beyond these coastal regions, so that the interior, as well as some coastal areas such as Sohar, remained independent of their control. However Imam Nasser bin Murshid, who acceded in 1624, united the country under his leadership and, using a powerful fleet, was able to reduce Portuguese influence. Imam Sultan bin Saif continued his mission and, in 1650, liberated Muscat and succeeded in driving the Portuguese out of the region altogether. Imam Ahmed bin Said, who had been Wali of Sohar and the surrounding areas in 1744, reunited the country and quenched the fires of internal dissent. In 1775 he sent a fleet of around 100 vessels to the northern Gulf where they broke the Persian siege of Basra. Imam Ahmed died in 1783 in his capital, Ar Rustaq but he had established the rule of the Al Busaid family which continues to this day. In 1792, Imam Hamad, moved the capital from Ar Rustaq to Muscat, where it remains. Oman, like other Arab states, has prospered in the second half of the 20th century with the discovery and development of its oil fields. Following the accession of the present Sultan, Qaboos bin Said, in 1970 Oman has experienced a veritable renaissance. Oil revenues are being
put to good use, building roads, schools, and hospitals as well as establishing cultural institutions including museums and festivals. Tourism is being encouraged and a programme set in motion to restore and re-interpret many of the important fortifications and other old buildings to the public. However despite the increased wealth, Oman and its people still preserve much of their cultural identity and many traditional customs. Distinctive dress is one: Omani men rarely wear western suits, preferring instead the long sleeved, floor length tunic, mainly white, khaki or gray cotton, called a dishdasha, with embroidered caps, or very smart, small turbans. Traditional style dress for women features a colourful, mid-calf length dress worn over elaborately embroidered trousers. More modern styles of womens dress are typically worn under a loose-fitting black overcloak (abaya) adorned with diamantes, beads and gold or silver thread. A major defining characteristic of all Omanis is their friendliness, openness and courtesy, and their hospitality.
Introduction
On the road from Muscat overlooking Fanja with the mountains behind and a series of watchtowers guarding the route south
The city of Al Baleed included a citadel the ruins of which can be seen here from the south. The remains are almost 13 metres high with three round corner towers and several half towers. A central depression is the remains of a building with a large open courtyard surrounded by rooms on all sides. Probably over four storeys high, it was the home and ruling centre of the Sultan. The citadel from the north
The earliest fortifications in Oman were built to protect cities and the valuable trade in frankincense. Sites such as Sumhuram and Al Baleed in Dhofar are dominated by their fortifications. Fortifications in Oman date back at least five thousand years but little is known about these early strongholds. Some of the earliest surviving fortifications were built to protect cities, trade routes and the valuable markets in frankincense. Sites such as Sumhuram and al Baleed are dominated by their walls. In the early 16th century the north coast of Oman came under the control of the Portuguese as they expanded their influence across the Indian Ocean to India and the Far East. They occupied Muscat and were responsible for building the two forts which frame the harbour there, Al Jalali and Al Mirani.
The remains of the imposing wall that once surrounded the city with the bases of towers along its length
Sultanate of Oman
This room, in Nakhal Fort, was used in the summer for the barza, where the Wli received petitions or complaints and heard pleas.
The forts and castles of Oman served a number of purposes for defence, as a military headquarters, administration base and judicial centre. The position of a castle was usually carefully chosen to defend a strategic position be that a population centre, a pass, a trade route or, often all three of these. While its position and primary function was as a means of defence, its major role was as a hub for administration and justice for the area around it. This has close parallels for castles throughout the West which were also the focus of large estates, the seat of the local court and a centre of justice and law. In Oman, the major figure in each area was the Wli a governor of an administrative division, a Wilayah. The Wli lived in the castle along with his family and entourage.
Prisons, separate ones for men and women, are a feature of almost every castle or fort. Sometimes just a small room with a strong door, some are just underground pits into which a prisoner was thrown and, probably, forgotten about. A major function of any fort or castle was, of course, defence resisting invaders. To this end a number of strategies were used including high thick walls, strong gates and loops through which cannon or small arms were fired. All these feature in Omani castles but it is in the design of entrances and gateways that they excelled. Starting with doors, which were often of immense thickness and beautifully carved and decorated. However, once inside an attacker would find a number of obstacles in his path. First he would face being doused with hot date syrup. The major source of food, especially in the north of Oman, was the date and large stores were kept in every fort or castle. Stored in palm leaf sacks piled up, the weight of the dates squeezed a thick syrup which was prized as a delicacy. However this syrup also had a more sinister purpose heated up and poured through an opening above the door, called a murder hole, onto the unwary attacker. The hot, sticky syrup would have inflicted considerable burns! Of course date syrup was not always available and anything which would inflict injury on the enemy, stones and rocks for example, could also be used.
In contrast to the womens prison, that for men is harsher and more basic.
Sultanate of Oman
Next, the attacker would face a zig-zag of passages leading into the main part of the castle. These passages were narrow, usually with steps, and meant that the attackers could only enter a few at a time. And at each turn there would be a door and yet another murder hole above. And that was not all. To further impede the attackers some of the steps could be removed! One step would always be made from wood with a drop beneath it, which could be removed, and covered with a false floor in times of trouble. An unwary attacker, treading on the step, would fall through into the trap beneath.
The date store was the major source of food if a castle was besieged. The weight of the piles of date sacks, just a few are seen here in Nakhal Fort, were sufficient to squeeze out the date syrup which was collected in the jars positioned in the floor.
Perhaps the best example of the convoluted zig-zag entrance is at Nizwa Fort. After breaking through the main door, attackers would encounter no less than six further doors, five of which also had murder holes above them.
14 MAGAZINE SPECIAL ISSUE
A major function of any fort or castle was not only its ability to resist attack, but to act as a platform from which to attack any invaders. Small arms and cannon were the major weapons used. Rifles and muskets were used to fire either from the tops of the walls or from specially designed gun loops. The tops of walls were battlemented, that is built with uprights, the merlons, with spaces between, the crenels. A soldier could stand behind the merlon until ready to fire and then use the crenel to fire at the enemy. In the West, merlons are usually rectangular while in Oman they are usually rounded or triangular on top.
Battlements at Taqah Castle
The top of this step, now covered with a glass plate, would have been removed in times of attack making a trap for the unwary attacker.
The huge drum tower at Nizwa. The vertical slits around the top perimeter are the lower ends of the firing loops, cut into the wall to allow fire at the base of the wall
For long range fire, cannon were used from the 16th century. At first they were probably just added to already existing fortifications but later special artillery towers were constructed to take full advantage of their power and range. The best example is perhaps Al Hazm Castle. Here two massive artillery towers, at the southeast and northwest corners of the castle, provide two levels, each with seven gunports making a total of 28 in all. Each tower is strengthened and has a massive central pillar with panels of decoration. The gun ports themselves are wide and arched on the inside, the gun itself protruding through a smaller rectangular opening.
This firing loop, on the top of the tower at Nizwa, was used for small arms fire. Using the small holes on either side fire could be ranged against enemies at a distance. The slot at the bottom angles steeply downwards so that attackers at the base of the wall could be fired on
Of enormous importance in any castle or fort was the water supply. Both having a good source of water for day-today use as well as a supply that your enemy could not interrupt or cut off, was essential. Many castles were supplied by a falaj.
Sultanate of Oman
Al Hazm Castle showing one of the massive artillery towers with its two tiers of gunports
The falaj is channelled right through the castle providing an endless source of fresh water
Water can be drawn up to all the levels in the castle by means of a rope and bucket The well in Jabreen Castle
However, it was always crucial to have a secondary source of water preferably from a well inside the castle itself so that if, or perhaps when, your enemy cuts off the main supply you still have water. As with all castles, wherever in the world they are, a means of escape in the direst need was always necessary and many fortifications have some form of secret escape tunnel and Omani castles are no exception. Several castles are said to have extensive tunnels to allow the beleaguered defenders to escape. Many of the castles and forts of Oman, particularly those in the interior, were still being used until well into the 20th century especially by the Wli. However many had fallen into decay and were in a poor state of preservation. From the 1970s the Ministry of Heritage and Culture began a campaign of restoration and preservation which goes on to this day in line with UNESCO recommendations. Traditional building techniques and materials are used in the restoration work. Walls are rendered with a compound of fired mud, straw, and gypsum. As the painstaking work on each site is completed, it is handed over to the Ministry of Tourism to interpret and manage.
Mirbat Castle under restoration in 2011
A frankincense tree
ne of the recent UNESCO World Heritage designations is the Land of Frankincense in Dhofar in the south of Oman, incorporating a group of archaeological sites connected with the production and export of frankincense. They constitute outstanding testimony to the civilization that, from the Neolithic to the late Islamic period, flourished in southern Arabia. The Oasis of Shishr and the entrepts of Khor Rori and Al Baleed are excellent examples of medieval fortified settlements. Ptolemy identified three areas in the Dhofar region in which the frankincense tree (Boswellia sacra) is still found today.
Differences in soil and climate, as well as different species of trees, produce different resins; Dhofari frankincense is reckoned the best in the world. Frankincense is tapped from the Boswellia tree when it is 8 to 10 years old, by slashing the bark and letting the resin bleed out and harden into what are called tears. There are a different species of frankincense trees, each producing a slightly different type of resin. Tapping is done 2 to 3 times a year with the final taps producing the best quality. The Neolithic inhabitants of southern Arabia were engaged in long-distance trade and with the passing of centuries, the frankincense trade became an established network, from the Mediterranean, Red Sea and Egypt in the west to Mesopotamia, India and China in the east. Incense was used in many different religions through history.
The best place to learn about the history of the Frankincense cultivation and trade is the recently opened Museum of the Frankincense Land, situated on the outskirts of Salalah. Not only is the visitor shown the history of frankincense but is also given an excellent introduction to the history of Oman. One gallery deals with the prehistory of the area, illustrated with many finds, videos and reconstructions. Another is devoted to the maritime history of Oman, including a full size reconstruction of a Baghla boat, which used to ply the oceans between Oman and the Sultans lands in Zanzibar and Mombasa. Displays and interpretations are modern and excellent.
The ruins of the great mosque at Al Baleed
he Museum is situated next to the archaeological park containing the settlement of Al Baleed, from which frankincense has been shipped since the early third millennium BC. On an elevated site extending along the coast with a khor providing water from the mountains, the site has been excavated since 1977. Most of what the visitor sees today dates from the Islamic period, with its strong walls and gates and a great Mosque. The settlement began to decline in the 12th century, and it was attacked and partially destroyed on several occasions in the 13th century, both by Arab rulers and by Persian raiders. Its fate was sealed with the arrival of the Portuguese in the Gulf and the changes they imposed on local trading patterns; it never recovered.
Al Baleed
Sultanate of Oman
Sumhuram/Khor Rori
Sumhuram rising out of the sand which covered the site for centuries.
orty kilometres to the east is another early frankincense port, the settlement of Khor Rori, first excavated in the 1950s and currently undergoing excavation by the University of Pisa. Founded in the 3rd century BC to control the trade in Dhofar incense, the city was called Sumhuram. The Indian merchants who brought cotton cloth, corn and oil in exchange for incense overwintered there, waiting for the favourable monsoon winds to take them home. At its height, with its close links with the powerful Shabwa state, the city became very rich. However it was abandoned in the 5th century AD, after years of decline, and was reclaimed by the sand and the sea.
Overlooking the site of the port at Sumhuram. In the background can be sent eh sand bar which has grown up across the mouth of the port and which probably contributed to the abandonment of the site
The fortified city, roughly rectangular in shape, is located on a rocky spur running east-west, 25 metres above sea level and the walls, of dressed-stone facings with rubble cores, are still a very prominent feature. Even today they still stand to a height of 5 metres, and in the past they must have been some 9 or 10 metres tall and are almost two metres thick. The most heavily fortified section is the northern entrance, a massive structure with three gates, twisting at right angles, one after the other, on a steep path, flanked by the remains of towers. Here the walls are nearly 3 metres thick.
The passageways close to the small postern gate were decorated with monumental inscriptions, commemorating the foundation of the city. The gates and walls were needed to protect the city with its wealthy temples, residential areas and frankincense warehouses. Another important part of the defence of the city is a safe water supply and Sumhuram has a particularly impressive sunken well and cistern. There is a new visitors centre to help orientate and inform the visitor with displays and video. It contains many interesting finds from the site, indicating its wealth and culture.
The visitor centre at Sumhuram
notable feature of the landscape of Oman is the system of water channels, called aflaj (plural) or falaj (singular), that extends across the country. Basically a water management system, aflaj provide a reliable supply of water to human settlements and for irrigation in the hot, arid conditions of much of the country. They are thought to have originated in pre-Islamic Iran, Persia, and may date back to 1000BC, and from there, the system spread throughout much of Asia and Africa. Aflaj consist of a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels in such a way that large quantities of water are efficiently delivered to the surface without the need for any form of pumping, relying on gravity with the source being at a higher level than their destination. They transport water over long distances in hot dry climates without losing a great deal to evaporation or leakage. The source of a falaj was normally at the foot of a range of hills or mountains where the water table is close to the surface. Especially near the source but often for long distances the falaj runs in underground channels and can extend for many tens of kilometres. The system has the advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods, and to deliberate destruction in war. Equally important, they are not dependent on rainfall levels, delivering a flow with only small variations from wet to dry years.
22 MAGAZINE SPECIAL ISSUE
Diagram showing how a falaj was dug and the way gravity was used to eliminate the need for pumping
Falaj Daris, one of the five examples of aflaj designated as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 2006. It is almost 8 kilometres long and supplies some 2.25 million cubic metres of water to irrigate nearly 2 square kilometres of land. The mother well is 17.5 metres deep
In Oman aflaj date back to the Iron Age period and there are still some 3000 still in use today. Many important sites were built on or around a falaj, including Nizwa, Al Hazm and Bait Al Falaj, the Armed Forces Museum. In July 2006, five examples of aflaj were designated as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO Water is, of course, necessary to life but was also used for washing, bathing and for purification before prayers.
The UNESCO listed Falaj Al Khatmain at Birkat Al Mawz. The main channel divides into three streams very carefully designed so that exactly one third of the water runs into each experiments using coloured balls have proved this to be true as equal numbers of balls flowed into each one. This was especially important as the water supply was very carefully measured and regulated. Sometimes a falaj was carried above ground in an aqueduct as here near Bayt ar Ridayah Castle.
omprising fort, castle, mosque and souk, perhaps the greatest fortress complex in Oman is the great citadel of Nizwa. Nizwa, the ancient capital of Oman, was already an important centre in the early Islamic period. However its main period of importance was during the Imamate of the Yaruba when it became, once again, the main city in the country. Much of the surviving buildings date from this period, including the great tower, which was raised during the 1650s. With the rise of the Al Bu Said dynasty, Nizwa found renewed importance as the stronghold of the local Wali. A British officer who visited in the 1860s described his reception by the wali in the public hall, where he sat on cushions, exchanging compliments and conversing, coffee in the meanwhile beingdistributed to the assembled guests. The wali claimed he could call on 1000 men at arms to support his position. Nizwa regained its position when the newly reinvigorated Imams began to seriously challenge the power of the sultan, establishing a virtually independent state following the treaty of Seeb in 1913. It was still important enough for Said bin Taimur to make it the object of his progress into north Oman in 195556, when the old Portuguese cannon was fired off to greet him. The Sultan held receptions in the old castle chambers to mark the new phase in Omans history. The entrance into the great drum tower of Nizwa is formed in the solid base and was a masterpiece of planning. The small door at the base meant that only a few attackers could enter at a time and once in, had to negotiate a narrow, zig-zag passage with stairs, murder holes and false steps.
Nizwa Fort
The complex at Nizwa from the right, the Mosque, the ancient souq, fort and new souq with its imposing gateway
The base of the huge drum tower is solid while the upper section serves as a platform for small arms fire and for cannon. The tower is 36 metres in diameter and 30 metres tall.
The first door leading to the main entrance into the drum tower
Gunloops for small arms fire are also built into the walls fire could be directed either out at an enemy at a distance or downwards, through the slot at the base, at an enemy close to the walls.
Nizwa Fort
The doorway at the top of the stairs with its stout door.
Around the perimeter of the tower are a series of gunports to mount cannon giving a wide range of fire over the surrounding town and countryside.
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Around the perimeter of the great drum tower you can see the gunports for cannon, at the lower level, and the small holes for firearms near the top. The long grooves around the top allow small arms fire to be directed downwards at an enemy close to the base of the tower. The interior rooms of the fort are displayed as they would have been in the past
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Nizwa Fort
Jabreen Castle
Jabreen Castle
Ship grafitti in Jabreens south gun tower date from the early phases of fort construction.
The castle has two strong artillery towers making it a formidable stronghold.
abreen castle has been described as the jewel in the Crown of Omani castles and forts. Built in the 1670s for the Imam Bilarub bin Sultan (167092) it evolved from a simple garrison fort to a major military stronghold. Today, like many castles in Oman, it is a rectangular construction with a circular tower at opposing corners. However it is the interiors of Jabreen that make it special.
Jabreen Castle, main door.
When it was built, Imam Bilarub bin Sultan intended to move the seat of the Imamate from Nizwa to Jabreen and indeed Jabreen came, for a short while, to be known for unity, peace and the call of Islam. It was a centre of learning for the study of Islamic law, history, Arabic, medicine and astrology. However its glory lasted only some twenty years. In 1692, Imam Bilarub was besieged by his brother Saif bin Sultan who took Jabreen. In about 1708, Saif bin Sultans son, Sultan bin Saif moved the capital to Al Hazm. In the 19th century Jabreen declined in importance, one visitor noted there was only a small garrison of six men, while another stated it was only used as a summer residence. After years of neglect, in the 1980s, Jabreen was taken over by the Ministry of Heritage and Culture who have restored it to its former glory. Today, it is a popular visitor destination operated by the Ministry of Tourism.
Jabreen Castle
The gateway into the castle
The courtyard with its balconies and scalloped arches says much for the castles fine architecture and attests to its sophistication.
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The Hall of the Sun and Moon. The windows are arranged in two tiers to let the light of the moon in by night and to cut down the blaze of the sun during the day.
The most magical room in the Castle is the Hall of the Sun and the Moon, with high windows designed to allow the moonlight to stream in at night, and ventilated to allow cooling breezes in the day. The security aspect of the castle though was never far away. This is also one of the castles where the Imams horse could be stabled within the castle itself its stable reached by a wide and gently sloping ramp which has been replaced by a stairway. Besides the palace there was a famous Madrasah within the castle itself, with schoolroom, library and two mosques, a reminder that the Imam was a religious as well as a national leader.
One of the rooms restored to its original splendour.
The ceilings of Jabreen castle are wonderfully painted with floral and geometric patterns, reminiscent of Persian carpets. This is the ceiling of the Sun and Moon room.
Jabreen Castle
Even here though, there is a secret stair which can be removed to foil the unwary invader. The stable in the castle is on the upper floor reached by a ramp.
efore the discovery of oil, much of Omans wealth came from the sea. Trade, primarily in frankincense and horses, was a staple of the Dhofar region for centuries. Later, the northern ports, Sohar and Muscat, became part of the network for the spice trade, with ships sailing to Persia and India and as far as China. By the 16th century, Omans fleets began to expand beyond the gulf and they fought and defeated Portuguese ships in the course of the17th and 18th centuries. The navy was a vital part in keeping the two parts of the Omani empire, Oman and
A traditional dhow in Mutrah harbour
To investigate the legend of Sinbad, Tim Severin built a traditional Arab sailing vessel sewn with coconut twine and, in 198081, sailed her from Oman to China. The 6,000 mile journey, funded by the Sultan of Oman, is described in the book The Sinbad Voyage. The Sohar is now displayed near the Al Bustan Hotel in Muscat.
HMOV Al Mansoor. A fast-attack vessel, originally built in the UK in 1973, and re-equipped in 1979 with twin Breda 40mm guns and 2 Exocet surface-to-surface missiles. She carried a crew of 32 and was capable of 25 knots. She was decommissioned in 1985.
Zanzibar, in touch with one another. The sea brought not only trade but fishing, and Omans sailors were well known for their skills and seamanship. The sea, especially fishing but also tourist divers exploring the riches of the waters around the coasts, is still an important part of Omani life and the economy.
Taqah fisherman
Muscat harbour is protected by the Twin Forts of Al Jalali, seen here, and Al Mirani. The two towers of Al Jilali were connected by the long curtain wall, with cannon loops, built by the Portuguese in the later 1520s. The fort was further strengthened in the 1580s.
Al Mirani fort was probably built in the late 16th century at the command of Philip II of Spain, also King of Portugal at this time. In the foreground is Al Khor Mosque.
Al Mirani fort
In Muscat they were responsible for building several forts that survive to this day including Al Jalali and Al Mirani. However the fortifications are not the only reminder of the Portuguese presence; the visitor can still see Portuguese cannons around the castles, forts and public buildings of Oman today. Nor are these merely museum pieces; in 1955 Jan Morris reported that one of the Portuguese guns at Nizwa was damaged by a too-powerful charge when it was fired to greet the arrival of the Sultan.
Muscat Island, to the north of Al Jalali fort, was also fortified. As Jan Morris notes, it had long been the custom for ships visiting Muscat to have their names inscribed on the rocks in white paint. Some are still visible today.
Surviving cannon cover the period of the Portuguese occupation, from the early 16th century to the 1640s. The earliest of these bronze cannons have distinctive lifting rings on the barrel instead of the dolphins found on the guns of other European countries. One such example is currently displayed at Al Hazm Castle, which has a very beautiful plain barrel and a pleasing cylindrical cascable; the type of gun which would have armed the first Portuguese ships which sailed to Asia in the 16th century.
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Detail showing the arms of Portugal surrounded by the chain of the Order of the Golden Fleece.
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Another fine 16th century Portuguese cannon is mounted in Nizwa Fort. This is more elaborately decorated, with an elegant, long cascable and the arms of the king of Portugal on the barrel. These are surrounded by the chain of the Golden Fleece, the Order of Chivalry of the Hapsburgs, indicating the King of Portugal at the time was also a member of the order, suggesting the gun must have been cast in the time of Joao III who died in 1557. A Portuguese gun dating from later in the 16th century is also on display at Al Hazm Castle. Instead of the lifting rings this cannon has dolphins, in the shape of lively fish and the Portuguese kings arms lack the collar. This cannon also has the mark of a Portuguese gunfounder, but unfortunately it is too damaged to identify it; it looks like a P or D cast onto the barrel, which may represent the mark of Cosme Dias, who worked in the 1570s.
A Portuguese cannon at Nizwa Fort mounted on an historically accurate reproduction carriage. The cannon in the background is an 18th century Swedish iron finnbanker.
Detail showing the letter D or P cast onto the barrel of the cannon
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In 1580, the last native king of Portugal died and Philip II inherited the crown and its possessions. Gradually the Portuguese kingdom began to be absorbed into the Hapsburg Empire and we can see this story represented in a pair of cannons displayed at Al Hazm which, with their ribbed breech and dolphins, look more Spanish than Portuguese. Not all of Portugals artillery was cast in Lisbon; by 1520s they sent out gunfounders to India, to take advantage of cheap labour and materials to establish gunfoundries there. The most famous of the Portuguese gunfounders in
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A Portuguese cannon at Al Hazm Castle showing the influence of Spain and the Hapsburg Empire.
Instead of the lifting rings of the earlier Portuguese cannon this later one has the more characteristic dolphins of Spanish cannon
Asia were the Bocarro family, establishing foundries in India and China. Francisco Bocarro left Portugal to set up works in Goa and was certainly there by 1587. He was succeeded by his son, Pedro Dias, who continued the foundry until 1623. The third and best-known member of the dynasty, Manuel Tavares Bocarro, born in Goa, moved to Macao in China, then held by the Portuguese, in 1625 to establish a foundry to produce cannons for the new fortifications there. Our last cannon, currently on display at the Ministry of Heritage and Culture in Muscat, represents this phase of Portuguese history. It was probably cast by Manuel in the
1640s and is a witty and playful mixture of Asian and European motives, with a classical warrior, bestriding the globe, dolphins in the form of very Chinese-looking lions and a sight on the muzzle in the shape of a birds foot. In addition it bears the name of the new king, Joao IV, the first king of the Braganza dynasty who re-established the independence of the Portugal from Spain, and lost Muscat.
The muzzle of the cannon with a foresight in the form of a birds foot.
tretching east from Muscat between the waters of the Sea of Oman and the Hajar mountains to the south. is a wide plain called Al Batinah. Long populated and fought over this region is heavily fortified with castles and forts
Castles of Al Batinah
eemingly growing out of the uncut rock on a platform commanding the valley and an important route to the south, Nakhal Fort is a supreme example of Omani fortification building. In many ways it is unlike many of its Omani counterparts and has many affinities with western European castlebuilding traditions. It comprises six towers joined by a high wall with a seventh, freestanding tower in its midst. Once inside, the high walls make storming the inner part of the castle extremely difficult. Nakhal Fort has a very long history. The site was fortified in the pre-Islamic period but nothing remains today. A fort on this site was certainly in use by the early 9th century and restoration and renovation work was carried out in the 12th to 15th centuries. It was restored again in the 16th century by the Yaruba Imams and in the 19th century towers, a gate and wall were added. It was heavily fortified in the 19th
some guarding the ports and harbours of the coast and some inland to protect the important passes through the mountains and the routes south.
Nakhal Fort
Nakhal Fort is built on a platform of rock on the foothills of the Hajar mountains.
Once inside the gate, the high walls of the inner part of the castle are formidable.
Castles of Batinah
century when Colonel S.B. Miles wrote about approaching Nakhal Fort: rounding an angle we were now confronted with the massive ramparts of the fortress, which, warned by the watch tower, immediately began to fire salutes a battery of twelve-pounder iron guns, the sound of which reverberated sharply from the rocky walls of the glen.
Nakhal was, like most castles in Oman, the home of the wali and his family with rooms for both his children and family. Nakhal Fort was, however, built as a stronghold and was, in the past, heavily fortified and armed. Today it houses cannon which recall a more turbulent past.
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The winter sitting room where the Wali held his barza and received petitions and complaints.
A British 17th century iron cannon on a restored 3-wheeled carriage commands a view over the surrounding district.
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tanding almost on the beach, Barka Castle was a look out over the sea watching for ships and protected the town and port of Barka and the route to the interior especially as the port served the ancient capital of Ar Rustaq. The importance of Barka was at its peak in the middle of the 18th century. Imam Ahmed bin Said (c. 174983) negotiated with the Persians to end their siege of Sohar in exchange for the right to retain Muscat. The Imam then diverted trade from Muscat to Barka and set up a thriving international market. The Persian Governor in Muscat, deprived of vital supplies accepted an invitation to go to Barka and negotiate under a safe conduct. The Persians were entertained to an extravagant banquet and while they were eating, a drum sounded, signalling a massacre. Just when the castle was built is still unclear but it can probably be dated to the reign of the grandson of Imam Ahmed bin Said, Hamad bin Said (c. 178492). It was extensively restored in the 20th century, under the reign of the present Sultans father, Said bin Taimur (193470) and again by the Ministry of Heritage and Culture. The Ministry of Tourism is currently developing Barka Castle as a visitor destination with information and exhibits about local traditions of seafaring and fishing appropriate to its position on the coast of the Sea of Oman
Barka Castle
Barka Castle
Castles of Batinah
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Inside the castle itself are courtyards and living areas including a mosque in the centre. The towers are filled with cannon
An Numan Castle
An Numan Castle
Castles of Batinah
n Numan has been described as an elegant country castle. It was built, probably during the reign of Imam Bilarub bin Sultan Al Yarubi (c. 167092), as a country residence and rest house for important travellers on the long, arduous journey from Muscat to Ar Rustaq and Al Hazm. It was renovated by Imam Ahmed bin Said (c. 174983) who added the two defensive towers and extended the walls. Today it has more the appearance of a grand house than a fortified castle. However it was not always so peaceful. In 1807 Badr bin Saif rebelled against his cousin Sayyid Said bin Sultan and the two men attacked one another with daggers inside the castle. Badr was wounded, jumped out of a window and escaped on horseback but was eventually overcome by his enemy. By the mid 1980s the castle was very ruined but has been beautifully restored to its former glory.
The elegant doorway into the castle gives it more the appearance of a house.
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The interiors are beautifully restored to their former splendour. The roof of the towers are very elegant with their distinctive silhouette
he three castles along the coast east from Salalah are all more recent than the castles in northern Oman. It comes as a surprise that although Dhofar is a land with a history stretching back into antiquity, with the frankincense trade, these are amongst the most recent and have been
T T
aqah Castle, 30 kilometres east of Salalah, has recently re-opened after an extensive renovation programme, giving the visitor a vivid idea of what life in such a castle was like. Standing right in the centre of Taqah, the castle was built in the 19th century as a private residence. From the early 20th century, until 1984, it was the headquarters for the local wali. Built from peach-pink local limestone, the square castle is built round a courtyard, with outside stairs linking the different levels and open rooftops. Visiting this castle is like stepping back in time; the rooms are furnished with bright textiles, pictures and ceramics.
Taqah Castle
Taqah Castle
strongholds on the front line well within recent memory, reminding us that castle building is still a living tradition. The local population could shelter within their walls in times of trouble.
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Weapons hang on the walls, exactly as past visitors recall. Light filters in through the carved windows and shutters. Freya Stark, visiting a similar castle in the 1930s, recalled, even at that date, that the shutters were used as much to keep out bullets as bright sunlight. The range of chambers remind us of the harsh climate, where the family and household moved to different rooms in the morning, afternoon and evening, to catch the cooling breezes in the heat of summer. In addition to the public rooms used for government work, there are private bedrooms and bathing
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rooms for the wali and his family. However this is as much a castle for living outside as within, with the rooms and spaces connecting at different levels. The ground floor, where in the past would have been used as stores, kitchens and the armoury, is now used as a centre for displays on local history, industries such as fishing, and crafts and costumes. In addition there is a small shop from which locally produced jewellery and items can be bought.
irbat Castle, set right on the seashore, guards an ancient port, famous in past times for its export of horses to India and still today an important and busy fishing
Fishing boats in the harbour at Mirbat
Mirbat Castle
port. Opposite the castle is a battery to defend the approaches to the harbour.
Like Taqah, this is a 19th century structure, square with hexagonal towers built diagonally opposite each other. This was also the home of the local wali. At present it is going through a programme of restoration though the visitor can still appreciate the attractive elaborate shuttering on the windows.
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A view of the roof the castle showing gun loops and the small guard post.
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adah Castle is the furthest east of these fortifications and the smallest. It is also the youngest, dating only from the early 20th century, built during the reign of the Sultan Sayyid Taimur bin Faisal to house the local Wali. Unlike Taqah, where the apartments are arranged round a spacious courtyard, here they are arranged vertically over four floors in a simple tower house, placed right in the centre of the community. The basement contains a prison and storerooms while the upper floors contain the audience chamber and the newly decorated residential suites. Again these are now furnished in colourful textiles and ceramics, giving the visitor a glimpse of what they would once have looked like. However you cannot forget that this is a defensive structure as well as a home. The only entrance is through a massive wooden door, and there are few openings on the ground floor. The battlements are liberally finished with crenulations and gunloops along the wall walk which also has a little guardroom and lookout tower.
Sadah Castle
Mirbat
Sadah Castle
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The restored interior of the castle.
The kanjar and crossed swords decorate a plaque on the gates to the Sultans Palace in Muscat.
ou see the khanjar everywhere in Oman; on the national flag, on public sculptures; it is the shape of post-boxes; they are displayed in museums; you can buy a genuine
antique one or commission a completely new khanjar; or settle for a miniature plastic toy for a child. It is part of the national dress of the Omani man. It is the symbol for Oman.
Every Omani man owns at least one and wears it on special occasions, weddings, religious or state occasions. It is the symbol of manhood, and until recently was part of everyday dress. There are basic designs which are normally followed - the hilt and scabbard are usually decorated with silver, as gold can be thought a little too ostentatious for
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most tastes. However they can be subject to modern fashions, as other objects of desire - one museum curator told us of the special khanjar commissioned by his cousin for his wedding, decorated with suitably romantic crystals not, he murmured, for everyday wear
Khanjars
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The curved blade is double edged, of steel, often with a deep central rib and fullers. The sheath is sharply curved in an upwards sweep. All of Omans metalworking techniques can be found in the manufacture and decorating of khanajar. There are different designs and patterns but these are as much about changing taste, as geographic differences. There are two main types of hilt shape found in more recent khanajar. The first, and most common, has the characteristic flared upper part of the grip. The second type is associated with the family of the Sultan and has a smaller and more diamond shaped top to the grip.
The belt of the khanjar was usually decorated and hung with accessories including a pouch and a container for kohl, essential to protect the eyes in the hot, dry climate.
Khanjars usually also had a knife at the back like this one.
The hilt itself is can be made from a wide variety of materials including ivory, ebony, rhinoceros horn or sandalwood. The hilt and sheath are decorated with silver using a wide range of styles and techniques wirework, repousse, granulation, chiselling and chasing. The khanjar is worn with an elaborate belt made of leather of textile and decorated with silver, silver thread, wire or silver plaques. Unlike western European daggers it is usually worn in the front, clearly visible. It was also common to have a small knife attached to the back of the sheath but these are usually missing.
ne of the most characteristic sights in northern Oman is the date palm. The date itself is ubiquitous. It is the automatic accompaniment to local hospitality delicious Omani coffee, flavoured with cardamom, and dates. It is part of the economy, Oman produced over 3% of the world production of some 6.7 million tonnes in 2004. The date has been a staple food of Oman for centuries and every castle has a room to store them, usually in the basement. The dates were stored in date palm sacks piled high on specially made floor arranged so that the thick, sticky date syrup which oozes out when dates are pressed can be collected.
However this date syrup could also be used for more warlike purposes. Heated up, it was poured down onto attackers the hot viscous liquid causing nasty burns and injuries perhaps not enough to kill your attacker but enough to disable him and take him out of the action, hopefully causing mayhem and confusion in his panic. Above the entrance, just inside the gates, of almost every castle in Oman is a slot down which it could be poured. The date palm was used for many purposes, in fact, virtually every part of the tree is used in Oman to make functional items ranging from rope and baskets to beehives, fishing boats, and traditional dwellings.
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The syrup was collected in glass or earthenware jars set into the floor of the store.
This slot in Nizwa Fort was where hot date syrup could be poured down onto attackers
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Date palm rope is also widely made. A rough version is made from the fibre found on the trunk at the base of the frond. Another type is a finer twine-like cord made from plaited palm leaflets.
The date store at Jabreen castle showing the floor on which the sacks of dates were stored. The syrup ran out and flowed along the channels and was collected.
lings are one of the oldest projectile weapons. It is thought that they might go back as far as the Upper Palaeolithic period (40,00010,000 years ago) and were used all over the world. However, although sling shots are quite common in the archaeological record, surviving slings are very rare as they are made from biodegradable materials, some form of natural string, which quickly rot and disappear. The earliest existing slings were found in the tomb of Tutankhamen who died around 1325BC. They are mentioned by Homer and there are depictions of them on Trajans Column in Rome. In Western Europe it is clear that they were used into the medieval period and certainly up to the 15th century. In the Old Testament David kills Goliath with a slingshot and this is occasionally illustrated.
Preparing sisal fibres, known in Arabic as masad, to make the string from which slings are made.
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The completed sling. The shot was put into the pouch, the loop was put over a finger and the then the sling was whirled around the head letting go of one end of the string at just the right moment released the shot. With practice a skilled slinger could be very accurate.
In this fresco from a church, David has attacked Goliath with his sling (on the ground between them) and is about to slay him with his sword. Fanefjord church, Denmark c.1480 ( Robert Smith and Ruth Rhynas Brown)
ne of the best places to see the traditional weapons of Oman, and learn more about Omani culture in general, is the Bait Al Zubair (House of Al Zubair)in Muscat, a private museum opened in 1998. It is funded by the Zubair family who established the Bait Al Zubair Foundation as the cultural and social arm of the family-owned business, the Zubair Corporation, in 2005. The museum complex consists of three separate buildings (Bait Al Bagh, Bait Al Dalaleel and Bait Al Oud) with a fourth currently under development, as well as a garden with a number of traditional features. The main museum was built as a family home in 1914 by Sheikh Al Zubair bin Ali, who served three former Sultans as a minister and advisor. Exhibits include items and portraits of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said and his predecessors. Four galleries on the ground floor display traditional weapons, costumes of men and women, jewellery and other handcrafts. It is a light, airy elegant museum with modern, informative displays.
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An Al Saidi Khanjar
The visitor will find one gallery dedicated to the history and development of the khanjar, displaying a particularly fine collection of carefully chosen examples illustrating the development and varieties of this Omani dagger. Not only are the daggers, their scabbards, belts and accessories displayed but also some daggers are displayed on mannequins, showing how the weapons were worn. Close by are daggers from other Arabic cultures for comparison. Other traditional Omani arms are displayed, particularly fine examples of the long swords and shields. There are wall cases of fascinating firearms. The visitor benefits from being able to examine and compare different examples of high quality weapons. Most of the decoration on all the weapons are in silver and you can study the different techniques used for example, casting, engraving, inlay, repousse, chasing. There is also a display of customized Martini Henry rifles modified in the traditional Omani way with silver wire, plaques and engraving, displayed along with accessories, cartridge belts, bullet moulds and powder flasks.
Alongside the displays of Omani weapons are shown weapons from other cultures around Oman particularly from the Yemen.
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Bait Al Oud
One interesting item was a belt made from Maria Theresa thalers, complete with powder flask hanging down. There are also fine weapons from other cultures, Persian, Turkish and Indian; and even small cannon. Bait Al Oud (grand house) is a three-storey building designed to reflect the familys former principle residence in Muscat, where Sheikh Ali bin Juma (Sheikh Al Zubair bin Alis father) and his family lived in the 19th and 20th centuries, until the house was demolished in the 1940s. This part of the museum contains a large temporary exhibition hall and reception area on the ground floor. The first floor includes early European maps of the Arabian Peninsula and typical Muscati furniture. The second floor includes early prints of the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa, early photographs of Muscat and an exhibit of historic cameras. Bait Dalaleel (house of the Dalaleel district) adjoining the main museum has been carefully restored, allowing the visitor to experience life in Oman a century ago. The house contains a guest room, bed room and the date store. The museum complex is set in grounds containing a hut made from palms, boats, a souq and a falaj. In addition there is a gift shop and cafe, enabling the visitor to enjoy traditional Omani coffee and halwa. www.baitalzubairmuseum.com
A belt made from Maria Theresa thalers to carry a powder flask.
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he Sultans Armed Forces Museum is currently housed in Bait Al Falaj, a whitewashed fort on the outskirts of Muscat. Bait Al Falaj has long been associated with the Al Bu dynasty .The fort was built in about 1845 by Sultan Said Bin Sultan and it was from here he started his campaign to suppress internal uprisings. The fort was one of the main homes of Sultan Faisal bin Turki (18881913) and was the focus of a decisive engagement between the troops of the Sultan and those of the recently revived Imamate of Oman in 1915, resulting in the Imams failure to take Muscat. Bait Al Falaj became the main northern headquarters for the Sultans armed forces, first for the Muscat Levy Corps in 1921 and from 1957 to 1978 of the Sultans Armed Forces. It was opened in 1988, as a Museum for the Armed Services, by HM Sultan Qaboos Bin Said. It is set within gardens watered by the falaj after which it is named.
The falaj.
The museum covers all branches of the Sultans Armed Services, and the visitor begins with a brief overview of the earlier history of Oman. The first displays deal with traditional Omani weapons: spears, shields and swords from the time of the Sassanids and the early Islamic era. The next galleries deal with the Portuguese occupation, Persian invasions and the civil war of 18th century. They also
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show the growth of Oman as a naval power from the 17th century onwards and the creation of the Oman overseas territories in Zanzibar and East Africa. Exhibits include a comprehensive range of firearms from matchlocks to percussion weapons and larger items such a Nordenfeldt machine gun. Most of the displays deal with the last 150 years of the history and development of the Sultans Armed Forces, showing how the Muscat Levy Corps, who were originally based here in the 1920s, evolved into the combined modern Services of today. The galleries show the conflicts in which they fought and their victories, illustrated with exhibits, contempory photographs and informative panels. The weapons displayed indicate how the Services were modernized over the last century, as well as detailing changes in uniforms and training. Separate galleries are dedicated to the history of each of the different branches of the Armed Services: the Royal Army of Oman, the Royal Air Force, the Royal Navy and the Royal Guard of Oman. Other displays show the love of horses and horsemanship which has long characterized Omani society. One room is dedicated to the military background and career of Sultan Qaboos who was educated in Britains Sandhurst College and spent time with the British forces in Germany in the 1950s, before beginning the modernization programme of the Armed Forces in Oman.
A Land Rover half tank made in the UK in 1976 and used in Oman till 1986. It carried 6 personnel and a 7.62mm heavy machine gun.
In addition the visitor can inspect the interiors of the artillery towers where the old cast-iron guns have recently been remounted on accurate new carriages. However not all of the museum exhibits are inside; there is still much more to delight the visitor outside, with exhibits which can be walked through, and climbed over, including a reconstruction of a field hospital and look-out post. The Army is well represented with a selection of tanks, artillery and armed vehicles. One unusual item is a Land Rover half tank, built in 1976, one of the few in existence. There are several fighter planes and a helicopter from the Royal Air Force and even two ships which the visitor can closely inspect to show the history of the Royal Navy. Few museums in the world can boast of such a wide and varied collection from guns and swords to tanks, planes and patrol boats.
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RNOV Al Hadar, built in 1976 in traditional Arab style, was used a patrol boat with a crew of 11 and armed with two heavy machine guns. Powered by both sails and a diesel engine, she had a maximum speed of 10 knots.
t is impossible to be very long in Oman without realizing the importance of firearms in its culture. You can still buy customized matchlocks and service rifles in the souq and rifles, especially Martini Henrys, hang on the walls of castle chambers. Visitors often commented on this feature of Omani life; in the 17th century Engelbert Kaempfer, a German physician described the Omani weapons as old-fashioned and well into the 20th century travellers noticed guns which in the west would be considered museum pieces still in everyday use. Silver embellished matchlocks and Martini Henrys continue to be used for ceremonial purposes at Eid festivals, weddings and other celebratory events.
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Firearms were particularly important to the lifestyle of the Bedu - where for self protection, hunting, and raiding, firearms and the possession of a gun, marked the change from boyhood to manhood. Grattan Geary, editor of the Times of India, visited Oman in 1878 and described the local Bedu as all armed to the teeth. Many had long oldfashioned guns, highly ornamented, and all wore daggers or pistols in their girdles. Early in the 1930s Freya Stark, on a visit to nearby Yemen, noted the different ways that each tribe took to decorate their guns. One of her Bedu guides had a French rifle, the butt of which had a rounded piece of wood covered with gazelle skin, as is the Hadhramaut fashion for all their guns. Later she noticed her new guide did not have any ibex or gazelle skin she was told that it is not our fashion. She also noted how lovingly they were attached to their guns, commenting that it was far more tenderly treated than most children: it was last in and first out of the car always.
Wilfred Thesiger thought that the rifle was the only modern invention the Bedu were interested in. He noticed how his Bedu companions spent their evenings obsessively taking apart and cleaning their guns, on which after all, their lives might depend. However firearms were also more generally a part of Omani culture. When he toured northern Oman in the 1890s, Sir Percy Cox, the political agent for Indian government, commented: I noticed that the population in general were in a highly nervous state and easily alarmed. One only had to hear a rifle shot or two and everyone got the wind up. It was significant of the unsettled state of the country and unsatisfactory relations prevailing between one tribe and another. However this changed over the course of the 20th century. When Thesiger and his party reached Nizwa, one of his guides was told that he could leave his rifle outside, thanks to the Imam, God lengthen his life, we have peace here. It is not like the sands where you come from, where there is always raiding and killing. Although the matchlock was largely replaced by the Martini Henry, other types of firearms were popular. Freya Stark noticed the regard that one of her companions gave to his Remington, while the latest British service weapons were always in demand. However early in 1956 Jan Morris, accompanying the Sultan on his drive to Nizwa, recalled joining a group of tribesmen: sitting in a circle on the ground. How old do you think my rifle is? asked one of them. This was an embarrassing question, for the weapon looked to me Cromwellian; its fittings were elaborate and ornate, and many years before its barrel had evidently been split in an excess of ferocity, for it seemed to be spliced together with wire.
Each gun was individually decorated and embellished for the owner.
Sultanate of Oman
Captured weapons, including a 7.62mm Russian submachine gun made in 1941, on display in the Bait Al Falaj Armed Forces Museum
hen visiting Oman and its castles, forts and monuments, you cannot help but notice the prevalence of firearms, rifles, shotguns and other long arms. Hanging on pegs in castles and forts or on display in museums, one particular rifle is so common, that after a while, one almost ceases to notice it - the Martini Henry. A breech-loading lever-activated rifle which entered British Army service in 1871, it got its name from Friedrich von Martini, who developed the action, that is the way that the rifle is fired, and Scotsman Alexander Henry, who designed the rifled barrel. What is surprising is that this weapon, first manufactured in the 1870s, was still being used in the 1960 and 70s it was only ousted by the Russian Kalashnikov rifle and Chinese weapons in the late 20th century. The rifle, especially the Martini Henry was an especially prized possession of the Omani tribesmen right down to the late 20th century. Wilfred Thesiger, in his travels across southern Arabia just after the Second World War, describes the fascination that the Bedu have with rifles: Al Auf had a long-barrelled .303 Martini, a weapon favoured by the Bedu. We divided the spare ammunition
between us. Next day after we had left the others, I told my companions that they could have these weapons as presents, and promised al Auf that he could take the pick of my remaining rifles as soon as we returned to Salalah. Nothing that I could have given them could have delighted them more. Service rifles in good condition were unprocurable among these tribes. Even ammunition was scarce. All tribesmen like to wear a dagger or carry a rifle, even in peaceful surroundings, as a mark of their manhood, as a sign of their independence, but in southern Arabia the safety of their herds, even their lives, may at any moment depend upon their rifles. Bin Kabina had already confided to me that he hoped to buy a rifle with the money I gave him. He no doubt had visualized himself as the proud owner of some ancient weapon, such as he had borrowed when he accompanied menow he owned the finest rifle in his tribe. Later Thesiger noticed when he met the Cat a famous bandit in his day: his clothes were stained and torn , but he wore a large silver-hilted dagger set with cornelians and a belt filled with cartridges , and he held a brass-bound Martini rifle between his knees.
Sultanate of Oman
he Martini Henry rifle entered service in 1871, replacing the earlier Snider-Enfield, and it was used throughout the British Empire for the next 30 years. Although it was not the first breechloader which fired a metallic cartridge in British service, the Snider was the first, it was designed from the outset as a breechloader and was both faster firing and had a longer range. There are four variants of the Martini Henry rifle: Mark I (released in June 1871), Mark II, Mark III, and Mark IV. There was also an 1877 carbine version with variations that included a Garrison Artillery Carbine, an Artillery Carbine (Mark I, Mark II, and Mark III), and smaller versions designed as training rifles for military cadets. Mark IV Martini Henry rifle production ended in
1889, but it remained in service throughout the British Empire until the end of the First World War. It was seen in use by some Afghani tribesmen as late as the Soviet invasion and early in 2010, United States Marines recovered at least one from a Taliban weapons cache in Marja. The Martini Henry was copied on a large scale by North-West Frontier Province gunsmiths. Their weapons were of a poorer quality than those made by Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield, but accurate down to the proof markings. The chief manufacturers were the Adam Khel Afridi, who lived around the Khyber Pass. The British called such weapons, Pass made rifles.
What is very characteristic is that the rifle was given additional decoration usually in the form of silver fittings to secure the barrel to the wooden stock and a long decorative sleeve around the stock just behind the action. Today the skills of the silversmith are still alive and rifles are still being decorated and customized. The silversmith, Salim bin Nassir Al Shuraiqi, is still practising the craft though with some modern conveniences. The following pictures show him making one of the decorative bands that hold the barrel to the wooden stock.
First, the silversmith cuts out the basic shape in silver plate
The edges of the cylinder are then silver soldered together using a piece of silver and a propane torch. In the past a charcoal fire would have been used to provide heat
The smith melts the piece of silver in the tongs to join the edges of the cylinder together The next stage is to fill the cylinder full of lead so that the smith can punch the decoration into the thin silver plate. The smith melts lead in an iron ladle
Sultanate of Oman
The outline of the finished band is then drawn onto the blank before the decoration is punched into the surface.
Holding the work between his toes, the silversmith uses the punches to create the decoration
ome 150km south west of Muscat is the small castle known as Bayt ar Ridayah. Originally built in the 17th century by Imam Sultan bin Saif Al Yarubi, the leader who lead the Omani forces against the Portuguese, driving them from Muscat, the fort was extensively reconstructed in the 19th century. The original castle was only a single storey with a tower at each corner and was used mainly as a store for the supply and support of the great citadel at Nizwa, some 25km south. In the 19th century the upper storey was added as living quarters for Sayyid Mohammed bin Ahmed bin Said Al Busaidi. A 19th century visitor described the upper apartments as high and spacious, but very modestly furnished but thought it looked dismally bare and empty, comfortless and neglected, and bore the appearance of a house whose glory had departed. It had once been rich in articles of luxury, collected by its founder in the days of his prosperity, but these had all vanished. Today it is, in plan, like many Omani castles, a rectangular building with a circular tower at opposing corners. What marks this castle out to the visitor today is the exhibition of historic small arms which has been installed into the rooms of the castle.
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Bayt ar Ridayah
Bayt ar Ridayah is rectangular in plan with a circular tower at opposing corners the main entrance is to the left.
Bait ar Ridayah
This exhibition is truly remarkable in that the visitor can walk right through an enormous reconstruction of the barrel of a gun. Set into the floor are small video screens which explain how each type of firearm works and every few seconds the chamber is lit up and with a loud explosion simulating the firing of this enormous piece. And this is not the first surprise. Walking into the next gallery one is confronted by six showcases in the form of bullets for a revolver with the enormous chamber hanging over them. This playful juxtaposition of showcases and exhibition continues. In order to explain just how a bolt action rifle works, there is a giant working model of the action. The bolt is withdrawn, ammunition loaded into the chamber, the bolt pushed into place and the gun fired. The visitor is left in no doubt just how this type of weapon works. The innovative exhibition and displays set up in Bayt ar Ridayah really brings home to the visitor the range and variety of weapons used in Oman from the lowly musket and the ubiquitous Martini Henry to the Lee-Enfield rifle. A section on ammunition is cleverly set up with enormous models of bullets into which the visitor climbs via spiral staircases. Finally a realistic scene showing a group of bedu tribesmen with their guns. Some are casting shot from lead while others are checking cleaning their weapons.
Standing in the enormous reconstruction of a gun barrel. In the floor are set small video screen which explain how each of the many types of gun mechanisms works.
The showcases in this gallery are in the shape of the bullets of a revolver - the chamber hangs above them as though they are about to be loaded ready for firing from an enormous pistol Below an actual example, this giant model demonstrates to the visitor just how a bolt action rifle works. The bolt pulls back and turns, the ammunition is loaded and the bolt is returned to the firing position before a loud BANG simulates the firing.
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A selection of guns on display ranging from 17th century muzzle loaders to modern assault rifles A diorama showing tribesmen with their weapons. The seated group at the front are busy casting new lead shot while others are cleaning and checking their weapons
This display of ammunition, shot moulds and tools are contained within a giant model of a shell
The tombs of Imam Sultan al Yarubi and his son Imam Saif bin Sultan
l Hazm Castle, some 120 km from Muscat, is one of the most fascinating fortified residences in Oman. It consists of a rectangular block with two huge artillery towers at right angles, set within a walled courtyard. It now houses an important and interesting collection of artillery. The castle is an important monument to the Yaruba period in Omani history, literally so since the builder of the Castle, Imam Sultan al Yarubi and his son Imam Saif bin Sultan are entombed there.
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Sultan bin Saif built the castle shortly before becoming Imam in 1711. At his death in 1719, some tribal leaders favoured the election of his son Saif, even though he was only twelve at the time and this lead to internal disputes. Saifs progress was slow and full of setbacks; twice he achieved the position of Imam and twice he was deposed, before he, too, was buried at Al Hazm beside his father. Al Hazm continued to play a part in national politics after Ahmad bin Saiid, wali of Sohar, was elected Imam in 1744. The sons of his predecessor attacked his stronghold of Ar Rustaq and Ahmad retaliated by besieging Al Hazm, after destroying the surrounding date groves. The castle consists of a large rectangular block, with two immense round artillery towers diagonally opposite each other, set with an enclosed courtyard. Both the gate and the door of the castle are of elaborately constructed of wood. One of the delights of Al Hazm is the falaj which runs through the courtyard and through the castle itself, supplying water to the kitchens and bathsuites.
The interiors of Al Hazm Castle are beautifully laid out and testify to the wealth and status of the builder.
The castle is built for both defence and for comfortable living. It contains the usual secret tunnels as well as steps which could be removed from staircases, turning them into deadly booby-traps. Its judicial function can be seen in the three prisons and the audience chambers. The living quarters, elegantly laid out and decorated indicate the wealth and status of the family who originally built it. Like the residential chambers, the two artillery towers are spacious and elegantly decorated. The walls and central pillars are enlivened by white floral motives and even the bays themselves and their openings are beautifully decorated.
This decorated pillar forms the central support for one of the round artillery towers.
The towers make an excellent backdrop to the collections housed within: an important collection of cannon from around the world, mounted in historically accurate carriages. One tower contains bronze guns, from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, from Italy, Spain, Portugal and beyond. The other has an important collection of cast-iron British guns.
An Italian bronze cannon
The cannon was made in Naples in 1600. A very similar cannon is in the collection of the Museum of Artillery in Turin.
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A Spanish bronze cannon Detail of the decoration The highly decorated cascable.
British cast-iron cannon supplied by the London company Wiggins and Graham (WG) for export in 1803. It is marked with the weight 21-3-14 equivalent to 1113Kg.
y no means all the historic artillery of Oman is housed at Al Hazm. Many old fortifications, coastal communities and public buildings, boast a cannon or two, still on guard. In the past visitors often commented on how the firing of small cannon marked their welcome or a warning of their arrival, and this tradition continued until recent times.
The surviving guns come from all over the world, and show how Oman has been connected to international trade and politics. For example there are a number of Portuguese guns, left behind when they were expelled or captured from ships.
This small cannon is a rare example which was made in Oman. A cast-iron cannon probably made at Akers, Sweden, in the mid 18th century.
Another rich source are the great iron manufacturing countries, Great Britain and Sweden, whose guns were exported around the globe. Oman has examples from both these traditions: finbankers from Sweden, probably brought by the Dutch East India Company and guns cast in England
This bronze cannon was made in Boston, USA, for the Imam of Muscat.
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from the 17th and 18th centuries. France was another country who tried to sell Oman guns to gain friendship at this time. Other countries show wider diplomatic ties: two guns outside the Ministry of Culture have origins in the United States and in the new united Germany in 1880s.
This bronze cannon was made in Spandau, Germany, in 1886.
Cannon can be found in odd corners all over Oman. Here in Muscat a series of cannon have been buried, muzzle down, as bollards.
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he dagger is not the only edged weapon in Oman. The long sword, usually carried over one shoulder, was used with a small shield. Swords are of two types. The long straight-bladed sword, the saif, is double edged and
The blades are usually long and taper to a sharp point.
Swords
approximately 3 feet (90cm) long, tapering from the hilt to the point, with a single or double fuller and a long straight hilt without a guard or quillons. The second type, called a kitarah curves slightly and is single edged.
Inspecting swords in the souq at Mutrah
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In the 1870s Grattan Geary, the editor of Times of India, was impressed by the swords he saw: A favourite weapon is a straight, broad, two-handed sword, the sweep of which would take off a mans thigh, or even cut him in two at the waist. Nowadays swords are only used in ceremonies, in which they still have a part to play.
A traditional sword and shield in the Bait Al Falaj Armed Forces Museum
hields are another ubiquitous part of the weapon culture and can be seen hanging from walls of castles and forts. They are usually quite small just some 12inches (30cms) in diameter made from wood or from a framework of wicker covered in hide, sometimes that of the rhinoceros, and very deeply stepped. Apart from their defensive purpose, they had less orthodox uses. Wilfred Thesiger recalled visiting a family and described the father as a powerfully built man of middle age who carried a straight-bladed sword, a throwing stick of heavy wood, and a small deep circular shield of wicker-work, covered in hide, which he used as a stool.
Shields
sing weaponry in ceremonies such as sword dancing and mock fights with daggers, swords and shields is an important part of Omani festivities. These could take place for a variety of reasons religious holidays such as Eid, for family celebrations such as weddings, or to greet important visitors. C.S.D. Cole, an East India Company officer, arrived at Nizwa in 1845, to see a large party, all armed, and preceded by drums and horns creating a most discordant noise. The whole party then formed into procession, the drums and horns leading the way, headed by a man who was continually crying out a cheer for the Imam, a cheer for his son, a cheer for the Englishman. This was responded to by the whole multitude yelling with all their might, until arriving at the grand square, when a circle was formed , and sham fights with the spear, sword, and matchlock, took placeThe fight continued for about a quarter of an hour, when the party moved on to the middle of the square and commenced again. A third movement was then made, bringing us to the end. A hundred years later, when Wilfred Thesiger returned from the crossing of the Empty Quarter to the RAF station in Salalah, his Bedu companions made a triumphant entry, dancing and singing, brandishing their daggers. Sometimes such ceremonies included displays of horsemanship, at which the Omanis excel. In a sword dance, or razhah, two lines of dancers surge back and forth, beating their swords and daggers against their shields, accompanied by the sounds of horns blowing and drums beating, with songs or poems chanted aloud.
Ceremony
The explorer Bertram Thomas experienced one such welcoming dance in 1927, which he vividly recalled: Drums were beating, and the crowds swayed left and right to their rhythm: quivering sword blades flashed in the sun as sword dancers leapt hither and thither, and low chanting grew loud as we approached. Swinging round to form a corridor for us the tribesmen, holding their rifle butts to their hips for the feu de joie, sent a hail of friendly bullets pinging over our heads. Today the best way to experience these traditional displays of dancing, singing and music is at one of the folkloric festivals held across the Sultanate. The largest is the annual Muscat festival, lasting for four weeks when groups from all over Oman both take part and watch. Crowds gather each afternoon and evening to see the dance troupes and hear the musicians. Here, one can buy all sorts of local delicacies and watch them being cooked the pans of boiling Halvah are a particular treat. You can also buy key ring attachments from Bedu women, based on the old camel trappings or frankincense from the women from Dhofar, wearing voluminous black gowns and masked very thoroughly. You see men, women and children wearing the different costumes of their localities. There are booths where you can watch craftsmen and women making shoes, embroidering costumes or making a khanjar. The festival makes a wonderful introduction to the life and traditions of Oman.
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ne aspect of Omani life that has been preserved and actively encouraged are traditional crafts and craftsmanship. Indeed so important is this seen to be that each year, in January/February, they constitute a part of the Muscat Festival held in Qurum Park. Alongside the latest technologies and developments are displays of traditional crafts, dancing and music. Among the delights on show are traditional methods of raising water for irrigation, singing and dancing, as well as making halwa, the traditional Omani sweet made of starch, eggs, sugar, water, ghee, saffron, cardamom, nuts and rose water from the Jabal Al Akdhar.
The ingredients of halwa are mixed, in proportions and quantities known only to the skilled halwamaker, and cooked in a mirjil (a large copper cooking pot) for not less than 2 hours. Although today the cooking can be done over a gas or electric stove, the preferred method is over a wood fire made up of samr wood, known for its odour free properties.
A reconstruction at the Muscat Festival of the traditional method for raising water.
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Making baskets
Making butter the milk is put into the goatskin and then rocked from side to side A khanjar maker
Among the many traditional crafts are the coppersmith and the silversmith both highly important crafts in Oman. Copper is used to make all manner of utensils including coffee pots.
The coppersmith, Khalfan bin Rashid Al Sabahi, in his workshop. He both creates beautiful new wares and restores old and valuable pieces..
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This very intriguing, unusually shaped wooden frame was an ingenious device for holding various iron bars which are used as anvils to form copper plate into almost any shape.
his issue of the Magazine was made possible by the kindness and generosity of a great many people. First we must thank the Minister of Tourism, His Excellency Sheikh Abdulmalik bin Abdullah bin Ali al Khalili. Our visit was planned and arranged by the staff of the Ministry of Tourism, in particular we would like to thank: Ghasi Humaid Al Hashmi, Deputy Director-General for Tourism Development for Historical Sites and Products; Abdullah Salim Al-Zahli, Director of Historic Sites Development; Marcia Dorr, Advisor for Historic Sites Development; Aisha Al Thanawi (Head of Rehabilitation and Development); Khalfan Al Shabibi (Researcher for Tourism Affairs and Peter Keage. Many other people made this project a success and we would like to extend our thanks to the staff of the Ministry of Tourism and all the guides and craftsmen we met, in particular: Saif Khamis Al-Rawahi, Head of Collection Section at the Ministry of Tourism; Abdullah Al Alawi, Technical Development Specialist, Ministry of Tourism; Azad Alemri, Ministry of Tourism, Dhofar District; Khalfan bin Rashid Al Sabahi, Coppersmith; Salim bin Nassir Al Shuraiqi, Silversmith; the staff of the Sultans armed forces Museum in Bait Al Falaj; Abdullah bin Jbr Al Busaldi, Bait Al Zubair Foundation; Ali Al Qusaimi, Nizwa Fort; Ali Al Kathiri, Museum Director, Frankincense Museum; Mohammed Al Jahafali, Site Supervisor, Al Baleed; Rashid Al Harrasi, Al Hazm Castle; Santhosh, Silver World, Muttrah Souk; Tariq, Heritage Centre, Mutrah Souk;.
Acknowledgements
Finally we must thank our driver, Amar Waleed Al Maimans, whose kindness and warmth made our time in Oman especially memorable.
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