A Manual of Netherlands India (Dutch East Indies) (1920)

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CORNELL UNIVERSITY
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924062748995
I.D. 1209
A MANUAL OF
NETHERLANDS INDIA
(DUTCH EAST INDIES)
Compiled by the Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence

Division,
Naval
Staff,
Admiralty
LONDON
PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.

To be purchased through any Bookseller or directly from H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses: Imperial House, Kinqswat, London, W.C. 2, and ,28 Abingdon Street, London, S.W.I; 37 Peter Street, Manchester; 1 St. Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff; 23 Forth Street, Edinburgh; or from E. PONSONBY, Ltd., 116 Grafton Street, Dublin.
Price 10s. net

Printed under the authority of
His Majesty's Stationery Office
By Frederick Hall
at the University Press, Oxford.
ill
CONTENTS
CHAP.
I.
PAGE
Introduction and General Survey

The Malay Archipelago and the Dutch
possessions
Area Physical geography of the archipelago Frontiers and adjacent Lines of international communicationDutch progress in Netherlands India (Relative importance of Java Summary of economic development Administrative and economic problems Comments on Dutch administration).
territories
II.
Physical Geography and Geology

Jaya
Îslands
.21
QQ
il
Islands adjacent to Java Sumatra^Îslands adjacent to Sumatra Borneo adjacent to Borneo CeLel3^ Islands adjacent to Celebes ^The Mpluoeas ^Dutoh_ New Guinea adjacent to New Guinea Leaser Sunda
Îslands
Islands.
III.
Climate
85
conditions
;
><
^ _
Pressure Winds Temperature Humidity Rainfall Mist and fog Cloud Sunshine Thunderstorms Wind storms
Genera)
^Tables.
^.
IV. Vegetation
and Animals
:
....
.
109 124
V. Inhabitants
Population
:
Europeans Half-castes Relations between Dutch and natives Orienforeigners (Chinese Japanese Ârabs Hindus) Lan guages Religions (Mohammedanism Christianity Confucianism) Education The Press Health.
Numbers
General Considerations
Native
races
tal
VI.
The Inhabitants of Java

Numbers
Density of populationUrban and rural population Migration and increase Native peoples ^Javanese (Physical characters Culture Religion Pastimes Position of Avomen Occupations Villages and housesClothing) Sundanese ^Madurese Tenggerese Baduj Kalangs.
VII.
....
.
148
The Inhabitants of the Outer Possessions

Sumatra ( Achinese Menangkabau Malays
tribes)
163
Gajos Alas Bataks Malays Lebongs Rejangs Lampongs Islands adjacent to Sumatra Orang Laut Primitive Borneo (Dayaks) Karimata Islanda Celebes (Toraja
tribes
6
CHAP.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Buginese and Makassars Minahasese Gorontalese) Sangi Islands Banggai IslandsMoluccas New Guinea Papua Islands ^Tenimber Islands South-western Islands Lesser
Sunda
Islands.
VIII.
Government and Administration

Home
245
(States-General The Sovereign) government Colonial central government (The Governor- General Council of India -Volksraad General Secretariat ^The Departments) Local government (Territories under direct rule Kative self-government Native principalities of Java Direct administration Administrative divisions The Desa Beforms of local government) Justice (Government justice The Courts) Police Defence (Revenue (Army Navy) ^Finance Taxation ^Monopolies Government cultures and services
The budget)
^Foreign consular services.

.
.
IX. General Economic Considerations. Summary of economic products (Plant products

stock
ditions
278
Minerals) Manufacture Âgrarian and industrial conLand tenure Agricultural education ^Labour and wages Banking and credit CurrencyWeights and measures Commerce ^Mining regulations.
.
Live-
X. Economic Products of Java

Agriculture (Agricultural methods
oils
303
Bice Secondary crops Sugar Coffee Tea Cocoa Tobacco Indigo Coca Fibres Vegetable Spices) Forestry, forest products, &c. (Forestry administration ^Teak Coconut palms -^Fruit culture Bubber Cinchona Battan) Live-stock
Petroleum and other mineral products.
XI. Economic Products of the
Outer Possessions
Sumatra and adjacent islands Borneo and New Guinea Lesser Sunda Islands.
Celebes^Moluccas
.
339
XII. Communications.
I. Shipping and Ports
375
External communications Înter-insular and coastwise communications Conditions during the war Ports^ Shipping
statistics
Biver transport.
XIII. Communications. Posts, &c

:
:
II.
Roads,

Railways,
Java Boads Motor transport BaUways ^Tramways. Outer Possessions Roads (Sumatra Borneo Celebes Other islands) Bail ways and tramways (Sumatra Banka and Billiton). Cables ^Telegraphs Wireless telegraphy-
404
Telephones
Postal arrangements.
CONTENTS
OHAP.
XIV. History.Hindus
in
I.
From Early Times to the Dutch

429
Restoration, 1814-18
Java Rise of Mohammedanism Europeans in the archipelago Dutch and English East India Companies Political situation, end of sixteenth century Dutch monopolistic policy ^The Dutch East India Company, to 1798 The Commission of 1803 Daendels' Governor- Generalship Âd-
....
PAGE
ministrative reforms of Daendels

:
British conquest of Java, 1811 British occupation Thomas Stamford Raffles ^Native princes under the British occupation regime outside Java British reform of administration Java ^Restoration
Raffles'
in
of the
Dutch
colonies.
XV. History.
Java (The Java Rebellion ment Native jurisdictions Culture system finance Îndian constitutionLaw) Sumatra (Aohin) ^Borneo (Sambas ^PontianakLandak Sukadana, &o. Banjermasin Kutei^The Kongsis) Celebes (Gowa ^BoniWajo Luwa Buton) ^The Moluccas and New GuineaLesser Sunda ^LombokSumbawa and Solor Timor Islands of Sumba) Diplomatic history (Great Britain 1824, &c. Great Britain and Germany in New Guinea Portugal) Present
Introduction
^Territorial settle-
II. From the Dutch Restoration to the Present Time
....
Greneral
:
477
(Bali
Êlores
trea,ty
situation.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
LIST OF MAPS
533
535 536
INDEX
CONTENTS
MAPS IN TEXT
FIG.
1.
Example of recent changes of Java
2.
3.
4.
5.
315 Distribution of certain economic plants in Java 431 Java in the Hindu era 433 Java from the first preachiag of Islam to 1686 443 Java in the time of the Company end of volume General map of Netherlands IncMa
. . .
.....
.....
ÂGE
of coast-line, north coast
29
NOTE ON THE SPELLING OP PLACE-NAMES

In transliterating Malay names from Dutch it is only necesaoe or auw = au sary to notice that Dutch aa = English a oe = u. Tj should strictly be transliterated dj = j j = y ty, and sometimes is so in this volume, but the sound closely approaches the English ch, and this, in the English transliteration of many names (e.g. Chilachap,. not Tyilatyap), has become conventional. Dutch w generally = English w, but sometimes apparently v.
;
-^
CHAPTER
The Malay Archipelago and the Dutch
INTEODUCTION AND GENERAL SURVEY

possessions
geography of the archipelago Frontiers and adjacent territories ^Lines of international communication ^Dutch progress in Netherlands India (Relative importance of Java Summary of economic development Administrative and economic problems Comments on Dutch administration).
ÂieaPhysical
The Malay Archipelago and the Dutch Possessions Netheblands India, the Netherlands Indies, and the Dutch
possessions in the
East Indies are names alternatively applied to the Dutch Malay Archipelago, which the Dutch call
Nederlandsch- Indie or Nederlandsch-Oost-Indie. The Malay Archipelago, variously known as Malaysia', the
East Indies, Indonesia, &c., is the vast congeries of islands which lie between south-eastern Asia and northern Australia. This archipelago is usually taken to include 1. The Great Sunda Islands Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes, with islands adjacent to them or Ijdng between them.
:
2. 3.
This name, in its wider application, inthe islands between Celebes on the west. New Guinea on the east, and Timor on the south. These islands (apart from those which lie close to Celebes and are considered in Chapter II as geographically connected with it) fall into the following principal groups (a) the Moluccas proper, or Ternate group, including Halmaheira (b) the Bachian, Sula, and Ombi or Obi
cludes
all
:
The Philippine The Moluccas.
Islands.
groups
(c)
the
Amboina
;
groups, of which
Ceram and Buru

;
are
the Southeastern Islands (Tenimber Islands), of which Timor Laut is the largest ; (/) the Kei and Aru Islands, of which the former are sometimes attached to the south-eastern group ; (g) the Souththe largest islands
(d)
the
Banda
Islands
(e)
western Islands, or the Babar, Sermata, Letti, Damar, Roma,
and Wetar groups. i. New Guinea and adjacent
islands.
10
GENERAL SURVEY
5. The Lesser (or Little) Sunda Islands, which form a chain between the South-western Islands and Java, and include
Timor, Flores, Sumba, Sumbawa, Lombok, and Bali, and islands between and adjacent to them. Of the above, all are Dutch possessions except the northern part of Borneo (British), the Philippines (belonging to the United States of America), the eastern and northern parts of
Timor (Portuguese), and the eastern part of New Guinea (British and formerly German). Inasmuch as Java, though by no means the largest, contains Batavia, the capital, and is the administrative centre of Netherlands India, as well as economically the most important and by far the most populous island in the archipelago, the Dutch make a broad division of their territories into (a) Java (with the contiguous island of Madura), and (6) the Outer Possessions or Outposts (Buitenbezittingen). This division wiU be followed throughout this book. In those sections where separate treatment of the principal islands or groups is necessary an order
will
be followed, unless there is reason to the contrary, beginning with Java, following a geographical sequence westward to Sumatra, eastward through Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas to New Guinea, and finally completing the circuit westward through the Lesser ûnda chain.
Area
The total land-area of Netherlands India is variously estimated, sometimes as low as 698,000 square miles, but 736,850 square miles seems to be a more probable approximate figure. According to this version the areas of the principal islands in square miles are as follows Java, with Madura, 50,777 Sumatra, 167,954 the Dutch portion of Borneo, 222,850 Celebes, 71,400 the Dutch portion of New Guinea, 151,789. These figures leave a balance of 72,080 square miles for all the remaining islands. The Dutch possessions lie on both sides of the Equator, principally south of it,' for it passes through the centre of Sumatra and Borneo, the northern peninsula of Celebes, and the south of Halmaheira. Approximately the limits are from 6 N. off Sumatra to 11 30' S. off Timor, and from 95 E. in Sumatra to 140 E. in New Guinea.
:
GENERAL SURVEY
Physical Geography of the Archipelago
In
its
11
physical aspect, which
is
reflected in its biological
be divided into three parts. 1. Southward from Burma and the Malay Peninsula a shallow submarine platform, over which the sea seldom exceeds a depth of 50 fathoms, extends south and south-east, and upon it stand Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and intervening islands. This platform is covered, in th north-western part, by the South China Sea, which communicates with the Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal) by Singapore and other straits leading to Malacca Strait, between the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. Southeastward the South China Sea communicates with Java Sea, between Java and Borneo, by Banka, Gaspar, and Karimata Straits and Java Sea communicates with the Indian Ocean through Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra, Bali Strait between Java and Bali, and Lombok and Alas Straits farther east. South of Java, and west of Sumatra and the outer chain of islands which fringes part of its coast, the floor of the Indian Ocean sinks immediately to great depths. 2. Eastward of Java Sea and Borneo the waters within the archipelago have a greater general depth, and profound basins lie between the larger island-groups. Java Sea is connected north-eastward with Celebes Sea by Makassar Strait, between Borneo and Celebes, which has a greatest known depth of Celebes Sea, a circular basin enclosed by 1,389 fathoms. Celebes, Borneo, the Sulu Islands, Mindanao (of the Philippines) and the Talaut and Sangir Islands, has a depth of 2,795 fathoms about the centre. It is entered by BasUan and other straits from the Sulu Sea to the north (outside the Dutch area), and communicates south-eastward with Molucca Passage by various channels, of which Banka Passage is most important. By way of Molucca Passage southward, access is obtained to Banda Sea, which opens eastward of Flores Sea. This is the deepest basin in the archipelago, having a depth of 3,657 fathoms in the eastern part, under the chain of islets between Ceram and Timor Laut. Various smaller basins between the islands are distinguished by other names which need not be specified here. As off Sumatra and Java, so off the southern shores of the Lesser Sundas, great depths are quickly reached in the Indian
;
aspect also, the archipelago
may
Ocean.
12
3.
GENERAL SURVEY
The Arafura
Sea, which lies south-eastward of
Banda
Sea,
and, with Torres Strait, separates New Guinea from Australia, is over 100 fathoms deep only in its extreme western part, and its shallowness indicates that New Guinea rises from the same
submarine platform as Australia.
From
,
these indications, therefore,
it
appears that
that
(3)
(1)
the
Great Sunda
is
Islands, excepting Celebes, are physically attached

;
to Asia, rising from its continental shelf

similarly attached to Australia
;
New
Guinea
lies
and that between them
(2) a fractured zone in which steep ridges, the highest parts of which form islands, alternate with deep depressions. All the islands, excepting a few of the smallest, are mountainous or hilly, and much of the region is strongly volcanic. A chain of volcanoes, both extinct and active, extends along the curved axis of the southern island-chain from Sumatra through Java and as far as Timor, and thence bends northward through the Moluccas. Some of the islands have not been free of disastrous eruptions in modern times both Java and Sumatra have been so affected, and the most notable eruptions were those of Krakatoa, in Sunda Strait, in 1883. The geological structure of the islands appears to be in the main uniform in its broad outlines, though Borneo, from the relative paucity of volcanic rocks and absence of volcanic activity, is to be regarded as a stable area in comparison with Java and Sumatra. Ancient rocks occur more or less widely in Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and Timor most of the others, so far as known, are composed largely of Tertiary strata, but over many of them volcanic ejecta lie to a great depth, and form the bulk of the highest altitudes in the archipelago. Widely spread by the
:
action of rain
archipelago.
and
rivers, this volcanic material is of
importance in the formation of the most
fertile soils of
the highest the
The boundary between the Asiatic continental shelf and the deeper seas to the east, which is marked along Makassar Strait, the eastern edge of Java Sea, and Lombok Strait between the
and Lombok (in which there are depths exceed600 fathoms), is known as Wallace's Line, after Alfred Russell Wallace, who pointed out its significance. The islands west of it, including Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, show forms of animal life and vegetation more or less closely related to those of Asia. The islands which rise from the deeper seas to
islands of Bali
ing'
GENERAL SURVEY
13
the east, on the contrary, show relations with Australia. On this view, therefore, the line is taken to represent the coastline of the Asiatic continent down to a recent geological epoch,
and
it is held that Java, Sumatra, and Borneo formed part of the continent in Tertiary times, Java being separated first, and from Borneo sooner than from Sumatra. The line, in its bio-
logical significance,
must not be traced too

for example)
it
strictly
to
forms of
life (spiders,
does not apply at
all,
some and
some
an alternative zoological diviand Australian zoological regions, passing through the deeper seas east of Timor, and leaving the Sula Islands to the west, and Buru, Ombi, and Halmaheira to
authorities have proposed
sion between the Oriental
the east.
Celebes
regions
is
This has been called Weber's Line. In either case, established as a transitional area between the two
above.
is
named
Its faunal affinities are in great part
more highly speciaUzed than any other in the archipelago, and an earlier separation from Asia is indicated. The eastern islands, rising out of deep water the
Asiatic, but the fauna
result of a subsidence continued over a longer period
than that which isolated the western islands have at various epochs been united to the Australian continent (see further Chap. V,
Animals). Frontiers and Adjacent Territories
The Dutch possessions have land frontiers with the possessions

Powers in only three places (1) in northern Borneo, where Dutch territory is separated from the British protected territories of North Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak (2) in in New Guinea. Timor, parts of which belong to Portugal (3)
of other
;
;
The diplomatic
history relating to these divisions will be out-
XV. The frontiers in Borneo and New Guinea pass through territory which is little known, but does not appear to offer any serious occasion The position in Timor is different the for future dispute. division of that island between the Netherlands and Portugal must be regarded as a rather unhappy legacy from the early colonial period (see Chaps. XIV, XV). The Portuguese possessions include the eastern half of the island, an enclave in the north-west, and the small island of Kambing.
lined in .the later sections of Chapter
:
Netherlands India
is
bordered across intervening seas by
14
GENERAL. SURVEY
and the Malay Peninsula, by an American possession in the Philippine Islands, by Siam, and (less directly) by French Indo-China.
British possessions in Australia
Lines of International Commitnication

the point of view of international communications, through the archipelago are of capital importance. It is unnecessary here to discuss in detail the sailing tracks through the various seas and straits, which, at
From
some
of the sea-ways
any rate for sailing and low-powered steam-vessels, vary materially between the seasons of the two monsoons (for which
see Chap. III).
portion of the archipelago

1.
But the main sea-ways through the Dutch may be summarized as follows
Malacca Strait. Ûpon this passage converge all the routes from Indian ports, Colombo, &c., to Singapore and the East. The strait passes between Dutch territory on the one hand and British (and in the extreme north, Siamese) territory The strait is about in the Malay Peninsula on the other. 570 miles (statute) in length. At its southern end, Dutch
territory in the
Riouw
Islands faces British territory across
Singapore Strait at a distance of little more than 10 miles, and the straits leading to Singapore from the southward Riouw or Rhio and Durian pass wholly between Dutch islands. It may therefore be said that the Netherlands possess an important measure of territorial control over the much-frequented commercial routes upon which Singapore is a port of call. Moreover, Singapore is of prime importance as an entrepot for the trade of Netherlands India (see further Chap. XII). 2. Sunda Strait. Through this strait passes a large portion of the trade with China, Batavia, Singapore, and other ports in the Malay and China Seas routes from Colombo, from all parts of East Africa from the Red Sea to the Cape of Good Hope, and from western and southern Australia, naturally converge upon it. Separating Java from Sumatra, it is wholly under Dutch control. Its narrowest part, 14 miles across, is divided by Thwart way or Dwars in den Weg Island into two channels, each about 4 miles wide.
3.
The
straits east of
Sunda
(Bali,
and those between the

Bali,
Lesser Sunda Islands) are of

cations generally than
much less importance to communiitself.
Sunda
Lombok, and Alas
GENERAL SURVEY
Straits,
15
conditions in the, season December-February,
however, are used by vessels dependent upon wind bound between Aden, Cape Town, &c., and China direct, when they pass eastward of Bprneo through Makassar Strait. Either Lombok or Alas Strait, also, is commonly used during the north-west monsoon by vessels between Batavia, &c., and northern Australia and Torres Strait, when they pass by one of these two straits to the south of the Lesser Sunda chain and Timor into the Arafura Sea. The steamship route, however, in the south-east monsoon (and sometimes also in the north-west) lies north of the Lesser Sunda. Islands, through Wetar Passage, and south of the South-western Islands. 4. The most important routes lying through the eastern part of Netherlands India are those between Hong-Kong, &c., and Darwin (Northern Australia) and Torres Strait (Thursday Island), for eastern Australian ports, &c. The route southward from Hong-Kong, Manila, &c., enters Celebes Sea through the important channel of Basilan Strait, which, however, is outside the Dutch area, being bounded on both sides by American islands, belonging to the Philippines. Crossing Celebes Sea, the route makes use of Banka Passage, close off the north-eastern promontory of Celebes, whence it enters Molucca Passage, leads between the Sula and Ombi groups, follows Manipa Strait between Buru and Ceram, and passes the Dutch port of Amboina. From here the course to Darwin lies across the middle of Banda Sea, and reaches Arafura Sea through the Southwestern Archipelago. The usual route to Torres Strait passes between the Kei and Aru Islands to the north-east, and Timor Laut to the south-west. Both these routes, between Banka Passage and Australia, thus lie through seas commanded by Dutch territory. Apart from its importance in connexion with
traffic to
and from eastern
Australia,
New
Zealand, &c., the
Torres Strait route is sometimes used by vessels between southern China and the Philippines, and Valparaiso and other South American ports. The importance of the route between Hong-Kong and Chinese ports and Darwin may be enhanced if, or when, Darwin becomes the northern terminus of an Australian trans-continental railway (to Adelaide, &c.) it has
:
long been urged, for example, that the shortest mail and passenger route between Great Britain and Australia (assuming normal and favourable conditions throughout) would lie, in that case.
16
GENERAL SURVEY
by the Trans-Siberian Railway, one of the Asiatic ports with which it is connected, and Darwin. Any of the routes converging upon Darwin from any direction between north and west lie through or very near some part of the archipelago of
Netherlands India. It may be remarked that Makassar Strait, between Borneo and Celebes, does not possess equal importance with other passages discussed above, apart from the position of the port of Makassar as an entrepot the relative importance of the principal ports, however, will be discussed in Chap. XII.
:
Dtitch Progress in Netherlands India

Relative Importance of
Java
In respect of economic development, and of the extension of Dutch is one of slow methodical progress from Java as a centre. It has been stated above that Java is not the largest, but is the most populous and economically the most important island. The contrast between it and the Outer Possessions is remarkable. The Outer Possessions altogether are over thirteen times larger than Java in area, but the population of Java is at least three times larger than the estimated population of the Outer Possessions. It might be expected that some outstanding factor in the natural conditions or the history of the archipelago would be found to account for this phenomenon, but this is not so, and the reasons for it are not easy to discover. It is said that the population of Java has increased about eight-fold^ during the century since the restoration of the Dutch rule (see Chap. XV) so that the estabhshment of settled governtheir rule over the archipelago, the record of the
;
ment and peaceful
conditions, and the large extension of agriculture in a country of extreme natural fertility, may be
taken to account at once for the large increase of population and for the pre-eminent position of Java. But this position was established long before Europeans entered the archipelago. An additional, and perhaps the leading, reason for it was the
For comparison it may be observed that the area of Java is not qmte as England but the average density of population is about 709 persons per square-mile, against 668 in England by the census of 1911. The population of England and Wales increased not quite four-fold in the
1
large as that of
nineteenth century.
.GENERAL SURVEY
relative ease of access to
17
Java from the sea, and of penetration Behind the coastline facing the interior seas, Java has not so wide a tract of heavily forested, marshy lowland as either Sumatra or Borneo nor, on the other hand, does it oppose to penetration almost continuously broken country from the coast inward, as Celebes does. The mere bigness of Sumatra and Borneo, as contrasted with Java, makes them less easy of control by an invader, and offers more refuge for primitive peoples. It does not appear to be just to regard Java (as it sometimes is regarded) as owing its importance simply to
inland.
;
a degree of fertihty largely in excess of the other islands. Its natural fertility is no greater, for example, than that of the most fertile parts of Sumatra.
Summary
of Economic Development
In view of the relative importance of Java it is necessary to deal with that island in greater detail than the rest. At the
same time it must be borne in mind that Java does not epitomize the whole of the problems which confront the Dutch in the administration and economic development of their Indonesian empire some writers on Netherlands India have certainly concentrated attention too nearly exclusively on Java. In the chapters on the inhabitants of Netherlands India (V, VI, and VII) it will be shown that the Dutch have to deal with native peoples in almost every stage of development, from the highly-organized agricultural society in Java and the active trading communities in the coast-lands of nearly all the islands, to the uncivilized and largely uncontrolled inhabitants of the interior, who have practically disappeared in Java, but are found in all the other larger and a majority of the smaller islands. The comparative political and economic importance islands, and their widely divergent potentialities, may of the be best understood from a consideration of the varying condi:
for that reason the individual native the archipelago wiU be described in some detail in peoples of Chapters VI and VII. In Chapter XI the economic position of
tions of native society
the several parts of the Outer Possessions will be indicated by considering firstly native production, and secondly European commercial enterprise. From the latter point of view the
condition of the islands
(1)
may
is
Java
(see
Chap. X)
in full industrial
NETHERLANDS INDIA
be summarized as follows. development B
its
18
GENERAL SURVEY
industry rests primarily on the basis of agricultural and forest resources, for the island has no great mineral wealth. While it affords opportunity for the use of European capital on a large scale, it cannot attract in large numbers the individual European colonist of limited means, for it does not offer him the
prospect of rapidly acquiring wealth.
Sumatra and some of its neighbouring islands are in process of development in respect of both agricultural and this process, while far from the stage mineral resources reached in Java, is much further advanced than in the other
(2)
;
islands.
iaterests are rather in mineral
In Borneo, so far as development has proceeded, the main than in agricultural production, but on the whole the island stands at a lower stage than Sumatra, and probably than Celebes. The development of Celebes progresses chiefly in the (4)
(3)
direction of agricultural
(5)
and
;
forest resources.
Of the Moluccas, the northern groups have small prospects of development at present in the southern groups, which are more fertile and populous, agricultural and forest production is further advanced. (6) New Guinea is undeveloped, and (7) the Lesser Sunda Islands, as a whole, show no great economic possibilities.
Administrative and Economic Problems
In Chapter VIII the methods of Dutch administration will be discussed, and a distinction will appear between territories which are ruled directly by the Dutch and those in which
government
is carried on by natives under Dutch guidance, with a further distinction between those territories in which native rulers administer either Dutch law or their own. Finally,
there are the territories, gradually decreasing in area, over which Dutch sovereignty is merely nominal.
In the course of administration and economic development (1), as already seen, with native peoples at all stages of civilization (2) with a varied immigrant population of Arabs, Chinese, Japanese, and Indians, to whom are occasionally added a few negroes from Africa and America, Koreans, Pacific Islanders, &c. (3) with a large half-caste element (4) with European settlers other than Dutch. The
the Dutch have to deal
;
positions
and
characteristics of these various elements will be
GENERAL SURVEY
dealt witji in Chapter
19
voured to indicate the associated with them.
social, political,
and elsewhere, and it will be endeaand economic problems For summary purposes, it is probably
true to state that of these problems the niost serious (if not necessarily always the most prominent) are those concerned with education, labour, and the relation between Mohamme-
danism and the State. (1) In regard to education

improving
their
of natives of the higher orders of
intelligence, it is held that this should
be directed towards
aptitude
for
agricultural
and
in
industrial
clerical or
pursuits, rather
than towards qualifying them for

or instructing
administrative positions,
them
European
and from some

social
political ideas.
This view meets with opposition

:
of the natives themselves
the Javanese aristo-
cracy, for example, inclines rather towards the latter than
towards the former objects of education indicated above. in agri(2) The labour problem (see Chap. IX) is manifold culture it is connected mainly with the education of the native in an occupation with which he is already acquainted, and in which he prefers his own primitive methods, and adopts improvement unreadily. In the mining industries this particular disability is absent, but the usual problems connected with the importation of coohe labour arise. In Java there is plenty of native labour on the spot in the Outer Possessions this is not
:
.
the case as a rule.

(3) Each immigrant Oriental race brings its own problems the Japanese, with their peculiar legal position as equal to Europeans, in distinction from all other Orientals in the
archipelago
and
their rapidly growing commercial
interests there; the Chinese with their social influence
and other upon the
natives and their position of rivalry with Europeans in various
and lastly, the Arabs, with the commandThe position and wide extension of Mohammedanism will be discussed in Chapter V. The power which might be used under its influence against the established regime of the Dutch (which does not in theory include the moral support of any one religion against others) would probably be exercised not by immigrant Arabs so much as by the native Mohammedans. The development and possible outbreak of Pan-Islamic tendencies have given ground for apprehension, and it is asserted, on strong evidence, that of recent years Germans B 2
departments of trade
;
ing influence of their religion.
20
GENERAL SURVEY
have been endeavouring to extend their influence over the Mohammedans in the archipelago and to foment the extremists among them, a process kindred with attempts to create disaffection in the army of Netherlands India, and to use that
territory as a starting-point for intrigues in British India.
Comments on Dutch Administration

'
Wise, paternal, methodical,' are epithets applied to the

; '
Dutch administration by its admirers it has been said that the Dutch in Netherlands India have afforded a rare example of a political intelligence which is equally tenacious and and that their system of administration is full of sagacious valuable lessons for the other colonial Powers of Europe Their critics have charged them with administering their colony
',
'
'.
for the benefit of the State at the
expense of the individual,
with an attitude of needless austerity towards the native population, and with failure as colonists, successful though they may be in extorting quick returns for the investment of their capital. The Dutch colonial official, who appears as a rule to reach a high standard of efficiency, has been commonly blamed, on the one hand, by the more advanced natives for encroaching upon their rights and refusing to encourage their natural inclinations in education and towards nationalism on the other hand, by the unofficial European colonist or resident, who claims that his dealings with the native are too
;
and suspiciously supervised, and that he himself is any element of citizenship in the colqny. Such criticisms suggest, in effect, an honest endeavour on the part of the administration to hold a true balance between irreconcilable interests, seeking favour from neither side. The development of the colony, judged merely by its enormous area, has been slow and proceeds slowly, but the resources of the mother country are limited, and there is no evidence of either neglect or shortness of sight. The administration of the Dutch is accompanied by serious study of the lands and peoples
closely
practically denied
within their dominion, which, as exemplified in the publications quoted in the bibliography attached to this volume, is worthy
of
all
possible praise.
CHAPTER
Java Borneo
II
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOpY
Îslands
Islands adjacent to
Moluccas
adjacent to Java
The
Sumatra Islands adjacent to Sumatra Borneo Celebes Islands adjacent to Celebes Dutch New Guinea Islands adjacent to New Guinea
Lesser Sunda Islands.
Java
Physical Divisions and Relief
Java, situated between Sumatra to the west and the chain

of the Lesser Sunda Islands to the east, extends from 114: 31' E. and 8 47' S. in the promontory of Balambangan, to 105 12' E.
in
Java Head, and 5 47' S. in St. Nicholas Point (at opposite ends of Sunda Strait). The island may be described in the simplest terms as consisting of a central mountain chain extending longitudinally from east to west, and flanked by lowlands, almost continuously on the north, but intermittently on the south. But the customary physical division of Java is into (a) East, (6) Middle, and (c) West, the middle part representing the isthmus which connects the wider and more massive eastern and western parts each of these divisions has certain structural
:
characteristics of its own.
a peninsula extending from Bali Strait westward to a hne drawn approximately south from Pasuruan, (2) of a wider portion, the main mass of East Java, westward of that line as far as the longitude of Surakarta. In this division lowlands and highlands are less sharply divided
{a)
East Java consists
(1) of
the others, and the volcanic eminences, instead of rising in groups or masses like those farther west, stand isolated. The eastern peninsula throws off a large limestone promon-
than
in
tory or sub-peninsula south-eastward, called Balambangan, which, though of considerable elevation itself, is attached to the mainland by a very low and partly marshy tract. For the rest the peninsula is dominated by three isolated volcanic
masses, which
may
be distinguished (from east to west) as the
22
Ijen,
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
lyang, and Tengger highlands, in which the highest summits are respectively Merapi, 9, 1 8 6 ft and Raung, 1 0, 9 32 ft Many short Argapura, 10,102 ft., and Mahameru, 12,718 ft. streams drain radially from these isolated highlands. The watershed which divides those flowing to the north and south coasts respectively lies north of the axis of the peninsula, and the widest extent of lowland is on the south coast, where the Bandayuda is the principal river, and the low island of Nusa Barung lies off its mouth. This lowland is bounded' both east and west by spurs from the central mountains, which reach the coast. There are well-marked passes northward from this lowland between the volcanic masses to the coastal plains of the north, which are narrow, the northern lowland being in great part drowned beneath the Strait of Madura, and are also interrupted by the bold eminence of Ringgit (4,100 ft.) and by
.,
.
'
spurs of the central volcanic mass. In the main portion of East Java (westward, that is, of the peninsula just described) the volcanic highlands again stand isolated thus, westward of the Tengger we have another group in which Arjuna reaches 10,968 ft. and Butak 9,420 ft. next,
:
the Willis group, of less elevation then Lawu, 10,777 ft., and lastly, south of Semarang on the border of Central Java, the group in which Merbabu rises to 10,318 ft. It is a distinguishing feature of this part of East Java that the main watershed lies far towards the south of the island, turning sharply in that direction from the summits of the
;
Tengger highland. At one point, above the head of Gemah Bay, it approaches within two miles of the south coast. There is thus practically no south coastal lowland, while the lowlands which drain northward separate the volcanic masses described above, and, beyond them, are broken by a succession of lower elevations ^mainly limestone which rise in detached masses
or short ranges with- a general east-and-west direction, as far as the north coast itself.
The major proportion of the lowlands in this division belong to the strangely-shaped basins of the Brantas and the Solo, two of the principal rivers of Java (p. 26), which in their upper
parts provide north-and-south lines of communication between the volcanic highlands, and in their lower parts east-and-west
lines
between the lower ranges mentioned above.

is
Leaving the
volcanic area northward, the Brantas
diverted
by the
central
JAVA
;
23
limestone range eastward to the coast in Surabaya the Solo breaks through this range, but is diverted by another which flanks the north coast and is continued in the island of Madura.
The plains of the north coasts in Japara, Pasuruan, and Besuki are to be distinguished from the plains between the limestone hills and volcanoes. The Japara plain is composed of mud from Serang and Juwana and volcanic matter from the isolated peak of Muria. The Juwana pâin is formed of marine sand and clay, and the plains of Rembang and Surabaya are of similar composition. On the south coast the low-lying land
consists largely of
marsh and
sand-hills.
The
plains of the interior are different.
The Solo
plaiji,
extending north and south' between the volcanic peaks of Merapi and Lawu, contains volcanic matter brought down by the Solo river. There are plains similarly situated farther east in Madiun and Kediri. The Malang plain in Pasuruan, sloping gently from north to south (from over 1,000 ft. to 1,600 ft.) is of volcanic material, in which the Brantas has worn a bed over 300 ft. deep. The Lamongan plain in ProboUnggo, consisting of volcanic sand, hes at an altitude of about 180 ft., and descends slightly towards the south, where it becomes alluvial. Middle Java. In this relatively narrow division the (6) mountains assume a chain formation with fewer volcanoes, and these more widely separated. This system is marked off from the mass of Merbabu and Merapi (above) by the Kedu valley, through which the River Praga flows. West of this, the mountains extend along a line from south-east to north-west as far as the Dieng plateau, after which the line runs from east-north-east to west-south-west, and includes the summit of Slamat, over 11,000 ft., and other heights ranging from 4,000 to more than 8,000 ft. The direction of the line then changes to west-north-west, and so continues as far as Cherimaj (10,098 ft.) south-westward of Cheribon. The main watershed lies approximately midway between the north and south coasts, and there are plains along both. The Kedu valley is shut in on the south by a limestone ridge which is independent of the main volcanic range, and runs The only transversely south of the valley of the Serayu. outlet from the plain to the south is through the important opening made by the Praga. Between the main range and the
limestone
hills
is
the considerable plain of Banyumas, and
24
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
south of them are the extensive lowlands of the south coast. In the north the coastal plain is interrupted by the hUly region to the north of the Dieng plateau. In West Java the mountains are massed (c)| West Java. in the south the main watershed lies well on that side of the
except in the extreme west there is little low-lying land along the south coast, while on the other hand the northern lowlands attain their widest extent. The bulk of the mountain
island
;
system is comprised in the Preanger Mountains. The Halimon Mountains at the junction of Preanger, Batavia, and Bantam constitute a westerly extension of the main group, while across the Manuk valley to the north-east are the mountains of northeastern Preanger and Cheribon. In an isolated position weU
to the north-west are the highlands of
Bantam, and
in the
extreme south-west corner of the island are the thicklywooded hiUs of South Bantam. While elevations exceeding
6,600
ft.
occur in
all
these groups, the highest point (Chikuraj,
by no means approaches the and east divisions. The northern plain of the division of West Java extends from Cheribon to Bantam. The strip along the coast, formed by the action of the sea or rivers, is to be distinguished from the low ground inland. The first is a later formation and is not more than 50 ft. high, while the earlier formation behind sometimes rises to a height of more than 300 ft. The two surfaces are sometimes separated by a sill or terrace, two or three feet high. The coastal strip varies in width from three miles to twenty-five, being greatest at the river deltas. Both in this and in the middle division the larger streams have built out
8,596ft., in eastern Preanger)
principal
summits
of the middle
a succession of alluvial promontories at their mouths, as in the case of the Badri, Tyomal (Chomal), and Pemali in Middle Java, and the Manuk, Tyupunagara; Tarum, and Pontang-Ujung in West Java. In Krawang and Cheribon there are marshes along the river courses and at the sea coast. In Java there are about 125 volcanic centres, Volcanoes.
which 13, Gedeh, Tangkuban Prahu, Gutar, Papandayan, Galunggung, Slamat, Sendor, Merapi, Kelut, Bromo, Semeru, Lamongan, and Raung, are active. The activity of most of these is trifling, although where the cones remain unbroken, serious eruption is always a possibility. The volcanic mounof
tains are of typical form, rising
from
broad rounded base with
JAVA
regular sweeping lines to the conical top.
25
Some, however, end abruptly half way up the upper cone in a broken line where the whole surface of the broad summit is a confusion of cliffs, mounds, and fragments, with steam roaring from numerous vents. There are examples of this in the twin mountains of Gredeh and Pangerango, which are separated by a saddle. The whole top of Gedeh has been blown away or fallen in, and is constantly steaming, while alpine plants grow upon the quiescent summit of Pangerango. Another example is the summit of Papandayan, where mounds and columns of pure sulphur cover the whole area. There are also pools of boiling water domed over by a thin crust of sulphurous calcareous rock dangerous to cross. Runnels of very hot water and of cold surface-water flow near each other over the rough bare broken The mountain has a truncated surface of the crater f eld. profile similar to that of Gedeh. The famous Bromo sand-sea is the broken-down floor of an enormous crater which once
'
'
towered above
its
neighbours.
Rivers
abundantly watered. As a consequence of the trend mountain range from east to west, the rivers flow generally north or south. As the longer slope of the island is for the most part from south to north, it is in this direction that the longest rivers flow. To this rule there are local modifications, particularly in the broad part of East Java, where the Solo and the Brantas, as has been seen, are diverted to the
Java
is
of the central
by limestone ridges. The drainage areas of the rivers entering the sea on the north coast constitute 63 per cent., and that of the south-coast rivers 32 per cent, of the whole area of the island. In Middle Java, where the central range approaches the north coast, there is a group of rivers of considerable length
east
floviang
southward to the Indian Ocean.
of the rivers varies considerably, according to During the north-west monsoon, roughly from the season. October to May, the rainfall is heavy, and, in the west, violent. At this time, therefore, the rate of discharge is high, and floods often ensue, and may cause damage to bridges and property.
The volume
In the period
of the south-east
ber, when rainfall
especially
in
monsoon, from May to SeptemEast Java îs scanty, the rivers
26
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The great majority
of the rivers are short
are naturally low.
and
rapid.
In East Java the largest and most useful river is the Solo, which rises in the mountains near the south coast, meanders over 310 miles-of country, with intricate windings in its middle and
lower course, and reaches the sea by two mouths opposite Madura. The next largest river is the Brantas, which rises in the plateau of Malang, runs south, turns west under the southern limestone range, flows north between the mountains, and
then runs east to the gulf of Madura with two widely-separated distributaries ^the Porong and Mas. The river thus describes a nearly closed square and is clearly consequent upon the present
physical features.
In Middle Java there are several large streams in the southern In West Java two rivers only, the Tarum and Manuk, are of importance. They rise in the great volcanic group and flow nearly across the island. They are useful for irrigation but for little else. As already shown, these rivers, like others in Middle and West Java, are building the land out into the sea. The loose volcanic soil is brought down from the mountains in suspension and dropped in the sea water. The land at these delta capes is advancing seaward at a rat^ estimated, in the case of the Tarum and the Manuk, at 21 ft.
coastal plain.
annually.
The rivers of Java are navigable only by native craft of small dimensions, and this to a limited extent. In this connexion they are dealt with under the heading of Biver
Transport in Chap. XII.
The rivers of Java are used extensively for irrigating rice and other crops. The rivers best adapted for this purpose are those flowing northward to the Java Sea. In the southern plains the only important irrigated areas are the vaUey of the Upper Serayu and the coast district bounded on the east by the Bogowonto and on the west by the Lukula. Among
north-flowing rivers, the waters of the Brantas are used at northern Kediri, and in the delta formed by its mouths. The Madiun, a tributary of the Solo, serves to supply the plain of Madiun. From Japara along the coastal plain to
its source, in
Indramaya there is an almost unbroken stretch of irrigated land watered by the numerous rivers of Semarang, Pekalongan, Tegal, and Cheribon. Farther west, the Liwung nearly through-
JAVA
out
27
its length, and the Ujung in Bantam for many miles up from its mouth, are used for irrigation. In the interior valleys the water from the Httle mountain-streams is led here and there by small channels that sometimes run side by side upon the crown of a spur in opposite directions towards rice-fields on either side of the broad ridge. The wide terraced rice-fields ranging all along the lower lands below the mountain shoulders rise tier upon tier towards the higher plantations of tea, coffee, or cinchona below the dense forest. These terraced rice-fields are sometimes shimmering with water which is led by bamboo pipes through the corners of the curving terrace banks, so that from the abundant small mountain streamlets the whole lower land can be flooded, or the supply can be diverted during the
ripening of the
rice.
(See further Chap. X.)
Coast
North Coasf.The action of the rivers flowing into the shallow Java Sea have contributed to the formation of a narrow flat tract of shore, which extends with only occasional and insignificant intermission along the whole northern coast
of Java.
In appearance
is
it
varies in different locahties.
The
north-east coast
generally even and wooded, with banks of
mud and sand

difficult,
(except at salient points) which render approach
and dry at low water. Erom Ujong Panka to Tanjong Aur Aur there is a sand beach. The coast is low and flat beyond this as far as Mandalike, after which its character markedly changes, and as far as Teluk Aur it is rocky and irregular, with sharp projecting points and intervening creeks. A section of
this coast
eastward of Japara
is
densely forested, uninhabited,
and sharply sloping up to mountains immediately behind it. Beyond Teluk Aur westward the low coast is resumed in the vicinity of Tanjongs Indramayu, Sentigi, and Bobos it affords good landing. The whole stretch west of Cheribon, however, is low, often marshy, and covered with mangrove woods and nipa. The shore of the bay fronting Batavia is, for the most part, a muddy marsh, intersected by shallow streams, some of which have been canalized for boats. Thence to Sunda Strait
:
the coast
is
low, and, excepting a few flrm patches with villages

it
is
in cocomit groves,
swampy and overgrown.

strip
Generally
along
its
whole length the coastal
shelves gradually
28
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
out to sea, but at the mouths of rivers the silt has formed banks of sand and mud. Under the influence of rivers and currents the coastline is subject in places to rapid alteration, of which an example, showing changes in 37 years, is given in the annexed sketch-map. The coast presents
is
bays, but none penetrates deeply. The best harbour Surabaya, which consists mainly of the strait between the mainland and Madura. By artificial means another important harbour has been constructed at Tanjong Priok in the Bay of Batavia. South Coast. The south coaso differs from the north. The ocean floor sinks to great depths close off shore. Prevailing currents sweep away the alluvial deposits, but in certain regions throwthem back in the shape of sand ridges. From the mouth of the Serayu to the Upak (along the coast of Banyumas, Bagelen, and Jokyakarta) there are three ridges of sand about 50 ft. high, and varying in width from 100 yds. to 600 yds. These dunes are liable to shift, and during the south-east monsoon they tend to block the mouths of the rivers, diverting their courses to the west. Less extensive sand ridges are found in south-east Probolinggo, in south-west Besuki, in the plains of Lumajang and Pugar, in parts of Preanger south coast, in the peninsula in the extreme west, and in the Blambangan peninsula in the extreme east of the island. The sand dunes often enclose lagoons and marshes. East of the Upak are steep cliffs about 150 ft. high, which follow the line of the limestone hiUs of South Java and for
many
some distance present no inlet. Beyond Sempu Island, in South Pasuruan, and again in South Besuki, the spurs extend to the shore, where they project as headlands, and sometimes form inlets flanked by cliffs. Huge rocks broken off from the cliffs rise out of the sea to a height of over 1,600 ft., and the
coast in these parts
is generally irregulav. This coast is little frequented by ocean-going ships, ha\ang only two safe harbours Chilachap and Segoro Wedi Bay. The approach to Chilachap is difficult, but Segoro Wedi is one of the finest bays in Java, and the anchorages on the eastern
side are
good and
safe,
swell breaks unceasingly

of Java.
except when a heavy swell enters. This on all exposed parts of the south coast
30
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Geology
The percentages of surface rocks in Java are given thus pre-Miocene (Cretaceous and Eocene), 1 Miocene and Pliocene,
;
38
volcanic, 28
post-Tertiary
and
recent, 33.
A transverse
be divided geologically into longitudinal strips corresponding approximately to the northern lowlands, the central volcanic highlands, and the broken highlands and lowlands of the south. The northern strip, a stable denuded plateau with a massive downthrow, is divided by faulting from the central strip, upon which the volcanic cones are piled, and this again is divided by a second fault line from the southern strip, which sank lower in late Tertiary times. Allowing for the irregularity of denudation, the geological map shows the sjonmetry of this longitudinal arrangement throughout the island. This longitudinal strip arrangement is modified by cross-fractures, and the volcanic development is interrupted in the western part of the middlethird of the island (Tegal and Banjnimas) where the broad central band of Miocene is flanked by quaternary on either side. The presence of the dividing faults furnishes an explanation of the concurrence of earthquakes with the greater volcanic
section of the island shows that
it
may
eruptions.
The volcanoes of the central strip have piled mountainous masses of ejectamenta upon the land. Jn the eastern division of the island the volcanoes are arranged upon two long ea stand-west lines. These are interrupted by the extension of sedimentary rocks right across the island southward from Semarang. Westward from Cheribon, however, the massed volcanoes are arranged upon a number of cross-fracture lines, so that a large part of the western division of the island is covered by volcanic products resting upon the Tertiaries. There is also in this division a great display of intrusive rock, andesite and basalt, detached from the volcanoes and scattered over the Tertiary deposits through which they have intruded. The platform upon which the volcanic mountains rest is a
denuded plateau
of highly-folded rocks, for the most part Tertiary, with indications of Cretaceous sandstones and of
Palaeozoic schists underlying these. The structure of the northern lowlands varies little throughout, but the projecting massif of Muria, north-eastward of Semarang, is mainly formed
JAVA
chain,
31
by a detached volcanic mass, older than the central volcanic and of different character, containing leucite and phonolite rocks which occur elsewhere only in the Ringgit volcano on the north coast and at Besuki. The island of Madura and the smaller islands surrounding it are mainly of limestone, and
For the rest, northward of the central a steeply tilted boss of limestones, with eruptive particles of hornblende, augite, andesite, &c., and
mountains there
is
entirely non-volcanic.
some admixture of conglomerates, marls, and shales. Against this boss, to the north, rests a crumpled series of antichnes and synclines, all denuded, and upon the eroded edges of these are
horizontal Quaternary formations, overlaid towards the north coast by recent alluvial deposits.
South of the central mountains a strong anticlinal fold
is
displayed, with highly inclined middle Tertiary strata dipping
towards the south, and the upper limestones resting unconformably and nearly horizontally upon the lower sandstones,
marls, shales, slates, conglomerates,
and
breccia.
The old
'
in Java.
breccias.
rocks of Sumatra, Borneo, &c., do not appear Granite is occasionally found in the western volcanic
slate
'
The
oldest rocks are
mica
schists.
The sedimentary
;
series
some serpentine schists and upwards to the Jurassic
are not represented
the Cretaceous only in one small inlier
strongly upfolded near the centre of the island east of Banyumas. The great thickness of the Miocene is, in comparison with the
other formations, the characteristic stratigraphical feature of the island. Superficially, therefore, Java âs compared with
otherjparts of the region such as Borneo and Sumatra
is
of
remarkable simplicity. It is not a country where abundant mineral wealth is to be expected.
Islands adjacent to Java

Of islands adjacent to Java (other than those in the main chain to the west and east, which will be dealt with under the headings of Sumatra and the Lesser Sunda Islands) the most important is Madura. This island lies off the north-east coast of Java, of which it is physically a part, being separated from it by a shallow strait less than 1| mile across at its narrowest part, while the north coast continues the Hne of the north coast of Java. Madura is a little over 100 miles long, and 24 miles in
32
greatest width.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The
surface
is
undulating, but nowhere mounno greater elevation than about tainous. 700 ft. is attained, and the hills are broken by the valleys of the Balega, Sampang, and other streams. In the east the central spine of hills is more continuous, and an extreme height of The north coast is bold, and the lowland 1,565 ft. is found. the south coast is fringed by fringing it is of no great width shoals, islets, and mud-banks. The geological formation reveals
In the western half
the relation of the island to the adjacent part of Java, consisting There are of similar rocks (hmestones, &c.) of Tertiary age. low alluvial tracts at intervals, principally along the south and
north-west coasts. A chain of small islands extends eastward from Madura, terminating in the Kangean group, of which Kangean Island is about 25 miles long east and west, and from 3 to 13 miles wide. Its extreme height is something over 1,500 ft. The other principal groups of islands in the Java Sea, which
may
be mentioned in this section, are the Karimon.Java, Boompyes, and Thousand Islands. Karimon or Krimon Java, north of Madura, is a group of some 25 islands, of which the largest is Karimon, which rises to 1,660 ft., and is level only at its south-west point, where there is a village. With Komodian Island, lower and smaller,
enclosed in a coral reef. a wooded coral island nearly north of Tanjong Indramayu, with adjacent reefs. The Thousand Islands (actually about 80) and other groups extend northward from the western horn of Batavia Bay
it is
but also rocky,
Boompyes
is
they are low, tree-covered islets surrounded by steep coral reefs only a few are inhabited. Off the south coast of Java there is no island of importance. In Sunda Strait the volcanic island of Krakatoa (see p. 12)
is
conspicuous
among
others.
Sumatra
Sumatra lies between 5 39' N. and 5 57' S. lat., so that the Equator divides it into two nearly equal parts. Its axis runs from south-east to north-west. It is 1,060 miles in length, and is over four times as long as it is wide at the widest part (248 miles), which falls at the point where the island is inter-
SUMATRA
seoted
it is
33
by the Equator.
On
islands lies along the coast,
the western side, where a chain of it borders on the Indian Ocean

;
separated from Java, to the south-east, by Sunda Strait, and from the Malay Peninsula, to the north-east, with which it runs roughly parallel, by Malacca Strait.
Surface
Sumatra consists of a high mountain chain, running along the whole of the western coast, with a broad belt of flat alluvial country occupjdng the whole length of the island to the east, and forming a homogeneous whole, with no important eleva-
To this extent Sumatra resembles Java in structure. The mountain chain is a link between that of Java and the West Burmese chain, with which it is connected through the Andaman and Mcobar Islands, and runs for a distance of more than 1,000 miles, rising to numerous volcanic peaks from 5,000 to over 12,000 ft. high. The mountains lie close to the west coast of Sumatra through the whole distance, with small plains in some parts rising to the foot-hills from the sea, while elsewhere the hills come right down to the coast. The whole system,
tions.
which
is
referred to as the Barisan Mountains or Bukit Barisan,
consists in general of
two
or
more folded
chains, running parallel
This valley is broken up into separate sections by the intrusion of volcanic massifs, and in it lies a row of mountain lakes, chief among them
to each other, with a valley between.
(starting from the south) being Ranau, Korinchi, Singkarah, Maninjau, and Toba. The last is by far the largest, being 45 miles long by 15 in extreme width. There are characteristic differences between the mountains of the south of the island and of the north in the south the range consists chieflj' of parallel chains lying near together, enclosing only a few small plateaux to the north of 1 N. the mountains broaden out to a wide plateau, falling away steeply to the west, and partly surrounded by mountain peaks. This plateau includes the larger part of north Sumatra, the coastal plain to the east being narrower than in the south, and descends in terraces to the small plains with which it is edged on the western and northern The whole range is topped with a line of volcanoes, coasts. mostly close to the west coast several are still active, ash and scoriae being spread over a wide area, though lava streams are seldom emitted. Chief among these volcanic peaks are Kraka: ;
NBTHKRLANDS INDIA
34
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
toa (2,703 ft.) in Siinda Strait, Dempo (10,236 ft.) in the Pasuma group, Kaba (6,528 ft.) in the Rejang group, Peak of Indrapura (12,484 ft.) in the Korinchi group, Talang or Sulasi Singalang-Tandikat (9,479 ffc.), Merapi (9,484 ft.), (8,339 ft.), and Pasaman-Teleman (9,844 ft.), all in the Padang highlands,
Sorik Berapi (5,875
(6,562
ft.),
ft.),
(7,930
ft.) in the Mandailing group, Pusuh BuMt Dolok Sibayak (7,075 ft.), and Dolok Si Nabun Mount Kaba (5,400 ft.) in the Batak country.
recently covered the area surrounding
it
with volcanic sand,

lift
and caused the temporary destruction of plant and animal Merapi has a crater lake of boiling mud.
Rivers
Owing
rivers
to the position of the mountains in Sumatra, the
on the west coast are all short, running in valleys with a steep slope, and having a very short lower course they are unnavigable, except near the mouth in the case of a few, and
;
the largest, the Singkel, is almost useless for shipping owing to the bar at its mouth, though farther up it forms an excellent
means of communication in spite of the rapids in its course. In the south the rivers have made small deltas in the sea-diluvium of the coast, and north of Benkulen as far as 2 S. and between
Padang and Priaman are marshes which hinder the discharge of the rivers, and are caused by the heavy surf off the coast or by bars of sea-sand preventing the mud in suspension in the
rivers
from being carried out to sea. the east coast of Sumatra the rivers running through the alluvial plains have wide drainage areas, and form the most
On
important means of communication, and therefore the chief lines of settlement, the native states which have arisen on their banks being frequently called after the river. The largest rivers on the east coast, beginning at the south, are the Musi, the Jambi, the Indragiri (Kwantan), the Kampar, the Siak,
the Rokan, the Panel, and the smaller Asahan, Serdang, and Deh rivers to the north of these. The most important are the Musi and the Jambi. The navigation of the principal rivers is dealt with under the heading of River Transport in Chap. XII.
The greatest difficulties in the ^^'ay of navigation on all the rivers on the east coast are the wide mud-banks at their mouths, the changes in the height of the water, due to the
irregularity of the supply
and the
tides
running up the mouth.
SUMATRA
and the frequent rapids
35
in their upper courses. The coast is lined with morasses, the rivers in some cases spreading into
enormous intercommunicating deltas. The different drainage systems are not joined by practicable roads near the coast, and there are in the case of most of the rivers no considerable settlements at the mouth. In the case of the smaller rivers to the north, conditions are different, since the growth of the tobacco plantations has led to the establishment of communications
along the coast. The constant rainfall, however unpleasant for colonists, gives abundance of water, and will provide power for mining machinery and for the removal of waste products when the minerals of the island are further exploited.
Coast
West Coast. The west coast of Sumatra is in great part high and rocky, particularly between 2 S. and Padang, where the mountains come right down to the sea in places. Between Mokko Mokko and Cape Vlakke Huk the coast is on the whole bold and difficult of approach, but the mountains lie farther inland and the land near the shore is covered with alluvium and is frequently marshy. North of Padang the coastalmarshes begin again between Tiku and Tapanuli Bay the alluvial land is broken by stretches of granite, diabase, &c., on which various settlements have arisen, e. g. Natal and
;
Ayerbangis. In this part of the coast the sea has eaten away the land in a series of semi-circular bays. Tapanuli Bay is surrounded by mountains, chiefly sandstone, and north of From thence to it, as far as Trumon, is a wide alluvial plain. Koningspunt the coast is only marshy in places, as at Melabuh. The sea is from 20 to 50 fathoms deep in most parts of the west coast close offshore, falling to great depths beyond the
narrow coastal shelf. A chain of islands (see p. 39), of which the most important are Simalur, Nias, the Batu Islands, the Mentawei Islands, and Engano, extends parallel to the coast at a distance of about 60 miles, between the parallels of 3 N. and 3 30' S. they are for the most part unsurveyed, as is the larger part of the west coast, and uncharted dangers are numerous. The best harbours of Sumatra are in the central part of the west coast, where there are several inlets well protected from the sea by islands, which make good harbours, e. g. Emma;
02
36
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
haven, on Koninginne Bay. North of Tapanuli and south of Indrapura none of the indentations in the coast affords complete Benkulen has a bad shelter from the south-west monsoon. roadstead, though it is joined to the east coast by a good roadAyerbangis is of small use for shipping, since it is system open and exposed, and Natal is encumbered with reefs. Tapanuli Bay is well sheltered by Morsala Island, and the trade of its port, Sibolga, shows promise of development, though its hinterland is unproductive. Singkel has a good roadstead, but the river is barred with shoals, on which the surf breaks continually. Only the outer route, outside the islands, is free from danger for shipping the central route, halfway between the
; ;
coast
and the
islands, is wide,
and
safe night
and day
in favour-
able weather for vessels of light draught, but sailing ships are at the mercy of the currents in light and baflfiing winds : there
is
no anchorage, and
shoals.
and by
in some parts there are dangerous coral This route is frequently taken by Dutch war vessels, the coastal mail steamers. The inner route has many
is seldom chosen always considerable risk in using this route at night. The development of the west coast for trade and settlement is much hindered by the difficulty of access from the sea, owing to the coral reefs and the breaking surf, and by the lack of communications inland. East Coast. The whole of the east coast of Sumatra from Diamond Point to Varkenshuk is formed of morasses and sandbanks, breaking up into innumerable points and islands
places which afford a moderate anchorage, but
by
sailing ships going
north
there
is
at the mouths of the rivers, so that it is often difficult to distinguish land from sea. The coast is constantly advancing, and is made up of the sediment brought down by the rivers, the spread of mangrove vegetation, and the .sand and silt deposited
along the shore by the shallow sea. It is largely uninhabited, such population as exists getting a livelihood by fishing. The value of such a coast for trade and settlement is dependent on
the character of its rivers (see p. 34). Belawan, at the mouth of the DeH River, is the principal harbour for the tobaccoproducing district of Deli, since there is railway communication with the interior, and vessels of 12 ft. draught can enter the river with a pilot.
North and South Coasts.The north coast of Sumatra, between Raja and Diamond Point, is very varied in some
;
SUMATRA
places
cliffs rise
37
precipitously from the sea,

;
and are crowned
with dense vegetation
in other parts there are sandy beaches
or cultivated and well -populated plains. The two chief harbours are Oleh-leh and Sabang (on Weh Island) Oleh-leh is the chief distributing port for the north of Sumatra, but there is liable to be a heavy sea in its roadstead during either monsoon Sabang, whose importance lies in its position as a possible port of call at the entrance to Malacca Strait, has a bay which is completely sheltered in all weathers. At the southern extremity of Sumatra there are two deep indentations, Lampong Bay and Keizers or Semangko Bay. The eastern shore of Lampong Bay is mountainous and unindented, while the western side is much cut up Telok Betong, its port, has a good harbour, and deals with almost all the trade
:
of the
Lampong
districts.
Geology
The western mountain system is composed for the most part Archaean rocks, crystalline schists, folded gneiss, and metamorphic limestones, cross-seamed by igneous intrusions of various ages and containing here and there longitudinal bands of Jurassic and Cretaceous rock (Sarolangun) let down by faulting, which were laid down before the folding and are now preserved in the sjniclinal valleys and faulted areas. The
of
continual erosion of the ranges exposes* their mineral contents when they occur, and carry some of these downwards to form placer diggings (Menangkabau). The whole ridge is metalliferous, but its riches are imperfectly
' '
known.
Gold and
silver in close association are
known
to be
distributed widely in
the
residencies of Tapanuli
and the
west coast around the equator, where there are roads inland, as also in various places further south along the mountain strip. Lead in association with silver, copper, and tin, with the rarer metals antimony, cobalt, &o., may be expected to occur in greater quantities than those known at present. Connected with tliis range is a series of marine schists con-
and plants which yields large quantities of which important supplies have already been petroleum, of found on the eastern borders of the range. Wherever this formation or later coal deposits are idtimately found it is
taining fossil fish
probable that
oil will
be discovered.
38
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
In the
stratified rocks the
and the
most important mineral is coal, coal-fields exist in, and are not buried under, the Tertiaries makes the discovery of fresh coalfields easier and their contents more accessible. The coal deposits are of great importance and extent. In the Lampong dist ict of iSouth iSumatra there is a coal basin of Eocene age resting directly upon granite which is over 11 square miles in extent. Inland from Padang on the west coast is the Ombilin
fact that the
important
field,
also Eocene, in three divisions, extending over 35 square
miles
coal-fields of
of coal. Other Miocene age are found in Benkulen, while the later Miocene and Pliocene coals are widely distributed, and these when metaniorphosed by heated rocks are improved in quality.
and containing over 300,000,000 tons
The
iron
iron deposits in
is
Sumatra are scarcely exploited.
Where
only used for making primitive tools and weapons there is no incentive to large production, although the mines are worked in the Lampong district near the southern ports and coast in association with the coal. The igneous rocks may be considered in three aspects în the crystalline plutonic form, in their metamorphic results, and in the volcanic enrichment of the soils when weathered and dis-
tributed.
basalts, and their They are of various geological ages, and their values depend upon their locaf textures, hardness, and ease of working. They are exposed by denudation or pushed through by in-
The
crystalline rocks are the granites,
allies.
trusion.
This intrusion in mass, or through fault cracks, causes change in various sedimentary rocks. Sandstone is changed into quartzite limestone (coral or otherwise) into varying marbles and clay or shale under pressure into roofing and flooring slates. All these are found in various jjlaces where exposed and preserved along the western ridge, especially in the south.
;
;
The
its
geological surface formations of the island
run along
are
length in parallel strips.
The igneous and metamorphic
along the western mountain ridges, the Tertiaries with coal, &c., upon their flanks eastwards gradually descend to the lowlands and broaden out widely in the south and in the north, but are restricted and buried under volcanic matter around and east of Lake Toba. Overlying this band a broad covering of quaternary and recent alluvium of great richness and ferti-
SUMATRA
lity
39
runs regularly along the island to the coast, and reaches coast, which is rapidly advancing seawards, thus tending to fill up the straits and join the island to the Malay Peninsula. This alluvium is the weathered and transported result of the slow destruction of harder rocks, and of the distribution of volcanic ejectamenta. The ejected volcanic products blown over the land by wind or carried down by rivers gradually become a very fertile soil. Connected with volcanic activity is the presence in the neighbourhood of all the volcanoes of sulphur, naphtha, alum, and
the
much indented
saltpetre.
The torrents from every part of the ridge of Sumatra constantly carry down material which is spread over the lower lands to the east. These quaternary soils are derived from
every kind of rock and vary accordingly. The mountain slopes, particularly those of late volcanic origin, the diluvial tuff plateaux, and the soil from the weather-beaten slate and Umestone are
all specially
suitable for agricttlture.
The
diluvial
plateaux are the best cultivated and most thickly populated. The hill-country on the eastern side of the mountains, which is thickly wooded and consists largely of laterite and quartz sands,
is
not considered in general remarkably good agricultural land, though the laterite is often very fertile, and there are many stretches of good soil often lying at the foot of the volcanic peaks. The inland freshwater marsh-country is at present of no account for agricultural purposes it is largely uninhabited. The mud-banks at the river mouths would be of more value if reclaimed by drainage.
;
Islands adjacent to Sumatra

(a)
West Coast
chain of islands, some of considerable size, extends, as already stated, along the west coast of Sumatra, rising from the edge of the submarine platform or continental shelf. The principal members and groups of this chain -will be briefly dealt with from south to north. None is of great importance.
of one large and almost entirely surrounded by reefs, which six small islands, make landing impossible except at one or two jjoints. The The Mentawei islands jaeld good timber and coco-nuts.
Engano, the most southerly group, consists
40
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
group includes the Mentawei Islands proper, the Pageh or Poggi Islands, and others, some seventy in all. They are of
and subject to earthquakes. Sunken coral reefs the lie off them and render them dangerous to approach flat and often marshy, and the islands are shores are mostly covered with low wooded hiUs and are httle known. The same applies to the Batu Islands, excepting some of the smaller,
volcanic origin
;
where a copra trade has been estabMshed, Mas is the largest and most thickly populated island in the West Sumatran chain its coasts are rocky the island is hilly or sandy, and landing is often dangerous and subject to earthquakes. Inferior coal and a little iron and copper are found, and according to Malay traders there is gold on the east coast. The Banyak Islands are a group of 66 small
especially Tello,
largely
by
Chinese.
islands north of
Mas
bearing
many
coco-nut palms.
Simalur,
chain,
is
the northernmost of the islands in the
West Sumatran
about 54 miles long, and hilly, with rocky, reef-bound coasts. There is coal on the island, but so widely scattered that it has not paid to work.
(b)
East Coast
neighbouring islands of Banka and BiUiton most important of the smaller islands in Netherlands India, on account of the tin which is worked in them (see pp. 352 seq.). Banka, which has an area of 4,377 square miles, lies off the south-east coast of Sumatra. There are large shallow bays on its east and west coasts, and a deep inlet, Klabat Bay, running 19 moles into the land, on the north. Ships can only anchor off the mouths of a few of the rivers in this bay, since the water is shallow, and it is surrounded by inaccessible cliffs. The number of anchorages is small on the coasts, which are partly steep and rocky, and partly low and marshy or sandj^, and there are in consequence few coastal settlements. There are about 70 islands adjacent to Banka. all very small, except for Lepau (128 square miles) and Pungoh (31 square miles), both off the south-eastern coast, Banka is mostly undulating hiH-country, -with sahent groups of mountains, the highest point beingBui (2,300 ft.) in the north of the island. There are many rivers, but they run in deep valleys and
Banha.
The
(below) are
two
of the
ravines in their upper courses,
and mostly carry
little Avater,
is
particularly in the drier time of the year, so that there
some-
BANKA AND BILLITON
41
times a shortage of water in the tin-mines. Most of the rivers form extensive marshes in their lower courses, which stretch for miles on the coast along Banka Strait, and they have often a bar at the mouth. Many of these rivers are nevertheless navigable for a considerable distance (about 18 miles in the
case of several), owing to the fact that they flow in what were
once inlets of the sea, and the tide is still able to penetrate a considerable distance up them. The most important are the Sungei, Jering, and Banka Kotta on the west coast, the Kurau
and Batu Russa on the east

in
coast,
and the Layang and Antang
Klabat Bay. The whole of Banka
is
covered with thick tropical vegetation,
and grass
its
plains are rare, but the virgin forest has almost dis-
appeared owing to mining and agricultural operations, and place is taken by young and comparatively worthless timber. Pepper is grown in increasing quantities by the Chinese. Billiton. ^Billiton lies between Banka and Borneo, between
and 2 31' and 3 16' S. lat. It is roughly square in shape, and has an area of 1 774 square miles there are 135 smaU adjacent islands, with an area of 95 square miles, which are separated by narrow and mostly unnavigable channels. Most of the island lies less than 130 ft. above sea107 31'
and 108
18' E. long.,
level,
with groups of hUls, of granite or sedimentary formation, from the flat or slightly undulating country. The coasts are, on the whole, low and monotonous, with extensive marshes, the north coast being higher and more rocky, the highest peak The being Tanjem (1,673 ft.) in the centre of the island. water is obtainwater-supply is very evenly distributed good able from the rivers inland and by sinking shallow wells on the coast. The largest river is the Cheruchup, 1,300 to 1,600 ft. it is tidal Avide at the mouth, which is barred by a sandbank navigable as far as Cheruchup village. There for 7 miles, and is is good anchorage during the south-east monsoon, but a heavy Nearly the whole island is sea in the westerly monsoon. forest' of 20 or 30 years' growth, primaeval covered with young forest only being found in isolated spots, but in the centre of the island there are treeless plains covered with alang-alang
rising
;
grass.
Riouw-Lingga Archipelago.
The Riouw-Lingga Archipelago

;
consists of five "groups of islands lying off the east coast of Sumatra to the south of Singapore the Karimon group, the
42
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Batani group, the Bintang group, the Lingga group, and the Singkep group. The axis of most of the islands of the last group runs from north-west to south-east, and they are being gradually joined together in some cases by coral and aUuvial formations. All the islands of this archipelago vary very much both in area and in height above the sea whilst the smallest are rocky crags or coral reefs, Bintang, the largest, has an area of about
;
21 square miles,
and
rises to a height of 1,235 ft.
The
islands
have been
charted.
little
explored, though the sea-channels are well

of coral,
The sea currents and the growth
however,
condi-
are constantly changing the shajaes of the land

tions in the channels.
gneiss, slate, &c.,
and the
The
islands consist mostly of granite,
and
of flat stretches of soft clay or sand, often
towards the centre of the island. Lingga is intersected by a chain of mountains, the highest peak being about 4,000 ft. high. Singkep is mountainous in the north-east, whilst the coasts and the rest of the interior is marshy. The Batam islands are hilly, but do not as a rule rise above 200 to 300 ft. The vegetation is rich, the hills being covered with
with
fertile soil
forest.
Borneo
Borneo, the second in size of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, of which over three-quarters of the total area belongs to the Dutch, is intersected by the Equator, and extends from 7 3' N. lat. to 4 10' S. lat. In the north the Kapuas mountain
range and its continuation north-east provide a natural division between the Dutch possessions and the British protectorates of Sarawak and Brunei and British North Borneo. The general trend is from south-west to north-east, but at the western end the mountain chain makes a wide curve and terminates almost at right angles to its general course in Cape Datu, and at the eastern end there is no very clearly defined frontier at various times claims by both nations on the eastern coast have con:
flicted.
The
frontier
is
now
fixed at 4 10' N. lat.
Surface
It is held that the principal mountain features of Borneo were impressed upon it Avhile it was still part of the mainland. It stands upon its continental shelf enclosed, as in a cup, bv
BORNEO
43
the volcanic ridge of the islands which surround it. Borneo itself contains no active volcanoes, but there is evidence of a previously existing group of small volcanoes in the Montrado
district,
about 40 miles inland from the most westerly point of
the island.
The backbone of the island is the Kapuas range, from which other mountain ranges radiate, terminating in the chief promontories of the island, and separating the river systems of the Kapuas, the Barito, and other rivers which reach the Java Sea, the Kutei, the Bulungan, and the rivers of Sarawak, Of these
mountain systems the Kapuas is most definitely a range, though it is broken by intervals of much lower elevation the others, so far as exploration has ascertained, are by no means
;
continuous, but are really high elevated masses parted like

islands
by comparatively low depressions.

is
the centre
The nodal Mount Tebang, which reaches a height of
point in
6,000
ft.
Borneo may be divided into mountain-land, hill-land, plateau, and marsh. The mountain-land rises to heights between 3,000 and 5,500 ft. as a rule (the highest mountains of Borneo are in British territory). Tongues of hill-land project between the isolated mountains. The hiUs are an aggregate of rounded or extended masses, often with very steep sides, and their average height is from 200 to 300 ft. The hill-land sends spurs into the low-lying plains, which are of great extent, especially in South Borneo. The dry flat land on the borders of the plains gradually passes into the marshy plains of the swamp-land Deposits of alluvium are brought down by the rivers and extend at times to a depth of 600 ft., while they project into the sea with deltas of great size. The constant equatorial rains cause persistent denudation, which gives the mountain-land its characteristic features. Disconnected jjeaks and table mountains with gigantic platforms are dotted about the mountain area either singly or in groups, especially in the Mtiller Mountains which lie south of the Kapuas River, and the Schwaner Mountains still farther south. The Berauw ridge radiates from the centre to Cape Mangkalihat. The Tana Laut ridges, which part the river basins of the Barito and Kutei, terminate in Cape Selatan, and the Schwaner mountains, which throw off parallel ranges separating the basins of those rivers which flow into the Java Sea, after a considerable reduction of height, approach the sea
.
at
Cape Sambas in the south-west corner
of the island.
44
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The bulk
of the
country is covered with dense forest, through which the rivers are the only means of communication, save in the higher ground, where there are game-tracks.'
Rivers
The longest of the many rivers in Dutch Borneo take their from the region of Mount Tebang in the centre. Nearly aU have the same characteristics they have first of all a rapid fall through a mountain region in which waterfalls and rapids
rise
;
common then follows a tortuous course with many meanders across the plain-land, after which the river begins to form a delta, or channels of intersection are made between one river and another. The rivers, as a rule, are tidal and navigable for a considerable distance, but few can be approached from the sea because of the sand-bars or mud-banLs which form at their mouths. Many of the tributaries also are navigable for a long way by praiis and othe:' native craft. Some special features of the rivers of this country are worthy of note. The natives apply
are
;
the
name
Icarangan to the accumulations of material deposited

of rivers,
by running water in the beds

;
and these are constantly
found in the rivers of Borneo, whether as promontories or islands the end that faces up-stream is always of finer material than the rest, and the higher course of the stream contains rough boulders, while the lower course has pebbles, sand, and mud. The pintas and danau are two constant features of the rivers of .Borneo, especially of the Kapuas and the Kutei (Mahakan). When the river is flooded, it cuts for itseK a new way across the neck of the loops upon its course these short ways are called
;
The old course is apt to more lakes in it to these, as well as the lakes on its main course, the name of danau is given, and in parts of the course of the Kapuas a chain of these lakes is found parallel to the stream. The equatorial rainfall produces
pintas (or pintassans, also antassans).
become a
cul-de-sac with one or
so
many
floods that the rivers are constantly changing their

difficulties are
is
course,
and
created for navigation, especially as
the whole country

it is
forest that impossible often to see where the river is flowing, and fallen leaves and debris make frequent obstacles on unfamiliar routes.
so
much overgrown by dense
Canalization
is needed along those which are most tortuous.
rivers, like
the Kapuas,
BORNEO
45
The greatest river in the west is the Kapuas (Kapoewas), the basin of which occupies the bulk of West Borneo. Like the other chief rivers, it rises near Mt. Tebang. Its basin is 37,000 square miles in area, about equal to that of the Rhine, and its
it has twenty-two big which is the Melawi, which joins it at Sintang. Above Semitau there is a district of lakes, some of which are of considerable size, but at that point the river flows through a gorge. For a great part of its course the Kapuas is_ flanked by banks 5 to 7 ft. high, behind which there is lowerl3dng ground, often inundated forest-land. In the delta the mouths of its distributaries are 15 miles apart; on the northernmost is Pontianak, the 'capital of West Borneo. Of the other rivers of this coast the Sambas is worthy of mention, because it offers no serious obstacle to navigation (see Chap. XII, under heading River Transport). On the south coast there are many rivers, most of which rise on the eastern side of the Schwaner Mountains, but after flowing
;
length has been computed at 810 miles
tributaries, the largest of
east for
some time, make a curve and take a southern course to the Java Sea. Of all these the Sampit is the only large river which is not impeded by a mud-bar at its mouth.
The other
chief rivers of the south coast are navigable for a
when the difficulties of the mouth have been surmounted. The mouths of the rivers are usually broad, but shallow, and some can only be entered at high water. The
considerable distance
the Mendawai, the sinuous Kahayan, The Barito has many important tributaries which are themselves navigable, including the Negara and the Martapura, on whose banks is Banjermasin. The Barito is second only to the Kapuas in length. It is liable to very extenprincipal
rivers are
and the Barito.
during the wet season 580 square miles are flooded in of the entire river basin the dry season there is left a black soil traversed by numerous
sive inundations
;
more than one-third

channels.
The chief rivers on the east coast are the Kutei (Mahakan), Berau, and Bulungan. The delta of the Kutei projects eastward for 20 miles, and has four large navigable outlets. In its middle course it has a large area of danaus resembling that of the Kapuas. The Berau has a large uninhabited delta with many islands, and two principal mouths that carry vessels of 13 to 15 ft. draught at high water. The River Bulungan, navigable
46
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
for a considerable part of its course,
rapids,
is esjiecially noted for its the Bern which are the most formidable in Borneo Brem rapids are more than 11 miles long. Farther north the Sesajap and the Sibuko are the most important streams. The bridges made by the natives are ingenious but unsub;
stantial structures of
bamboo and rattan with a hand-rail they usually take advantage of the presence of some big tree.
Coast
From Cape Datu

chiefly
;
to the
mouth
of the
Sambas the
coast
is
sandy thence to the Kapuas delta it consists of mangrove swamps. As far as Cape Sambas it is very sparsely inhabited. The southern shore has the same uniform features at some places there are sandy beaches, but as a throughout rule the vegetation comes down to the sea the coast is marshy and practically uninhabited, a few inhabitants being found in the coco-nut plantations, but even the small villages lie inland
;
;
The rivers are usually barred those with a small volume ,of water make funnel-mouths those of greater size form rudimentary deltas like the Katingan, or, by crosscommunications, form a sort of inland delta, as do the Barito, Kapuas, Murung, and Kahayan, that does not project into the sea. The absence of deltas of importance on this coast is probably due to the strong currents which flow all the year
as a rule.
; ;
either east or west parallel to the coast.
On
the east coast the southern part has high forest which
reaches the sea.
Beyond Cape Dewa northwards it is marshy, but south of Cape Aru and between Balik Papan and the delta of the Kutei, and farther north between the Berau and Bulungan, there are sandy beaches, while in the neighbourhood of Cape Mangkalihat the coast is here and there rocky. Along the whole of this coast there are few prominent landmarks, the coast hills seldom coming within six miles of the shore, which is low, swampy, and covered with vegetation. At the river mouths the vegetation (largely nipa palms) is taller than along the rest of the coast. On the southern shore the discharge of the rivers during the western monsoon is very great, and discoloured water, edged with a streak of foam, is frequently seen 30 or 40 miles out
at sea.
BORNEO
The coast
anchorage
;
47
is
badly provided with harbours that afford safe
as a rule the bays are wide and open, and provide little security. Such harbours as exist are at the mouths of
rivers,
but the excellence of the harbour bears no relation to the length of the stream, the better harbours on the east coast
especially being, like Balik Papan, at the
tively short rivers.
mouths of comparaThe harbours on the greater rivers are usually some distance (from 12 to 25 miles) up stream. As a rule the coast is flat and marshy, with mangrove swamps, and
overgrown with impenetrable forest. It seldom rises many above the sea except where the mountains approach the shore. The sea is shallow, and reefs extend frequently a long
feet
'
way out
to sea, especially along the southern shore.
Geology
The
island
location of the various geological formations of the
may be referred to
the physical divisions outlined above.
The view here adopted is that of a stable mass having a definite north-east and south-west trend in its fracture lines
with a crumpled mountain ridge in the western
half,
followed
by foothills which sink into plains, and these into swamps. The island is regarded as an old crust block, ridged, fractured, folded, and faulted, with sunk lands merging into the depressions of the Celebes and Sulu Seas. The trend line is indicated by the main Kapuas range. This trend is continued through the Palawan Islands to Manila, and through the Sulu Islands to Mindanao. The east -and- west Berauw ridge is the boundary between two sunken areas fringing the depression of the This ridge is Celebes Sea and the rift of Makassar Strait.
fractured across in the straits but continues through northern Celebes. The main trend is again indicated by the ranges of Martapura, in Banjermasin, in the south-eastern corner of the
island.
The whole island is characterized by intense folding, and the closed folds are extensively fractured by mass faults. Through these faults and fissures rise dikes and veins of igneous rock, forming sUls, bosses, laccohtes, and transgressions of basic rock,
allies are now exposed hard central cores where they originally accumulated as as The whole batholites, reservoirs, or deep, broad injections.
while the more acid granites and their
48
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
is
crusted mass
its plicability.
thus stiffened and consolidated, and has lost The result is twofold. The table-mountain
structure (Miiller Mountains)
(Bisar Highland) are dominant.
and the basin and range structure High mountains like Kina
Balu in the north have a horst or step structure. Isolated disconnected peaks in groups or singly (Semitau) are dotted over the mountain area, their contour lines corresponding closely to their exposed central core and the later rocks upon their flanks. The constant equatorial rains produce persistent and vigorous denudation which, acting upon this block-structure, results in a confused assemblage of rounded heights and hollows whereever strong faulting has not produced dominant peaks and
ridges.
It has been suggested that Borneo was what Celebes is that the whole island has been raised until the low-lying land intervening between the high ridges took the place of gulfs of
the sea, such as those which now separate the ridges of Celebes. The above account of the structure of the island does not support this theory. The mountain land of Borneo is composed of crystalline schists, phyUites, older eruptive rocks, and old slate (possibly Devonian). On the south side above the Kapuas River it is
'
'
'
'
faulted
downward
mighty
extensively in a general eastwest direction.

fault are great
Below
jasper
this
marls, limestones,
bands and ridges of Jurassic and occasional diabase tuff with beds of
and
radiolaria.
South of this a broad band similar in direction is again faulted downward and lies like a broken ribbon of Cretaceous (Cenomanian) rocks much folded and contorted. This band, however, does not adjoin the Jurassic save where occasional faulting is irregular, but is bounded along its length by Tertiary strata which also lie in patches upon the Cretaceous central ribbon. This ribbon extends eastwards to the Kapuas waterparting. The Tertiary beds are immense. horizontal masses of sandstone faulted and denuded into table-mountains. Farther to the west, south of Sarawak, the faulting is in a network, more close and complicated, with many igneous intrusions, trending generally north-east and minghng Archaean, Jurassic, and Tertiary rocks in disorder with igneous intrusions of varied age. First, then, we have the schistose mountain land, then
the varied formations of the. Kapuas plain, and then south of
BORNEO
this rises
49
an enormous area of entirely igneous rock crossed by the Equator and extending in a broad rounded exposure in
every direction for nearly 200 miles and covering 40,000 square
miles of surface.
The northern edge

tains.
of this
mass
is
called the Miiller
Moun-
It consists in the west of isolated andesite
mountains,
continued eastward by tabular masses of volcanic tuffs thick containing silicified tree-trunks in situ, and these by volcanic hills of very acid lavas. This great igneous area is therefore of very varied composition. The schists of the mountain land belong to various ages and are largely metamorphic.
is
and
4,000
ft.
land, composed of rocks older than the which are stiffened and often metamorphosed by igneous contact, extends in isolated outliers protruding through the tertiaries which are below them in height, above them in sequence. These Tertiary beds in the hill land are superposed
tertiaries
The mountain
in the following order.
The lowest
or breccia conglomerates
are followed
by the sandstone stage of great development and thickness containing important beds of Eocene coal. The third or marl stage with fossils, is succeeded by the highly fossiliferous limestone stage.
Planking the wet flat land in a belt and penetrating between the Tertiary spurs, on the sides of which it is often left in the form of horizontal terraces, comes what is called diluvium, to distinguish it in age from the more recent alluvium that follows it. The diluvium, partly marine, partly fresh-water, forms a slightly undulating plain of solid clayey, sandy, and pebbly beds, containing platinum, diamonds, gold, and iron in abundance, indicating the richness of the rocks from which it has been derived. Following the diluvium in age are all the more recent deposits, some of which are still in process of formation, derived from the denudation of all the slopes above them, and forming the lower-lying soils. These are of very wide occurrence along
the great river valleys of southern Borneo. There are three types of alluvial deposit in Borneo^ recent marine, fluviatile,
The marine are typical shorecoral formations. The widely-spread fluviatile formations of no great extent. deposits, sometimes 40 miles across, are dark brown, black, or
and recent
bluish clay, rich in humus in the upper, harder in the lower layers. In some cases the alluvium is over 600 ft. thick.
NETHEBLANDS INDIA
J)
50
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Islands adjacent to Borneo
Karimata Islands.
coast of Borneo.
and Siak, found in Great Karimata. Anambas, Natuna, and Tambelan Islands. ^There are some 300 islands lying in the China Sea between the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, and forming part of the Riouw-Lingga Residency they are divided into the Anambas Islands (96 small islands) the Natuna Islands (55 islands), subdivided into the Great Natunas (of which the principal island is Great Natuna, about 40 miles in length, most of which is covered with forest), the and the Tambelan North Natunas, and the South Natunas Islands (40 small rocky islands, of which Tambelan is the biggest). Most of the larger islands are mountainous, and
The Karimata Islands lie off the west They are peopled with settlers from Singga who are occupied in fishing and in working the iron
there are
many
short rivers, navigable for boats at high tide,
and natural harbours. Pulu Laut. The chief island in close contiguity to Dutch Borneo is Pulu Laut, off the south-east corner of the island. It is 55 miles in length and 20 miles in breadth. It rises at its northern end to 2,300 ft. The island is densely wooded. Its
principal importance
is
that
it
possesses coalfields in the north,

of
where the mines are chiefly worked by natives, the centre this industry being Simbimblingan.
Celebes
Form and
The
lat.
;
Surface
island of Celebes extends from 1 45' N. lat. to 5 37' S. its westernmost point, near Cape WiUiam, is in 118 49' E.
easternmost by the Limbe Strait is in 125 5' E. long. the backbone of the island which runs north and south for above 450 miles there project three long peninsulas, running
long., its
From
and south-east, the first of which considerably the longest. Three deep gulfs are 'thus formed on the eastern side these, from north to south, are the Gulfs of Tomini or Gorontalo, Tolo, and Boni., The whole island
respectively north-east, east,
is
;
from the extremity of the north-eastern peninsula
is almost 800 miles long. Its length is disproportionate to its breadth, which is on the average between 36 and 120 miles, narrowing
CELEBES
51
at one point to 18 miles. No place in it is as much as 70 miles from the sea. The whole island is mountainous, and individual mountains such as Mt. Batang (or the Peak of Bonthain) in the extreme south, and Mt. Koruwe in the centre of the island, rise to more than 10,000 ft. In the extreme north-east and south the mountains are volcanic, some in the former being active, and soKataras and hot springs being found in Minahasa, the district of the extreme north-east, while Una Una, an island in the Gulf of Tomini, has been in eruption in recent years. The part of the island that runs north and south has two
parallel ranges in its southern extension, with a longitudinal
valley between, constituting the basin of the River Walannae which drains into the considerable Lake Tempo. The western
in the great mass of Batang, the continued across the Saleier Strait into the island of Saleier. Between the western range and the sea is an alluvial coast plain from 7 to 30 miles wide, but throughout the island there is little alluvial plain, for the rivers have only short courses, and, with few exceptions, the sea is deep in the immediate vicinity of the coast, the 100-fathom line coming at many points within half a mile of the shore. North of the central block the elevation of the mountains is lower, and there is only one ridge of mountains, which is crossed near the Equator by low-lying land, through which a canal might be dug. In the western part of the central block are a series of alternating mountain ridges and intervening plateaux which run down in parallel lines to
mountain range terminates

eastern
is
Cape Mandar. At Cape Dondo the h'ne of the mountains alters its direction. The north-east peninsula at first runs west and east, and conthat do not follow the, coastal trend but run obliquely from south-west to north-east. The granite formation of this part produces the characteristic soil with swamps and bogs in the hollows and loose debris on the hill sides. After
sists of ridges
continuing for more than two hundred miles in this direction the peninsula turns to the north-east, and the volcanic region of Mnahasa begins. This is the most mountainous part of the island, though the mountains are not so high as in the centre and the south, the highest, Mt. Klabat, at the extreme northeast
end of the island, being 6,560 ft. high. The moimtains which through Gorontalo (the west-and-east portion of the
52
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
by valleys in regular sequence no longer show the same system, but the river valleys radiate in different directions from the volcanic cones. The volcanic activities of this region have had a great effect on the fertility of the soil, and the forests there are uniformly luxuriant. In the east and south-east promontories the mountains
peninsula) are divided
sweep roimd in concentric semicircles from the island of Peling to the island of Buton. The south-east promontory has much the same characteristics as the southern peninsula. Parallel mountain ranges along the two coasts bound a swamp of no great breadth which lies along the sea. Through the peninsula there is another rift in which lie the principal lakes of the island, Poso, Matana, and Towuti, and farther south the swamp of Lake Opa. The priiacipal rivers of the peninsula flow do^Ti longitU(dinal valleys, and either form basins of inland drainage or break through gorges to the sea. The eastern peninsida is little known. Along the south coast lie the TokaUa Mountains, more than 8,000 ft. high. It shows for the most part the same features as the south-east peninsula, of coastal mountains, a lower central plateau, and a higher mountain system. Much of the island is covered with forest, especially round
paths.
the Gulf of Tolo. This is penetrated by scarcely perceptible The vegetation grows up the precipitous and almost vertical mountain slopes. The rift valleys are extremely
fertile.
Lalces
The principal lakes lie along the rifts between the parallel chains of mountains. In Minabasa is Lake Tondano (2,000 ft. above the sea) with a length of 9 and width of 3J miles. The
Lake Ililoi is merely an expansion of the River Poigar. In Gorontalo are Lakes limboto, Batudaka, and Bolano Sawu. In the central nucleus of the island is Lake Lindu, drained by the River Gumbasa nearly northward into Palu Bay, on the west coast farther south in the same longitudinal rift are Lakes Tempe and Sideiireng, monsoon-lakes, which almost dry up dm-ing the dry monsoon, leaving tracts for the cultivation of rice and maize. East of this, along a somewhat similar but wider depression, are the chief lakes of the island, Poso, Matana, and To\yuti. These are very deep
recently discovered
;
CELEBES
53
rift lakes, Matana having been sounded to 1,500 ft., and Poso to 1,000 ft. In addition to these there are many smaller lakes of various types shallow lakes on the plateaux, numerous in all parts of the folded mountain areas, 'crater lakes in the south and north-east, solfatara lakes with hot springs, and temporary lakes or swamps, with or without outlet, which dry wholly or
in part in the dry season.
Rivers
The rivers of Celebes, owing to the shape of the island, have no great length and are of little importance. Their course is rapid, and their fall great. Waterfalls and rapids are very frequent, the best known being the falls on the River Tondano where it issues from the lake of the same name, which lies 2,000 ft. above the sea. The only rivers of any length are those which run longitudinally. These either collect into basins of
inland drainage like the Opa swamp or lake, or break at right angles across the mountain ranges like the Tyenxana which drains Lake Tempe, or the Lariang, which, after flowing north-
wards under the name of Koro, turns westward and reaches Makassar Strait, or flow into a longitudinal sea-inlet like the
Palu. The length of the rivers given in several descriptions of the island has been much exaggerated. There is little opportunity of navigation on any of the rivers. The Lasolo, one of the chief streams of the south-eastern peninsula, admits steamers for 16 miles from its mouth. The others are only navigable for smaller vessels, and their mouths are almost invariably obstructed by bars. The Jenemeja, which flows into the Gulf of Boni in one of the few parts where therie is a coastal plain of any breadth, is a broad river and navigable The Poso, entering for a considerable distance from its mouth. the Gulf of Tomini, is wide and navigable by blottos up to Paluasi, but is full of rapids above. The Sadang, entering the Gulf of Mandar on the south-west coast, has many affluents and is navigable by sampans. The rivers of Gorontalo (Poigar, Bone, Buol, &c.) are only navigable by native craft
The Walannae flows into Lake Tempe, and the Tyenrana, which flows from that lake into the Gulf of Boni, are navigated for many miles by native
for
a few miles.
it
and both
vessels.
54
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Coast
Borneo stands in a shaJlow sea on a shelf that projects from the continent of Asia ' New Guinea, in a similar sea, on a similar shelf projecting from Australia. Between them Celebes is situated in a very deep sea, the only part of which that is at
;
shallow is the southern part of Makassar Strait, where lies the Spermonde Archipelago. For most of the rest of the island the 100-fathom line comes very near the shore, being seldom more than 4 miles distant, except at the head of the gulfs, and sometimes within half a mile. It is, generally speaking, a dangerous coast, fringed by drying coral reefs, and with many shoals and banks in the narrow strip of water short of the 100all
deep gulfs of Tomini, Tolo, and immense length of coast in proportion to its area. The coast-line is more than 2,000 miles in length. Each of the peninsulas is continued by groups of islands, which
of the three
fathom line. In consequence
Boni, Celebes has an
are described below.
mountains come very close to the sea, and the most considerable being that of Luwu at the head of the Gulf of Boni, where the shore for some considerable distance is low and flat. Other jjarts with similar characteristics are the neighbourhood of Makassar, where the interior is hidden from the sea by the trees and villages which fringe the coast and the plain of the River Tangka near Sinjai. In parts, as in the region north of Palu Bay, the coast is high and heavily timbered, with rocky points and sandy beaches. In other parts, as by Cape Tdli Toll and along much
rule the
strips of coastal plain are narrow, the
As a
of the
north coast of the
Gtilf of
Tomini,
swamp
takes the place
and mangroves instead of forests line the shore. The reefs which fringe the coast often enclose many small islets, as in Mengkoka Bay and many parts of the Gulf of Tomini. The deeply indented coast with the numerous reefs and other
of sand,
dangers to navigation are a great hindrance to the coastal trade, island is not endowed with a great number of natural harbours. The best are on the north coast Menado Bay, a good port except in the months of December, January, and February, when it cannot be used, but when its place can be taken by the port of Kema, on the east of the island Amm-ang Bay, which is 9 miles across and penetrates the land 9 miles
and the
CELEBES
Kwandang Bay,
a wide bay with islands
;
55
and Dondo Bay
is very steep, although it is shallower under the east shore. On the western shore of the island is Tambu Bay (13 miles across at the entrance and 17 miles long) Palu Bay, which penetrates 19 miles and
;
(13 miles long), of which the western shore
is
3 to 4 miles in breadth,
and contains Donggala as its principal

;
port, the centre of the trade of the district
and Pare Pare Bay,
4 miles long and divided into two parts by a narrow passage. Makassar, though the principal port in the island, is in a dangerous part of the coast, and its approach needs careful navigation.
is
which
In the Gulf of Tomini, Gorontalo has an excellent harbour, the mouth of the river being very deep the other chief bays are the wide bay of Poso, and the Gulf of Poh, which penetrates eastward about 22 miles. The whole of the Gulf of Tomini
;
outside the 100-fathom line
is
very deep, but storms are rare
and the currents are weak, and though there are few spacious anchorages, there are numerous sheltered places along the
coast.
The Gulf of Tolo has some important bays, including at its head Tomori Bay, which is 5 miles wide at the entrance and penetrates 20 miles, and contains inside it many smaller bays and Kandari Bay, which runs 4 miles inland, gradually increasing in width, and containing good anchorages, sheltered as it is from winds by the high surrounding hills. Staring Bay, just to the south, is of considerable extent, but has not been examined. The western shore of the Gulf of Boni is in great part fringed by reefs, and on the eastern side the same feature makes certain anchorages, such as Mengkoka Bay, largely inaccessible. At the head of the gulf, fringed by the low alluvial plain of Luwu, Near the southis Palopo Bay, and to the east of it Usu Bay. eastern extremity of the gulf is Sopang Bay, which afEords anchorage for vessels of moderate size.
;
Geology
The broad central block of Celebes, from which the peninsulas project, stands midway between the two rifts of Makassar
complex of igneous amphibolite characters, rocks, with granite, gneiss, diorite, and
Strait
and the Boni
depression.
It is a
66
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
by
later eruptives, for the
jnerced hero and there

Tertiary.
most part
enclosed around its base by Cretaceous rocks ovei'laid by tertiaries and recent alluvial deposits towards the coasts. Around the south-eastern corner of the block, both along the coast and inland, there is a broad band of pre-Tertiary
This block
is
by the coral limestone known as The northern part of the Gulf of Boni is widely bordered by pleistocene and alluvial deposits, resting in the north-east upon late tertiaries, but in the neighbourhood of Paloppo there is a band of old plutonic basic )-ocks. This band fringes on the cast a series of parallel faulted folds of Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks through Avhich protrude axial belts of metamorphic roeks and schists. Eastward of the band itself, across the Gulf of Boni, the same plutonic rocks reappear, and extend across the south-eastern peninsula, enclosing Lake Towuti, to the Gulf
tuffs,
fringed occasionally
Jcarang.
of Tolo.
and south an axis of crystalline schist, tourmaline quartzite, and glaucophane schist, penetrated and overlaid by andesite and basalt. The whole is flanked by tufEs which make a fertile strij) along Makassar Strait, and are in turn overlaid by the late Tertiary Orbitoides limestone, which forms an inland cliff. The southern extension from the central block has been the scene of crustal and volcanic disturbance, resulting in the depression of the Walannae and Lake Tempe, and in the formation of the Batang volcano. The predominant north-and-south direction of the faxilting is evident here, and the dislocations have raised the late Tertiary limestone in some parts to a height of more than 3,000 ft., while elsewhere it appeai-s at
The meridional
ridge of Celebes, which runs north
parallel to the west coast, has
sea-level in contact with the present coral reefs.
Portions of the Archaean foundation are revealed here and there. EastM'ard of the central block, from the head of the Gulf of Boni northward to Parigi at the head of the Gulf of Tomini, there is a marked fault line bounding the igneous complex of
the central block.
This faulted and depressed area contains
Lake Poso. morphosed
It is
composed
of crystalline schists
and meta-
with gneiss and metamorphic limestones, while a triangular area north of Lake Posso consists of late tertiaries fringed with alluvium, and elsewhere there are old
shales,
CELEBES
lake-basins
filled
57
with alluvium, and swamps ])artially filled. bounded on the east by the old plutonic rocks already mentioned as appearing on both sides of the head of
The
the
fault
is
Grulf of
Boni.
The south-eastern and eastern peninsulas may be considered in the main as a broken crustal block with plutonic rocks, somewhat similar to, but older than, the western block, and more dislocated. The exposures known from the north Banka coast, southward past Lake Towuti, to the detached islands on
the east coast are similar in character, these plutonic basic rocks being of pre-Tertiary age. Running south inland along the Gulf of Boni the Lake Poso metamorphics are continued
through Kambuna Island. This band is faulted eastwards, and then appears a series of Pleistocene to recent rocks passing over to the north of Muna with no tertiaries except a small patch in the south of Buton Island. Around Mengkoka Bay (midway
on the eastern shore
of the Gulf of Boni) is a fringe of coral
limestone (karang) which borders
Kabaena north and south, covers more than two-thirds of Muna, all except the centre of Buton, and all Wowoni with the small islands north of it. The
south-eastern peninsula is otherwise little known. There are indications of Jurassic rocks south of Lake Matana and these are known also in patches in the eastern peninsula, of which the base is composed of the old plutonic rocks fringed by
tertiaries,
and, along the sea border, by recent rocks. The metamorphics reappear in Peling Island and are fringed by
karang. The north-eastern peninsula, in that portion which lies westand-east, is sharply divided structurally into northern and
southern belts. The northern belt consists' mostly of sedimentary rocks. Cretaceous or Tertiary, some altered by metamorphism, with later denudation products in the valleys. This belt runs parallel with the north coast and is separated by a parallel fault line from the southern belt, which consists of granites, gneisses, and intrusives, with Archaean scihists and
altered rocks caught in faults.
The
faulting
is
rectangular, so
that the western portion stands as a horst block that sinks by a series of steps to the depression of Lake Limboto. The valleys are filled with sediments according to their age, but for the most part with recent deposits. Older rocks. Cretaceous and Tertiary, are preserved in occasional east-and west bands, and
58
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
south coast there are fringes of karanc/.
in places near uhe
The north-eastward prolongation of Minahasa, as has been seen, is volcanic, .and differs from any other portion of Celebes, and its physical features, soil, and drainage are dominated by
this volcanic modification.
There
is
line of old volcanic
mountains, and
springs,
mud
present soKataric activity such as hot eruptions, and sulphur emanations. Small earth-
much
quakes are common.
Islands adjacent to Celebes

tipermunde Archipelago. The Spermunde Archipelago lies off the west coast of Celebes, north of Makassar, in a part where Makassar Strait is comparatively shallow. It consists of a great
surrounded by coral reefs. Coco-nuts is unsuited for other produce. Sangi Islands. The Sangi (or Sangir) Islands continue the north-east extension of Celebes towards Mindanao they are set upon a long narrow ridge along the volcanic band, with great depths on both sides of them. They are volcanic, but fringed with recent coral formation (Jcarang). Some of the volcanoes aj'e still active, including Mt. Abu (or Awu) on Sangi, which has had recent disastrous eruptions (1892, &c.) there have also been small earthquakes. The most important islands are Sangi, Siau, and Tangulandang (or Tagulanda). Between
of
number
low
islands,
are grown, but the sandy soil
the last and Celebes, among other islands are Talisse and Banka (not to be confused with Banka Island off Sumatra). The important channel of Banka Passage (see Chap. I) passes to the north of these. Sangi (27miles long, and 9 to 17 miles broad) is mountainous in the north, but only attains moderate heights in the south. The coast is generally steep the principal port, Taruna, is visited by steamers. Siau is extensively cultivated with numerous nutmeg and coco-nut plantations apart from
;
and fishing, the principal industry is the weaving of Manila hemp. The volcanic soil makes both these islands exceptionally fertile. Tangulandang has two peaks about 2,500 ft., the island sloping from them to the westward. The principal industry is boat-building. Ruang, west of Tangulandang, contains an active volcano. Talauer Islands. This group lies to the north-east. The
agriculture
chief island is
Karkelong (Karakelang), \\hich
is
39 miles long
CELEBES
and 15 wide
;
59
at the northern part the southern part Js said to be 2,300 ft. high. The coast is generally steep-to, except on the south side, which is fringed by a reef nearly a mile wide.
island
This parted by a strait about 1 mile wide from Salibabu, M'hich sometimes gives its name to the group. ScMldpad or Togian Islands. The Schildpad Islands lie in the Gulf of Tomini. They extend for nearly 80 miles east and wesi. The chief islands, Talata Koh, Togian, and Batu Daka, are separated by such narrow channels that they practically constitute one island, and the passages between them are difficult for navigation. Batu Daka is rocky and almost uninhabited. The other islands are hilly and densely wooded. Detached from the other islands is Una Una, with an active volcano, the lower slopes of which are very fertile.
is
Several bays, including Esang Bay, afford anchorage.
Banggai Archipelago. The Banggai or Peling Islands lie off the eastern extremity of Celebes, to which they belong gsographically, though, like the Sula Islands farther east, they
belong politically to the residency of Ternate. There are four chief islands, Peling, Banggai, Labobo, and Bangkulu, all inhabited. Excepting part of Peling, these islands are very imperfectly known. They produce good timber, including ebony. Peling is greatly indented, and is a mountainous and wooded island. It has many bays affording anchorage, and others obstructed by reefs. These islands are frequented by fishermen for trepang and turtle. Islands off the South-Eastern Peninsula of Celebes. Off the south-eastern corner of Celebes is a group of islands, of which the most imjDortant are Kabaena, Muna, Buton, and Wowoni. They are separated from the peninsula by the Tioro and Wowoni The Buton Strait, Straits, both of which are dangerous. between Muna and Buton, is very narrow, but is navigated by those ships that do not go outside the islands. The islands are hilly. Buton, which is over 100 miles long, has a chain of limestone mountains, 600-700 ft. high, along its axis. East of it
lie
the small Tukang Besi Islands.
Muna
is
less hilly
it
consists of coralline limestone, but the hills run less definitely north and south. Kabaena consists partly of limestone, partly
of volcanic hills.
Buton
is
great bay,
dangers.-
KaU
Susa, with
penetrated on the eastern side by a some good anchorages, but full of
60
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Saleier (or iSalayar) is an extension of the eastern Saleier. mountain-chain in the southern promontory of Celebes. It is about 50 miles long, with a greatest width of 8 miles. It is traversed by a chain of mountains reaching 2,000 ft., which descend steeply to the sea on the east side, and gradually slope to the flat stretch on the west. Its streams can only be entered by praus. It is populous and prosperous, owing chiefly to its proximity to Makassar.
The Moltjocas
defined in Chapter
Moluccas is here aj)plied in the wide sense It should be observed that the political boundaries do not coincide with the geographical divisions The component (see Chap. YLII, p. 260, and key-map). groups will be dealt with in order approximately from north
of the
I.
The name
to south.
mainland) is not as Halmaheira (or Gilolo). Halmaheira ( important as its size would suggest. It is about 200 miles long, and has an area of about 6,500 miles (including the islets close to the shore), but, except in the northern peninsula, it is not thickly populated, and it is not fully known. It resembles Celebes in shape, having four peninsulas that meet at a central point, a long western coast, and three deep gulfs on the east. It is very mountainous, and is in the jnain of ancient formation. The northern peninsula is mostly occupied by two mountain ranges, between which Kes a well-cultivated, undulating plain. The mountains along the western coast are volcanic, and at
Gam Kenora (4,922 ft.), is active. The other three peninsulas are intersected by mountain chains, from which spurs extend to the coast there are summits from 3,000 to 4,000 ft. high. The mountains are thickly wooded. There are
least one.
;
numerous rivers, of which the chief are the Taliabu and but none is of great importance. There are several lakes.
forests are rich in a great variety of trees.
Kaii,
The
Morotai lies 14 miles north-east of Halmamore than 50 miles long, and from 13 to 26 miles Avide. It is high for the most part, the highest point in the Sabotai range being about 3,000 ft. It has numerous rivers, navigable by small boats for some distance inland. On the river banks and in the flat south-west part of the island are forests of sago-palm, and inland many dammar trees. Morotai (Morti).
It is
heira.
MOLUCCAS
Ternate.
off the
61
Ternate is the northernmost of the Hne of islands west coast of Halmaheira. It is the seat of an ancient sul-
tanate and now contains the chief town of the residency that bears its name. The island consists almost entirely of a conical volcano (5,184 ft.) with four peaks, which is constantly active it has suffered from many eruptions and earthquakes. Ternate has an area of about 25 square miles and is 6 miles across. It is densely wooded, and on the south and south-east is cultivated.
;
rice
Between the lava ribs are pieces of flat ground planted with and maize, and the island also produces sago, coffee, pepper, nutmegs, and cloves, but the last have been unimportant since Amboina was given the monopoly. Between Ternate and
Tidore
is
a fine harbour.
<i;c. Tidore, the next island, rather more than 1 mile south, was also the seat of a historic sultanate. It is a small
Tidore,
island, of which the southern part is entirely occupied by a volcanic peak (5,808 ft.), with bare top and wooded sides, but no longer active. Below the 1,000 ft. level there is cultivation, especially on the eastern side. The soil is remarkably fertile. The northern half of the island is a rugged mass of hills, descending steeply to the sea with a few level spots near the beach. Fruit, cotton, nutmeg, tobacco, and coffee are grown. The chief town, Soasia, is on the east coast. The other islands along this coast are Mare, Maitara (or Motir), Makian, and Kayoa, while Taifore and Mayu He out in the middle of Molucca Passage. Mare is called Potbakkers Island because of the excellent clay found in the south-west of the islaijd, from which the inhabitants make earthenware vessels. Maitara is a temporary habitation for the dwellers in other islands who come here to cultivate plantations and gardens forests grow up to the summits of in its fertile volcanic soil the mountains over 2,750 ft. Makian suffered from eruptions it is covered with vegetation over its uneven in 1861 and 1870
'
mountainous
The inhabitants are engaged tobacco-growing, fishing, and weaving. Kayoa in agriculture, it has a range of hills, rising to 1,181 ft., is nearly 10 miles long
surface,
which
rises to 4,166 ft.
almost
its entire length.
which is the island of Bachian, miles long with a mean width of 23 miles. This island is 52 the very mountainous, the northern part being volcanic
of
;
Bachian (Batjan) Group. Bachian group, the chief
To the south
of this chain lies the
62
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
is an isthmus, is much lower than the and south, the greatest heights being at the southern extremity. There are no active volcanoes, but there are sulphurous springs at the foot of Mt. Sibela (7,215 ft.), and Bachian is liable to earthquakes. The mineral resources include gold and copper in small quantities, and coal which is worked intermittently at small profit. The interior of the island is there are numerous densely wooded and has few inhabitants streams, but only few can be entered by small boats. Good
central part, where there
heights to north
timber
is
found.
West of Bachian are Great Tawali (or Kasiruta), 19 miles long and 15 wide Mandioli, 17 miles long and 9 wide and other
; ;
smaller islands.
Ohi (Ombi or Ombira).
The group consists
of Great Obi (or
and many mountainous islets. It lies to the south of the Bachian group, and serves with the Sula Islands to form a continuous chain between Celebes and New Guinea. Great Obi is more than 50 miles long and 20 miles
Ombi Major),
five smaller islands,
wide.
schists.
It is
volcanic,
very lofty, rising to nearly 5,000 ft., but not being probably composed of ancient crystalUne The mountains decrease towards the east, where for
is low and marshy in places. The whole mountain tops, is densely wooded. There which descend steeply from the hiUs, but
;
10 miles the ground

island, including the
their lower course they can only be entered by small craft, and their mouths are barred. Coal and lignite are found, and there is supposed to be gold. The island has almost no resident population, because it is supposed to be haunted, a reputation which may have been manufactured for it when it was a favourite resort of pirates. The other islands
in the
are numerous rivers have low banks on
group are hilly and have steep coasts. Sula (Sulla) Islands.The Sula Islands consist of three of considerable size, Taliabu, Mangola, and Sula Besi, and several smaller ones. The first two of these, together with Lisamatula, form a chain extending east and west about 135 miles. They are high, mountainous islands, thickly wooded, and thinly populated. Taliabu, the largest in area, is little known. It has mountains 3,000 or 4,000 ft. high, and contains hot springs. Mangola, the middle island, is 65 miles long it is narrow and generally high the highest peak, Mt. Buja, is in the west of Lisamatula, the eastern island, is uninhabiied. the island.
;
MOLUCCAS
It is thickly inhabited,
63
More important than these is Sula Besi, which lies to the south. and well cultivated. Coal of an inferior quality is found upon it. The islands produce excellent wood
for ship-building.
Buru. Buru, with Ceram and the Kei Islands, stands upon the outer wall of Archaean rocks which enclose the symmetrical inner volcanic ring to which the Banda Islands and some of
the South-western Islands belong. It is an oval island, about 90 miles long and 50 miles wide, with an area of nearly 3,400 square miles. Its chief geological formations are crystalline
slate to the north,
and mesozoic sandstone and chalk to the
mountains, especially in the northwest part, where are Mt. Tomahu (8,524 ft.) and Kaku Siel, not much lower. In the east the mountains are comparatively low. Surrounding Kayeli Bay is a wide, circular, level plain constituting almost one-quarter of the island. Most of Buru is covered with forest, but the north is somewhat bare and overgrown with coarse kussu grass. It has many rivers, chief of which is the Wai Apu, which flows through swamp, full of fern. Their mouths, which are obstructed by bars, offer anchorage to native craft the only anchorage for bigger v,essels is afforded by Kayeli Bay. Waikolo Lake, near the centre, 1,900 ft. above the sea, lies at the foot of Kaku Siel it has been wrongly supposed to be a volcanic crater. In the
It is full of lofty
;
south.
swampy
parts, especially Kayeli, Lisela,
sago palms grow.
There
is
and Waesama, many good timber, especially teak, ebony,

lies off
and kanari.
Ambelau Island
Ceram, <i;c. ^The island of Ceram lies east of Buru, and is divided from it by Manipa or Buru Strait, in which are several islands, including Manipa, north-east of which are Kelang and Boano. Ceram is 216 miles long, and its area, including the adjacent islands, is estimated at 6,621 square miles. The geological formation of the island is mostly of eruptive rocks and crystalline limestone in the east section mostly of crystalline chalk. It is traversed from east to west by a fine range of mountains, near the north coast, the highest of which is Nusaheli (9,612 ft.), while at least four other peaks in it exceed 6,000 ft. There is a large number of rivers, which generally run north the chief are the Ruata, Bobot, and Saputana. But they are mostly unnavigable, and often dry in the dry In many parts the mountain chain extends to the season.
; ;
the south-east coast.
64
coast
;
PHYSICAL aEOGHAPHY
in others it gradually gives place to lowland, and in some places the sea is fringed by swamps. The only harbour is Amahai. The island is very little known, the only part with
which Europeans are familiar being the western end, where the Huammal is connected with the main island by a Dense forests are everywhere, and low narrow isthmus. provide excellent timber in all the swampy valleys sago palm grows wild. Amboina and the UKassers. The island of Amboina or Ambon (from a Malay word meaning mist ') lies to the south of the west part of Ceram, and east of it lie the group of small
peninsula of
;
'
islands generally
known
its
as the Uliassers.
It is the capital of
the residency of
long,
name, and at one time was very famous,

cloves trade.
;
when it enjoyed a monopoly in the

and has an area
It
is
32 miles
shape is very irregular, for it is divided into two unequal parts Hitu and Leitimor by a narrow alluvial isthmus. All these islands are
of 386 square miles
its
of Tertiary (Miocene) formation, and are traversed by mountain ranges of fine-grained granite, in which serpentine with magnetite
and other eruptive rocks are found. The shores of Amboina are of chalk, and contain stalactite caves. The mountains are volcanic, though none is now active, but hot springs and solfataras are found and slight earthquakes are still experienced the highest mountains are Salhutu (4,020 ft.) and Wawani The rivers are small and not navigable. In the (3,609 ft.).
Bay
Bay of Amboina are found 700 varieties of fish. Amboina is the most important port in the Dutch East Indies east of Makassar. Of the other islands in the group, Haruku and Nusa Laut both contain hot springs. Saparua is almost divided into two by an isthmus, about half an hour's walk across it is hiUy, but along the coast is flat ground covered with coco-nut trees
;
the principal products are cloves, but the sago grown is insufficient for the population. Melano is thickly wooded. Nusa Laut is hilly, but with plains in parts near the sea it has two good anchorages, available for both monsoons.
;
Banda Islands. The Banda Islands lie 60 miles south Ceram and 130 miles south-east of Amboina. They are ten
number,
of
of
in
which the three largest are Lontor or Great Banda, Banda Neira six of them together enclose the harliour of Banda. The whole area is about 20 square miles.
Gunong
Api, and
MOLUCCAS
The
;
(55
longest, Lontor, is 7 miles long and crescent-shaped it J covered with parks of nutmeg, the Banda Islands having formerly been the exclusive nutmeg garden of the world the nutmeg trees grew under the shade of kanari trees, whose nuts produce an oil of value. The volcanic soil is good for their growth. On Banda Neira is the town of Banda, one of the
is
' '
;
Dutch East Indies. Gunong Api (a common name of volcanoes in the Malay Seas) is an active volcano (1,858 ft.), with frequent prolonged periods of activity it is covered by bushes to within 700 ft. of the summit. No nutmegs grow on this island, but there are coconuts along the coast. Nutmegs grow on Run, Ai, and Rozencleanest, neatest settlements of the
;
gain, the last of which also has coco-nuts.
On Run
is
a clean,
white beach, frequented by turtles.
Ceram Laut is a cluster on one coral reef about 20 miles long. Included with it are Gisser and Kilwaru to the west, and the Goram Islands, Suruaki, Goram, and Manavoka to the east-south-east. The
of islands
Ceram Laut and Goram Archipelago.
bigger islands are of Tertiary (Miocene) formation, the rest are coral of recent formation. Most are covered with forests. There are no mountains in Ceram Laut of over 1,000 ft. Gisser is a coal depot, and Kilwaru a busy mart. The Goram Islands
more populous, and more fertile than Ceram Laut. Suruaki there are extensive swamps. The chain is continued to the Kei Islands by the Matabela Islands, whose rugged hills are covered with coco-nut palms, and the very similar Tiru (or Towa), Nusa-Tello, and Tionare higher,
On
foloka Islands.
Some
of these latter are entirely waterless,
owing to the pervious nature of the coral rock. Kei (Ke or Ewaf) Islands. This archipelago Ues on the ridge mentioned above, that proceeds from Ceram, and continues to Timor Laut it is separated by deep water from the Banda Islands on the west, and the Aru Islands on the east. The whole archipelago has an area of 572 square miles. It consists Great Kei (or of four groups proceeding from east to west Nuhu Yut) Nuhu Roa and Kei Dula the Tayando group and the Kur group. Of these the first consists of Tertiary rocks
the others, post-Tertiary, principally of coralline Umestone. Great Kei is a narrow and lofty island; it is 64 miles in length, with a narrow tongue of land at its southern extremity. It is mountainous and wooded, with patches of cultivation on the
NETHERLANDS INPIA
JJ
66
sloioes
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
;
the mountains, which lise to nearly 3,000
ft.
in the
north, traverse the centre of the island

side.
and slope down to either The coasts are usually high with steep cliffs. The other
f,re
i^.ands
con^pf.rativeJy low, but there are hills in the south

;
and north-west of Kei Dula most are encircled by extensive shoals. The islands are all covered with dense forest, and produce excellent timber, some sorts of which are specially good for boat-building. Coco-nuts grow everywhere in abundance, and besides these are found areng palms, bananas, sago, maize, and vegetables. Trepang and tortoise are found in great numbers on the many reefs round the islands, and the neighbouring seas teem with fish, but the natives seldom go outside
the reefs or fish in waters of greater depth than 10 fathoms. The settlements are round the coast. Aru Islands. This group, lying to the east of the Kei Islands, in the shallow sea between New Guinea and Australia, consists of one large island mass, Tanabesar, 122 miles long and 58 mUes wide, and nearly 100 smaller isles. The area of the archipelago is 3,244 square miles. Tanabesar is intersected by several channels {sungi) of varying width, and less than 3 fathoms' depth it is regarded as making six separate islands. The
whole group is for the most part of coralline limestone, and is of low elevation, and contains no rivers of note. The surface is mostly covered with virgin forest, largely composed of screw pines, palm trees, kanari, and tree ferns in Tarangan, the south portion of the big island, this is varied with grassy plains. The sungi are lined with mangroves. In many parts there are impassable swamps. The soil is fertile, but little cultivated. The principal sett'ement is Dobo on the small island of Wamar in the west, but the Aru islanders do not live in it, but merely
;
visit it to
bring their produce.
Timor Laut and Tenimber Group. The Archaean ridge on which the Kei Islands stand, is continued to this group, consisting of 66 islands, most of which are known as Tenimber, though the two largest, Yamdena and Selaru, together with the islands between them in the Egeron Strait, are called Timor Laut. Most of these islands are of recent coralline formation, and their elevation is usually low. The only high parts are the
island of Laibobar' (over 1,500
ft.), probably a volcano, Molu, Vordata, Selu, and a part of the south coast of Yamdena. Earthquakes sometimes occur.
MOLUCCfAS
;
67
Yamdena has a much indented coast there is a low narrow foreshore with coco-nuts and mangroves, fringed in most places with precipitous chffs of 60 to 80 f b. It is 74 miles' long and
26 miles wide in the middle. The west coast is lower than the The hills on the east coast are densely wooded. Selaru is 30 miles long, and is mostly flat it is covered with high grass and less wooded. On all the larger islands there are extensive swamps. The trees are of considerable height, but more sparse than on the islands previously described, and of not very great thickness. The islands are not fertile, but provide for the needs of the inhabitants. Maize is the' staple food extensive coco-nut plantations line the shores a little rice and sago are cultivated, also bananas, papaws, mangoes, manioc, and sweet potatoes.
east.
; ; ;
This collective name given to the two diverging chains of islands which continue the lines respectively of the Lesser Sunda Islands and Timor. The former, the northern chain, includes Serua, Nila, Damar, Roma and Wetar, and is continued northward from Serua through Manuk to the Banda Islands on the inner volcanic belt the latter, the southern chain, includes Kissa, Letti, Moa, Lakor, Sermata, and Babar, and is continued through the Timor Laut and Kei archipelagoes to the southern Moluccas on the Archaean ridge. The former are mostly volcanic, thelatter mostly of Tertiary formation, while Lakor is of diluvial coralline formation. Serua has an active volcano (2,294 ft.) the island is covered with coco-nut, kalapa, and mango trees. Nila has a lofty active
South-western Islands {Serwatti Islands).
is
; ;
volcano (3,908
ft.).
The inhabitants grow coco-nuts and
raise
hops and poultry. They formerly cultivated cloves. Damar has an active volcano (3,110 ft.), and suffers from earthquakes. There is some low land on the west, but everywhere else the Kolowati Bay penetrates land rises steeply from the sea. 4 miles inland, with great depth of water. Otherwise the coasts are steep. The island is extraordinarily fertile. Near Wulur
there are hot springs. Roma is 11 miles long and 6 miles wide. its chief It is of volcanic origin, and contains hot springs height is 1,905 ft. It is a very fertile island, especially in the south-east part. The staple product is maize, but aren palm and sago are also common. It receives the ii;habitants of Kissa,
;
who migrate
here in periods of great drought from their
own
68
island..
PHYSICIAL
Wetar (Wetta)
is
GEOGRAPHY
about 7U miles long and more than sedimentary formation, with evidence of subsequent volcanic action. The land is broken and mountainous, especially on the north side, where precipitous cliffs reach the sea. The highest elevation is Tower Hill (4,390 ft.). There are many rivers and swamps, some of which are dry during the east monsoon. Most of the country is bare, but on the south side there is there are forests at certain places grassland. There is an absence of plains. The chief anchorage is the open bay of Ilwaki on the south of the island. Kissa is an unhealthy island about 7 miles long and 5 miles wide. It is of quaternary and triassic formations with traces
20 miles broad.
It is of
;
of
metamorphic gneiss and mica.

;
It is
mountainous and bare,
without forest, and dry sometijnes a whole year goes by without rain. The coast is high and rocky, broken in places by narrow sand beaches. Letti (9 miles long, 5 miles wide) shares the conditions of Kissa there is the same absence of forest and rain. A range of dome-shaped hiUs traverses the middle of the island from east to west, the highest point being 1,403 ft. Moa is 25 miles long, and is divided into two hilly parts by a strip of low marshy land thickly wooded with sago trees. It is a very fertile island, and receives the inhabitants of Letti when drought compels them to migrate. Sermata, 15 miles long, has a high range of hills (rising to 1,378 ft.) the sides of which slope steeply down to the sea. Babar, 18 miles long and having the same width at its widest part, though only 4 miles wide at the south end, is mountainous (rising to 2,953 ft.) and thickly
:
forested
it contains several rivers. Its low coast is covered with woods. The island is fertile, but the other islands of the Babar group are bare and parched.
;
Dutch New Guinea

The Dutch territory in western New Guinea represents nearly one-half of the total area of the island. The northern shore faces the Pacific Ocean, the western and south-western the Ceram, Banda, and Arafura Seas. The eastern frontier is formed by the meridian of 141 E., excepting a portion of the
frontier with the British Territory of
Papua, which
is
made by
the course of the Fly River between the two points where it is intersected by that' meridian. Dutch New Guinea lies between the Equator and 10
S. lat.
NEW GUINEA
;
69
The territory is practically undeveloped its coasts are imperfectly charted, and in the interior, proportionately to its vast extent, little detailed exploration has been carried out. The broad mass of the main body of the island is extended westward in a comparatively narrow peninsula, demarcated on the north by Geelvink Bay. This peninsula is double, for about its middle it is deeply penetrated on the west by McCluer Gulf, the innermost part of which is known also as the Gulf of Bentuni'. Between the head of this inlet and the western shore of Geelvink Bay the land is less than 10 miles wide, but to the north of this isthmus and McCluer Gulf is the broad subpeninsula sometimes known as Arfak. Both parts of the peninsula are mountainous. There are traces in the Arfak Mountains of volcanic craters, and earthquakes are frequent and at times severe. The main range has a general elevation of 3,000 to 5,000 ft., but the highest point is 9,157 ft. In the southern section of the peninsula heights up to 6,000 ft. are kru)wn, but across its base, from the head of Gteelvink Bay,
there appears to be a
or
marked depression along the Omba
of the peninsula, south-eastward of Geelvink Bay, a main chain of mountains trends north-west and southeast along the length of the island. In the Dutch territory it is known as the Charles Louis Mountains (5,000-9,000 ft.) to about 136 E. long., and then as the Nassau Mountains up to the course of the River Mimika and east of that as the Orange Until recently these ranges were known as the Snow range. Mountains. But the range makes practically one unbroken wall from Geelvink Bay through Dutch territory and beyond, the passes being of great height, from 6,000 to 9,000 ft. This chain stands towards the lowland to the south, and the block of Austraha beyond, in a relation somewhat similar to that of the Himalayas towards India, if the shallow Arafura Sea and Torres Strait be regarded as parallels to the lower parts of the Indo-Gangetic plain, and Australia to the tableland of the Deccan. The greatest heights in this mountain range are CarstenszPeak in the Nassau Mountains (15,964ft.), Wilhelmina Peak in the Orange Mountains (15,580 ft.) and Mt. Idenberg,
Uba valley. From the base
near Carstensz Peak (15,379 ft.). All these and several others rise above the level of perpetual snow, which seems, in these parts, to be about 14,500 ft., though after clear nights snow is
70
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
found everywhere down to 13,800 ft. Carstensz Peak at the east end of the Nassau range has large glaciers, and west of it, divided by a small rift from the triple-peaked Mt. Idenberg, is an extensive snowfield. Next, to the west, is Mt. Leonard Darwin, whose southern face has one of the most tremendous
precipices known, with a fall of 10,000 ft. almost perpendicular and, despite the heavy rainfall, showing little sign of weathering. West of this mountain the height of the precipice diminishes till at 136 15' it is 4,000 ft. at every few miles along the Many waterfalls descend precipice there are great fissures.
;
No one along the eighty -mile limestone face of this precipice. had ever approached the foothills of this range till 1909. Southward, between the main mountains and the sea, there are many ranges of knife-edged ridges and forest-clad mountains of rugged Alpine character, with steep interlocking spurs, broken into sections by the rivers that flow from the north. The foothills end abruptly and are succeeded by savannas.
Then comes about 50 miles of forest-covered swamp. The ground is so low in aU this belt that there is no point in it except one by the Kapare River, as much as 100 ft. high. North of the great mountain chain the country has been even less explored than south of it, but there are parallel ranges of hills between it and the Pacific Ocean, such as the Van Rees Mountains (about 3,300 ft.) extending for about 75 miles, through which the Momberamo River cuts its way the Gaiitier Mountains (7,875 ft.) near the sea to the south-west of Walckenaer Bay and Mt. Cyclops (6,580 ft.), which may be volcanic, close to Hiunboldt Bay not far from the frontier.
; ;
The lowland is
alluvial
great alluvial tracts spread not only
in the south of the island, but along the course of the
Mom-
beramo and both north and south of the Van Rees Mountains. The soil is of extraordinary fertihty, one result of which is that, without constant clearing, tracts that have been cut at once revert to forest growth. Much of the lowland is swamp, covered with mangroves, full of slime and stagnant water, and very unhealthy. The natural features make it a very difficult
country for intercommunication the barrier of the central range parts the north and south, while communication between east and west is hindered by tlic rapid rivers and the deep ravines through wliich they flow. The dense jungle, the savagery
;
NEW GUINEA
of
71
all
many
The
of the natives,
and the intense humidity

x
add to the
difficulties of travelling.
chief lakes discovered in the island are near the north
among them is Lake Rombebai, east of the Momberamo River, near the head of the deltaic region. It is 10 miles long and 5 miles wide, and is surrounded by swamp. Lake Senlani near Humboldt Bay, 10 miles long and 4 wide, has many villages about it. Another lake of some size is close to
coast
;
Triton Bay.
Rivers
Dutch New Guinea

their sources and, in
is full
of large rivers,
but in most cases
many
cases, a great deal of their courses
unknown. It has to be conjectured from the colour of the water whether a river is fed by the glaciers of the Central range or rises in the foothills or from the jungle. The great expeditions that have started during the last few years from the south
are
coast have followed
up many
of the rivers,
and
large additions
to geographical knowledge have been
made by Lorentz, RawUng,
WoUaston, and other explorers.
On the north coast the rivers as a rule are of no great length, but one, the Momberamo (Ambernoh or Rochussen), is of importance. Its basin has been estimated at about 23,300 square miles, and it drains the whole of the north side of New Guinea from Mt. Leonard Darwin in the west to Juliana Peak in the east, a distance of 250 miles in a direct Une. It has .many considerable confluents, of which the Rouffaer,
flowing from the west-south-west, may claim to be the main stream, while the Idenberg, from the other side, is a big river and brings the waters of important tributaries. When the Momberamo passes through the Van Rees Mountains, there after that it flows through are many rapids in its com-se
;
marshes and a delta into the sea at Cape d'Urville. There is only one main mouth, but it is thought that a considerable amount of the water reaches the sea through the marshes
along the coast.
The
river is navigable for nearly 70 miles
from its mouth. Along the western coast are several rivers that can be navigated for a short way from their mouths. In Arfak the chief are the Beraur, formed by the confluence of the Merarin and Giliwolo, and the Kabrara, the one river which is thought to
72
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Several rivers including the
cut through the Arfak range.

Seljar
and Ketero flow into the McCluer Gulf the former has been navigated for 34 and the latter for 23 miles by vessels of
draught. Farther south is the Mimika, which was wrongly supposed to afford the best means of approach to the central range of mountains, and from this point onwards is a rapid succession of lengthy rivers with many tributaries, which flow some from the Snow Mountains and some from their foothills many of these are linked together byinterconnecting passages (antassans) so that a vessel with a draught of 6 ft. and a length of about 80 ft. went by river practically the whole way from the Eilanden to the Utakwa. None of these rivers is fordable till the mountains are reached, and all are replenished by constant rain. Their upper courses are full of rapids and waterfalls when they reacJi the plain their beds change from wtone to mud. Their course constantly changes owing to dams of timber falling across them. The mouths of some are difficult to find in mangrove swamp. Of these rivers the most important are the Utakwa, with its tributary the Setakwa, the West and East Kasteel, the Blumen, the Pater le Coq d'Armandville, the North-West, the Lorentz (or North), the Utumbuwe, and the Eilanden. The Utakwa has been ascended by a sea-going ship for 17 miles, beyond that for two days by a launch, and for another day by a canoe. The Kasteel, which bifurcates above its mouth, has been ascended for some way, the upper part of the West Kasteel, called the Tyenara, contains many islands. The North-West River could be navigated Avith rising water for 8 hours by a vessel of 12 ft. draught it is connected mth another river, the Helling, by a big, navigable channel. The Lorentz (or North) is a river of great length, and has been ascended by a similar vessel to about 5 S. lat., by a smaller steamboat to 4 47' S. lat., and by a canoe to 4 40' S. The Utumbuwe has been ascended by a vessel of 12 ft. draught for 55 miles, and by a steamboat 28 miles further. The EUanden is a river of very variable width it takes its name from the many islands
8
ft.
; ; : ;
in its course.
The rivers farther south are less important, but the Odammon has many big tributaries, one of which, the Mapij, has been ascended for a considerable ay. Be3'ond it the Digul is the
NEW
GXJINEA
73
most considerable river on the south coast of Dutch New Guinea. Its basin is about 7,700 square miles it is about 6 miles wide at its mouth, and it has been ascended for nearly 400 miles by
;
a steamer
of 6
ft._
draught.
it
Its lower course is
through
flat,
swampy
land,
above that
flows through low
hills.
Its princi-
pal tributary is the Uwimmerah, a river with innumerable windings, flowing for the most part between steep hills.
The remaining rivers along this coast include the Bijau, Merauke, and Beusbach, the last being at its mouth the boundary of British territory. For a small part of its course the
Guinea, forms the boundary of The volume of water in this river is iinmense, and it can be navigated by vessels of some size for 500 miles, and above that for another 100 miles by small craft.
Fly, the longest river in
New
Dutch and
British territory.
Many of the rivers cause considerable inundations among those which flood the surrounding country may be mentioned especially the Mimika and Momberamo.
;
Coast
Dutch New Guinea are niuch indented, especially in the western part. There are a large number of natural harbours, and where there is a deficiency of them the presence of islands off the coast affords good anchorage. Unfortunately, several of the places that have the best natural facilities have proved very unhealthy and not suited for the residence of
The
coasts of
Europeans
as
so that little can be done to develop such places

varies considerably in different parts.
Manokwari and Dorei. The nature of the coast
from Cape Sorong, it is generally high as far as the Cape of Good Hope, though with low places near the shore. After that the Arfak Mountains come near the sea, but to the east of Little Geelvink Bay there is a strip of lowland by the coast. The great indentation made by Geelvink Bay is about 230 miles wide and 170 deep, and has a natural barrier formed by the Schouten Islands across the greater part
Along the north
coast, starting
of its entrance.
tainous
the east
The west shore is is low, flat, and

Cape
high, steep,
alluvial,
characteristics extend to
d'Urville,
and mounand these last the promontory at
the head of the delta of the Momberamo. East of this projection as far as Sarmi Point the coast continues low, with mountains visible inland, but after that, as far as Humboldt Bay, it
74
is
PHYSICAL GEOQRAPHY
as a rule high, rocky,
creeks,
and rugged, and much broken into bays though some parts are low and swampy, with thick Tanah Mera Bay in this sector of the forests of mangroves. coast has a rocky shore with mountains rising steeply from the sea the beaches are sandy and there are no swamps. The southern shore of Humboldt Bay, which hes between Mt. Cyclops and the Bougainville range, is low and planted with coco-nut and
;
palms.
Along the west and south-west shore of the island the shores The southern shore of McCluer Gulf, however, is- high, and that is the characteristic of most of the
are as a whole lower.
.shore of
the peninsula to the south as far as Nautilus Strait,
which separates Adi Island from the coast. The rugged coast between Capes Kokrauf and Sapei is fringed with a coral reef,
except in front of the mouths of rivers. From Nautilus Strait to Kamrau Bay the coast is flat and covered with vegetation, but from there to the eastern side of Etna Bay it is moun-
near Lakahia Bay, the and then begins the great alluvial tract of the lower course of the rivers that rise in the Central range the shore is low, densely wooded, and monotonous the only gaps are the mouths of the rivers, none of which has any distinctive character. Among the harbours on the north coast is Little Geelvink Bay, about 28 miles west of Cape Mamori it affords shelter from easterly winds, with a depth of 20 fathoms. Farther east is Dorei harbour, the westernmost bight within Cape Mamori, about a mile long and half a mile broad, and with a depth of 20 fathoms. Manokwari, the chief settlement of the Assistant Residency, is here, but the site is unhealthy dming the rainy season. Farther up Geelvink Bay is Wandammon Bay, to the west of the peninsula of its name, about 28 miles in a northand-south direction with apparently deep water close in shore, but with alluvial flats round the south end of the bay. East of Geelvink Bay are Walckenaer Bay, Tanah Mera Bay, and Humboldt Bay. The first is too open to make a good harbour, but the abundance of coco-nut trees in the neighbourhood has created a trade in copra which might be developed the second has a length of about a mile, a breadth of half a mile, and a depth of 35 to 40 fathoms in the centre of the bay, but reefs and rocks make it somcM hat dangerous the thii'd, ^\hich is
tainous.
After Mt.
Burn
(4,564
ft.),
Charles Louis Mountains turn inland,
NEW GUINEA
in
75
5 miles wide and about 3 miles deep, furnishes good protection
two deep
inlets.
the west and south-west coast the harbours are more Jiumerous and penetrate farther into the land. McCluer inlet or gulf extends to within 10 miles of the north coast it is over a hundred miles long, and more than 20 wide at its mouth,
;
On
narrows to 10 miles at the entrance to the farther called Bentuni Gulf, about 40 miles east of the open sea. The northern shores are largely constituted of islands which form the deltas of the rivers that flow into it. The settlement of Fakf ak is not on a harbour, but an anchorage is afforded by the screen created for it by Panying Island, and the sea is deep up to the coast. From here to Cape Sapei the coast forms a wide bight, in which are lesser bays fronted by islands. Kamrau Bay Ues on the east side of the Onin peninsula from the head of it Arguni Bay is entered, and extends about 35 miles inland with numerous islets. Triton Bay (or Uru Languru Bay) lies farther east, and extends inland 10 miles like Dorei harbour it has proved unhealthy. Etna Bay is the interior part of Lakahia Bay, which trends 12 miles to the north-east, to which Etna Bay adds a further 19 miles to the east. On its north side are mountains, alternating with mangrove swamps the south side has mountains, but they are in detached groups. Kaimana, on the bay of that name, is the commercial centre it is on a safe harbour, being protected by of the region a strip of land and a small island in front ships can anchor
it
though
part of
it,
close to the shore.
Geology
The geology has been very little investigated. The core of the central mountain chain is Archaean, revealed and cut up by the basal exposures consist of granite, gneiss, denudation During the diorite, dolerite, and associated igneous rocks. folding movement which raised the chain there were frequent
;
of igneous rocks, with volcanic both past and present, there is evidence in several parts of the island, but mostly outside Dutch territory, where the rocks appear to be in the main Archaean and sedimentary. The age of the metamorphic rocks is mostly such rocks undetermined, but many are certainly Tertiar}^ are common in the mountainous districts, and have in some
dislocations
activity.
and extrusion
last,
Of this
76
parts
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
been proved metalliferous,
ia the
stratified
rocks
Jurassic fossils have been identified in deposits similar to those
known in the Moluccas and Ceram, but, again, Tertiary deposits appear to be more frequent and widely distributed. There are lead-coloured brecciated limestones with interbedded dolerites in association with Kainozoic rocks. The precipice already mentioned, which marks a vast fault in the region of Ml. Leonard Darwin, consists of a very dark and hard limestone. Upper Kainozoic rocks are represented by upraised coral reefs
and
similar deposits
known
elsewhere as Icarang,
all
round the
coasts
and occurring inland
to an altitude of 2,000
ft.
Islands adjacent to
New Guinea
The shores of New Guinea are fringed by many islands, great and small. At the north-west extremity there are a large number, of which the most important are Waigiu, Batanta, Salwatti, and Misol. These are sometimes called the Papua
Islands.
Waigiu, separated from New Guinea by Dampier Strait, is about 30 miles wide, is nearly 80 miles long with a' greatest width of 28 miles. It is much cut up by deep inlets which penetrate from the south coast almost to the north. It is rugged and hilly, but has no high mountains, the highest peaks being 3,642 and 3,081 ft. In the north are hard crystalline rocks the south is mostly of coralline limestone. The island is covered with dense forest. On the north coast Offak harbour is good. To the south-west the island of Gemien is separated from Waigiu by the river-like Kabu Strait. The island produces a red variety of bird of paradise which is unique. Off the south coast are the Great and Small Saonak
which
Islands, which yield
many
coco-nuts.
Batanta, to the south of Dampier Strait and divided from Salwatti by Pitt Strait, is 40 miles long with a width of 4 to 8 miles. It is densely wooded and mountainous, its greatest height being 3,676 ft. It is almost uninhabited there are two villages on the north coast, and a few settlements of Salwatti people on the south. Salwatti, south of Batanta, is sepalrated from New Guinea by the narrow Gale wo Straits. It is a round island, about 30 miles acioss the coasts are regular and have no very deep
:
NEW GUINEA
indentations.
77
The north coast is backed by Kmestone hills about 1,000 ft. high. The east of the island is low and swampy, with extensive forests of sago and, on the beach, coco-nut palms. There are some brooks, but no rivers of note. Msol is divided from New Guinea by a shallow sea, though very deep waters part it from Ceram, from which it is 50 miles
The island is 50 miles long and 23 broad. It tapers towards the west and widens to the north-east and south-east. The north portion of the island and adjacent islets are flat, the southern portion and adjacent islets hilly, but no point rises over 1,800 ft. The coast is generally rocky. East of Liliuta, on the south-east coast, the ground is swampy and covered with mangroves. The south-east promontory is alinost detached from the island by an isthmus about a quarter of a mile wide. There are three rivers on the north coast which may be entered by boats at high water and are navigable for 3 or 4 miles. The island is visited for cutting gofasa, a wood used for boatbuilding. The inhabitants of Liliuta collect trepang and shells. Between Waigiu and Halmaheira is Saiang, 3^ miles long, and from 1| to 3 miles broad a low flat island frequented by turtle. North of Waigiu are the Aiu (or Yowl) Islands, an archipelago of about 20 small islands in an area of 30 miles by
north.
15. Baba (2 J miles long) and some of the others are inhabited, the natives trading with Waigiu. The islands are wooded with coco-nut trees. Beyond the Equator to the north-east are the M^pia (St. David or Freewill) Islands which were awarded to
Holland as against Spain they are coral islands covered with coco-nut palms. Pegun, the chief island, is the residence of a king. The entrance to Great Geelvink Bay is blocked by several islands. The northernmost are the Schouten Islands or These include Suk (or Supiori) to the west, Misore group. Biak (or Wiak) to the east. The former is 17 miles long and the coasts are for the most part reaches a height of 1,600 ft. uninhabited. The latter is about 45 miles long and 23 wide. otherMt. Sobunem, at the north end, is about 800 ft. high wise, the island is only about 50 ft. above the sea. There are three rivers. In the south-east part are swamps, where sago
; ; ;
palms
thrive.
Farther within the bay the most important island is Jobi (or Jappen), which is 1 10 miles long and from 10 to 15 miles wide.
78
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
coast
is
A ridge of mountains about

The south
2,500 ft. high runs along the centre. indented by deep creeks and fronted by
;
it affords numerous a nuniber of wooded islets and reefs anchorages, and on it is the chief settlement, Ausus, which trades with Dorei. The north coast is high, steep, and thickly wooded, and affords only temporary anchorage. Karas Kuni (or Off the west coast islands are numerous. Gudin) lies south of Cape Patimuni. It is 8 miles long, and there is a hiU at each end of it. reaches a height of 1,200 ft. There are two villages on the island, and six more on two neighbouring islets. Divided from New Guinea by the Nautilus
;
Strait is Adi,
an island
of coral formation, 32 miles long
and
very low. The north side contains several villages, and is more populous than the south. Vogel Island is a small, low island to the south of it, on which turtle are found. Near the east end of the Dutch possessions in New Guinea is Prince Frederick Henry Island, divided from the shore by the narrow and tortuous Princess Marianne Strait. It has an area of about 2,820 square miles its extreme length is over 100 miles and its extreme breadth over 50. It is low, perfectly flat, marshy, and covered with dense forest. It is of little or no value.
;
Lessee Sunda Islands The Lesser Sunda Islands form, as stated in Chapter I, a chain between the South-Westem Islands and Java. This chain, in the eastern part, has also a loop to the south through
Timor, Rotti, Savu, and Sumba Islands. The principal islands will be dealt with from east to west. Timor. This island, which extends south-westward from Letti in the South-Western group, is the largest of the Lesser Sundas, but, as already seen, only the western part belongs to Netherlands India. The island differs considerably in its physical characteristics from the rest of the Lesser Sundas. It is traversed by a series of parallel mountain-chains, whose outliers, especially on the north coast, descend in many places to the sea, while in other parts, chiefly in the south, there are low plains, sometimes of considerable extent. Towards the centre of the island, so far as it is known, the mountain system Belu (Dutch Central Timor) consists of mingled is confused
hill
and plain country. The mountains are steep and
of irregu-
LESSER SUNDA ISLANDS

lar outline,
79
No
of
and the upper parts are frequently bare and rugged. volcanoes are known, but there are numerous mud geysers.
;
The rivers have generally short courses and steep slopes none them are navigable except in a few instances for native boats at the mouths. Only a few, chiefly in the south, have running water all the year in most cases the broad stony beds have
;
at best only isolated pools in the dry season, though in the wet
season they carry rapid torrents. There is often forest along the banks. The north and west coasts are deeply indented and generally steep-to the south is flat in the eastern part and
;
backed by lagoons and mangrove swamps, but steep -and rocky in the western, with no noteworthy indentations except that of Normini Bay. The principal inlet is Kupang Bay on the west
There are Apart from ports of call for Dutch steamers, Kupang and Atapupu, there are a good many places on the west and north coasts where anchorage may be found at certain seasons. Kupang itself is dangerous for shipping in the north-west monsoon. The seas on the south of Timor are frequently very violent during the south-east monsoon, and on the north-west occasionally during the monsoon from that quarter. Off the south-western extremity of Timor are Rotti, dsc. Semau and the larger island of Rotti, which is hilly in the centre but has extensive plains in some parts towards the coast, and many inlets, of which Buka Bay or Cyrus Harbour in the southThere are numerous streams east is the largest and safest. which are useful to agriculture. To the west is the unimportant island of Savu, which sometimes gives its name to the sea
coral reefs in
coast, 12-15 miles long, containing small islands.
many
places along the coasts.
enclosed
by the chain and loop
of the eastern Lesser Sundas,
Timor Sea. Alor and Islands westward to Flores. Alor (or Ombai) is divided from Timor to the south-east by Ombai Passage,
also called
17 miles broad. It consists largely of old volcanic mountains, with coralline hmestones the volcanic form is only observable in the highest parts, near the east coast. Deep and often steep ravines make the highlands difficult to traverse. Tanggapuri, the only plateau on the island, lies west of the peak. The ccast only here and there are is mostly rocky and little indented small coastal plains. There is one deep inlet, Kebola Bay, on the west coast, 10 miles long and under a mile wide, which
: ;
80
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
divides off the north-west part of the island from the rest, to
which it is joined by an alluvial isthmus only about 30 ft. high, and 2J miles wide. To the west are the islands of Pantar, lofty and rugged, and Lomblen, which is flat in the centre but has mounts ins in the north and south, of which Mt. Lobetola is a constantly smoking volcano, over 5,400 ft. in elevation. Adunara, west of Lomblen, has an isolated volcanic cone, north of it lies the Hi Boleng (5,446 ft.), in the south-east plateau of Hinga (about 650 ft.) surrounded by hills, of which those on the west reach extreme heights of about 3,000 ft. 8olor Island, south of Adunara, though smaller than Adunara and Lomblen, gives its name to the group which includes them. Flores is the largest member of the Lesser Sundas excepting Timor, having an area of about 8,870 square miles. The east coast, facing Plores Strait, has two deep inlets, Okka and Konga bays, the first cutting through high mountains, while the second
:
has a marginal plain intersected by small rivers. The north coast rises steeply, and has a succession of mountain-ridges and few plains, the most extensive being that round Maumere Bay, and that of Lapeh. After Maumere Bay the principal inlets on this coast are Todo Bay, with Chindeh Island, and the deepljcut Hading or Celebes Bay. In Maumere Bay the chief island is Great Bastard or Pulu Besar. Paloweh or Rusa Raja, a single peak 2,860 ft. high, also rises off the north coast. The west coast, which rises steeply or is of terrace formation, has Bajo Bay to the north and Parapat Bay with Sendal Island to the south-west, and is fronted along its southern half by Rinja Island across Molo Strait. The south coast is steep and little indented from the south-eastern point to the peninsula east of Endeh Gulf, and a succession of peaks lie close to the coast. The west part of the south coast about Aimere Bay is flatter, the slopes easier, and the cliffs form a broken wall some 60 ft. high, with white sand at the foot, but they are steeper where the Munti Mountains and Pocho Ndeli approach the sea. The most important bay on the south coast is Endeh Gulf. It resembles Maumere and Hading bays in form. Boats visiting Barai and Endeh in the east of the bay are protected from the west wind by Endeh Island in the centre.
The heavily wooded interior is by no means fully known, but the existence of slates, chalk, and sandstones, eruptive rocks, volcanoes, and the general trend of the mountains east and west.
81
indicate a structure similar to that of the other islands of the chain. In the east of the island (east of a line from Sikka to
Maumere) the massifs are more or

points are Mt.
Egon
(5,587
ft.),
less isolated the highest Mt. Lobetobi (5,590 ft.), and

:
Mt. Ilimandiri (4,928 ft.). Between Maumere and Endeh are such heights as Mt. Aomasi (5,289 ft.) and Mt. Bara (5,679 ft.), but on the isthmus north of Endeh Gulf the mountains are much lower. Manggarai, Ngado, and neighbouring western districts are mostly highland the mountains, which form a connected complex, reach 7,050 ft. in Mt. Amburombo, 7,366 ft. in Mt. Inerie (or Rokka), and 7,815 ft. in Mt. Pocho Lika. The island is narrow, and the streams, flowing generally northward and southward, are consequently torrential from source to mouth. In northern Manggarai, where there is an extensive area of Umestdne, they sometimes run underground. Only the Reo River is navigable for boats for about a mile. Sumha, also called Sandalwood, the western island of the loop to the south of Flores, is separated from it by Sumba Except in the south, where the cliffs rise steep and Strait. high from the sea, the coasts are mostly flat. Here and there the surface is hiUy and rocky, and it is mountainous farther inland, but never reaches any great height. The chief named mountains are the Ana-Kala Mountains in the west, the Mandas Mountains in the centre, and the Massu Mountains in the east, which reach a height of 2,200 to 3,000 ft. There are no volcanoes. The subsoil is mostly limestone and clay, usually covered with a layer of fertile black soil. The numerous capes form bays, which afford good anchorage, particularly in the north, the most important being Waingapu (or Nangamesi) Bay. Along the coast are sandbanks, and stretches of grass
:
which is burnt each year. The rivers, which are usually fordable and unnavigable, are of importance for agriculture, especially in west Sumba. One of the most important is the Memboro, on the north coast, rising in the Ana-Kala Mountains, and
reaching the sea at the village of Memboro access to its mouth is rendered difficult by a sand-bank. There is also the Kambera, formed of several small rivers which rise in the Mandas and it is Massu Mountains, and reaches* the sea at Kabaniru even for large vessels for a considerable distance navigable
;
inland.
Sumbawa.
West
of Rinja, the
narrow Linta
Strait separates
NETHEELANDS INPIA
82
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
to the west, from the
Komodo, which is separated by Sapeh Strait more important island of Sumbawa, itself divided from Lombok, again to the west, by Alas Strait.
the minor island of
Sumbawa
(or
is
Sumbawa) Bay which
thef largest inlet is Saleh very irregular in shape cuts deep into the north-west part
:
of the island in a south-easterly direction.
Moyo
Island at
its
mouth reduces the entrance
two narrow but deep straits, of which the most northerly, Batahai Strait, is most used the other is called Saleh Strait. The north shore of the bay is very steep and regular the south flat, much cut up and scattered with small islands. To the west between Tanjong Labubua (Perapat Point) and Tanjong Menangis is Sumbawa Bay, on which the capital, Sumbawa, is situated. For trade, Bima
to
; ;
Bay, running into the north of the island at about 118 40' E., the most important. It is divided into an outer and an iimer bay the latter, where deep, is only about 300 yds. wide, becoming gradually wider and shallower. The landing-place at Bima, on the east side of the bay, is shallow and bad, and the entrance to the bay is difficult owing to mud-banks, particularly in the east monsoon. This bay, which is smrounded by hills, is considered one of the safest in the archipelago. To the south, Chempi Bay is only separated from Sumbawa Bay by a narrow isthmus, so that the whole island is divided with an eastern and a western peninsula. Except off the south coast, Sumbawa is surrounded by a large number of small islands. Moyo Island is mountainous and covered with thick wood it is uninhabited. In the northern entrance to Sapeh Strait is Sangeang Island or Gimong Api, an active volcano 6,180 ft.
is
;
high.
Komodo
or
Rattan Island
is
composed
of volcanic
mountains, and is uninhabited. Sumbawa is very mountainous, and has no plains of any size, but only a few stretches of alluvial land on the coasts. The mountains are largely volcanic, but partly of limestone. In the most northerly part, between Sumbawa Bay and Sanggar Bay, is the twin-peaked Mt. Tamboro (9,042 ft.), the highest in the island, which had a disastrous eruption in 1815. The other volcanoes appear to be extinct or quiescent, though earthquakes are frequent. There are no important rivers the streams are mostly unnavigable, or only navigable for small boats at the mouth. In the rainy season the}' are in flood, and they dry entirely during the east monsoon.
:
83
To the north of Sumbawa, at distances from 30 to 100 miles, are the Paternoster or Tenga, and the Postilion or Sabalana
Islands, but they have no relation to the Lesser Sunda chain, being separated from it by deep sea. They consist of numerous small low banks, surrounded by reefs, and are not well known. Lombok lies west of Sumbawa, across Alas Strait. The coasts, which are surrounded by a number of small, uniahabited islands, are less difficult for shipping than those of Bali, and there are many good anchorages, particularly on the west and east, the best being Ampenan, in Lombok Strait, which is suitable for the largest vessels, though the heavy sm'f makes landing difficult and dangerous, especially in the west monsoon. The more southerly bay of Labuan-Tring is then safer, but the entrance to the harbour is here narrow and obstructed by a reef, and trade is little developed. Other good anchorages are Sugean on the north coast and Blongas on the south Piju Bay on the east coast is said to be completely protected from the weather and to afford safe harbour for the largest vessels, but the more northerly bays of Labuan Haji and Lombok have not this advantage, and the former is not completely safe even in the
;
east monsoon.
Lombok is
tain chains, separated
divided for nearly its whole length by two mounby a vaUey which sloioes gradually
upwards in terrace formation, and is broken in the centre by a ridge of hiUs (Gunong Sesan) 100 ft. high. The southern chain, which runs from the south-west point of the island to Tanjong Ringgit in the south-east, does not rise above 1,000 ft. The northern chain, which is a volcanic massif of about the
same height and breadth, begins with Gunong Wangsit, 11 J miles north of Ampenan, and forms a connected chain as far as Gunong Punikan, whence it rises to Renjani, or Lombok Peak (11,800 ft.), one of the highest volcanoes of the archipelago. The mountain is flanked by lower peaks, united by
a plateau (about 7,200 ft.) containing a lake, Danu or Segara Anak. There are many small rivers, which are not navigable, but never run dry and are useful for irrigation, particularly in the north. On the south coast the closeness of the mountains to the sea prevents a river system of any size. The mountains are covered to a considerable height with woods, but show little sign of cultivation, which is only carried on in the lower ground. Bali is separated from Lombok by Lombok Strait, and from F
2
84
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Java, to the west, by Bali Strait. Its coast is mostly steep and indented, and there are few good anchorages. Buleleng roadstead, on the north, is often so unsafe in the west monsoon that vessels cannot load or unload, and there is a heavy surf on the south coast in the south-east monsoon. Pantei Timor Bay, on the east side of the southern peninsula, the Tafelhuk, which
little
protected by an" island, has a safe anchorage in all winds at Benoa, but the entrance between the coral reefs is too narrow and tortuous for large ships. With the exception of a few small areas along the coast and a large plain in the south, the whole island is mountainous and cut up by deep ravines in the lower
is
parts.
from Lombok Strait to Bah (1) The eastern mountains include the highest in the island, Mt. Agung or Bali Peak (10,499 ft.), a volcanic mountain regular in form, with a steep bare summit. Mt. Batur, in this section, appears to be the
The
chief range, running
Strait, is divided iiito three parts
only active volcano in the island.

of Pengilingan are believed to
(2)
division are of recent volcanic formation.
The hills of the central The two crater-lakes
have been united in one large water before 1818, when the water burst its banks and devastated an area in central Buleleng which is stUl not entirely reclaimed. (3) The Jembrana Mountains fill the narrow western division they are uninhabited and barren, and have never been described. The southern peninsula, the Tafelhuk, is a small chalk plateau. The channels of the streams (which are unimportant) are often blocked, especially in the north and east, with lava, rocks, and sand, and the floods during the west monsoon often break through the high banks and cause destruction. From May to November the streams are mostly
body
of
dry.
CHAPTER
CLIMATE
General conditions
III
Mist and
fog
PressureWindsTemperatureHumidityRainfall OloudStmshineThunderstormsWind stormsTables.

Geneeal Conditions
Equatorial conditions are modified in the climate of Netherlands India by the proximity of the continents of Asia
and Australia. The south-east and north-east trade winds are combined with, or opposed to, the monsoonal winds from the adjacent continents. The rainy seasons found elsewhere in these latitudes are not found here. The archipelago occupies generally a region of comparatively low atmospheric pressure. Southern Asia is a centre of high pressure and northern Australia of low pressure during the southern summer. The conditions are reversed during the southern winter. Hence over nearly the whole region, north-west winds prevail from December to March, and south-east winds from April to October. The months of January and August are those when the respective monsoons are steadiest April and November, as a rule, are the months of changeable winds. The west is the wet or bad monsoon, bringing generally the greater part of the rainfall during the east monsoon rain is still plentiful, except in the
; '
'
south-east of the archipelago, but the diminution at this time

is sufficient
seasons.
localities,
to justify a distinction between dry and wet In the Moluccas the east monsoon brings, in certain the heavier rain. The whole region is one of abun'
'
'
dantând, in parts, of excessive rainfall, those islands or parts of islands which face the north-west winds receiving the greater amount. The rainfall is not, in general, of the same type in
both monsoons during the west monsoon rain is more nearly continuous than during the east, when, however, it is somewhat more intense. Temperature maintains a high level, and while the diurnal range is fairly large the difference between any two months is extremely small. South Sumatra, Borneo, and the
:
86
CLIMATE
is
eastern islands have the highest temperature, and the yearly
range
greater in the east than in the west.

in the inland
and fogs are common
Humidity is great, and mountainous districts.

climate of different places
;
Many local influences bear upon the

the nature of the ground
or rugged affects radiation and insolation, and therefore the relief of the land deflects temperature and humidity normal wind-currents and influences the local rainfall; opposite sides of the same islands reflect the dry or moist character of the winds they face. Thus many of the observations, especially of rainfall, have only a local significance. Remarkable changes in climate as affecting health conditions are experienced, with
;
high or low, bare or wooded, smooth
and distance from the coast. The between regions of cyclonic disturbance, and Mdnd storms are for the most part absent. Electric storms, on
but a small
archipelago
rise in altitude
lies
the other hand, are very frequent, especially in the afternoons. These are on the whole beneficial, seldom doing material damage, but often cooling the air in a marked degree. Observations. Batavia is in the first rank of the meteorological stations whether for observations of rainfall or other factors. Rainfall stations alone are abundant in Java, and fairly well distributed in the other islands. Many have been in working order for over thirty years. The case is otherwise with stations making observations of other meteorological factors. Before 1911 only sporadic records of this kind had been made. For temperature, humidity, and wind, therefore, only very short-period results are available. This is not here so serious a defect, however, as it would be in a district which showed much variation in these factors. Temperature and humidity are both for any one place remarkably equable year by year, and the prevailing winds are also fairly free from
variation.
Peesstjke
In January pressure
the south-east
;
is
highest in the north-Avest, lowest in

is
in Julj' this position
reversed.
is
Gradients
are nowhere steep, tliough the general average
steeper in the
time of the southern

teristic
summer than
in the winter.
charac-
of these latitudes is the small
range of barometric
pressure and the regularity of the diurnal variations. At Batavia pressure is highest in ycptcmber, lowest in April, but
CLIMATE
87
the difference between the means for these two months is only 0-042 in. The greatest mean daily range is 0-lH in. During thirty-five years the difference between the absolute highest and lowest readings of the barometer at Batavia is 047 in.
Winds
General Distribution. The general regmie of the winds over the area which includes Netherlands India may he roughly illustrated as follows
;
Mid-March to Mid-September. South-west monsoon

Equator
Mid-September
to
Mid-March.
North-east trade wind

,
Equator
South-east trade wind
North-west monsoon
The three
mnd
stations,
numbered
35, 42,
and 56
in Table II,
are situated at fairly convenient spots to serve as an index to the winds of the southern part of the archipelago. One station.
Discovery Oostbank, stands in the west, the other two in the The table on p. 88 affords a more general view over the whole area. All these winds are subject to local variations. All the coasts are under the influence of land and sea winds, the former extending to 15 miles from the shore in Java. The monsoons at their height may cause these local winds to become unnoticeable according to direction of the line of coast, they may receive additional strength by merging, especially, with sea winds when the monsoons are weaker a deflected direction of the two winds in combination may result. For example, Batavia has chiefly north and north-east winds during the Inland, mountain peaks and chains south-east monsoon. disturbing effect upon the direction and force. have another Most of the straits between the high islands exhibit some local modifications, the prevailing winds being influenced by the In Sunda Strait, the north-west direction of the channels. from south-west to west-north-west. On the monsoon blows south coast of Java at the same season, south-westerly currents only in January and February are west and westprevail north-west winds felt. Southward of the Eastern islands, southwest to north-west winds blow during the same monsoon, but
east.
; ;
these are generally feeble
and uncertain.
On
either side of
88.
CLIMATE
CLIMATE
89
Borneo and Celebes, north-east, nortli, and north-west winds merge into the western monsoon of the Java Sea. In the Molucca passage the northerly monsoon veers to north-east in December. It is at its greatest strength in February and March, but is still northerly in April. In June the south-westerly monsoon takes the form of a south wind with or without a slight westerly element. In the Molucca Sea, where the monsoons, especially the eastern, blow steadily, winds blow from north-north-west and south-south-east. In the^Banda Sea the sovith-east A\-inds are strong by May, decreasing during September, and appearing again along with the remnants of the west, in March. Winds of Sumatra. In the north of Sumatra the wind directions are outside the scheme of winds which holds for the greater part of the Dutch Indies. North-east wuids in January alternate with the south-west monsoon in July. In the Malacca Strait land and sea breezes are regular on both coasts, and in the offing the monsoons are only regular when in the adjacent seas they are at their height. The south-west monsoon seldom blows far up into the strait. In the middle of the strait at this season (May to October) variable winds prevail, chiefly southeast and south-west, with long calms. On the Sumatra side light winds and calms prevail, and heavy squalls from the land squalls from are experienced during the night. Sumatras the south-west are more common during the south-west monsoon than in the north-east monsoon. They generally blow during the first part of the night, are sometimes sudden and severe, and are accompanied by thunder, lightning, and rain. North-west squalls are also more common during the south-west monsoon and occur in the north-western part of the strait. The north-east monsoon season (November to April) is here the fair season, there are seldom at this time any hard squalls and there In November is much less rain than in the other season. variable winds, frequently north-west and west, occur, but occasionally the north-east wind sets in in this month. North-
'
'
west and west winds are not unknown during the period of the north-east monsoon. Late in March the north-east and northerly winds become variable and light, with strong land breezes at
night.
On the east coast of Sumatra may be felt in favourable spots
regular land and sea breezes

as
much
as 30 miles inland.
90
TJic
CLIMATE
wind
all
iw
gejieially north-east
night
'
the year round.

'
by day and south-west by But at any time north-west and south-
west winds are observed at uncertain periods, with fine weather. Sumatras are more frequent on the east than on the north coast. On the west coast of Sumatra the influence of the southwest and north-east monsoons is felt as far south as about lat. 2 N. But from the north-west point of Sumatra to 4 N. lat. the winds are quite different from those between
,
lat. 4
In the more northerly of these divisions; the south-west monsoon prevails from May to October and the At night, north-east monsoon from December to March. during the height of the former, the sea breeze at times prevails, and generally the land winds are clearly perceptible by the deflection of the wind to south-east or north during the
N. and
N.
night.
N. and 2 N. is the region of calms and light The influence of the monsoons is felt in a westerly tendency of the day winds from March to November, and in an easterly tendency during the other monsoon. February has south-east, east, and west winds by day, south-west, east-south-east, or south-east by night. In March west winds by day and north-east to east by night are observed. April is marked by south-west and north-west winds day and night. From May the north-west winds become more prominent,
Between
lat. 4
variable winds.
reaching their
maximum
in October.
From May
to
November
In August
to
at night the winds are north-west to north-east.
north-east winds are more frequent.
From November
January the day winds are variable, north-east to east generally at night. The winds at Seribu Dolok in Central North Sumatra are illustrated in Table II, p. 104. Here the directions at different hours show an irregular distribution. Seribu Dolok is 50 miles from the north-west coast of Sumatra, so that land and sea winds are not to be looked for. The least frequfent winds are south-east, south, and north. At Padang north-Avest and west winds prevail from February to March Avith fair weather in May, June, and July north-west to south-west winds are experienced, Avitli thunder and rain squalls. The south-east monsoon, Avhen at its height in the Indian Ocean, is noticeable in Padang, but only as a light breeze prevailing for a couple of hours. From August to December the north-A\est and west m inds are mgII established
;
CLIMATE
91
with hard squalls and much rain. January in mostly calm, with a land wind at night. Winds- at Batavia. For Batavia observations extending over a period of ten years are averaged in the following table in order to illustrate the constancy of the land winds and the
influence of the
monsoons
The hour of observation is

blowing.
7 30 a .m
.
when
the land winds are
still
92
the prevailing direction
CLIMATE
is
with south-west p.m. the winds are north-west, with nortJi-east from October to December, and at 5 p.m. the north-west wind appears in December to Febniary, but southwest the rest of the year. In January to March the early
.south-east, varied
1
in January
and December. At
morning south-east wind is occasionally strong, though no wind here is very strong. Even when in January and February a strong west or west-north-west wind is blowing at the surface in the plains, the clouds on high mountains are seen to be passing to the west or west-north-west. The upper regions from 6,000
ft. or higher enjoy a uniformly serene climate throughout the year. Winds at Higher Altitudes. Wind conditions in the higher altitudes have been to some extent investigated in Java. The north-west monsoon extends to about 6,000 ft., so that above this altitude a south-east wind blows throughout the year. The extent to which the south-east wind is driven out by the northwest monsoon depends on altitude, and accordingly the highest elevations receive less rain than those up to about 3,000 ft. During the south-east monsoon the upper current is checked
to 7,000
in force at night.
At Jember
alt.
in East
Java
(lat.
8 9' S.,
long.
113 44' E.,
20 miles from the south coast, the prevaihng -winds at 7 a.m. are north and north-east from Novembei' to April
277
ft.),
with south the rest of the year at 1 p.m. south and south-west the year, and at 6 p.m. the same as at 1 p.m. îth frequent north and north-east from December to March. Yet at Krampon on the south coast of Madura (lat. 7 10' S., long. 113 10' E.) north-westerly winds prevail from January to March at all hours of observation. For the rest of the year south is the most frequent direction at 6 a.m., south-east and south at 2 and 6 p.m.
;
all
Temperattjeb
The most marked characteristic of the temperature is the very small montlily range and the comparatively low daily range. The fact that the sun's rays are never far from vertical ensures a high average of temperature (78-80F.) the great length of coast and high proportion of cloud do much to temper the heat and maintain an equable climate. For its equatorial position the archipelago therefore is not so hot as might be
;
CLIMATE
93
supposed, for in every part either a refreshing sea breeze or else considerable altitude is to be found. A fairly efficient cooling
agency
is in addition the frequent thunderstorms which may cause the thermometer to fall from 5 to 7 F. in twice as many minutes.
Some mean temperatures
are given in Table III, p. 106.
In
two yearly maxima, about May and October, are discernible, and one minimum, about January. In Sumatra, April and May are usually the warmest months, the end of the year being the cooler time. At Banjermasin maxima appear in May and October. The first maximum at
cases
least is delayed after the sun's zenithal position,
terrestrial radiation
many
owing to
and the cooling of the earth by the rains. It may be noted that Sumatra and Borneo have a somewhat higher temperature than Java. At Batavia and elsewhere in West Java the double maximum is better marked, the minimum falling in January and February. In the higher
altitudes the second
maximum
appears earlier in September,
though at Tosari the whole of the western monsoon season is warmer than the eastern monsoon, no doubt due to the greater amount of cloud in the former season. At Assembagus in the extreme east of Java, and on the north coast, maxima appear At Menado in Celebes May and in April and November. October show increases in temperature, while in Ceram and Timor the monsoons, rather than the sun's position directly, seem to have the greater effect. The daily range is of course greater in the mountains than at the coast, and in the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands is greater compared with similar altitudes in the west. At Batavia the mean daily range is 11-8 F., but it may reach to 38 in the mountains. The absolute maximum at Batavia is 96-1. At Assembagus 99 has been recorded and in Timor 104 is said to be frequently reached. At Batavia the absolute minimum elsewhere the lowest figure that can be is 66 (in August) found is 36-7 at Pangerango. It is probable, however, that
;
reached
at the highest altitudes in bare regions the freezing point is one authority indeed mentioning a minimum of 27 F. ^though where trees abound it is said that this is never
During thirty-five years the absolute maximum at Batavia reached 90 or over, once each in March, June, and July, twice in February, three times in April, four times in
the ease.
94
CLIMATE
January, five times in May, seven times in December, ten times in August, twenty-one times in September and November, and twenty-four times in October. The absolute minimum during the same period fell to between 70 and 66, once in November, twice in January and February, three times in October, seven times in June, twice that number of times in September, eighteen times in July, and twenty-five times in August. The mean monthly maximum at Batavia is 91-6, the mean daily
maximum
mean
daily
84-6
the
mean monthly minimum
is
68'7, the
minimum
73-8,
and the greatest daily range
24-3.
Except in so
far as altitude affects the temperature (about 1 F,
for every 280
ft.) the figures for Batavia form a criterion of the temperature of South Sumatra, South Borneo, and Celebes. A few others appear in the following table
;
CLIMATE
Humidity
95
humidity is characteristic of the climate on the sea coasts and other low-lying parts. Most places record from 78 to 84 per cent. In the highlands a greater range is experienced, and in the highest mountains (11,000 ft.) as great a range as 87 per cent, has been recorded in 24 hours. Local
relative
High
humidity are considerable, much depending on the direction and character of the wind and the situation of the place of observation. An indication of the diurnal variations
differences in
is
available only from Batavia.

different
August
(30-8 per cent.), the least in
At
The greatest daily range is in February (18-6 per cent.). hours the variations. from the mean, though differ-
ing considerably in different months, maintain a similar relation to the hours of the day. Thus 6 a.m. is the hour of greatest
relative driest
humidity in February and August

practically)
months
average the driest
(the dampest and and for the year, noon is on the hour, though in February this falls at 2 p.m.
Rainfall
Seasonal Distribution.
rain
is
In
general the greatest
amount
of
registered during' the west
monsoon
season, for at this
time the periods of duration of the rains are longer than in the On the other hand, individual showers at the latter season are often more intense than in the former. The wettest months are accordingly December, January, and February, the driest July to September. In certain places each change of the monsoons, or one of them, is accompanied by increased rainfall. This is especially noticeable on the south coast of West Java, as at Chilachap (Station 15 in the tables
east monsoon.
In North Sumatra other conditions obtain, and here October is the wettest, while February and March are the driest months. Bulungan, north of the Equator in Borneo, shows no important variation from the general rule. In the north-eastern peninsula of Celebes these conditions are partly reflected, for a second maximum of rainfall appears between two seasons of greater drjêss, in March or April, and in July to October. In the Moluccas and northern New Guinea June and July are the
below).
wettest months, October and November the driest. Begional Distribution. On the average the greatest amount of rain falls in the south part of West Java, where the average
.
96
is
'LIMATE
West Sumatra follows as the next wettest Borneo generally has a rainfall very similar in amount to the last. Least rain falls in the Lesser Sunda Islands, which receive on an average only 58 in. annually. In Java a region of heaviest rainfall lies on or very near to a straight line drawn from Mount Cherimaj in Cheribon to Banyuwangi on the east coast of the island. This line passes through or near the highest mountain peaks. In addition, the whole of the south-western parts of Bantam and Batavia with an irregular tract stretching through nearly the whole length of the southern part of Preanger, have an annual rainfall of 120 to 150 in. The driest part of Java is the north coast, and especially the north coasts of the western districts of Pasuruan and Besuki. Exceptional, however, is the extreme north of Semarang, where Mount Muria catches the north-western monsoon. The following table illustrates both the regional and seasonal
126
in.
annually.
in.).
region (122
distribution of rainfall with the

of rainfall are in inches
italics
number
of rain days. of rain
Amounts
and the number
for
and brackets. The division of seasons is North Sumatra, Borneo as a whole, or Celebes as a whole,
is
days are in very suitable not
but
maintained in these cases for the sake of uniformity.

W. monsoon
Dec-Mar.
CLIMATE
Table IV,
p. 107, gives for selected stations the
rainfall,
97
and annual
mean monthly and the mean annual number of rain days. Quantitative Distribution. The following table shows the percentage of observatory stations the annual rainfall at which comes within the limits in the left-hand column.
Moluccas
<fc
Lesser
Sunda
Annval RainfaM.
Java.
Sumatra. Borneo.
Under 39
39 60 80 120 160 177
in
8 26
0/ /o
3 6
0/ /o
to 59 to 79 to 119 to 159 to 177 in. and over
_
3-5
0/ /o
Celebes. 0/ /o
New
Guinea.
Islands.
o/ /o
2 14 22
0/ /o
.
18
53
18-75
32 26
6 2
54
29
43
50
56-25
18-75 6-25
4
4
50
3-5
10 2
11 18
The wettest station in the whole archipelago is Kjanggan in Banyumas, Java (Station 16, Table IV) with an average annual
precipitation of 327 in. From October to December, the three wettest months, 116-29 in. are recorded in 69-2 days or 1-68 in.
per rain day. The heaviest fall in 24 hours at this station is 4-61 in. in October, an amount which has been considerably
exceeded elsewhere. At Besokor in Semarang at an altitude of 150 ft., 20- 12 in. has fallen in 24 hours (January to February). The driest station in Java is Assembagus (Station 2) with 35 in. annually in 68 days, or ^ in. per rain day. In the whole archipelago the driest place is Palu in Celebes (Station 44) where 21 in. annually fall in 77 days, or -27 in. per rain day. The greatest amount of rain in any one year has fallen at Sirah Kuchong in Kediri (Station 8). Here in 1909 398-11 in. were precipitated. Seasons and years vary considerably in amount
of rainfall.
The greater part of the rain at Batavia falls in showers of very short duration. The number of showers on the average each month ranges from thirty-six in January, lasting in the aggregate 609 hours, to five in August lasting 6 hours. The mean duration of the showers is about l\ hour. But 42 per cent, of the showers in the dry season and 40 per cent, in the wet last less than 5 minutes each. Of the total number of showers 74-89 per cent, fall in the wet season and 25-11 per cent, in
' ' '
the dry.
Very heavy showers, which
are classed as
'
cloudbursts
falls in 1
',
are
minute, those during which 1 mm. minutes, This the minimum duration of the shower being 5
(0-04 in.) or
more
NETHBELANDS INDIA
(J
98
is
CLIMATE
equivalent to a minimum of 1 in. of rain in 25 minutes or 2|in. per hour of rain. At Bata-via 184 such showers were recorded in 22 years, 60 in the dry and 124 in the wet season. They may occur at any hour of the day or night, but the afternoon is the time of greatest frequency.
The dissimilarity between days in Distribution. monsoon is not on the average very clearly marked. But when the west monsoon blows more than usually definitely in Java rain may fall for 24 hours uninterruptedly and everything inside a house becomes damp and mildewed. During the east monsoon little or no wind beyond the uniform change of land and sea winds may be felt, and heavy mists hang over the plains and hills during the night. As the sun's heat increases during the day these mists rise and reappear as ciunulus cloud and the sea wind begias to be felt. The sky gradually becomes overcast and the clouds darker. About 3 or 4 p.m. lightning is seen and rain falls, or, even if no rain falls, thunder
Daily
either
is
generally heard inland. If it rains the sky quickly clears again towards evening. These are types of days in either monsoon. On the whole, the day is slightly more wet than the night, the driest part of the day is 6a.m. to 11 a.m., when 12-5 per cent, of the rain falls, and the wettest from noon to 7 p.m., when 41-8 per cent, falls. Drought. Â study of periods without rain has been made for 70 stations in Java only. In East Java the longest period of drought, 147 days, is at Jatinangor in the Preanger Residency, at an altitude of 2,493 ft. August is the middle month of this dry period. In East Java a drought lasting 227 days in July (the middle month) is on record at Situbondo. Of the mean yearly maxima figures are from 12 to 53 days in West Java, and from 14 to 116 days in East Java. The last quoted mean maximum is recorded at Besuki (alt. 16 ft.). For Batavia the monthly maximum periods of drought observed for 35 years are as follows, those months marked with a number of days greater than the month's duration being the middle months of the period of drought
Month.
100
the south-east produced
CLIMATE
1,
north-east; at noon,
most fogs at 9 a.m. and at 4 p.m. and 5p.m. the north-west was the
;
quarter from which far the greatest
number
of fogs were seen.
Cloud
Cloud is plentiful during the daytime especially, and at Batavia the mean amount is 5-9 (0-10 scale). Monthly means
are as follows
Jan. 7-5
Feb.
7-4
:
Mar. Apr.
6-6 5-9
May. June.
5'0 5-2
July. Aug.
4-7 4-8
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
6-5
Dec.
7-2
4-6
5-5
If
the rainfall figures are compared with these
it will
be seen
that February and December have

cloud, but in the former
latter only 7^ in.
much
the same
month the
rainfall is
amount of 12|- in., and in the
July and September agree both in cloud and rainfall, but while August has almost as much cloud as July, the former has less than half the rainfall of the latter. Compared with some other stations the rainfall at Batavia for January and February is not excessive, yet the average of cloud is very considerable. The hours of the day show a variation in the amount of cloud which can be readily expressed in figures. The hour of least cloud is 4 a.m. At 5 a.m. there is a little more at 6 a.m. considerably more, the figure rising to 0-1 above the mean. From 7 to 9 a.m. there is a decreasing amount from 10 a.m. to noon cloud increases to 0-5 above the mean, and falls gradually till 3 p.m. At 4 p.m. it increases to 6 p.m. when it reaches the maximum of 0-9 above the mean, after which it falls evenly through the night to the minimum at 4 a.m. There are thus two maxima in the 24 hours, at 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., though the first is much smaller than the second, and two minima, at 4 a.m. and 3 p.m., though the second is much less marked than the first.
;
StnsrsHiNE
Observations extending over a period of 12 years at Batavia
show that January has the least amount of sunshine, August the most. The monthly and annual means may be compared
(though the periods of observation differ widely) with those at a mountain station, Pengajaran (3 years) in East Java (lat.
7 46' S., long. 112 23' E., alt. 7,780
ft.).
CLIMATE
S0NSH1NB AT BaTAVIA AND AT PeNGAJAEAN Monthly and Annual Means. Percentage of possible duration. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
101
^, Batavia
.
Year.
%
SO-5
%
59-8
36-0 40-5
% %
%
51-6 27-1
Pengajaran
W-7 23-5 25-9 34-1
66-6 62-2 65-5 71-2 70-5 61-3 49-5 39-5 27-7 28-4 31-1 30-5 27-9 25-1 25-9 25-2
At both
stations the middle of the west
monsoon season has
least sunshine.
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms with or without lightning are a feature of the climate as has already been remarked. At Batavia 122 thunderstorms on the average occur yearly. During the west monsoon in January and February especially night thunderstorms (midnight to 6 a.m.) are more frequent than at other times of the year. The east monsoon brings about half the
total occurrences
'
changes
'
of the
between 12 noon and 6 p.m. But it is at the monsoons that afternoon storms are most
frequent.
The
:
figures are as follows, in percentages of total
occurrences
Thtjndekstorms.
Pob the Yeab
Percentage of total ooourrenoes at different hours Batavia. 34 years Hours. Per
cent.
Midnight to 6 a.m 6 a.m. to noon Noon to 6 p.m. 6 p.m. to midnight

. .
......
. .
18-1 5-3
50*4
26-2
The monthly
as follows
Howr.
:
distribution through the hours of the
day
is
102
CLIMATE
the years, for example, 1861, 1863, 1876, 1894, 1902, and 1909 are so noted. The belt of calms over the Dutch archipelago
may
extend at certain seasons to 3 north of the Equator.
TABLES
I.
List of Selected Stations.
II.
III.
IV.
of
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations. Mean Monthly and Annual Temperature. Mean Monthly and Annual Rainfall Mean Annual Number
;
Rain Days. In Tables II ÎV, as in the preceding chapter, figures in heavy type are maxima, and those in italics minima, of a series.
TABLE
The following
List of Selected Stations

list
gives the approximate positions of stations
For convenience of reference, the stations are given the same numbers in each table. Where no altitude is given, the station is within a few feet of sea-level.
referred to in the following tables.
No.
On On On
Bali Strait. coastal plain

ft.).
11m. NW.
of Balu-
rau (4,100
coastal plain 13 m. S. of Muria (5,260 ft.). In Jember plain, W. of coastal hiUs. In Kali Patgitan valley, surrounded
by
m.
hills.
On slope of Ijen Mts. On NW. slope of Tengger.

7
WSW.
of
Butak
(9,426
ft.).
On
On
inland plain between Wilis and Kelut Mts.

plain of Solo.
Islandin Batavia
Bay 11m. from coast.
plain, 8 m. inland. of Chilaohap Bay. 3i m. SSW. of Sembung (5,390 ft.). In central portion of western plateau.
South coast
West coast
12.m. from Wijnkoops Bay. 6 m. from W. coast (Sunda Strait).
CLIMATE
103
TABLE
No.
Island and
I (continued)
Name
of
Alt.
Station.
Sumatra, W. Coast
Pulo Tello
Singkel
.
.
Kuta Raja Sumatra, Inland Lahat Palembang
Lubu Sikaping
Balige
Toba
.... ....
.
Seribu Dolok * Sumatra, E. Coast Bengkalis
Lho Seumawe
Bintang I. Piuang
:
.
Tanjong
Banka
I.
Muutok
;
Billiton
I.
Tanjong
Pan dan
Discovery Oostbank *
Borneo
Pontiauak Banjermasin Buluugan Samarinda Putus Sibau

.
Amuntai
Den
Bril
:
Celebes Makassar
Palu
.
Mcnado Tomohon
:
Gorontalo Taruna Sangi I.
Moluccas
Ternate
:
Ceram Amahai Amboina New Guinea

;
Windesi
Merauke Aru Is. Dobo

. :
Kei
Is.
Tual
Maety Miarang * Lesser Sunda Is. Timor Kupang

:
. :
Jlores
Larantuka
:
Sumba Waingapu Sumbawa Bima Lombok Selong

:
. :
.
Bali
Singaraja
Negara
104
CLIMATE
TABLE
Wind Directions
II
as Peecbntagbs oe Total
Observations
No,
Station.
CLIMATE
105
TABLE
No.
Station.
.
.
II (cmtinued)
N.
NE.
29 SeribuDolok 35 Diecovery Oostbank 42 Den Bril . 56 Maety Miarang

.
. .
3-9
29 SeribuDolok 35 Discovery Oostbank 42 Den Bril . oO Maety Miarang .

. . . . . .
5-9
29 Seribu Dolok .4-4 35 Discovery Oostbank 4-3 42 Den Bril . .0-3 56 Maety Miarang 3-9
.
29 SeribuDolok 35 Discovery Oostbank 42 Den Bril 56 Maety Miarang

. .
....
. .
4-1 4'1 3-0 5-6
29 35 42 56
SeribuDolok
Discovery Oostbank^
Den
Bril
. .
Maety Miarang
9-8 5-9 11-5 8-6
106
I
CLIMATE
: "
Ph O
o o -x ci L 00 O L^ l^
(>i
I CD
C/j
CC CO
^_
fh CO CO CO I>l>lr-
oA
o Cd o o^ CD
00
t-. 1--
o L
^-
(NCO
t^ 00
OTt<(HC<l(
l--0'-^00
Oi-t
CLIMATE
OSCMQ001^>*
107
"-ffM
44
>
^-(i(C<1
rlii
i-Hrli-HCq-IC<Irln-1
CvI_^L(M rH
r-H
rH
co^coÔl-H(^|lol:^lnocbr-H|^-<^^co^Qbcbcb lO C003lC)OCDCOi:C>OOOScOt-05(MI>CDr-Hlr>
(N
r-1 n-1
CO
r-i
,_)
-tH
CO
II
rH
T^
r-l
CO
>I
,H
Cvl
4<ritÔOSiOiliCOilOt^CO(MNlOI>cDloO
^
W W
!2i
co>-HO<oc^-îr-iodiio4<oiod3Qbdscbi-Hco
I
1{N
1lT-<COf-Hr-lC^
gsouDGOt^p-iQOooosooracoasO^coco-ôo
03
OS(N(N{>l'Î>NCS|-^cpOcOlOVpMlOI^-QOCO
fc-Tj(CiTt<C'ii>cC>c012cO(Mi-icOOia3-*tÎr^
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CHAPTER IV
VEGETATION AND ANIMALS
Vbgetatiout
As by far the larger part of the Malay Islands has fairly constant rainfall all the year they have also a very rich and. luxuriant
evergreen vegetation, the typical tropical rain-forest. The towns and villages of Sumatra, Borneo, New Guinea, the Moluccas, and the larger part of Celebes and Java, are buried in vegetation even in Java, patches of sandy shore or bare lava peaks are exceptional, and in spite of the dense population about oneeighth of the island is still covered with forest, whilst a far larger comparative area of Sumatra is overgrown with natural vegetation. Borneo is one vast forest, and the same may be said of New Guinea, with the exception of some treeless tracts in the south. In the south-eastern islands, which have the most marked monsoon climate and consequently a more or less distinct dry season, many of the trees lose their leaves during the year these forests, which are termed the monsoon forests, approximate to the Australian type. Here and there, where dry winds prevail and the land is high, similar vegetation is found in the middle of country possessing elsewhere the typical tropical forest, and in Amboina and in Timor the climate, and hence the
; ;
The influence monsoon climate may be observed in East Java, where the forest becomes thinner, and contains a larger number of going eastward the change becomes more deciduous forms marked, and the forest is sometimes entirely absent. There are teak and sapan forests in Bali and Smnbawa, and sapanwood, coconut, sandal-wood, &c., are found in Flores and Sumba, the latter island also producing dye woods but Dutch Timor is only wooded in isolated spots on the mountains casuariaa, sandal-wood, and eucalyptus alba are found, but trees of the acacia and sisyphus sort are commoner than forest trees, and vegetation is in general scanty. Alor is mostly covered with low trees and alang-alang grass. The tropical forest revegetation, varies on different sides of the island;
of the
: ; ;
no
VEGETATION
appears again in Halmaheira. The trees appear to be little affected by the nature of the soil, but largely by the rainfall, whether periodical or constant, and by the height above the sea. Each island has a more or less peculiar flora of its own, which can again be divided into lowland, coastal, hill-country, and highland forms.
The
differences
:
between the
flora of
Java and Sumatra are
considerable
not only different varieties, but different genera,
appear in the latter island, and whilst the vegetation of the low damp land in Sumatra corresponds with that of the Javanese Mountains, the dry country has forms not found at all in Java. The pine {pinus mercusii), not found elsewhere in the East Indies, comes down to the equator in the north, and the distribution of vegetation does not seem to depend so closely on altitude as in Java. In general, the Sumatran flora has a far greater affinity with that of Malacca than with that of Java. The flora of Celebes, which shows many resemblances to that of the Philippines, is more Indian in character in the west of the island, and more Australian in the east whilst the trees of the lower slopes differ strongly from those of Java, the alpine flora is very similar. The flora of New Guinea is distinctly individual to the island, though a large proportion of the forms occur also elsewhere, and some Australian varieties are
:
found. Australian forms, such as the eucalyptus, occur also in the Moluccas, East Java, Sumatra, Celebes, and Timor, and on the mountain tops in Borneo, so that the flora of the archipelago cannot be divided into an eastern Asiatic zone and a
western or Australian, as in the case of the fauna. The relations with the vegetation of Australia are on the whole small, and
the flora of south-eastern Asia, the East Indies, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia are usually placed together, and described as having a distinctively south-Asian character.
Coastal Vegetation
Many
largely
parts of the
swampy, low-lying coasts
of the larger
islands of the archipelago are lined with mangrove-vegetation,
composed of rhizophores, interspersed with nipa palms, and forming tidal forests. Such vegetation is found everywhere on the north coast of Java, but only at the river mouths
It forms a bright green border of varying width along the shore, growing mostly in the land which is flooded
in the south.
VEGETATION
111
by every tide. The mangrove vegetation assists in the rapid silting up of the coast, since it forms with its tangled roots a barrier in which the mud brought down by the rivers is held. The broad river mouths and the brackish marshes above flood-
many places with marsh-forest, consisting largely of the nipa palm, balcau trees, fan, coconut, and pandanus palms, &c.
level, are also lined in
Forests
This coastal vegetation is succeeded in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Central "Celebes, the Moluccas, and New Guinea by the true tropical rain-forest composed mostly of dense and impenetrable masses of foliage trees, undergrowth, and creepers.
In Sumatra and New Guinea, however, the undergrowth is frequently thin or altogether absent, owing to the exclusion of light by the thick trees, matted with creepers. In Sumatra the forest comes further down into the plain than in Java,
beginning at a height of 300 or 400 ft., whilst the oak, chestnut, and similar deciduous trees which only occur on the highlands in Java, are found on the lower slopes in Sumatra. The whole of the mountain sides are thickly forested in all the abovementioned islands and it is only at a considerable altitude that the trees give place to an alpine flora. In Borneo the forest ceases at about 3,000 ft., as a result of the damp, cold, cloudy atmosphere on the mountain-tops, and it begins to thin out at the same height in Celebes. In Java the forest rises to a height of some 7,500 ft., and in Sumatra it is only the highest mountain peaks that are not tree-covered, whilst in New Guinea Above these altitudes such trees still flourish at 11,000 ft. trees as occur are stunted and moss-covered, and are mixed
with a flora which is partly Himalayan and European in type, and includes rhododendrons, cranberries, &c. The trees of Celebes and New Guinea are, on the whole, smaller and less in Java they average fine than those of Java and Sumatra about 100 ft., many rising to as much as 180 ft., whilst Sumatra
;
is
the finest timber-producing island in the archipelago. All the islands, however, possess valuable timber trees, among which teak, ironwood, ebony, sandal-wood, sapan-wood, are the best known, teak forests being found only in Java and
Islands,
Madura, Bali, Sumbawa, the Kangean Buton off the coast of Celebes.
and in Muna and
112
VEGETATION
extraordinary
An
number
of different
varieties of trees
are found, Java alone possessing some 1,500 growing over The leaves of the rain-forest trees are 15 ft. in height.
usually laurel-like, so that the water drains rapidly from Palms, in particular the coconut, areca, areng, them. lontar, nijpa, pandanus, fan and cabbage palms, are found
everywhere in the
purposes.
forests, and are used for a variety of The sago palm forms the staple food of the population in the Moluccas and New Guinea, and is found also in Borneo and Celebes. The bamboo, which is employed in many ways, is widespread on the hills as well as on the plains, and the rattan, extensively used for basket-work, &c., is very common. The gum-producing trees, among them the benzoin and camphor trees, are very widespread, and all the islands are
rich in fruit-trees.
Creepers, lianas, ferns, orchids, pitcher-
plants, &c., are characteristic,
and there are many epiphytous
forms, including species of rhododendra, the giant rafflesia, and numbers of arads and oronidae. The dangerous upas-tree and
poisonous species of euphorbiaceae, &c., are found.

Grassland
Great areas in Java, and still larger parts of Siimatra, are savanna country, covered with coarse grasses, chiefly alangalang and glaga, the wild sugar-cane. This grassland, which does not occur to any extent in Borneo or New Guinea, descends wherever the to within 700 or 800 ft. of sea-level in Sumatra forest is cleared, the grasses begin to take possession, and once these are well-rooted the trees are only re-established with difficulty, though there are a few bushes and low trees, in particular
;
able to compete with them,

afforestation
the anana or pine-apple, the kratok, and the lantana, which are and act as the pioneers of re-
where the country
is left
entirely to nature.
lantana, an alien plant introduced,
it is said,
The from Jamaica,
has made itself very conspicuous in many parts, partictdarly in Preanger and Central Java. These grasses are a plague to the they seem to spring up more luxuriantly than agriculturist ever when uprooted, and rapidly exhaust the soU, the only method of exterminating them being by burning, and subsequently turning out cattle to eat the new shoots. In many
;
parts of Java
places where the forest has been destroyed
and Sumatra the grass has taken possession of by man, or has
VEGETATION
113
covered land formerly in cultivation where the soil has been exhausted. In Java it is most widespread in the Preanger Regencies, and as a rule is most common at an altitude of
3,000 or 4,000 ft. Alang-alang grows mostly from 1 to 4 ft. high, but frequently reaches to the shoulder, and cuts the face and hands with the sharp-edged leaves it has heads
:
covered with silky white hairs. Glaga, which is from 8 to 12 ft. high, frequently occurs in clumps among the alang-alang. The latter grass is much used, in the absence of other materials, for
and the young roots are employed as medicine, externally and internally. The grass-covered regions are the haunts
roofing,
of tigers.
Javanese Flm-a
Considerable differences exist between the flora of eastern
and western Java, owing

rain-forest is
to differences of climate.
The
tropical
found in the west as far as about 112 E. long. East of this line it occurs only on damp mountain slopes protected from the south-east wind, and elsewhere the trees are partly Australian in character, and include a number of periodically leafless forms. Thus the rasamala, highly typical of West Java, does not occur in the east, whilst the casuarina montana, equally common in the east, does not succeed at a corresponding height in the west. Dodocarps, the Javanese firs, and the big dipterocarps, are very common in the west, but are not found in the east, whilst oaks and laurels, and many other
trees, occur in different varieties.
The thick woods
of
bamboo
of the east do not appear in the west, and the teak-woods, which prefer a comparatively dry climate, are also more common in the east. On the whole, the West Javanese vegetation is larger, more varied, and more luxuriant than that of the east, where leafy woods only occur in the plains, with xerophilous forms on the mountains. The low flora of the peaks above 7,500 ft., however, shows less variation east and west, since at a great altitude the climate is drier all over the island, and the three most common trees of the Javanese alpine flora, the albizia montana, myrica Javanica, and vaccinia or cranberry,
occur
all
over the island.

is of
The vegetation
course influenced
sea-level, as well as
by
the rainfall, the temperature,
by the height above and the
slope of the ground, and the flora of Java has been divided into
NETHBBLANDS INDIA
jj
114
VEGETATION
sea-level to 1,750
ft.,
four vertical zones, representing approximately the country
from
ft., from 2,000 to 4,500 ft., from 4,500 and from 7,500 to 10,000 ft. In this zone the tem{1) Zone from Sea-level to 2,000 ft. perature varies from 74, F. (23 C.) to 79^ F. (26 C.) so the vegetation is tropical in type. The marshy coasts are lined with 'rhizophores and nipa palms, and the flat sandy beaches,
to 7,500
which are comparatively rare, are covered with creeping plants with coloured flowers ; pandanus palms, standing alone or in groups, grow among the sand-dunes, and above the level of high tide. Where the tropical forest extends to the beach it is modified in various ways two striking trees, which do not
:
occur inland, iarringtonia speciosa and terminalia catappa, are characteristic, and many other peculiar forms, mostly of low growth, are found. Epiphytic plants are rare, and the leaves of the trees are usually thick and fleshy, since the salt in the soil
renders the rainwater less easy to absorb.
Most
for
of the coastal
species are very widespread, since they bear fruit
which
floats
long distances,
periods.
and preserves
its
vitality
considerable
Inland the palms, largely nibung and lankap, with gebang in the west and lontar in the east, begin, reaching usually a height of 20 or 30 ft., and rising to an altitude on the hills of about 300 ft. they are frequently found in long narrow strips along the coast at a distance of two or three miles inland. The plains and slightly sloping ground are frequently covered with alang-alang and glaga, and here and there thickets of bamboo, acacia and other shrubs from 20 to 30 ft. high form a link between- the cultivated land and the forest. In this zone are the fields where rice, sugar-cane, tobacco, &c., are grown, and the buffaloes are pastured. The lower lulls, especially when
:
they are of Hmestone formation, are covered with thickets of acacia, figs, sterculia, with jasmine, rattan, and pepper- vines. The acacias form true woods between 400 and 1,300 ft., and the teak-woods are at their finest in Eastern Java between 750 and 2,000 ft. teak thrives best in more or less calciferous soil, shedding its leaves in June and budding in October, and grows to a height of 100 to 160 ft. In the higher parts of this zone the tropical forest is found in full luxuriance M'here the country is undisturbed by man the trees, plants, and creepers, unlike those of many tropical countries, have often gorgeous and abundant flowers, and form a dense forest in which exis: :
VEGETATION
115
tence
and
is maintained at high pressure by a host of lofty trees parasitic plants in enormous profusion. There.is a remark-
able preponderance of certain types, largely figs (including the waringin), magnolias, and anonaceae in Eastern Java the character of the forest is in great measure determined by the
;
casuarina or chimoro, which does not grow crowded together This lowest zone covers, of course, a far more extensive area than the higher zones. (2) Zone from 2,000 to 4,500/^.The temperature in this zone varies from about 64 F. (18 C.) to 74 P. (23 C), and in area it is about one-fiftieth of the former zone it contains a much smaller number of varieties, and is the region more
like the trees in the rain-forest.
:
and coffee plantations, and of maize and the sugar palm (areng). In the forest the tall trees are covered with ferns and large fungi, and there is a profusion of
lianas, rattans, tree ferns, lycopods, tradescantias, &c:, in the
especially of tea, cinchona,
thick undergrowth the ginger worts are very common. The trees are of different types to those of the hotter zone, even when they are of the same genus, and include bamboos in East Java, and numbers of enormous rasamala trees and puspa
:
with their large white flowers, in the west. Zone from 4,500 /. to 7,500 /<.This zone in which the temperature varies from about 56 E. (13 C.) to 64 F. (18 C.) covers only about one five-thousandth of the area of the first or hot zone the rainfall is less, but varies considerably, and it is a region of clouds and mist. It lies mostly on the slopes of volcanic mountains, but includes several plateaux (parts of Tengger, Dieng, Ijen, &c.) and a number of swamps and lakes, luxuriantly surrounded and overgrown with grasses. There are
trees,
(3)
;
numbers of tall trees oaks, chestnuts, laurels, maples, &c. which are mostly without large flowers, though there are many flowering shrubs and herbs, including rhododendrons and The tropical forest gives place gradually in this azaleas.
region to forest typical of the temperate zone as to forms, though keeping a tropical character in its general features, and this gives way to casuarina, the Javanese pine, and anggrang, a
is found in particular on Mt. Merapi and Mt. Kelut. There are few cultivated fields, except in the Tengger country where the natives grow rye, maize, and tobacco, and European vegetables, for the cultivation of which the region is well suited. In Western Java one of the most strildng
species of elm, which
116
VEGETATION
features of the higher forests of this zone is the masses of mosses and lichens which cover the trees. Much of the lower
vegetation begins to have a European aspect, with primulas, ranunculus, violets, &c. Zone from 7,500 ft. to 10,000 /.Only some twenty (4) mountain peaks are included in this zone in Java the ground the air is dry, and the temperais uncultivated and unfruitful
:
of trees
below freezing-point at night. The few varieties and shrubs, which include the casuarina, seldom reach the woods a height of 30 ft., and are gnarled and knotted consist largely of iron-wood in eastern and central Java, with myrtle, rhododendron, berberis, elder, honeysuckle, &c., and many alpine flora of European types. An epacrid, which closely resembles European heather, is common, and a characture
;
may fall
teristic
shrub is anaphalis Javanica, commonly called the Javanese edelweiss. The highest mountain tops are covered with short grass and dwarf bushes. Left to itself Java would rapidly clothe itself with even richer vegetation than when it was first occupied by man in twenty-eight years the site of the deserted fort of Nusa Kambangan was covered with thick forest, including trees 80 ft. high. The forest is often destroyed by the natives in a reckless mamier in order to make cultivated fields, but the damp climate prevents forest fires attaining large proportions, and the natives have no use for large quantities of timber for the construction of their simple dwellings. Moreover, the Dutch Government is fully ahve to the dangers of denudation both in Java and in the Outer Possessions, and the spread of the sawah as opposed to the ladang system of rice -cultivation will result in a diminution of the area of forest destroyed, since in the extensive ladang system exhausted fields are constantly being deserted for fresh soil, whilst the properly irrigated fields of the sawah system are kept permanently cultivated. The land which has once been under cultivation, and then has been deserted, produces only worthless and inferior timber, even when it is not occupied and overgrown Anth aJang-aluTig.
;
Animals
The fauna of tho East Indies is very rich and numerous, and includes representatives of every order, though it is of
ANIMALS
117
small economic importance since few of the animals form any considerable addition to the food-supply. The pig, one of the commonest wild animals, is forbidden to the Mohammedan peoples, and is only eaten largely in Borneo. Bats form a
common article of
as
food, but in
most cases hunting
is
carried
on
an amusement, except
in the case of edible birds.
In the different islands may be found the animals typical of tropical forests, savannas, cultivated land, grass-land, marshy
low-lying country hills, snow-mountains, high plateaux, shallow and deep seas, reefs, &c. The fauna of deserts, of continental steppes and rivers, of arctic regions, of salt-marshes, is absent. The character of the land and water fauna is determined chiefly by the tropical climate, which is fairly uniform all over the archipelago. The marked difference between the
East Indies
and of the eastern halves of the thus probably due to the earlier separation of the eastern islands from the continental mass, the breaking up into more numerous islands, mostly of smaller size than in the west, greater exposure to volcanic eruption, and perhaps also to temporary immersion under the sea. The animals of the
life
animal
of the western
is
western islands have been, in some cases, unable to reach the eastern islands, and in other cases probably have died out after
their arrival.
The
difference
between the two fauna
is
so
distinct that that of the western half is reckoned with the
Oriental or Indian region, that of the eastern half with the Austrahan. The line between the two, Wallace's line ', has been differently drawn by different students (compare Chap. I, Wallace made it pass between Borneo and Celebes in p. 12). the north and Bali and Lombok in the south. The latest authority, Sarasin, treats the Lesser Sunda Islands as a continuation of the Sumatra-Java line, and as a transitional
'
district.
Mammals
The mammalian fauna
of the western islands, the
Indo-Malay
region, is continental rather than insular in character,
and bears
a close resemblance to that of India. All the orders of mammals are represented, with the exception of marsupials and duck-billed
animals
in the east of the archipelago it
is
just these orders
which are
characteristic, the other orders being almost
com-
pletely unrepresented, except in the case of rodents and bats.
118
ANIMALS
fciunda Islands are
;
found apes and monkeys elephants and and wild cats rhinoceros wild pig, wild cattle, and deer bears, porcupines, tapirs, lemurs, and many other less important and less numerous horse, buffalo, sheep, and goat species. The domestic cattle have all been imported. The majority of East Indian mammals are found also in the Asian continent, but the tapir occurs nowhere in the Old World but in Sumatra, Borneo, and Malacca. The rhinoceros is represented by a two-horned variety in Java, and a one-horned in Sumatra and Borneo it is dangerous at close quarters, though it is never met with in numbers, and is found not only in the coastal marshes, but at considerable altitudes. The elephants are found in north-east Borneo, and there is a peculiar variety in Sumatra, but they do not occur in Java they are not as a rule dangerous to man, but sometimes do extensive damage to ricefields near the forests. In Sumatra they are not tamed, but are hunted for their tusks. The royal tiger is found in Sumatra, Bali, and Java, where it is still common enough to make a tiger-hunt a characteristic scene it is much feared and reverenced in Java, where it
In the Greater
tigers,
panthers,
;
leopards,
claims
considerable
number
it
systematically hunted, since

offered a
of victims, but it is never keeps the wild pig, which would
otherwise destroy the crops, in check. Since the Government reward for their destruction the tigers are said to be
The wild pig is very common in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Bali, and frequently damages the fields in Java; it is largely eaten in Borneo. Tiger-cats and civet-cats are common in Sumatra there is a wild-dog, and there are many half-wild pariahs in the native villages. The Malay bear is found in Sumatra and Borneo it is harmless to man, but
decreasing in numbers.
; ;
The great wild bull (banteng) still lives in Borneo and Sumatra, and in uninhabited districts at an altitude of two to seven thousand feet in Java. Deer of
eats quantities of coconuts.
common in Sumatra, Java, Borneo, eaten in a dried state in Sumatra. In ranchil, a graceful little faun, is the subject of many the Javanese tales forest-goat ', a mountain antelope, is found in Sumatra. Various species of apes and monkeys are found the largest, the orang-utan, is common in Borneo, where its flesh is eaten by the Dayaks, and occurs also in
different varieties are very
and Bali Java the
their flesh
is
'
Sumatra.
Of the long-armed apes, the siamang
of
Sumatra,
ANIMAL.S
' '
119
the grey wouivou of Java, and the curious long-nose of Borneo are the best Imown. Rats, mice, flying lemurs, foxes and squirrels, and bats are numerous thfe halang, a fruit-eating
;
by Europeans, does much damage to maize-fields, and to coconut and sugar palms. The myriads of bats on the cliffs produce a form of guano. The brown Norway rat is a plague. Badgers, otters and weasels are common, but there are no wolves, foxes, or jackals. In Java
is
bat whose flesh
frequently eaten
there
is
pole-cat
a curious animal, the mydaus, intermediate between a and a badger, which lives only on the high mountains,
offensive smell.
of
and has an The lack
many mammals,
such as the orang-utan, the
and the elephant, places Java in a subdivision of the western islands as opposed to Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula. Celebes takes an isolated
civet-cat, the bear, the tapir,
place by itself, especially with regard to its mammals, since there are animals which are found in every country between
India and New Guinea, except Celebes and, on the other hand, it possesses three large animals, the crested baboon, the
;
babimsa or pig-deer, and the anoa or dwarf -buffalo, which are not found elsewhere, except that the crested baboon is met with in Buru, Sulu, and Bachian, to which islands it has probably spread from Celebes. The flesh of the anoa is extensively eaten. Celebes has far fewer mammals than the
more westerly islands, and among them are two marsupials, but in many other respects its fauna is more Asiatic than
Australian.
large
number
of the indigenous
animals of the
island are peculiar varieties, including five squirrels, a pig,
deer,
and two wood-rats

of different
of
an Australian type.
The
number
species
of
mammals
in the island is
estimated at about 80, of which half are bats. There is a particularly ferocious wild pig. Eastward the islands become successively poorer in mammals of the Indo-Malayan type, and the fauna becomes more clearly Australian. Bachian is the most easterly point where apes are found, and in the southern chain Timor has a single representative of the eastern marsupials, a cuscus, and a porcupine characteristic of the Asiatic fauna, as well as an ape, a long-eared wild cat, numerous small deer, and hosts of bats. The only indigenous mammals in the Moluccas are bats, some small shrews, and the deer which abound, and the civet-cat, have a cuscus
;
120
ANIMALS
the latter for appreciated by the natives.
of
probably been imported
its
perfume, which
is
much
The fauna
New
Guinea-, with the neighbouring
Papua
Islands, resembles that of Australia very closely, but has under-
gone separate development, and the forms, especially among The tree-hving the jumping animals, are less numerous. animals are naturally better represented, the pretence of any jumping animal, like the kangaroo, in a forested country like New Guinea being sufficiently remarkable 1 39 mammals are
;
known, including 39 bats, 50 marsupials, 42 rats and mice, 4 anteaters, and 2 pigs. The rats and mice are mostly forms
the marsupials include a kangaroo, a tree-kangaroo, a cuscus, striped and flying phalangers, a bandicoot, &c.
peculiar to the Australian region
;
Birds
The East Indies are very rich in birds of brilliant plumage though song-birds are rare. Parrots, cockatoos, and parakeets are more common in the eastern islands than in the west, and birds-of -paradise are only found east of Celebes. Java, Sumatra, and Borneo have, however, a great variety of birds crows,
:
orioles, cuckoos, doves, hornbills, honey-birds, &c., are
common,
and the
turists
;
rice birds
the peacock
and weaver-birds are a plague to agriculis found in Java, and is regarded with
natives, as he is thought to follow the tiger in In Borneo the rhinoceros bird plays a large part in Dayak mythology. There are no eagles, except in Borneo, but falcons, hawks, kites, and owls among the birds of prey. The peculiar martin which produces edible birds' nests, is found on the coasts, the most esteemed nests coming from
aversion
by the
his hunting.
Borneo.
Among
the birds useful to
man
are
tridges, pheasants,, snipe, pigeons, storks, geese, ducks,
numerous parand
wild fowls, which are also kept in great numbers
by the
natives
as domestic animals, and are thought to be the progenitors of
barndoor fowls. There is also in Java and some of the Lesser Sunda Islands a beautiful jungle fowl, the gallus furcatus. Celebes has a number of peculiar species of parrots and other birds, but its avifauna is more Asiatic than Austrahan in type. In contradistinction to the mammals, birds are very numerous in the eastern half of the archipelago. The genera, both of New Gumea and the Moluccas, are distinctively Papuan, but
ANIMALS
many
of the species are peculiar to different islands.
121
The
preponderance of parrots, pigeons, and Idngfishers, and in New Guinea of birds-of -paradise, give to the bird-life a very brilliant appearance, since these birds are mostly over the average size and have exquisitely coloured plumage. The absence of ground game permits the survival of a number of ground pigeons and small bush turkeys, as well as the cassowary in New Guinea. The flesh and eggs of the turkey, which is found also in Celebes, are esteemed as delicacies. The skins of birds-of -paradise, which are of many different species, have been an article of trade for more than two centuries. There are many other remarkable birds, such as those allied to the
Australian
fishers,
bower-birds,
the
brilliant
racquet-tailed
kingof
the
crimson
loris,
and the mound-builders
the
Moluccas.
Reptiles
Large crocodiles are
Celebes, Timor, the south of
common in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, New Guinea, &c. They are mostly
;
caiman they live chiefly mouths of the rivers, in salt or fresh water, but they also come up stream, and are a source of some danger. Like the tiger and other animals, they are honoured by the natives, a
Grocodilis porosus, wrongly called the
at the
result of the belief in the transmigration of souls into animals.
Lizards of all sorts swarm in ponds and marshes two varieties, the beawak {varanus salvator), and the minyawak (varanus
:
bivitatus),
which are sometimes as much as

;
six to eight feet
and eat poultry their flesh is eaten by the Chinese and the natives, and their skin sold as crocodile leather. Numbers of geckos enter the houses in search of fhes and different sorts of chameleons and monitors are found. Land and tree-frogs swarm, and turtles and tortoises, both the land and sea varieties, are common their eggs are used as food, and one variety, the penju, provides good tortoise shell. Large numbers of snakes exist all over the East Indies, living in the trees, the undergroAvth, and the streams. A number of them are poisonous, but they are not a source of much danger since they use their fangs more for defence than for attack. Pythons are widespread as far east as Amboina, but are not
long, catch
;
:
python reticulatus (ular sawah) is reverenced in dangerous where it destroys large numbers of mice in the rjcefields. Java,
:
122
ANIMALS
The ular ribu (cylindrophis rufa), which is about 21- ft. long, with a red ring round the neck, the ular tanah, a sort of adder, and the ular balang, which is virulent when roused, are among The hat-snake (ophiothe most common varieties in Java. phagus elaps) which is sometimes 12 ft. long, is the most dangerous and the quickest-moving of the East Indian snakes ;
its name from the manner in which it erects the skin neck when enraged. The cobra di capello, the hooded cobra, which reaches a length of 5 to 10 ft., only shows itself in the morning and evening. Sea snakes, varying from 2 to 6 ft. in length, are found in all parts of the Indian Ocean.
it
takes
its
on
Insects
an amazing variety and abundance of insect life everywhere there are numbers of large and exquisite butterflies, moths, and big beetles, including a birdkilling species in Java the butterflies and beetles of the Moluccas are specially noticeable, and Celebes has many
There
is
in the East Indies
peculiar species.
sandflies, ants,
In
many
places malaria-bearing mosquitoes,
and termites are plagues, and hornets, bees, wasps, scorpions, centipedes, and cockroaches are common. The honey and wax of the wild bee are collected by the natives. The crops in Java are often extensively damaged by littleknown pests, in particular a bug called walang sangit, which is very destructive to rice in the ear. The numerous ants are useful in so far as they clear away quantities of garbage and refuse, but some varieties inflict very painful bites. Various
blood-sucking insects are much feared as they frequently cause suppurating wounds, and are a great annoyance in jungle country to men and beasts. The marshes and forests
of
Borneo swarm with
tree-
and
horse-leeches.
Fishes and Marine
Fauna
The
with
since
seas
and
rivers of the
East Indian archipelago swarm
fish of
many kinds, and fish is of great economic importance,
it forms, after rice, the chief food of the natives, Avho are often extraordinarily expert and ingenious fishermen. The seas might be made to jdeld a far more considerable harvest
more than
than they do at present, and the fishing industry is only of local importance in a few places. In Java some
ANIMALS
and Chinese
:
123
380 species are said to be used as food at Batavia by the natives the latter have added gold-iish, which grow to a large size, to the number perch is the salt-water fish most eaten by Europeans.
:
The rivers and marshes of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo produce very large numbers of fresh- water fish of many species, all distinctively Indian or Asiatic in character. In the more
easterly islands, on the contrary, there are fewer varieties of fresh-water fish, and a proportionately larger number of
(which penetrate up the rivers from the sea), water eels, &c. There is a most distinct cleavage between the fresh-water fishes of Borneo and Celebes, and the same change is observed, though it is more gradual, between Java and Bali. The most esteemed fish which, are brought to market by the natives are tengiri, the bandeng, the gurami, the tembrar, and the kakap the first is a river fish, the last a sea fish, and the others are caught in pools and
fish
migratory fish which
live in brackish
fish-ponds.
numbers.
Crabs, crayfish, lobsters, turtles, &c., are found in great Pearl-fisheries are carried on off the east coast of
Amboina and Temate, and off the Aru Islands. Trepang (holothuria edulis) is caught and dried in Saleier, and the islands off the coast east of Celebes, and in the Moluccas. Whales are found in many parts of the East Indian Seas, and include the cachalot, which produces ambergris, zygaena and carcharias glaucus, which are much dreaded in the harbours. The dugong is also met
Celebes, in north-east Borneo, in the seas round
with
off
the Javanese coast.
CHAPTER V
INHABITANTS
Population
:
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS NumbersNative races-Europeans Half-castes ^Belations

:
between Dutch and natives Oriental foreigners (Ohinese-Japanese-ArabsHindus) Languages Religions (Mohammedanism-Christianity-Confucianism) Education The Press ^Health.
Population
Numbers
The population of the Netherlands Indies may be divided into the natives, whose numbers are imperfectly known in many parts, but who are reckoned as numbering some 46,900,000 ; the foreign Orientals, who numbered 770,640 in 1912 ; and the
Europeans, of
whom
there were 104,837 in 1912.
Native Races
There has been considerable controversy about the origin of who exist in enormous variety in the East Indies. They are now usually divided into three chief races it is still the Indonesians, the Malays, and the Papuans doubtful whether any members of a fourth group, the Negritos, who are found in the Malay Peninsula and in the PhiHppines, exist in the Netherlands Indies, and whether they once formed the indigenous population of part of the archipelago. The Indonesians, who probably formed the indigenous population in most of the islands, are represented to-day by such races as the Baduj in Java, the Bataks in Sumatra, the Dayaks in Borneo, and the so-called Alfurs in Celebes and the Moluccas. The chief peoples of the western half of the archipelago, howthe native peoples
:
Malay race (the use of the word in this sense must not be confused with its use as the name of one of the peoples of Sumatra). This people, coming from south-eastern Asia, pressed the Indonesians back into the interior of the islands, and settled on the coasts they are represented to-day by such peoples as the Javanese, Madurese, and Sundanese in Java, and the Achinese, Malays, Menangkabau Malays, &c., in
ever, are of
:
NATIVE RACES
Sumatra.
125
Probably the Indonesians represent the original
Malay type, the proto -Malays, since the Malays are a mixed race, modified by Hindu and Chinese strains in the west of the archipelago, and by Papuan blood in the islands lying nearer
New
Guinea. All over the archipelago the indigenous peoples, the Indonesians, are shorter than the Poljniesians the Dayaks
:
average 5 ft. 2 in., the Bataks 5 ft. 3 in., and the Gorontalese 5 ft. 2 in., whilst the Polynesian peoples vary from 5 ft. 7-^ in. to 5 ft. 9 in. The dwellers in the lowlands are on the whole smaller than the highland peoples. The Malay peoples are taller than the Indonesians, though smaller than Europeans being a mixed race, they present a variety of types, but are generally speaking Mongolian, and bear an obvious resemblance to the East Asiatic peoples. The skin is light brown or light yellow, and the hair black, straight and stiff, with little growth on the face or body the nose is short and flat, with a pointed tip and broad nostrils, the eyes dark and slightly oblique, the cheek-bones prominent and the mouth large the body is well formed, and strong, but somewhat slender. In character the Malay peoples are reserved, and slow and quiet in speech they are thriftless and careless often lovers of. gambling, opium, and women and have no desire to work for a problematical future prosperity. They are usually courageous, and often proud and vindictive, eager to avenge an injury the memory of the past and their easily hurt susceptibilities have often rendered them difficult to manage but they have all a keen intelligence and are capable of improvement, and under their mask of reticence they are generally well-disposed and pofite towards strangers. New Guinea and the surrounding islands are peopled by Papuans, a race which differs largely from the Malays and Indonesians, a fact which may be correlated with the comparatively early severance, in geological time, between New Guinea
:
; ; :
and the other main islands of the Archipelago. The Papuans are taller than the Malays their skin is almost black, and they are largely negroid in type, though their heads are usually dolichocephalic. In character also they are the antithesis of
:
the Malay, since they are cheerful, boisterous, and passionate, giving impulsive expression to their feelings, and very suspicious of strangers, deal with.
all of
which
traits
make them
difficult to
126
INHABITANTS
EXJEOPEANS
Netherlands India forms an example of restricted'colonization
by a small nation which is unable fully to utilize the resources of its possessions, and is therefore all the more determined on intensive exploitation and the turning to good account of' the
extended.
which has been only very slowly Methodical colonization, combined with an administration which aims at improving the lot of the native and making the best economic use of the country, dates only from 1860, and the number of Europeans in the islands has almost doubled since 1890. In 1912, out of the 104,837 Europeans in the Netherlands
territory already occupied,
Java and Madura, and 18,156 in. the Outer Possessions Java, which forms only 7 per cent, of the area of the islands, contains 80 per cent, of the European population, and this is 1 per cent, below the European populaIndies, there were 86,681 in
:
tion of Ceylon, taking the relative size of the islands into consideration.
in Sumatra, especially
Half of those living in the Outer Possessions are on its east coast. It is expected that the number of Europeans in the Outer Possessions will increase fapidly. The above figures do not include the 12,000 Europeans in the army or the 2,200 in the navy in Netherlands India, where there are few white working-men, the soldier forms a class apart, though after his discharge he frequently finds a place in European society as an overseer or other
;
official.
Netherlands India
is
not a
'
colony of
officials
',
since there
:
are in all under 9,000 Europeans in official positions
the
majority of the Europeans are engaged in agriculture, as owners or tenants of plantations, or in trade in the larger towns. The number of male adults with no definite occupation (about 9,300 exclusive of pensioned government servants) is very high, and consists mostly of half-castes (see p. 128). European society in the East Indies really means Dutch society, since 92 per cent, of the Europeans are Dutch, though only 7 per cent, of these are actually born in Holland. Foreigners quickly merge into Dutch society, except round Deli in Sumatra, a young colony with a more international character. The Germans, of whom there were 1,400 in 1905, are the most numerous European people after the Dutch half of them were
:
EUROPEANS
largely
127
in the Outer Possessions, chiefly in Sumatra. They are said to have increased in numbers durmg the war
rumours of their activities have been referred to in Chap. I, and they have endeavoured to extend their commercial interests with a view to development after the war. There were in 1905 300 British, 300 Belgians, with small numbers
'
of French, Americans, Austrians, AustraUans, &c. The Dutch in the East Indies, who are as a rule friendly
and
generous, live a simple family life, and stand a prolonged stay in a hot climate well, since they adopt native customs as far as
possible the improvement in communications has made life in the archipelago much easier than was formerly the case, but although there are still many Dutch who spend their whole life in the islands, there is an increasing tendency to treat the East
:
Indies as a transitory home. It is not, however, necessary for the children to return to Europe as is the case in British India, since the climate is less trying, but they are usually sent home to be educated. There is a much higher proin India
portion of white women as compared to white men than in Java for each 100 white men there are 89 white
:
women. The European houses are open, airy, and simple, and stand some way apart, often in magnificent gardens they have a verandah in front and at the back, and the walls are painted white inside and out. When they do not stand on piles the floors are of stone, marble, or cement. They are usually only one story high, except in some of the larger towns in Java
;
where land
is
becoming
retain a good deal of

full of trees.
scarce, but even in Java the towns the village in appearance, and are
The European women commonly wear native and kabaya, but in the towns, and in the cooler interior of Java, light European clothes are becoming more and more usual, especially among the younger women. The Dutch work hard office hours are from 8.0 to 3.0, and the midday rest is no business is transacted from 9.0 to 6.0 longer universal. The midday meal of rice and its concomitants, the rice-table ', is being given up by some of the Dutch, and every one has a European dinner at night. Hotels are numerous, since they are subsidized by the Government in places where they would otherwise be unable to pay their way.
dress, the sarong
:
'
128
JNHABJTANTS
Half-castes
white
Although there are now nearly as men in the Netherlands Indies,
many
this
white
women
as
the past, before the improvement of hence of the comforts of life, made existence easier for white women. The Dutch used to regard the natives and their
as instruments to be used for their convenience, and was usual and conventional for each man to have a native mistress or wife. The children of such unions are regarded as Europeans in the East Indies, even if they speak a native tongue and live as natives, and though the number of halfcastes born is considerably lower than formerly, they are still far more numerous than the pure-blooded whites, and form the
it
was not the case in communications, and
women
colonists ', since the pure-blooded Dutchman is almost always anxious to return to Holland when his fortune is made. Every post is open to the half-castes, and in the administration, the army, and in industrial undertakings, they outnumber the white men. There are all grades of colour, civiHzation, and education among them, and the best, who are indistinguishable from pure Europeans, compete successfully with them, but they are frequently badly brought up, having often been deserted by the father on his return to Holland, or on his marriage to a European. Whilst they consider themselves above manual labour, many of them are too lazy and incompetent to get other employment, and Srift between Indian and European society, forming a discontented and miserable class. During the last ten years training schools for half-castes have been opened, and they are being induced to work as tailors, hair-dressers, carpenters, and mechanics. But they are not strong, and prefer office work, however poorly paid, to any work involving physical labour. They usually marry a wife of their own class, and bring up a family in the islands.
real
'
Relations between Dutch and Natives
The Dutch administration in the East Indies, as it affects the is on the whole wise and able, and very efficient in making the best use of the country and its inhabitants from an economic and financial standpoint, as far as is possible in
natives,
territory so little developed as are the majority of the East
Indian islands.
The Dutch appear
to have
now
a genuine
DUTCH AND NATIVES

desire to
for
129
improve native conditions, though their system often bears hardly on the individual. It has always been necessary
them to work with the natives in the task of administration, and to adopt and use as far as possible the native organizations, since the white men are not numerous enough to grapple with the whole task. The natives are left largely under the rule of their own head-men (see Chap. VIII), and though this often
results in cases of hardship, the administration of justice being
hands of an ignorant body of men, flagrant injustice seems comparatively rare. The whole tendency of the Government is towards the fostering of close and intimate relationships between Europeans and natives, and this tendency is helped by the extensive knowledge of native tongues demanded of officials, but the ideal is frequently not carried out in practice, since the Dutch are sometimes high-handed in their treatment
in the
of the natives,
demanding a great deal
in the
way
of servile
respect for their personal dignity, and always intent on extracting the largest possible amount of labour from their
difficult to deal
of the East Indies are notoriously with in this respect, but the system of indentured labour in force in the archipelago, both in private and in government undertakings, is difficult to justify. It arose from the difficulty of arousing any desire to labour in a native whose simple wants are satisfied with a minimum of exertion on his
employees.
The natives
part, and
who is unaccustomed to make
provision for the future.
Before the arrival of the Dutch the institution of credit-bondage, or temporary enslavement of debtors, was very common, and though the Dutch put an end to that, it has been succeeded by the labour system detailed in Chapter IX, which, though deplored, is'found necessary by all employers, while the natives seem able to protect themselves against their employers. Great difficulty is experienced in preventing them from breakand as all ing their contracts, usually for insufficient reasons such breaches of faith have to be taken before a regular tribunal, making the securing of a conviction a matter of some difficulty, there is little redress against the fitful and untrustworthy ways
;
of the average native.
Oriental Foreigners
Natives of the neighbouring eastern lands arrived in the archipelago earlier, and in much greater number, than the
NETHERLANDS INDIA
I
130
INHABITANTS
Europeans. They numbered 616,000 in 1905, and were thus seven and a half times as numerous as the Europeans. They are c assed together by the Government as Vreemde oosterlingen (Oriental foreigners), divided for purposes of administration into Chinese, Arabs, and Hindus, and thus form a group apart from both Europeans and natives but placed as a rule on a level with the latter. The Japanese, as will be seen, rank with
Europeans.
Chinese
In 1912 there were 295,000 Chinese in Java and Madura, and 385,000 in the Outer Possessions. Thus their numbers have been doubled in Java in the last half -century, and quadrupled they have settled everywhere, and in the Outer Possessions islands, such as Sabang in the Riouw Lingga Archiin some
:
pelago, they form the majority of the population.
Large immigrants from China have been imported by a German firm in Deli, where they are invaluable on the tobacco plantations. The majority of the Chinese immigrants in Netherlands India are drawn from the poorest classes, and many of them come in order to amass a fortune with which to return to China. They are mostly natives of the southern provinces of Fukien and Canton. The Chinese born in the archipelago are called paranakans, whilst those born in China are called singkehs, the former being
numbers
of
more numerous in Java, and the
latter in the other islands.
singkehs are as a rule stronger in physique,
and
so are
The more in
demand on
Since Chinese
the plantations and in the mines of Sumatra. women seldom emigrate, the Chinese of the
archipelago usually marry native wives, but they preserve all their national characteristics, and until the new movement in
China made
the
itself felt,
they observed very
strictly all their
ancestral customs, both religious
that even after a Chinese family remains a race apart, holding aloof from both natives and Europeans. They avoid any contract which would place them in a very subservient position, and rarely work as domestic servants, as they so frequently do in other countries. As a race they are extraordinarily industrious and thrifty, and enrich themselves with great rapidity they are intelligent, shrewd, and law-abiding, crimes being less frequent among them than
social, so
and
women have
for generations
been
n.atives,
CHINESE
131
among either Europeans or natives. This industry and careful economy has enabled them to become the chief landowners,
merchants, and money-lenders of the archipelago the careless, thriftless, and unpractical natives are at their mercy, and their oppression of those in their power, and their lack of any moral standard in their commercial dealings have made them exceedingly unpopular with Europeans and natives alike. They are invaluable as piioneers, and in the opening up of uncivilized and undeveloped islands for purposes of trade and whilst
; ;
the sudden removal of the Arabs and Hindus would scarcely affect the economic life of the archipelago, the Chinese foim an integral part of its foundations.
Their primary calling is trade, and they are the indispensable middlemen between the European wholesale importer and the native consumer. The chief article of their trade is linen, with which the Chinese pedlars penetrate to the most remote villages, making enormous profits at several ports they carry on a brisk trade with Singapore, China, and eastern Asia in general, and they smuggle opium in old, discarded steamers, since the
:
right of farming
estates,
it has been denied them. Many Chinese own mostly near Batavia, Tangerang, and Meester Cornelis, and there are more coloured land-owners than European they
:
also frequently
work sugar-factories, and the number
craftsmen^-smiths, carpenters, &c.

9,000
of Chinese
în
Java, where only some

is
work
as agricultural
labourers,
increasing.
disputes are settled
by the Chinese trade -unions
in Batavia
Trade and
Surabaya. Widespread reforms have been effected by the Dutch in their treatment of the Chinese, since the latter formulated their grievances. In 1908 the native schools were opened to them freely, and Chinese governmental schools, on the same lines as the European primary schools, were started, thus establishing the principle that Asiatics may claim the same education as Europeans, and that the intellectual development of the Chinese In 1912 the whole system of is a matter of public interest.
was revised, and a start was made to administer justice with the same procedure and the same judge for all classes of society. The Dutch civil code has borne hardly on the Chinese in many cases, since by Chinese law the family, personified in the father, is the legal unit division of property and its possession by women is forbidden, and no common understanding
justice
;
12
132
INHABITANTS
between the European law recognizing the rights of the individual, which is in force in the Indies, has ever been reached, though an effort is now being made to bring the Chinese under the European system, except in so far as their laws of adoption
are concerned.
In 1910 the system by which Chinese were forced to inhabit quarters set aside for them, and were not allowed to travel
without a pass, was revised. This system was rendered necessary by the uncleanliness and neglect of domestic hygiene shown by the Chinese. They are now allowed to live where they like in villages where no Chinese quarter exists, though in the 240 towns in Java and the 270 in the Outer Possessions where such quarters are in existence they are still compelled to inhabit them. These quarters are provided for colonies of over 100 Chinese they are under Chinese heads, often unpaid and hereditary, who are appointed' by the Government, and are independent of the local native! authorities. These head-men have great importance in West Borneo, where the Chinese do not understand Malay, and speak only their own language, and in a place like Medan, where they are wealthy property-owners. Above the heads are five chief advisory officials appointed by the Government, whose influence is being gradually undermined by the growth and activity of Chinese trade-unions and revolutionary clubs. The Chinese may now travel to capital towns or to markets by road or rail without a pass, and their
:
head-men and members of councils are exempt from the pass and quarters system. Since 1910 the Chinese, in common with
every one
else
born in the Netherlands Indies, are regarded as
of Chinese society in the Netherlands Indies changing with the growth of education, and with the gradual disappearance of the old Chinese social and religious life since the revolution the pigtail has been discarded, and European customs, even as regards funerals and marriages, are everywhere being adopted.
is
:
Dutch subjects. The whole aspect
Holland, like other powers, has had since 1896 a treaty with Japan which places Japanese subjects on an equality with Europeans. The Japanese in the East Indies, who are the
newest arrivals in the archipelago, have thus a considerable
JAPANESE
prestige with the natives, but take no part in
133
European society. Formerly they were mostly acrobats and female prostitutes, or followed various indefinite callings, but there are now a growing number of Japanese traders, a large proportion living in the Outer Possessions. It is clear that a very great development of Japanese interest in the Archipelago has taken place in recent years, and continues.
Arabs
The great majority of the Arabs in the Dutch East Indies came originally from Hadramaut, and Arabs from other parts, such as Baghdad, are usually undesirable from a pohtical, an
economic, or a moral point of view. There were no definite Arab settlements before the early part of the nineteenth century, .when the opening of the Suez Canal facilitated communications, but in 1905 there were 19,148 in Java and Madura, and in 1912, 4,145 in Sumatra, and 3,738 in Borneo. Poverty is the usual incentive to emigration. Unlike the Chinese, the Arabs are quickly merged into native society their own women seldom leave Hadramaut, so that they frequently marry native wives, who continue to wear native dress, and do not veil in the presence of men their children speak Malay instead of Arabic, and they themselves often change the customs of Hadramaut and lose the Semitic traits in their character. This is particularly the case among lower-class Arabs, or those living in small settlements. The upper-class Arabs often send their sons to Hadra: :
maut
to finish their education.
All classes of
society are represented in the archipelago
the
Hadramaut
seyyids, the
',
rehgious nobility
the qabili, the

;
'
members
of the race
who
the burghers, the largest class, who may always wear arms not wear arms and the bedouin, the nomads, who live almost They are pot united among exclusively by cattle-rearing.
;
themselves, and the superior classes oppress their inferiors. They intermarry with all classes in the archipelago, and the
royal dynasties in Bantam and Cheribon in Java, and in Siak, Acheh, and other places in Sumatra are of Arab descent. Most of the Arabs in the East Indies are occupied with trade,
like the Chinese they form a link between the European commercial houses and the natives. But in spite of the prestige which the country of their origin, their strength of character,
and
134
INHABITANTS
and their fine physique gives them with the natives, they are unable to compete with the Chinese they prefer therefore to settle in remote places to trade, and seldom grow rich. They generally lack capital, and frequently contract bad debts many of them are merciless usurers, although usury is forbidden by theil' religion, and they are frequently dishonest in their dealings with Europeans. Shipping, which used to be largely in Arab hands, received a severe blow with the development of steam, as their goods were carried entirely in sailing ships their trade consists now in journeys to Singapore, and along the coasts of the islands. They also work as fishermen and as carriage- jobbers, and in Palembang there are a number of
; ; :
,
Arab
solicitors.
AVherever a sufficient number of Arabs are found the Dutch Government assigns them special quarters, divided into colonies of fifty with a captain in charge. Their houses are usually dirty and uncomfortable. Their clothing consists of a long white shirt with a jacket or unbuttoned coat over it, with sandals and a round cap or turban. Better-class Arabs often wear
European trousers, shoes, and stockings, particularly in Bali, and some have adopted modern Turkish dress. Arabs come to the Indies to make money, not to spread their religion relations between the Arab and the native priests and hajjis are not as a rule harmonious. Though the Arabs
:
avoid Christians, this is rather because, unlike the Chinese, they have no leanings towards Western education and ideas, than from any feelings of fanaticism. They realize, however, their dependence on the goodwill of the Dutch, and are loyal
subjects of the Government.
Hindus
In spite of their great past in the archipelago, Hindus people from Bengal, Afghanistan, Malabar, and Coromandeldo not play a large part in its life to-day, and the older Hindu families, those who have spent perhaps half a century in the
islands,
have been largely absorbed by the natives amongst they live. They are nearly all drawn from the lowest classes, and leave Singapore, where work is more difficult to obtain and wages are lower, for Netherlands India. There are only a few thousand in Java, owing to its already crowded
whom
HINDUS
condition, but in the Outer Possessions there are
chiefly in
135
some
20,000,
East Sumatra, where they work as coolies, hawkers, barbers, &c., and are often employed as police. Many of the
better-educated work as clerks. They are Mohammedans, and usually marry women of their own race. Their emigration to Deli is not authorized by the British Government, but many
arrive there independently each year from India.
Languages
East Indian islands have had in opportunity and little need for inter-communication, and have never been united under one central authority hence the rise of an innumerable complexity of languages and dialects in the archipelago. All these languages, however, are related, and belong to the Malayo-Polynesian family, which includes the tongues of the East Indies, New Guinea, and Poljmesia, and probably took its rise originally in Annam, Cambodia, or Cochin-China. The Polynesian languages and those of the Philippine Islands form two distinct divisions in the group, but it is impossible, as yet, to group the many East Indian languages according to their degree of relationship. Before the incredible wealth of tongues in their East Indian the possessions the Dutch felt the need of an official language use of Dutch by the natives was discouraged during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries with the idea of increasing
different peoples of the
little
The
the past
Dutch
prestige, so
Malay became the lingua

is
franca.
It
was
chosen rather than Javanese, which far larger number of people, because
diffused
it
the native tongue of a is a simple and widely-
elements from other languages, whilst Javanese is extraordinarily comphcated, and its use has never spread outside those whose mother-tongue
tongue,
easily
assimilating
A knowledge of low Malay (as distinct from true Malay, which is a refined and ceremonious language, and is used by those who wish to acquire prestige among the native it is used in the notables) may be acquired in a few months Malay Peninsula, the East Indies, the southern Philippines,
it is.
' ' ;
Indo-China, and by the Chinese in their ports on the Chinese Sea and in the archipelago, and its knowledge is obligatory on
all
Dutch
officials.
All
reports,
in Malay,
prospectuses,
and
official
all
announcements are issued
and
it is
taught in
the
136
schools.
INHABITANTS
In
fact, whilst
themselves, and
Dutch is only spoken by the colonists be replaced by French or English, a knowledge of Malay is necessary to any one having any dealings with natives or Oriental immigrants in the East Indies.
may
Religions
Mohammedanism
The great majority of the peoples of Netherlands India are Mohammedans, the total being given in 1905 as 35,000,000, of whom 30,000,000 lived in Java they thus form three-quarters of the entire population. The East Indian Mohammedans are
:
not as a rule at all orthodox or devout Mussulmans, since they preserve a large admixture of the superstititious beliefs of their old animistic religions. The uneducated natives have only a vague knowledge of the dogmas of Islam they continue to
;
.
and to ascertain their wishes by their ancient magic and placate them with charms the spirits of the forefathers and the demons of the woods and streams have still a greater influence in Javanese life than Allah and his prophet, and the Mohammedan law, in its relations to marriage customs, inheritance, and family life in general, has more effect on the community than Mohammedan religious beliefs. The whole strength of Islam in the East Indies lies in the social distinctions and privileges which it confers, and the extent to which it rules the communal life of its adherents. In many of the less developed islands religion is a more important social division than race he who becomes a Mohammedan is counted as a Malay a member of the superior class. There is no real" Mohammedan propaganda its converts are won by indirect means. Conversion is by no means always an upwards step, as far as cultural development is concerned, since the heathen peoples are frequently in advance of the Mohammedan in moral character, in their treatment of women, and in industry and craftsmanship but Islam brings a widening of the horizon, an increase of self-esteem, and a position in a widely-diffused and constantly spreading religious and social system. The continuous spread of Mohammedanism in late years is due partly to the large number of cheap Arabic books circulated
serve their old gods, disguised as
saints,
: :
Mohammedan
'
',
among the increasing number of natives who can read the language, and partly to the continuous penetration of Moham-
RELIGIONS
medans
These
137
hitherto pagan peoples.
Ârabs
and Malays
among
intermarry with the natives, and introduce their religion and their customs among them, so that in this sense each
settlers
Mohammedan is a missionary. The Dutch administration is also

always compelled to make use of the more civilized and Islamized natives as official go-betweens with the undeveloped peoples, thus creating a prestige for Mohammedanism from the start.
In 1913 there were 17,655 pilgrims to Mecca from Java, 5,318 from Sumatra, 1,485 from Borneo, and 629 from Celebes.
Except in the case of Java, the numbers were smaller in 1914, probably owing to war conditions during the second half of the
year.
Christianity
Christianity is in quite a different position from Mohammedanism, since it is the religion of the white population, and no conversion from paganism to Christianity can give a native a
place in European society it can thus never play so important and comprehensive a part in the social development of the native as Mohammedanism. Its efforts at proselytizing and
;
improving the natives are more premeditated and arranged, working through the Christian missions and through.the gradual bringing of law, politics, and taxation into line with European customs. Western ideas and habits are constantly filtering into native communities, along with Western education, clothing, and household goods, and gradually change the conditions of their life. The Dutch Government, however, has always
strongly discouraged the bringing of any direct pressure to bear on the native to change his religion, and forbids the wearing of European clothes, the first desire of every native
In 1914 there were about 48,000 Protestant Europeans and 660,000 natives in the Netherlands Indies, with the 31,000 Roman Catholic Europeans and 52,000 natives still form only some 2 per cent, of the total Christians thus population, and though their numbers have advanced considerably of late years, they are still small as compared with
convert.
:
those of the Mohammedans and pagans. The chief Christian Church is the State Dutch Protestant Church, to which most of the Protestant Europeans belong, and some 330,000 natives.
It
had 41 pastors in
1914, with a smaller
number
of assistant
pastors,
who
are in charge of some of the missionary churches
138
INHABITANTS
which have been incorporated in the State Church. There are also small Free Reformed Churches in BataAria and Surabaya, and an English and an American Church in Bata\da. During the nineteenth century mission work was widely extended by private enterprise. Success was varied, and it has been found easier to get converts among the pagan peoples, where Mohammedanism could be forestalled, than among the Mohammedan peoples, where the work is difficult and laborious, though the Dutch missions are said to have made about 35,000 converts, and to be more successful among Mohammedans than those of any other country. Minahassa was found the most fertile field for missionary activity, practically the whole population being converted to Christianity, and in Amboina, where mission work was most widespread in the days of the Company, the people were found to be still largely Christian, in spite of the long period during which they had been neglected. Of late years Christianity has made most headway in the Moluccas and New Guinea, where Mohammedanism is more or less at a standstill. Missions in the Netherlands Indies have suffered as usual from a lack of unity, but in 1906 all the different Protestant missionary bodies combined to establish a missionary consul at Batavia to represent mission work in general, and in its relations with the Government in particular. The Protestant missionary associations, which had 349 mis-
some 30 Salvation Army workers), have about 294,000 converts and possess a number of lower
sionaries in 1915 (exclusive of
industrial schools, hospitals, training schools for native teachers
In addition to the various Dutch missions, of German missions, and the Rheinische Missions Gesellschaft has been very successful in the Batak country in Sumatra, having aboiit 100,000 converts. In addition there are small missions of the Seventh Day Adventists, the Methodist Episcopalians, &c. The majority of the Roman Catholic natives live in Menado, Amboina, and Timor, and there are now some 2,000 in West Borneo, where there was no resident missionary of any denomination till 1905 it has now been placed in the care of the Capuchin Fathers, and has been made an Apostolic Prefecture, as distinct from the Vicariate of Batavia, but neither Christians nor Mohammedans have made much progress in Borneo in recent years. The Roman Catholic Missions have won a
there are a
and preachers, &c.
number
RELIGIONS
:
139
favourable position for themselves in the East Indies the churches are well attended, and the priests are respected everywhere.
Confucianism
The Chinese, with the exception of some 1,300 Christians, who are increasing in number, and about 300 who are Mohammedans,
are Confucians.
Education
Native Education
Up
to about 1850
government concern
for native education
was limited to the native Christians in the Moluccas, but the

necessity for a larger supply of native certain amount of education induced the
officials
possessing a
to start
Government
some twenty schools
in which the sons of the native aristocracy
were trained. Before many years had passed public opinion began to realize the duty of bringing education and development within the reach of all natives, irrespective of whether they were to become servants of the administration or not, but it was not till 1872 that a general scheme for native education was set on foot. This fitrst scheme was not very successful, since the education given was of too ad'vanced a character, and the system organized on too large a scale. The present system was therefore brought into being in 1893, when it was realized that though it was necessary to provide schools giving a fairly elaborate education in the towns and industrial centres, an extremely simple curriculum was ample for the lower-class
over the archipelago. schools of the East Indies are divided into State Schools and Private Schools, the majority of which are in the hands of missionaries. The numbers of different kinds of schools, and the numbers of pupils are given for the year 1914
natives
all
The native
in the following table
140
INHABITANTS
Government Schools.
State
schools are divided into those
managed directly by the administration, and those originated by, and under the management of, native communities (' peoples' schools ') subsidized and supervised by the Government all these schools are non-religious. The schools administered by the Government are again divided into Dutch native
:
'
schools
',
first-class schools (in

is
which a comparatively extensive

taught), intended for the betterschools,
education
given,
and Dutch
class natives,
and second-class
Umited since the prois felt
vision of peoples' schools to those places where the need
somewhat more elaborate curriculum native children than is provided by the

of a
for the lower-class

*
peoples' schools
'.
In these latter schools the education consists in the reading and writing of the language of the country or of Malay, and a knowledge of the four chief rules of arithmetic, with the possible addition of one or two subjects taught iii the Dutch native schools the school hours are 2^ each day. Dutch itself is taught only in the first-class schools, in response to the growing wish of the more educated natives that their children should acquire the language of the ruling class. The aim of the Government in the case of the peoples' schools ', which have all been established since 1907, is to make them as far as possible self-supporting, and only to assist in their estabhshment where a genuine wish for education is felt the people themselves provide the buildings, while the Government supplies the fittings. The teachers are chosen as far as possible from amongst those who have been educated in a second-class school, and have then had practical experience as teachers, or from young men who have gained a diploma as pupil-teachers. Private Schools. Ît will be observed from the table above
:
'
many more government and peoples' schools in Java than there are private schools, and there are only 161 schools in the hands of the missionaries. In the Outer Possessions, however, where the missionaries have their chief sphere, and where they exercise their influence largely by means of the education which they give, there are only 1,127 government schools, as against 12,040 in private hands, 1,677 of them on a
that there are
religious basis.
Education of
total
Girls.
Ît
will also be noticed that while the

is
number
of girls attending school
much
smaller than the
total numbci' of boys, the proportion of girls to
boys
is
much
EDUCATION
14]
higher in the Outer Possessions than in Java. This is due to the strong prejudice in a highly Islamized country Hke Java against the co-education of the sexes there is a growing
:
demand
for female education, but at present

Schools.
no native schools
giving a
for girls only are provided.
Mohammedan
In addition to the schools

of
Western education, there are a large number
Mohammedan
schools (16,857 in 1914) giving instruction in the principles of Islam and in the reading of the Koran, to which the natives are
allowed and even encouraged by the Dutch to send their

children.
Native Teachers. The native teachers in the government native schools are trained and examined in the government training schools, of which there are seven in Java, one in Makassar, one in Amboina, and one in Sumatra, and the schools are periodically inspected. The teachers in the private schools are often untrained, and are not visited by the government
inspectors, but there are a number of private training schools for missionary teachers, which are subsidized by the Govern-
ment.
1,261
There were 4,752 teachers and pupil-teachers in the

first-
and second-class government
school's in 1914.
European Edvaition
Primary Schools. Primary European schools are established wherever the needs of the population render it necessary, and are divided into mixed and girls' schools. Fees are paid by those who can afford them native, children cannot as a rule enter these schools free, but may do so on payment of fees, provided they have a knowledge of Dutch, and a certain number who intend to become native doctors and officialsare educated in the European schools free. The schools are non-religious, but
;
religious teachers are allowed to attend to instruct the children.
The primary schools are largely preparatory for the secondary About half the children receive a free education, and there are very few European children not attending school the staff, particularly the male staff, is drawn largely from Holland, but a number of women teachers are trained at Batavia. In 1913 there were 159 primary schools in Java (19 for girls only), and 51 in the Outer Possessions (3 for girls
schools.
:
only).
142
INHABITANTS
In addition to the above schools, there are the Dutch Chinese up by the Government when the wish for education on a Western basis had been proved by the large number of schools founded by the Chinese in the archipelago since 1900, and modelled on Japanese lines. These Dutch Chinese schools are also open to Europeans, and occasionally natives are admitted the children are taught by Europeans through the medium of Dutch, and the payment of fees is obligatory. There were 32 private schools in Java in Private Schools. 1913, almost entirely on a religious basis, and largely Roman Catholic girls' schools which have been started by those who these are disapprove of the non-religious government schools mostly subsidized by the Government. Secondary Education. There are 15 establishments giving secondary education in Java. They are open to all with no
schools, set
:
race distinctions, and
had a
total
number
of 2,360 pupils in
They include the 1913, 492 of them being non-Europeans. Hoogere Burgerscholen at Batavia, Surabaya, and Semarang, with a five-years' course one, the Queen Wilhelmina School, and four for girls at at Batavia, with a three-years' course Weltevreden, Batavia, and Surabaya.
; ;
The Press
The
official
newspaper
of
Courant, published twice weekly

Industries.
Netherlands India is the Javasche by the Director of Government
Besides containing official announcements it is also a government organ for news. There are, besides, numerous private publications, 54 of which come out yearly, 32 monthly, 19 twice a month, 25 weekly, besides 20 daily papers and several others published at varying intervals. There are, moreover, 57 pubUcations in the Malay or Javanese language. Among the more important newspapers are the Java Bode, Het Bataviasch Nieuwsblad, and Het Nieuws van den dag voor Nederlandsch Indie. These papers are all published in Batavia. At Surabaya are the Soerabaja Handelsblad, the Nieuwe Soerabaja Courant, the Soerabaiasch Nieuwsblad,
voor Indie.
Post,
and Het Weeksblad
The Locomotief is the

;
principal paper at Semarang.
In Sumatra are the Deli Post, the Deli Courant, the Sumatra and the Sumatra Bode the Nieuws en Advertentieblad voor de residentien Palembang, Djambi, en BanJca, published at
THE PRESS
Palembang,
industry.
is
143
issued solely in the interests of the petroleum
similar paper has been started in

is
Kota Raja
in
Acheh.
The Makassar newspaper
the Makassarsche Courant,
Banjermasin is published the Banjermassingsch NieuwsMost of these newspapers are said to be neutral in politics inasmuch as they do not consistently support any particular
at
hlad.
and
faction.
This neutrality apparently does not preclude criticism
Among journals run exclusively in the interests of a party are the Stem van Indie, the organ of a society of people born in the colonies, and the
of particular officials or their measures.
Jong
their
Indie.
Both Roman Catholics and Protestants publish

is
of
own periodical. The Utusan Hindia the Mohammedan League. The Java
the chief organ
Times, printed in
is chiefly devoted to the needs of tourists. Besides the organs of the large towns there are various provincial papers such as the Midden-Java of Jokyakarta, the Oesthoek of Probolinggo, the Oprechte Buitenzorger of Buiten-
English,
Jahns Advertentieblad of Malang, and several others. Of papers printed in the Malay language the Kebar Perniagaan of Batavia, the organ of the modern Chinese and Javanese party, is said to be the most widely read journal in Java. It is edited by a Javanese assisted by a Chinaman, and apparently, like several other Malay papers, it is against the Government in policy. There are, besides, many other papers printed in the vernacular which are either non-political in character or
zorg, the
favourable to the Dutch colonial regime. Up to 1906 there were in vogue in Netherlands India legislative restrictions which have been described in the StatesGeneral as the work of darkness ', and are generally agreed to have been harsh. Briefly, they aimed at preventive control,
'
with heavy punishments for their infringement. Six Dutch have been banished, although this penalty has not been inflicted since 1873. In 1906 the regulations were modified, chiefly in the respect that the censorship of publications takes The place after instead of before they have been printed. responsibility for publishing libellous or seditious matter now devolves upon the authors and printers. Punishments inflicted include imprisonment and fine, besides suppression and confiscation. There are special regulations aimed against the introduction from Egypt and Turkey of fanatical Mohammejournalists
dan
publications.
144
INHABITANTS
Health
Diseases
There is a high incidence of diseases of many sorts in most of the islands of the East Indies, and Dutch authorities admit that conditions are unfavourable, in spite of the efforts made to combat epidemics by quarantine regulations, the extended use
of the Civil
Health Service, notification of infectious disease,
free vaccination
and provision
of quinine,
&c.
The native
death-rate was about 20 per thousand in Java in 1914, which
towns,
showed a decrease on that of 1913, but it is higher in the big e. g. 63 per thousand in Batavia, and 47 per thousand
in Surabaya.
Among
the coolies in the
Lampong
districts,
Sumatra, it rose to 90 per thousand in I9I4, owing to epidemics of dysentery and hook-worm disease. The European death-rate in the larger towns of the archipelago averaged 15 per thousand in 1914, malaria and typhus having the highest death-figures
of
any
single disease.
Malaria. The most common disease in the East Indies is malaria it attacks large numbers of Europeans and natives alike, and is prevalent in all its forms, though the recurrent
:
is most common. It is always endemic, occasionally breaking out in epidemic form the incidence and death-rate vary much, but the death-rate is usually low. In spite of the efforts made to fight it by the free distribution of quinine, the improvement of drainage, the destruction of mosquito larvae, and the enforced cleanliness of gardens and yards, there were a very large number of cases in Java in 1914. As an example, in the Wonoaju and Ponokowan sub-division, with a population of 465,000, there were 66,015 cases of malaria, with 3,909 deaths, and the fever is equally prevalent in other parts of the archipelago. Blackwater fever in 1914 only occurred in Siboga (Sumatra), where there were 22 cases. Plague. Though in the past the East Indies have been practically free from plague, in 1914 there were 15,275 cases recorded in Java, with 13,522 deaths, chiefly in Pasuruan, Kediri, and Surabaya. In order to avoid a wholesale evacuation of the population, a beginning was made with the fumigation, inspection, and improvement of the native houses, and a special service to combat the disease was instituted in 1915. Cholera. Cholera is endemic in most parts of the archipelago,
form
HEALTH
145
and sometimes epidemic, 4,328 cases being reported in 1914. Many people have comparatively slight attacks, and it is difficult to detect any reason either for the start of an epidemic or for its cessation. Prophylaxis by inoculation and hygienic precautions have given satisfactory results. Small-pox. SmaU-pox is sporadic, and occasionally epidemic,
but is much less common since the institution of vaccination. There were, however, considerable outbreaks in 1914 in Batavia (2,416 cases) and Preanger Residency (1,064 cases) in Java, and in Borneo (4,120 cases). In 27 divisions in Java, vaccination and re-vaccination are compulsory, and in the rest of the island vaccination is enforced on the occurrence of cases of the disease. There is apparently Kttle difficulty in inducing the native population to submit to vaccination in the Outer Possessions, where epidemics of smaU-pox have been exceedingly violent in the past in many parts. In Java in 1914 936,510 people and in the Outer Possessions 237,174, were vaccinated. Beri-beri rarely occurs as an epidemic among Beri-beri. natives living a normal life, but is very common among coolies in mines or on plantations, in the army, in prisons and orphanages, &c., and it is a danger for explorers employing parties of
native bearers.
Dysentery.
half-century.
Dysentery has become

The
earlier form,
It has increased in the last half-century.

less
common
in the last
which was probably baciUary, and had a high death-rate, has been quiescent for a long period, though cases have again been noticed lately. Amoebic dysentery, however, is common, and sometimes assumes an epidemic
form.
Leprosy. There were 2,845 lepers in the East Indies in 1905, including 65 Europeans and 743 Chinese. The number of lepers'
hospitals
is
increasing.
Other Diseases. Typhus rarely occurs in epidemic form 158 cases were reported in 1914. Tuberculosis attacks the
:
natives in
is
many places. Hookworm-disease {ankylostomiasis) common among coolies, particularly in the Lampong districts.
:
Measles and whooping-cough are not important, since they take a milder form than in Europe there were, however, 60 deaths in a measles epidemic in one of the islands of the Riouw Archipelago in 1914. There are occasional local epidemics of eye
diseases,
particularly
is
conjunctivitis.
Influenza
is
common.
Diphtheria
sporadic, but epidemics are rare.

Jf
Skin diseases
NETHERLANDS INDIA.
146
are very
INHABTTANTS
common among
is
the less developed peoples.
Cerebro-
spinal meningitis
sporadic.
Insanity.- There were 9,157 insane people in Java in 1905, and 6,479 in the Outer Possessions 2,470 were under treatment in the two large Javanese asylums in 1914. Insanity in natives,
;
among whom
often caused
there
is little
hereditary tendency to lunacy,

:
is
by fever or by syphilis alcohol, the use of which is rare, and opium (except in the case of running amok) are not predisposing causes. The use of opium has become more
common of late
cases of running
exists to
years, but there
is
reason to suppose that
many
amok
The Civil Health Service of the East Indies combat and prevent epidemics, to advance medical treatment on Europea^n lines, to control the use of medicines and consumption of unsound or unsuitable food, to look after lunatics, to care for government employees, and to give free medical, surgical, and obstetrical aid. For purposes of administration Java is divided into three medical districts, and in the
Health Service.
are subterfuges to cover private revenge.
Outer Possessions the divisions coincide with the military health districts.
means by which it is endeavoured to combat by the quarantine system at the chief harbours, which is applied to yellow fever, small-pox, cholera, and plague. There are also special regulations for the Mecca pilgrims, who may only depart from, and arrive at, certain ports. In the
The
chief
is
epidemics
second place, it is intended to prevent the occurrence of epidemics by keeping careful watch on the amount of sickness in any place, and by the improvement of the water-supply, the boring of artesian wells, and the laying down of mains. Efforts are also made for the betterment of the sanitary conditions, though considerable difficulty is experienced in inducing the
natives to
pay any attention to hygiene.

and the pollution
of rivers,
The Mohammedan
and inculcating the
religious laws, such as those prohibiting the use of certain foods
and
of alcohol,
necessity of ceremonial washings, are hygienic in their aim, but
unfortunately they are not carried out with any degree of The common habit of keeping the cattle under the houses is highly insanitary, and is condemned by the Dutch, and in many parts the houses and persons of the natives are extraordinarily dirty. In Java certain unhealthy articles of food and drink are forbidden, disobedience being a punishable
strictness.
HEALTH
offence
is
:
147
the defilement of rivers and the making of fresh ponds In the case of epidemics, cases must be isolated and notified, and the place where the outbreak occurs is visited by an inspector of the Health Department, to note conditions,
forbidden.
analysis of the disease in question
and have an
made
at the
Weltevreden laboratory. In addition to the government hospitals, and the numerous polyclinics, the Civil Medical
Service encourages private enterprise by means of subsidies, or grants of land, and in 1914 there were 131 private hospitals,
sanatoria,
and similar institutions.
It
aims at the establishment
on a European system, and with that object it trains natives in Western ideas concerning health and disease, and founds hospitals and polyclinics'. There are schools at Batavia and Surabaya for the training of doctors for work in the Indies, one for natives only, and in 1914 there were 135 European doctors practising privately, 83 in government, and 60 in army employment, and 187 native doctors. In 1914 there were 66 European midwives, all but two of them working in Java, and 77 native midwives, of whom 59 were employed by Government, and 47 practised in the Outer Possesof the medical care of the natives
sions.
11
In addition to the 5 general hospitals of Java, the
and the 134 native hospitals, there are special institutions for the cure of eye-diseases, beri-beri, and leprosy, and a Pasteur Institute. In contrast to this care for the natives, hospital treatment a few cases are taken in for Europeans is almost non-existent at the General and Military Hospitals, but these institutions Government officials are primarily intended for natives. receive free medical treatment.
military hospitals, where civilians are also admitted,
:
k2
CHAPTER VI
THE INHABITANTS OF JAVA
^Migration Culture Religion Pastimes Position of women Occupations Villages and houses Clothing) Sundanese^-MadureseTenggerese Baduj Kalangs.
Numbers Density of population Ûrban and rural population and increase Native peoples ^Javanese (Physical characters
Numbers
The
islands
total population of Java,
Madura, and the dependent

in
was given as 36,035,435

86,681
1912,
and consisted
of
Europeans, and 351,094 foreign Orientals, largely Chinese. Thus the natives formed about 98 per cent, of the total population the Chinese have been
35,577,660 natives,
;
slowly decreasing, and the Europeans increasing in numbers

since about 1870.
Density oe Population
The causes of the very thickly populated condition of Java, as compared with the other islands of the archipelago, have been discussed in Chap. I (p. 16). The residency of Kedu is one of the most densely inhabited districts in the world, but
owing to the comparatively thinly peopled condition of the western and eastern ends of the island, the average density for the whole of Java is a little lower than that for England and Wales. The flat country and the hiUs, with the exception of the marshy stretches, are the most thickly populated. The mountain country has fewer inhabitants, but the Preanger plateau is an exception, and the development of coffee, tea, and cinchona cultivation at high altitudes has had the effect of bringing many people to live at a considerable elevation. The number of inhabitants is also connected with the percentage of ground under cultivation. Thus the most thickly populated region in the centre of Java, which includes Surabaya, Kedii, and Jokyakarta, is also the part where most land has been cleared, and the reverse is the case in the thinly populated districts of Bantam, Preanger, Besuki, &c. The population
JAVA
149
on the north coast ia both thicker and more generally distributed than on the comparatively inaccessible and mountainous south coast, and is of a mixed character, owing to the number of Malays, Chinese, and Arabs who have settled there, while the dwellers on the south coast have preserved their peculiar characteristics more exclusively.
Urban and Rural Population

The majority of the towns are on the north coast, where the trade of the island is largely concentrated there are no capitals of residencies on the south coast, and those which are not on the north coast lie mostly in the centre of Java. The
;
towns are thus situated in the most thickly populated and highly cultivated part of the country, and there are no divisional capitals in the thinly populated parts, such as South Bantam and the Preanger Regency. Owing, however, to the prevalence of agriculture, only about three per cent, of the population are concentrated in the towns, of which in 1905 there were only twenty containing a population of more than 20,000 two of them having over 100,000, as follows JBatavia (138,551 1915), Meester Cornelis (33,989), and Buitenzorg Bandung (47,491), in the Preanger and (33,401) in Batavia Cheribon (23,540) in Cheribon Regencies Pekalongan (41,719), Pemalang (20,920), and Tegal (32,344) in Pekalongan Semarang (96,660) and Kudus (27,502) in Semarang Tuban Surabaya (156,752 in 1915) and Grisee (24,536) inRembang Pasuruan (28,534) and Malang (29,541) (26,467) in Surabaya Jokyain Pasuruan Residency; Magelang (28,241) in Kedu karta (79,567) in Jokyakarta Surakarta (18,378) in Surakarta Madiun (22,814) in Madiun Residency and Residency in Kediri Residency. Even in these towns a Kediri (40,205) proportion varying from a tenth to a quarter consists of foreigners, and the prosperity or adversity of any region thus dejjend far more on the quality and quantity of the land cultivated than on any other consideration.
;
:
m
;
Migration and Increase

-It should be possible to encourage emigration among the Javanese, in spite of their attachment to their own land, since they have shown an encouraging readiness to go and work in
150
INHABJTAN'i'S
Acheh, the Ombilin mines of Sumatra, or Pacific islands, and considerable movement from one part of Java to another has taken place since about 1870. Alternatively it will be necessary to convince the native cultivator by counsel and example that it is in his own interests to improve his methods, and to increase the means of communication and irrigation, for the Javanese have not at present the means of increasing the products of the
land, or the knowledge of intensive
and extensive
cultivation
be necessary to provide for the needs of the coming generations, if the present rate of increase continues. In 1905
which
will
and Madura, and the native population doubled itself between 1865 and 1900.
there were 565 people to the square mile in Java
This very rapid increase is partly, no doubt, due to the early age at which marriage is celebrated among the Javanese, usually when the girl is twelve or thirteen, and the man fifteen or sixteen. As in Europe, more boys than girls are born, but
more
girls
reach maturity.
Native Peoples
As distinct from the strangers, European and Oriental, the population of Java consists of three chief races the Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese, who all came originally from the same Malay stock. They differ now, however, to a considerable degree, though it must always be borne in mind that the diffe-
rences in the form and character of individuals are so infinite that it is not possible to draw a distinct or accurate" line of delimitation between any two races. The difference in character
between the Sundanese and the Javanese is to be explained by the stronger influence exercised over the latter by the Hindus and the difference between the Javanese and the
;
due to the fact that the Madurese, who have now were confined for a long period to the island of Madura, where they earned a difficult living by trading and fishing, while the Javanese have always been primarily agriculturists. The frontier between Central Java and the Sundanese country is formed by the Tanduwi and Losari Rivers', and the Sundanese
Madurese
is
settled in a large part of Eastern Java,
country thus consists of the residencies of Bantam, Batavia, Cheribon, and the Preanger Regency. The Madurese live in the islands of Madura, Kangean, and Bawean, and also in the
JAVA
eastern part of Java.
151
The first Madurese' villages are found in Malang and Pasuruan, and become more numerous towards the north. The Madurese form almost the whole of the population of the Grati and Jati districts of Pasuruan, the Tengger disti'ict (except in the mountains where the indigenous Tenggerese live) the Probolinggo residency, and the Besuki residency (except in the south and in Banyuwangi). Bangil is the most westerly point of Madurese settlement, and the population of the whole of central Java, i.e. Pekalongan, Banyumas, Kedu, Semarang, Surakarta, Jokyakarta, Rembang, Madiun, Kediri. and Surabaya is almost entirely Javanese. The Sundanese are said to number about five million and the Madurese rather more, so that the Javanese are by far the most numerous, and occupy a larger extent of territory than the other two peoples.
Physical Characters
All three peoples have the light
brown
skin,
dark brown or
;
black eyes, and smooth black hair of the Malay race curly hair denotes a foreign strain. The colour of the skin is usually lighter among the aristocracy, and among the Javanese some natives ^particularly those living in the mountains are of a considerably darker tint, while the skin of others is almost golden in colour. The eyes are set nearly horizontally, the mouth is large as among all Malay peoples, and the lips thick but well modelled. The nose is not so flat as among the Sundanese, and is sometimes aquiline in shape, and the features are in general marked and expressive. A small moustache is usually worn by the men. The Javanese are taller than the Sundanese, averaging 5 ft. to 5 ft. 6 in., but they are of slender build.
Javanese
Culture
are not only the most numerous of the races Java, but also the most civilized, and this civilization inhabiting The influence of Hinduism is comparatively highly developed. stronger and more enduring in the Javanese districts was much than in the Sundanese and Madurese country. Mohammedanism quickly made converts through the influence of the Arab traders on the north coast and in Madura, but extended its conquests much more slowly in the centre of Java, where
The Javanese
152
INHABITANTS
Hinduism had its strongholds. Even after Mohammedanism was officially embraced by the people, there were many relics left of the old religion the Javanese script and folk-lore are Hindu in origin, and many of the customs and beliefs of the natives date from pra-Hindu pagan times. Language and Literature. The original language of Java was what is now called Old Javanese or Kavi, and differed considerably from modern Javanese, so that it is not understood by the natives of Java at the present day, though a knowledge of the ancient tongue has been conserved by the people of Bali, Middle or Cheribon Javanese, the language of the old kingdom of Majapahit, is still spoken by some three million Javanese living in Banyumas, North Cheribon, North Krawang, and North Bantam. The chief language of the Javanese, however, is new Javanese, but the difference between the two tongues is not so marked but that a man speaking Middle Javanese can
:
understand one speaking New Javanese in one of the several forms which are in use in Central Java. The Javanese language received, a great impulse of development in the seventeenth century, but its literary development was a continuation of the earlier speech and writing of the courts of Kediri and Majapahit, when, under the influence of the new Mohammedan rehgion, an amazing literature was produced, and Javanese poets set themselves to reproduce works of Hindu culture such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana in their own tongue. These works are mainly mythological and romantic, and date from the eleventh and twelfth centuries of our era Javanese thus became the most important language of the archipelago, and the literature of the Malays, the Buginese, and the Makassarese is not to be compared with that of Java. To the Mohammedan period which succeeded to the Hindu belong the bahads, or semi-historical
.
rulers of the Hindu period. This literature, however, is mainly that of the past for several centuries national life has been directed by alien forces, and little has been added in modern times to the Javanese literary inheritance. Among modern works are a number of romances, and also treatises translated from the Arabic. Works Avxitten in Kavi have been translated into modern Javanese, and the people are acquainted with these versions by the representations of the theatre (the wayang) where plays called Panjis,
poems written round the various
JAVA
tales
153
from the
life
of Panji, the national hero of Java, arc
given.
Though it is probable that the Javanese language and literahad reached a fair stage of development even before the Hindu Immigration, it has been deeply influenced by foreign elements, particularly by Sanskrit. The Arabic tongue has also left its mark on Javanese through the Mohammedan conquest, though in a much smaller degree, and Javanese has itself had a marked effect on Sundanese and Madurese. Its characteristic feature is its wealth of words and letters, and the numerous groups of terms descriptive of a single thought.
ture
There are, for instance, in Javanese separate words for carrying on the head, on 'the shoulder, on the arm, on the back, in the hand, &c., but there is no word to express the simple idea of carrying. There are also a very large number of tei'ms descriptive of degrees of rank, in consonance with the complicated social system of Java, and the right use of these terms is considered very important, so that many officials who speak Javanese easily make a practice of addressing native chiefs in Malay, for fear of giving offence by using the wrong title. Modern Javanese is divided into two chief forms of speech and several subsidiary forms. The common language of Javanese thought is called Ngoko it is used by the common people among themselves, by their superiors when addressing them, and also by children. Krama, which contains a number of Sanskrit words, is used by people speaking to their superioriS, and also by people of rank among themselves, unless some other form is dictated by their relationship and relative positions. It is the form of the language which is used in writing. Madya, a mixture of Ngoko and Krama, is used by people who are not officials and are of equal rank, when Krama is too servile, and also by a superior to an inferior who is older than himself and whom he wishes to honour. It is employed also between buyers and sellers of goods. Madya and Krama are both used in the villages, and there are innumerable nuances between these forms of speech. Basa Kedaton is the speech of the Court, and is used except when speaking to or of the He himself uses Ngoko, or Krama Inggil when sovereign. speaking of his own person, and Krama is used in addressing him, his first wife, his daughters and the Crown Prince. The ladies of the Court speak Krama among themselves, and
:
154
INHABITANTS
Basa Kedaton to the men. Krama inggil consists of some 300 words used in speaking of God, or of some highly-placed and honoured person. Bada Kasar or Ngoho andap is a rude and impolite way of speaking in which words usually used of animals are applied to men. Mental Character. The salient fact in the formation of the typical Javanese character has been that the jaeople have been always under the rule of strangers from the time when the Hindu colonists first set foot on the island to the present day. But although their mentality has been enfeebled by long servitude to foreign masters, they keep a proud memory of their past and a fine faculty for assimilation. They master the subtleties of their own language, and of the Malay tongue in addition, and are ready and eager for education. The native childTen learn to read and write very quickly, comparing favourably with European children in the schools. The men have a strong sense of direction and of orientation and a wide knowledge of the properties of trees and plants. The Javanese are, as a rule, reserved, gentle, and tractable. They are seldom angry, except when they are roused by jealousy, or by gaming and opium, when they are apt to run amok, and unwise treatment makes them revengeful. But they are hospitablfe and generous, devoted to their children, kind to old people, and charitable to the poor and the wrong-doer. They retain the exquisite politeness of men of high lineage, and the honour which they pay to those who are higher in position and rank than themselves often strikes Europeans as servile. A Javanese never stands when speaking to his betters, but sits cross-legged on the ground with his hands to his forehead, and when he meets his superior, or even passes his house, he will turn his back and squat down on the ground. Authority is everything to him, and he is equally ready to accord honour to others as to exact it for himself. The Hindu caste-system left a very strong mark on Javanese society, which is divided into nobles and commoners. The nobility which includes the higher officials, is stiU much honoured by the lower classes. The dream of every Javanese is to attain to an official position and to carry the umbrella (payong) which is the mark of a person of high rank. Hence there is never any difficulty in getting natives to fulfil the duties of the desa administration, which bring much work and little
profit.
JAVA
155
The Javanese are much attached to their own birth-])lace and the graves of their ancestors, and also to the adat, which consists of the customs and institutions in use among their forefathers, so that it is difficult to convince them of the superiority of any new method or invention. They have few needs, and are content with rice and dried fish or meat to eat, and coffee to drink, with tobacco and betel-nut. They have no need of strong drink, except where the nobles and princes have caught the habit from Europeans. They are devoted to games of chance of all kinds, and frequently gamble away
their whole possessions.
it
Since they are incapable of saving,
are in possession of enough money to satisfy their needs, they have no incentive to work to get
follows that
when they
more, though they work hard enough when it is a question of earning a subsistence. This apathy is thus not due to any dislike of agricultural labour, for the Javanese is passionately attached to the soil, and a splendid agricultittist on his own lines but it may also be ascribed to the fact that for centuries he has never laboured for himself, but always for others. Since the Dutch have occupied themselves with the improvement of native life, however, there are signs that the Javanese are becoming desirous of saving money to procure new necessities
;
and
pleasures.
Religion
Except for the Baduj, the Tenggerese, and the twenty-six thousand or so of native Christians, the inhabitants of Java are Mohammedans, without having entirely given up their ancient Hindu and animistic faiths. Though they are somewhat luke-
warm
in the practice of their rehgion, a fair
number (which
is
increasing owing to the improvement in the means of communication) make the pilgrimage to Mecca to gain the honour
accorded to a
in
spirits-
They are very superstitious, and believe mountains, the woods, the rivers are all inhabited by good or bad spirits, and incense is burnt, amulets worn, and food offered to gain their goodwill. They pray to
hajji.
the
the danjhang desa, the protective spirit of the village, in front of a rude stone altar under the trees, to avert disaster and invite answers to questions, and each worshipper offers incense and a few flowers. Each desa also honours the soul of its founder,
and each member
of the desa his
own
ancestors
sacrificial
156
INHABITANTS
meals are offered on the third, seventh, fortieth, and hundredth day after the death of a relative, and once a year graves are decorated and offerings made. The crocodile and the tiger are also honoured, and traces of the beUef that the souls of the dead come back to re-inhabit living bodies exist among the Javanese they communicate with spirits through the holy men called ngelmu. Many hermits and ascetics live in the wilderness and on the mountain-tops, and sometimes among their feUow-men. Festivals. The chief interest of Javanese native life consists in the festivals, which are partly connected with Mohammedanism and partly with the honouring of spirits, for whom the
;
most delicate dishes are often set aside at these sacrificial feasts. But any event of importance is made the occasion in a Javanese household for such a feast, which begins with rehgious observances and is accompanied by music, acting and dancing. The quantity and quality of food and its preparation on each separate occasion is regulated by the adat, which is quite separate from Mohammedan law, and often opposed to it. Thus, although the Javanese have few set hoUdays, they are always spending their time and money in festivities. Weddings in particular are made the occasion of much rejoicing and a great
display of magnificent garments.
Pastimes
The Javanese are exceedingly fond of their native theatre (wayang) and of music and dancing. Javanese music has reached a high state of development, and the native orchestras {gamelan) perform at religious ceremonies and gatherings of every description. These orchestras consist largely of slips of wood or metal, which are struck with hammers, and of gongs, but they also contain stringed instruments, flutes, and drums they have been estabhshed at the Court of Jokyakarta in particular for a very long period, and the players have reached
;
a standard of considerable skill. Javanese dancing consists of a series of twistings and posturings of the body and limbs, the feet being only slightly moved. The wayang consists of shadowplays with wooden puppets, though sometimes the puppets themselves are shown, and sometimes their place is taken by men. But Javanese civilization shows less development in these directions than in that of literature.
JAVA
157
Among the habitual pleasures of the Javanese betel-nut chewing and tobacco-smoking are universal, and opiumsmoking has become more and more common of late years.
Position of
Women
Only the officials and notables can, as a rule, afford to have more than one wife (though polygamy is sanctioned by Mohammedanism), and they also are tending to nônogamy in imitation
of Europeans, so that variou,? motives are combining to raise the status of Javanese women. Moreover, the matriarchate was for a long time the basis of Malayan society, the influence of the adat has always fought against that of Hinduism and
Mohammedanism in this matter, and the morale and position of women has always been comparatively high in the archipelago.
A Javanese woman goes unveiled, shares her husband's

and has her place
at the festivals.
interests,
Occupations
Agriculture, as has been seen, is the chief occupation of the Javanese, and the cultivation of rice in particular, for rice forms their principal food. Many of the inhabitants of the north coast live by fishing. There are about 270,000 craftsmen among them, and the industries arising from the principal crops, (the preparation of tobacco, tea, coffee, &c.) have made great progress since the institution of the free labour system, though native industries such as weaving, have decreased in importance owing to the European import trade. The native craftsmen, who are often clever workers, sell their products hatik cloth, garments, hats, shoes for European use, and are employed by the Government on constructing lines of communication and buildings. But native manufacturing undertakings are few and unimportant, and the hard-working and competent Chinese stand in the way of any wide employment of the natives as The Javanese traders are mostly artisans and in business. occupied with third-hand retail trade the native hawkers buy
goods from the Chinese middlemen on credit, and sell them in the desas, and in the markets which are more or less inaccessible
The Baweans Europeans, or foreign Oriental traders. trade all over the island, and and the Kudus in particular compete successfully with the Chinese dealer, especially in the Oost Hoek. (Further details will be found in Chaps. IX, X.)
to
158
INHABITANTS
Villages
and Houses
As the Javanese
are chiefly engaged in agriculture, the
majority live in villages {kampongs or desas) of 300 to 500 inhabitants. When they live in towns they usually occupy a separate native quarter. The Javanese house and its a])pointments are very simple in character the floor is of beaten earth, and wooden or bamboo posts carry a roof of atap (nipa leaves or alang-alang), or of wood. The ridge-pole is often turned up sharply at the ends and the walls are of bamboo. A structure
;
is
which visitors are received and feasts given, The houses have no windows, and only sometimes square holes in the walls furnished with a bamboo or wooden trelhs they are always dark and full of smoke, as there is no chimney. The furniture is simple a wooden couch, with mats and cushions, often a round table, with a few chairs, a hanging lamp, and perhaps a chest. If there is a second couch Each hut stands in a garden, it is screened off with a blind. surrounded by hedges (within which the whole village is also enclosed) and planted with palm-trees and plants which, from
called pendopo, in
often added.
a distance, make the village appear as a grove of trees surrounded by fields of rice. In the gardens are often a barn and a well.
The houses and consist
of native officials are frequently of of several buildings in a
wood
or stone
of
group
they are often
furnished in European stylf.

speciahzation
primitive
is
The Javanese, whose love
extraordinary, profess to distinguish various
types of architectmre in their simple buildings, which have a and somewhat tamporary character rendered necessary by the frequent earthquakes of the country. The rehgious buildings in the desas are, in particular, very simple structures of bamboo with an atap roof, and a floor some feet above the
Clothing
ground.
The clothes of the Javanese common people are also simple, and the principal garment, the cotton skirt or sarong, is the same for both sexes. A man adds to it a cotton vest or jacket his long hair is done up on the top of the head and covered with a handkerchief and a big hat, and every freeman wears the A woman wears the kemben, a wide bandage kris or sword. wound round the figure under the arms, and also a scarf, which is used by the poor people to carry their babies or their goods.
JAVA
159
Javanese woman always goes bareheaded in the presence of a man, but she decks her hair with flowers or pins. Men and women both go barefooted.
SUNDANESE
The Sxmdanese people are usually smaller than the Javanese, and are seldom more than five feet tall, but they are more muscular and strongly built. Their hair is thick but they have little beard their eyes are small and are set on more of a slant
;
than are those of the Javanese, though they are not so oblique
The forehead is high, the nose short and the cheek-bones broad. They are described as reserved, quiet, and timid they are terrified of possible dangers, and go in fear of bad spirits. Slow of speech and
as those of the Chinese.
and
flat
towards Europeans, they are not cruel in anger, and they lead a simple, contented, and temperate life. Their good-natured hospitality and civility and their honesty make them attractive, but they are not thought capable of great development. Agrisecretive, particularly
or revengeful, except
when roused
culture
is
their chief occupation,
and
their cultivation of coffee,
pepper and cinchona, is considerable, but they show no desire to improve on ancient methods, and do not see the necessity of carrjdng on trade except to provide themselves with what they need, though they are often clever craftsmen, carpenters, and smiths. They are, in fact, of an altogether inferior civilization to the Javanese (though they tend to assimilate their culture where the two races come into contact), and are essentially a highland people, far less changed by Hindu and Arab influence than the Javanese. Their standard of living is not so high, and
Their houses are usually raised is quiet and simple. though those of the better classes stand on the ground. Like the Javanese they are very fond of feasting, and every birth, marriage, and circumcision is made the occasion for such an entertainment but they differ from the Javanese in that they are deeply attached to the practice of their religion. Since they were less influenced by Hinduism, Mohammedanism found
their dress
on
piles,
them
easier converts thaii the Javanese, but their

is
Mohamme-
mingled with the remains of their original pagan beliefs. The Netherlands Mission Association has done good work among them, and the
danism
of a doubtfully
orthodox type, and
is
160
INHABITANTS
is
Bible has been translated into the Rundanese tongue, which

related to Javanese, but
lary.
is simpler and has a smaller vocabuThis language is spoken in the whole of West Java, except in Batavia and neighbourhood, but is very much mixed with Javanese in Bantam and along the north coast.
Madtjrese
The Madurese
are usually also rather shorter than the Java:
nese, but are strongly built
the cheek-bones are prominent,
and the face shorter and less finely modelled. Their women are often awkward and plain. As a whole they may be said to be considerably more independent than the Javanese, though perhaps less intelligent, and they show far greater freedom of speech and manner. They wOl never allow their rights to be infringed, and have a horror of enforced labour, but they are thrifty and hard-working, and are regarded by the Dutch as
among
their best colonists, since they acquit themselves better than the other inhabitants of Java of their duties to the Government. Their quick and vindictive temper, however, is notorious, and quarrels in which murder is done are frequent among them for the hris, which is to the Javanese an ornament, is to the Madurese a weapon of attack and
;
defence.
The clothing of the Madurese people differs from that of the Javanese, and they and their dwellings have a comparatively careless and imtidy appearance. In agriculture they are less painstaking than the Javanese, though the difiicult soil of the island of Madura is of necessity well tiUed cattle-breeding, how;
and the Madurese and soldiers, though they make poor craftsmen. They have their own amusements, such as bull-racing and buU-fighting, but feasts are less numerous than among the Javanese, and, owing to their independent character, the law of custom carries much
ever,
is
carried on to a
much
larger extent,
are well-known as small traders, navigators, fishermen,
less
weight with them.
in a country like Java,
gence.
Their moral standard is high, especially where lapses are regarded with indulTheir language is divided Mnto East or Sumenep
;
Madurese West or Bangkalan Madurese (of which Pamekasanese is an offshoot) and Baweanese. It has been strongly affected by the Javanese tongue.
JAVA
Tenggerese
161
or Wong Tengger (Highlanders) are an interesting race as forming the only extant remains of the
The Tenggerese,
Majapahit civilization in its last period. They have been settled on the slopes of Mt. Bromo or Brahma, their holy mountain, probably since the thirteenth century, and their religion is still distinctly Brahmin in character, though corrupted by animistic practices. They worship Siva and their household gods, and their two great feasts fall on the 14th and 15th of the second and twelfth months, the first being the feast of the dead and the second the great feast of atonement on Mt. Bromo. Though they only marry among themselves, they do not live an entirely isolated life like the Baduj, and are largely mixed with the neighbouring population in the lower villages, so that they have lost their pecuHar customs to a considerable extent, and many of them have become Mohammedans. The Tenggerese are said to number some six or seven thousand, and are increasing. In person they resemble the Javanese, but they are more strongly built, and somewhat darker in colour. Their morahty is high they are loyal and honest and good workers, but remarkably dirty. Their villages which stand at altitudes ranging from 5,800 to 7,000 ft., are usually built on a little hill, and are defended with bamboo palisades. The houses, which are arranged in long rows and are not surrounded by trees like those of the Javanese villages, are of wood with sloping roofs, and the villages strongly resemble those of the Alps. Flocks of goats are kept on the mountains. The chief food of the Tenggerese is maize, but they also cultivate potatoes and onions. Rice is a delicacy, and they are forbidden
;
by
their religious tenets to
pound
it.
Polygamy
is
exceptional,
but the dukun (the priest or holy man, who plays an important
part in village
life)
generally has two wives.
Badxjj
The Baduj, who numbered about 2,000 in 1908, live in the woods of the Kendeng Mountains in South Bantam. They are the descendants of those people who refused to embrace Mohammedanism when it was introduced into Java at the end of the fifteenth century, and retired into the then almost impenetrable interior of the country, in order to remain true to
XETHEBLANDS INDIA
162
their
INHABITANTS
own
They acknowledge a supreme invisible power who once lived as a man, and other gods rank, mostly borrowed from Hinduism. The gods are
faith.
called Batara tenggal,

of lesser
said to dwell in a place to the south of their settlements, called
Archa domas, which is held in the greatest veneration, and to which strangers are forbidden access. The Baduj live in strict seclusion, and only enter into communication with members of the outside world under the pressure of urgent necessity their dealings with the Government are carried on through a trusted intermediary. The women and children are not allowed to leave the Baduj district, and no one is allowed to intrude into their hamlets. The' girang pu'un, the worldly and spiritual head of each village,
;
not leave its confines, or show himself to the uninitiated. The three inner hamlets must always contain exactly forty families, and are sacred ground, whilst the rest of the Baduj
may
Anything which was unknown to Batara tenggal when he lived in this world is forbidden to them, so that they cannot employ horse, ox, or plough, or learn to write, or sleep on a bed. In general, they avoid any sort of luxury: dancing and music, coffee, opium, and tobacco are all forbidden to them. As can be imagined they are an undeveloped, and uneducated people, though the state of morality is very high, and theft is unknown among them.
live in the outcir villages.
Kaiangs
be made of the Kalangs, who form now only a handful of people living in Central Java. Their history is obscure, but it is established that they are an ancient race, and were for centuries a people to be reckoned with in Javanese life. In early times they led a wandering existence in the woods, gaining their livelihood as wood-choppers. They were tied down to settled dwelling-places, called Kalangans, in the eighteenth century by the Sultan of Mataram, and they now lead a sedentary life as coppersmiths, coopers, &c., being still employed as carpenters at the Court of Jokyakarta. Many legends are still told about them by the Javanese, biit they are being gradually absorbed by the latter people, with whom they intermarry, and from whom they can hardly be distinguished in appearance or language, though they cling to certain characteristic customs at weddings and funerals.
Mention
may
also
CHAPTER
VII
THE INHABITANTS OF THE OUTER POSSESSIONS

Sumatra (Achinese ^Gajos Alas Bataka MalaysMenangkabau Malays LebongsRejangs^Lampongs^Primitive Islands adjacent to Sumatra Ôrang Laut- Borneo (Dayaks) Karimata Islands Celebes (Toraja tribesBuginese and Makassars Minahasese Gorontalese) Sangi IslandsBanggai Islands^MoluccasNew Guinea Papua Islands Tenimber Islands South-western Islands Sunda Islands.
tribes) ^Lesser
SXJMATKA
Population
:
Numbers
The total population of Sumatra in 1912 was 5,151,583, o whom 9,610 were Europeans, 223,153 Chinese, 4,145 Arabs, and
These figures are seen to be 19,575 other Oriental foreigners. very small when compared with the large size of the island or with the crowded condition of Java. The exploitation of the great riches of Sumatra, only begun in recent years, is being carried on with energy, in spite of the difiiculties placed in the way of the Dutch by the independence and courage of the natives, who have rendered the organization of their country a far more difficult problem than that of Java. The most thickly inhabited part of Sumatra is in the western mountains, and the scantiest population is found in the marshy wooded plains on the east. In 1912 the population of the island varied from 76 per square mile in the West Coast govermnent to about 11 per square mile in Jambi. Though the government of the West Coast is the most thickly peopled, the East Coast residency, which has a population slightly under the average for the whole of Sumatra, is economically the most important part of the island, and about one-third of the Europeans in Sumatra and four-fifths of the Chinese live there, though the majority of the Arabs live in Palembang. There were in 1900 only thirtynine settlements in Sumatra having a population of over a thousand, and only five of these had more than 5,000 inhabitants.
The
chief towns, with populations in 1905, are
Padang
(47,607),
164
INHABITANTS
Kock
(2,290),
Fort de
Padang Sidimpuan
(3,769),
(3,128), Sibolga (17,611) (8,976),
Benkulen
(7,721),
Telokbetong
Menggala
Palem-
^^bang (60,985), Jambi (8,815),
Medan
(14,250), Berigkalis (7,290),
'"Kuta Raja
(3,704).
Native Peoples
The peoples of Sumatra are ethnographically complicated, and there is, speaking generally, a marked difference between those living on the coasts, who have been for centmies in contact with foreigners, and the inland tribes who are still little known. From time to time many Arabs, Chinese, Hindus, Klings, and Bengalis have settled on the Sumatran coast, and HinduJavanese colonies were established for trading purposes at an early date in Palembang and Jambi. The mixed races which
have resulted from such settlement have learnt to produce for purposes of trade, and have reached a higher standard of civilization than the tribes of the interior, who have been in the past only sKghtly influenced by Hindu and Mohammedan culture, and are still at a comparatively low stage of development, though they can mostly read and write, wear clothing, and have
reached a certain state of proficiency in agriculture and the arts. The whole of the indigenous population had probably a common Malayo -Polynesian origin, but differences of habitat and economic condition, and isolation in separate groups, have caused the formation of many tribes, differing considerably one from another in appearance, customs, and language. In spite of the enormous natural riches of the country, the natives often lead a poverty-stricken existence, only a very small part of the land being under cultivation. They seU what they do not need of the products of their hunting and fishing, but gain little profit from this, or from the local trade in gambler, pepper, spices, &c., owing to the rapacity of the Chinese, who have the commerce of the island in their hands. Among the indigenous peoples those of the mountain country are more numerous and have reached a higher state of development than the plain-dwellers. The favourable influence of the mountain climate is noticeable in the case of the Bataks, and the most degraded of the peoples of Sumatra are found among tribes like the Kubus and Sakais who dwell in the lowlands. Sumatra has never been united under the rule of a native prince, but has always suffered from a division into small groups
SUMATRA
of people,
165
ment
which has prevented economic and industrial developthe scarcity of indigenous labour has also made the
exploitation of the island
by
foreigners a matter of difficulty.
means of communication and the extension of the holdings of European planters will probably result in the gradual subjugation and civilization of the tribes which are still outside the Dutch administration, and as the people are brought more closely under control, they should
of the
The slow improvement
increase rapidly in numbers, the scarcity of population in the island being largely due to the absence of hygiene and the
exhaustion of
women by
prematru'e marriage and hard work.
The
chief peoples of Sumatra, starting
from the north
of the
island, are the Achinese, the Gajos, the Bataks, the Malays, the
Menangkabau Malays, the Lebongs, the Rejangs, and the Lampongs. There are also some small and savage tribes living mostly in the forests of the East Coast, and the inhabitants of the various islands fringing Sumatra, chief amongst them being the people of Simalur, Nias, the Mentawei Islands, and Engano on the west, and Banka, Billiton, and the Riouw-Lingga Archipelago on the east. These various peoples, who differ considerably one from another, will
now
be separately described.
Achinese
The Achinese inhabit the ancient kingdom

of Simiatra,
of
Achin (Acheh,
of the Gajo
or in Dutch, Atjeh), which lies in the north-west promontory
and the whole
of
Sumatra to the north
country. In general they are thinner and smaller than the Malays, their There are noticeable skin is darker, and their eyes larger.
differences
between the people
of the coastal districts [orang
and those of the highlands (oraTig barok). None of the Achinese have a virtuous reputation, the highlanders being notorious thieves and murderers, and the lowlanders degenerate and intemperate. The highlanders are prouder and more courageous and independent than the lowlanders, who have come more into touch with strangers, but the main characteristic
tunong)
of the people has been said to be their love of warfare. Since they are daring and persevering, however, it is probable that
they
of
will
develop into an important people under the influence

rule.
European
166
INHABITANTS
The origin of the Achinese people is not known, but they are of mixed race. The clothing of highlanders and lowlanders is different, but both sexes wear the wide Achinese trousers. The usual food, which is eaten twice daily, is rice, with fish and vegetables, the people of the mountains being more frugal and simple in their requirements. Betel-nut is used universally, and many people smoke opium this habit is most prevalent in the
;
on the coasts, where the vices of found at their worst. The use of strong drink, the Achinese are however, is restricted to the upper classes. Achinese houses are much the same all over the country they stand on piles, and are divided into several rooms, with a back and front verandah, reached by steps. Annexes are often built for the accommodation of married daughters. Each house stands in a fenced courtyard, planted with fruit-trees and containing a well, and the smaller domestic animals and birds live under the houses in accordance with the common practice in Sumatra. The private room of the family owning the house is hung with cloth and covered with matting, but the Achinese are dirty, and their houses are always untidy, and are of very light construction, so that they are easily taken down and put together again. The villages, like the houses, are surrounded by a fence. They have been largely depopulated, owing to the inhabitants taking to the woods in order to carry on a guerilla war against the Dutch. The meneusah, the building in which sleep the young unmarried men, strangers, and sometimes those men whose mother lives in the village, but their wife elsewhere, usually stands outside the village. It is used for meetings and for religious observances, which are seldom carried out with much fervour or regularity. The custom of making the young men sleep apart is very ancient, and is found among both Mohammedan and pagan peoples in Sumatra. Achinese society is divided into families, and all the descendants of a common ancestor in the male line are members of the same tribe (hawom) though this family division has been superseded for governmental and administrative purposes by territorial divisions for a long period, and has little practical significance. Marriage is celebrated at an early age, often when
colonies of pepper-planters
;
the girl
is
eight or ten years old,
and the man
sixteen.
The wife
does not go to her husband's village to
live,
but has a room
SUMATRA
in her mother's house, where he visits her
;
167
the time during
arrangement endures depends on the size of the gift made to the bride's parents, each twenty-five dollars of the gift making it obligatory on them to support their daughter for a year. Divorce is rare, and only occurs after bitter quarrels between husband and wife, partly because of the large obligations to his wife's relations under which a man is placed. Polygamy is not common, except among the princes and chiefs, but slaves, who came mostly from Nias, and were kidnapped in large numbers up to a few years ago, were formerly kept as
this
which
The position of the Achinese women is high the kingdom was frequently ruled by women-sultans, and they are usually competent and intelligent. There are still many
concubines.
old
;
traces of the old matriarchal form of society, though the patri-
mother lives in her more or less a stranger, the children are brought up by her. The mother's uncle, however, is not responsible for his nephews and nieces as among the Menangkabau Malays, and the father has fuU facilities for concerning himseK with his children's welfare. If a man has more than one wife, they usually live in different villages, and the man divides his time between them and his own family, often also working away from home as a sailor, fisherman, or
archal system
is
now
general,
and
since the
is
parents' home, where the husband
planter.
Agriculture
is
the chief
is
Achinese, and rice
means of subsistence among the grown on the wet and dry systems. There
are a large number of uncultivated fields in the highlands, since the Achinese are by no means energetic agriculturists, but the land in the lowlands is better tilled. The fields are owned by the village as a community, and are used as a grazing ground by the villagers after the harvest is gathered. If a,ny one wishes
of any kind, he must enclose his piece of Pepper, sugar-cane, fruit-trees, &c., are grown, and cattle-breeding is carried on. In the lowlands, agriculture is the work of the men, but in many parts of the highlands the
to
grow a second crop
land.
women
people,
labour in the fields landowners hire companies of are paid in kind, to till their land. Silk- weaving is a considerable industry among the Achinese,
;
who
and there
are also goldsmiths, wood-carvers,
and shipwrights,
but the standard of industry is not very high, and both industry and agriculture have necessarily suffered greatly from the effects
108
of the long war.
INHABITANTS
There is a considerable trade on the coast in products from the interior. Th6 Achinese language, which is written in the Arabic character,
baru, or related to Malay, and is divided into four dialects lowland language, tunong, or highland language, pedis, and pasei. The state of education is naturally not advanced, but the children are taught to recite the Koran, and the Achinese have a considerable body of literature of their own, fables, stories, religious works, &c., largely in verse, which are partly in writing and partly handed down orally. The natives are very fond of competing in recitations of poetry, and performances of music
is
:
on the native instruments and orchestras are much in favour. As among the Javanese, feasts are indulged in on all important occasions, and the people love gaming. Many animals are kept
for fighting.
The Achinese are Mohammedans, and though they do not strictly, a large number make the pilgrimage to Mecca, and they lay great stress on the necessity for carrying on the Holy War, as the Dutch know to their cost. Circumcision is practised, and the teeth are often filed, though not, in the case of women, till after marraige. As with most of the Mohammedan peoples of the archipelago, the power of the adat exists side by side with that of the religious law of Islam.
observe their religious duties
Gajos
The Gajo country lies in the interior of the north of Sumatra, on a high plateau broken up and surrounded by forested mountains. The peaks rise to over 9,000 ft., and the Gajo settlements are five to seven days' journey from the coast. The population is grouped in the wide grassy valleys lying between the mountain ridges which break up the country, and divide it into the Tawar Lake district to the north the Dorot district (including Samarkilang) between the north and central chains the Gajo Luos district, or Great Gajoland, between the central and southern chains and Serbojadi in the mountains to the north-east. In many places the Gajos have expanded outside their enclosed and mountainous land they were estimated in 1912 as numbering 50,000 to 60,000, and half of the inhabitants live in Great
; ;
Gajoland
the country, however,

is
is
so thinly populated that the
settlements only form isolated points in the wilderness.
The
only means of transport
on the backs
of the natives themselves.
SUMATRA
and the export trade
is
]69
to the coast in cattle and forest products only sufficient to enable the Gajos to procure tobacco, salt, and the small luxuries of which they stand in need, though there is a considerable trade in horses with Achin.
The narrow forest paths are the only means of communication, and there is no relationship observable between settlement and
trade or communication
;
the Gajos are, in fact, a self-supporting

to about 1900 practically nothing
and agricultural people, and up was known of their country.
In spite of the way in which their country is cut up by the mountains, the Gajos form an ethnographical unit, all speaking one language, though they differ in appearance and speech in
They are related to the Bataks, and are probably a mixed race of Batak and Kabu origin, but owing to the long period during which they have been under Achinese suzerainty, they have adopted their clothing and manner of wearing the
different parts.
hair so that at first sight they resemble the Achinese more than the Bataks in general appearance. Each tribe has its own characteristics, but they have in general fiat faces, with deep-set eyes and a broad nose, and their hair is long and brown. In
character they are open and honest the women are shy of strangers.
the
men
are friendly, but

is rice,
They
are almost all agriculturists,
and the
chief crop
usually cultivated on the wet system, though cotton, sugar-cane,
The high land round Lake Tawar is than the comparatively low-lying Gajo Luos country. The districts which are the more favourable for ricecultivation are the most thickly inhabited, and the villages here are large and permanent, and surrounded by extensive fields, with flocks of horses and buffaloes. The steppe country and the pine woods, on the other hand, are very thinly settled, and the houses are mostly small, and built of bamboo these settlements are moved elsewhere, when in the course of a few years the cultivated ground round the village becomes exhausted. The permanent villages are well kept, and consist of long, weU-buHt houses of wood, roofed with leaves, and standing on piles. They are built at regular intervals along the broad village street, surrounded by gardens and separated from each other
maize, &c., are also grown.
much
less fertile
by hedges. Each house is inhabited by a number of families bearing the same name, the men and women living in different sides of the house, but each family has its own room and its own
170
INHABITANTS
two large galleries, one for the men and one for the women, which are common to the whole house, and are approached by a flight of steps, which is often beautihearth, while there are also
fully carved.
When
the patriarchal family becomes too large

in one house, another
is
to be
accommodated
built close by, so
that a whole village
may
consist of people all bearing the
same
name, and belonging to the same family. The young unmarried men live apart in a large building on the outskirts of the village, only taking their meals in their family house. This building, which is called the memassa or morosah, is also used for the accommodation of strangers, and is enclosed by a strong wooden wall. The messigit, the house of prayer, also stands outside the village it is not built on piles like the houses, and is often crowned with a roof of several stories. Such buildings are few, since the Gajos do not observe their rehgious duties at all strictly. The Gajos are clever craftsmen, and are accounted the best potters in the archipelago each house possesses a number of
; ;
and smiths, and make elaborately plaited and ornamented mats, whilst the women weave beautiful material for their own garments. Each community thus provides for its own needs, and there are no large markets as in Acheh. The making of their weapons and
decorated pots.
They
are also clever wood-carvers
the use of currency has been borrowed from Acheh.
The Gajos are Mohammedan by and
religion,
wield a considerable influence, but they are
and the priests by no means fanatical,
like all Indonesians they have many superstitious behefs about good and evil spirits, and contrive to combine the influence of the family adat with that of the Koran. The rite of circumcision is their chief religious ceremony. They are really a quiet people, but owing to their ancient subjugation to the kingdom of Achin, they have been obliged to take part in the confused fighting of the Achinese war, and have made a brave struggle
for their freedom.
tribes
The Gajos have no territorial divisions, but and families. The tribes do not live
;
are separated into

together, but are so that, though
scattered in different villages or kampongs
each tribe is under a single head, the kedjuron, each patriarchal group or family is governed by its own head or raja. Frequently
up into separate organizations, and The family is perpetuated through the males, and when there is no son in the familj'.
these local branches split
build a
new
village for themselves.
SUMATRA
171
a stranger, an Achinese, Malay, or Batak, is adopted in his place. Bataks and people from Mas were also frequently kept as slaves in the past, and these customs have caused a considerable
Women are not allowed outside their own village, except to make the pilgrimage to Mecca, which is rarely done. Wives are bought from other tribes, but have a fairly good position polygamy and divorce are both rare, and, the men do not contract marriage young,
admixture of foreign blood among the Gajos.
;
since
price,
it is
expensive.
The father
of the bride
must be paid
his
and the
festivities, at
which magnificent garments are
worn, last several days and nights.
Alas
.the
The Alas, hving in the fruitful valley of the middle course of Simpang Kiri, numbered about 8,000 in 1909. They have a strong strain of Malay blood, and mingle Batak, Gajo, and Malay influences in their culture. In spite of their close connexion with the Gajos, they do not gamble or smoke opium.
Bataks
The Bataks are a Malay people, estimated at a quarter of a million in number, and resembling in many respects the East Coast Malays, whose original home was in the mountainous country round Lake Toba, but they have spread over a large extent of country in the north of Sumatra, and now occupy the residency of Tapanuli, and part of the east coast, as well as their
ancient highland country.
They are divided into several groups who differ considerably and customs. The chief of these peoples are the Toba Bataks, who are far the most numerous, and live in the the Karo Bataks, to the north of centre round Lake Toba Lake Toba the Pakpak Bataks and the Dairi Bataks, living the Mandailings, who are Mohammedan in the Dairi country by religion, and have been much influenced by Malay culture, the Angkola Bataks, in in Mandaihng and Padang Lawas Anskola, Sipirok, &c., and the Timur and Simelungo Bataks to the east of Lake Toba. The Bataks may also be divided into gunong and dusun
in language
; ;
;
i. e. those still living in the comparatively inaccessible mountains, and those who have overflowed into the lower
peoples,
172
INHABITANTS
country of Langkat, Ueli, iSerdang, &c. The unproductive and comparatively inaccessible mountain or gunong country, where the ground is cut up by ravines and largely covered with forest, is naturally the most thinly populated the people are often semi-nomadic, moving to fresh ground every few years. Their villages are therefore smaller than the permanent villages in the lower or dusun country, where the land is more fruitful, and has
;
been largely cleared for tobacco cultivation, &c. In the Pakpak is covered with primeval forest, there are only about sixteen people to the square mile. The Bataks, however, seem to prefer their native highland country
country, for instance, which
to the
more
fertile
and
settled land
and
its isolated position,
shut in by mountains, enabled them, up to late years, successfully to resist all foreign influences.
Batak society is patriarchal in character, and is divided into and families (marga). A village community is composed" of the ruling family, i. e. that which first settled on the spot, another family related to the ruling family by marriage, and members of strange families who have settled there subsequently. The village is administered by a council of men, and the head {pengulu) is responsible for the community and is the leader in time of war these chiefs and their descendants form a sort of nobility. Slavery, which was formerly very common,
tribes
;
now a thing of the past. In parts, the land belongs to the family or the village, and those who are not members of the marga have the use of the ground they clear only for a certain
is
time.
Land-tenure
villages
differs considerably,
however, in different
districts.
and hquses of the different Batak tribes are also The Karo settlements are usually onlj' surrounded by a hedge and trees, but in some parts of the Batak country they are fortified with earthen walls and bamboo palisades. Each village has usually a square in which stands the block for stamping out the rice, and the town-hall which forms a meeting-place for the villages, and where the unmarried young men and the strangers sleep. The houses, with their picturesque horned roofs, are as a rule built close together, and there are often rice-barns and buffalo-sheds in addition. The Karo houses always have a long passage running through them, with the family hearths on each side, and a balcony at each end, but the Pakpak houses have a central hearth reached by a ladder.
The
divergent in character.
'
',
SUMATRA
and a
173
gallery in the upper part of the roof for the women's use. In the Toba country many of the houses are miserable huts of straw or clay. All the houses, which are very dark and smoky inside, stand on piles, two to eight feet above the ground, and consist of a large room which is divided up by mats at nights sometimes twelve families or more inhabit one house. The buildings are often beautifully decorated, as the Bataks are clever craftsmen in wood, ivory, and copper. Marriage among the Bataks is exogamic wives are purchased and leave their own tribe and family for that of their husband. The women are kept in a subordinate position; they have nominally no possessions of their own, and are always overworked, since the larger part of the field-work is in their hands, but they are kindly treated and content. Polygamy is common, and the moral standard is not in general high. The Bataks have for long been notorious as cannibals, but it is said that the custom, which was largely punitive and ritualistic in character, has now disappeared. They are, on the whole, a quiet
;
and easy-going people. The Batak girls are often good looldng, with round faces, large eyes, and well-formed features. The teeth are usually filed and blackened in the north and centre of the Batak country, and heavy silver earrings, necklaces, and rings are much worn. The Bataks often wear clothes of Malay or European origin, though the mountain peoples still spin and weave their own stuffs, and wear the original native dress. The Bataks are almost all engaged in agriculture. Rice cultivation, both wet and dry, forms the chief means of livelihood, and maize, coffee, fruit-trees, and vegetables are largely gfown. Horses, cattle, buffaloes, and pigs are commonly kept, Batak education is on especially in the mountain country. high plane, and many work as teachers, doctors, a comparatively and traders at the local markets. The inland trade has grown to considerable dimensions under Dutch rule, but the export trade from the mountain country is very small, except for the horses and cattle taken to the east coast, and the benzoin and rubber trade of the Pakpak country, the profits of which go,
not to the natives, but to the middlemen. There is little connexion between trade and settlement, and paths are still largely the only means of communication. Parties of Bataks come down to the coast to get salt and other necessaries, and Malays go up
174
INHABITANTS
Many Bataks are European undertakings, or as traders
to the highlands to collect forest produce.

also to be found working in
and shopkeepers in the coastal country. The Bataks formerly ruled over the larger part of northern Sumatra, and reached a fair degree of civilization through the
influence of Hindu-Javanese settlers, which is in their buildings
still
to be observed
and ornaments. There are traces of Hinduism also in the old pagan religion, which is still prevalent in the northern part of the country, though Mohammedanism is widely spread in the south, and Christianity has also made considerable headway among them, particularly in the centre of the country many pagan customs, however, still flourish in connexion with birth, death, marriage, and agricultural operations. A number of dialects are spoken by the Bataks, which may be divided into the Toba group and the Dairi group, the former including the Toba, Angkola, and MandaUing languages, the latter those of the Dairi, Pakpak, and Karo country. The dialects of the country east of the Toba Lake, Timur, and Simelungo, form a link between the two groups. The Batak script is of Hindu origin there is not a large amount of written literature in existence, but the natives are fond of relating stories, which are handed down from mouth to mouth, of playing and singing, and of dancing. Their leisure time is also spent in various games and amusements which give scope for their innate quickness and cunning. The Bataks respond quickly to education, and under good guidance, will probably develop very
; ;
rapidly.
Malays
The Malays
(using the
name
in
its
narrow
sense, as
apphed
to a particular tribe) differ from the other peoples of Sumatra,
who
are
all
inland races, in that they are a seafaring people,
who
have in the course

archipelago.
pelago,
of time emigrated to all the coasts of the
The only parts where they live as a racial unit are Malacca, the east coast of Sumatra, the Riouw-Lingga ArchiThe Malay emigrants have naturally elements through racial intermixture, and even the Malays of Sumatra, inhabiting as they do in Palembang one of the chief trading centres of the island, have a considerable strain of Javanese blood, derived from early settlers, and have not preserved their peculiar characteristics in the same way as
incorporated
and Palembang.
many
SUMATRA
of isolated
175
have the Menangkabau Malays, who have undergone a process

development.
;
The Malays have a light-brown, sometimes an olive skin their hair is thick and smooth, and beards and moustaches are very little worn. They are shorter than Europeans, but strongly
built,
with broad,
flat faces,
noses,
and
large thick-lipped mouths,
prominent cheek-bones, small flat and they are on the whole
a fine-looking people, particularly the women.
The Malays are intelhgent, polite, and friendly, though they and mistrustful with strangers. They are talkative and humorous, devoted to sport and gaming, but not addicted to strong drink. They are quick to imitate, and make good workmen, when they possess the necessary power of perseverance, but they are lazy and have no idea of regularity or of the value of time, and are stigmatized by some observers as cruel, untrustworthy, and revengeful. The Bataks, in spite of their independent nature, have been found more satisfactory workers in the tobacco plantations than the Malays, who can earn a livelihood with very little exertion by planting rice on the tobacco-fields, after the tobacco is gathered. Though they are clean in their persons, and love fine clothes and adornments, their houses are dirty and untidy. The Malays have the feeling of tribal relationship very strongly developed they are extremely superstitious Mohammedans by
are reserved
;
religion.
Since they are a cosmopolitan people, they have carried their language all over the archipelago, and it forms a lingua franca The number of people for traders, officials, and missionaries. who speak it as a mother-tongue was only about three million in 1905, including some half -million Chinese and nondistricts of Sumatra are thinly Malays do not seem to multiply rapidly, as populated, and the the Javanese do.
Malay
natives.
The Malay
Menangkabau Malays
The Menangkabau Malays form a remnant of the primitive Malay race, which has undergone separate development from the other Malay peoples, owing to its isolated position. They now inhabit the Padang Highlands and the neighbouring country, but the ancient kingdom of Menangkabau covered the larger part of Central Sumatra, and owing to the long period
176
INHABITANTS
during which they have been a powerful and important people, they have attained a considerable degree of civilization. Though
they are not devoted parents, so that their children become independent at an early age, and receive little or no education, the Malays of Menangkabau are capable of development, and learn very quickly, when they have a suitable opportunity. They have a keen artistic sense, and skilful fingers, so that they are famed as craftsmen and though they are not particularly clever or strenuous agriculturists, they are first-rate traders. They have, however, many bad points, and are described as untruthful and dishonest arrogant to their inferiors and servile to their superiors intemperate in food and drink, and un;
cleanly in their persons

wives.
fellows,
They when
to their
injury.
and notoriously unfaithful to their work and gossip in company with their quarrels usually ensue. They are deeply attached ancestral customs, obstinate, and unforgetful of anj'
;
love to
race, of
The Menangkabau Malays are a strong and weU-developed middle height. The forehead is broad, and lower in the
in the men, so that
it is
women than
face
is
customary for the
women
The
to shave the hair in front to give an appearance of height.
square, with prominent cheek-bones, the eyes are bright
and rather protuberant, and the nose small with wide nostrils. The teeth are filed and blackened, and huge ear-ornaments are worn by the women. The men usually wear their coarse black hair short, and few have a beard the women dress their hair in various different ways, and the children and young people are
;
often decorated with white paint, especially at festivals.

clothing varies according to the district
;
at
home
or at
The work
men only wear a head-covering and short trousers or a piece of cloth, but at different times many more elaborate garments are put on. The women wind a piece of stuff round the body which falls to the feet, and over it often wear a shawl or scarf, with many ornaments of wood, copper, gold, or silver. The household industries of the Menangkabau Malays are manifold the men are smiths, boat-builders, wood-carvers, and
the
;
they work in lead, and dig for gold. The beautiful women make are renowned, though European stuffs are now much used. Their weapons, houses, and ornaments are finely decorated, the houses are built of wood or bamboo, with a horned roof of leaves, and usually stand on piles. In some
painters
;
materials which the
SUMATRA
parts they are surrounded
177
by gardens, where the domestic animals are kept, and coco-nut palms are grown. In other districts they stand close together in a clearing. Near the houses are the rice-barns, which are often beautifully decorated. The back part of the interior of the houses is divided into separate sleeping apartments, and the front forms the family living room the door is reached by a ladder. In each village are several communal buildings, such as a council house, a mosque, a school, and an inn. Markets are held in the large square once or twice a week. Several families bearing the same patronymic live in one house, each mother with her children having a separate apartment. A number of houses together form a parin duan, and several of these larger communities a tribe. Marriage
;
between members
Society
is
of the
same
tribe is forbidden.
based on the matriarchate, i. e. descent and inheritance are in the female line. When a woman marries a man, and bears him children, she does not leave her home, but continues to live with her kinsfolk on the mother's side, and the head of the household is her uncle, who takes the place of a father to his nephews and nieces. A married man has thus no home of his own, and visits his wife only at night, spending the rest of the time in his mother's house. The names, property, and privileges of the children all derive from the mother's side. The women are naturally influential among the Menangkabau Malays, and as they are hard-working and thrifty this is no doubt partly the reason of the prosperous condition of their country. The Menangkabau Malays are divided into, the upper classes (which include the descendants of the princes, the priests, the heads of the different tribes and the councillors), the lower classes, and formerly the slaves and bondmen as a third class. The differences between the classes are not strongly accentuated.
The people
hunting.
live chiefly
by
agriculture, trade, fishing,
and
Uncultivated ground is the property of the family or the village, by which alone permission to collect the products of the forest is given except in the case of wood, honey, sugarcane, and resin. The chief crops are rice (grown both wet and dry), pepper, indigo, coffee, tobacco, gambler, maize, and barley. The natives are disinclined to work harder than is necessary to supply their own needs, but they are very successful in agriculture
and
in collecting forest produce,
and are renowned
traders, so that
NETHERLANDS INDIA
though
retail
trade flourishes throughout the

JJ
178
INHABITANTS
Padang highlands, there are few Chinese merchants in the

Cattle-breeding is not so well developed as agriculture, but horses, buffaloes, and goats are much used. Menangkabau Malay is spoken in the government of Sumatra West Coast, in the upper part of Jambi, and on the upper Kwantan. It is one of the two chief branches of bhe Malay language, and probably the more ancient. The literature of the language is mainly concerned with legendary tales, and is largely poetical in form. In old times the Menangkabau Malays used the Javanese script, judging by inscriptions of the Hindu period, but now they use the Arab alphabet. Hinduism left, indeed, but little impression on the Malays, and there are only a few words of Sanskrit origin in their language. The Menangkabau laws, which are preserved in
country.
writing, are relics of the ancient
kingdom
still
in force.
Lehongs
The Lebongs are a Malay people, living in Lebong (RejangLebong), a highland district on the west coast of Sumatra. They numbered some 3,700 in 1905, having decreased largely in the previous century. They are a strong, good tempered, and
hospitable folk, devoted to gaming, which impoverishes
of them, even in a fruitful land like Lebong.
many
In manners and
customs they closely resemble the other Malay races of central Sumatra. Their houses are distinctive the roofs, which are of rwmhia leaves or split bamboo, are flat the walls are of bark, and the pillars are carved and painted. The spacious and weUbuilt villages stand in a square, with the houses close together, and few trees to be seen. The women wear many bracelets and head ornaments, and colour their eyelids blue. The Lebongs are Mohammedans, but as usual among Malay peoples they conserve many remnants of their pagan rehgion most of the men speak Menangkabau Malay, but Rejangese is their native tongue, and they have a fairly extensive literature. The population is divided into patriarchal families, called marga,
: ;
and the chiefs of the families of the villages are responsible to the Dutch administration. The men are largely occupied in bird-catching and fishing, but rice, sugar-cane, tobacco, &c., are grown coffee cultivation is becoming more and more common, and coffee is exported to Muara Bliti for Palembang, with birds' nests and cardamom. Cattle are few, and industry is not highly
; .
SUMATRA
179
developed, though there is a considerable amount of silk- weaving, pottery-making, wood-carving, &c. Before the establishment
of Dutch rule, the Lebongs were largely independent. Owing to the healthy climate the infant mortahty is comparatively low, but the people have suffered much from cholera epidemics.
Rejangs
living in
are also a branch of the great Malay family, Rejang in the west of Palembang, and influenced no doubt by Javanese immigration but they are a much less tractable and hospitable people than their neighbours, the Lebongs, and their taste for fighting and robbery has given trouble both to the princes of Palembang and to the Dutch government.
;
The Rejangs
They are Mohammedans, with the usual admixture of paganism, and a strong belief in good and evil spirits. They are divided into four margas, and their houses, which resemble those of the Javanese, have a projecting roof over a verandah and stand on piles. The villages resemble those of Lebong, and cultivation is carried on on the same lines as in that district, but cardamom is not grown. Coffee cultivation has become of great importance The Rejangs maintained their indein the last fifty years. pendence for a long time, though many of them emigrated to Pasimiah and Benkulen, where they came under the rule of the they were estimated as numbering about Sultan of Bantam eight thousand in 1905. Their script and language are Hindu in origin, but contain many Malay words.
;
Lampongs The Lampongs inhabit the district of the same name in the south of Sumatra, and are thought to form part of the indigenous
population of Sumatra, with a considerable admixture of Javanese blood. They have probably possessed a fairly high degree of civilization since Hindu times, and they live a settled agricultural life. They are divided into tribes on the communal system, and the descendants of the first chief of the Lampongs are held in great honour, and act as judges, though they take no part in the administration, which is carried on by the elder of the The country is thinly village and the heads of the families.
villages usually lie
The peopled, and the population is only increasing slowly. some distance apart along the rivers (though
village life
on the south coast they are more numerous), and the
M2
180
centres round the
INHABITANTS
communal house, the haU, where the council The bamboo
;
meets, feasts are given, and strangers lodged.
houses, which stand round the hale, are built high above the ground on piles, and are sometimes painted and decorated they have often two or even three stories, with several rooms on each floor, and each house stands in its own piece of ground. Many differing judgements have been passed on the qualities They of the Lampongs, but they are mostly unfavourable. pay great attention to their innumerable social distinctions and dignities, which are bought by all who can afford it, and every one aspires to sit on the seat of honour (papadun) at banquets, a position only to be reached by those who have plenty of money to spend on feasts, and no stain on their family name. High titles formerly granted by the Sultan of Bantam are also borne by many people. Apart from the respect given to the bearers of such honours, they can command higher dowries
for their daughters, since marriage
by purchase
is
the general
rule
among the Lampongs, the
wife becoming the property of
relative.
her husband, and, after his death, of his brother or other male There are perhaps more forms of exogamic marriage
in existence
among them than among any
other people of the
archipelago.
age for against the wishes of the couple

discretion.
Engagements are often entered into at a very early family or political reasons, but are not consummated
when they reach years of The unmarried women wear large numbers of silver ornaments, and display their dowry in this manner at feasts. The Lampong language has no resemblance to Malay, but has more afifinity with Batak and Sundanese. The Lampongs are largely Mohammedan, and the old adat is giving place more and more to the law of Islam.
Primitive Tribes of Sumatra and Adjacent Islands
The most primitive tribes of Sumatra have in many cases become Islamized in late years, and they all take a pride in copying the language, manners, and customs of the Malays when
they are brought into contact with them.
several small tribes
still
There are, however,
living in their original primitive con-
dition, particularly the
Kubus
in Jambi, the Sakais, Tapungs,
and Akits in Sumatra East Coast, the Lubus in Mandailing, the Benua in the Riouw-Lingga Archipelago, and the Orang darat or Orang gunong of Banka and Billiton.
SUMATRA
their absorption
181
These peoples are decreasing in numbers, partly owing to
by neighbouring and more civilized peoples, and partly owing to their susceptibility to various diseases. In 1915 there were about 400 Kubus living an entirely uncivilized life in the Duwabelas Mountains, whilst there were 1,925 Lubus in Mandailing in 1912, and 300 Akits in Siak in 1908 in the same
condition
1909.
:
the Sakais were said to be rapidly decreasing in
and kindly, but extremely shy (though the Tapungs, in the basins of the Tapung Kiri and Tapung Kanan rivers, are less so than the others) they hve an isolated life in the forests, despised by the Malays, from whom they obtain necessities by barter. Physically they are of mixed origin, and there are many individuals with curly hair, especially among the Kubus in general, with the exception of the Lubus, they differ considerably from the Malay type. The Sakais are thought to resemble closely the Veddas of Ceylon. The Kubus live a wandering life, buildijag shelters of leaves and subsisting by hunting and on forest produce the Sakais and Akits grow a little rice, but are semi-nomadic, building miserable little huts, and live largely on tapioca, and by hunting and fishing, as do the Lubus, who have, however, advanced far enough towards civilization to wear some clothing. The Tapungs are more developed and intelligent, and are often good craftsmen their country is on the trade route from east central Sumatra to
All these peoples are peaceable
;
:
Singapore, and there

circulation.
Rice
is
is
is a considerable amount of money in grown on the upper Tapung, and the land
along the rivers
very
fruitful.
Simalur
The people of Simalur are few in number and live mostly on The original inhabitants speak a variety of dialects, but Malay is understood, and Malays and people from Achin and Mas have settled on the island and mixed with the natives. The people, who are good-tempered and gentle, are poor and undeveloped, and since all they need is provided by nature, they
the coast.
are disinclined to labour, only a small proportion of the land along the coast being under cultivation. The island is famous
which are built by the natives, and also for its Goods exported are not bartered, but are paid for in copper money.
for the ships
buffaloes.
182
INHABITANTS
Nias
Nias is the most thickly populated of the islands of the Sumatran west coast, but estimates of the number of its inhabitants vary largely. The origin of the natives is uncertain, but they resemble the Bataks in many respects. The people of the northern plains of the island differ considerably from those of the south
and appearance the latter are more prosperous and and better-developed physically than the former. The the skin of the Niasese varies from light yellow to light brown women, who are well-built, though they have a peculiar walk due to the heavy burdens which they carry, are much sought after by the Malays. Though the people are intelligent and imaginative, they bear a bad character for treachery, theft, and intemperance vendettas between families, and villages are endless, and though the natives work weU away from their own island, in their homes their typie is wasted in idleness, and their substance in costly entertainments and gold ornaments, so that they are constantly in debt. Yet they do not smoke opium or gamble, and are a gay, good-natured, and hospitable people the Niasese of the south in particular are brave and seKsacrificing, and sexual morality is generally high, since any lapse
in language
:
energetic
is
severely punished.
The Niasese are clever builders. The houses stand on pUes, and have a round or pointed roof with windows in it in the centre is the common room, where the unmarried men sleep, and where the wooden statues of the household gods are hung, and round it are the separate rooms for the different families living in the house. The entrance is in the floor of the central room, and is reached by a ladder. The houses of the chiefs and notables are often very costly, and in front of them, and also
;
at the entrance to the viUage, stand statues or decorated seats
wood or stone. The villages in the north usually stand on a steep hiU, and in the south, where they are larger and lie on level ground, they are fortified with double walls, necessitated by the constant wars between one settlement and another. For the same reason the Niasese always carry weapons, and houses standing alone outside a village are seldom met with. In most parts of the island the men wear only a loin-cloth, and the women a short skirt, though in the more prosperous south, and where the influence of missionof
NIAS
aries has penetrated,
;
183
more attention is paid to clothing the ceremonial costmne and ornaments of a chief are usually very elaborate and costly. Tattooing of a simple character is common the teeth are filed, and the rite of circumdsion is observed, though
it
has no religious significance.
The Niasese are good and artistic
craftsmen in gold, silver, and wood, though their work is far below the level of that of the Malays. The women plait and weave. Marriage is exogamic wives are procured by purchase, and taken by the husband to his own village, only the well-to-do
:
more than one wife. At a man's death, his wife and property goes tjo his brother, and his body is kept for a long period in the house, till the requisite number of pigs has been sacrificed, the pig being the chief domestic animal of the Niasese, and playing an important part in their domestic and
affording
all his
life. Feasts, accompanied by dancing, music, and drinking of palm-wine, are given to celebrate every important event. The hereditary chiefs of the tribal families and villages are
religious
much
assisted
by a
council of notables, which meets in the village square
and in the communal house in the south, and administers a rudimentary sort of justice. Debtors (who are freed on payment of their debt), orphans, and prisoners-of-war
in the north of the island,
are kept as slaves, but the slave-trade with the mainland which flourished formerly is now almost at an end, owing to the efforts
Dutch Government. The land belongs to those who settle and is inherited in the direct line. Trade, which is still largely carried on by barter, is in the hands of the Malays, Arabs, and Chinese, though in the south, where traders are few, the Masese go themselves to sell their produce in the towns on the Sumatran coast. The Malays and
of the
it,
on
Achinese have been settled for centuries in the north of the

island.
The Niasese are pagans human sacrifices are still made at the burial of a chief, and head-hunting and other deeds of violence are stUl common in the interior and south of the island, though the slow spread of Dutch influence will probably bring the native
:
chiefs to order before long.
constant succession of stand in the way of the development of the Niasese, who are really capable of improvement.
The lack of a written script, the petty wars, and the power of the adat
184
INHABITANTS
Mentawei Islands
The people of the Mentawei Islands, who were estimated as numbering about 12,000an 1905, are probably of Malayo -Polynesian origin, and are thus related to the indigenous population of
middle height, the women being short and is a golden-brown, their hair black and The mouth is less prominent slightly wavy, and their eyes dark. than in the case of the Malays, and the nose broad and flat. They are thought to resemble strongly the people of Hawaii, and the likeness is heightened by the custom common to both races of wearing flowers in the hair and behind the ears. The Mentawei islanders tattoo the body and face, and only wear a single garment, a hat of leaves or bark, and ornaments of coral and brass-wire, since they have no knowledge of weaving. They are a cheerful and gentle people, though undeveloped and simple, and given to some objectionable customs, such as burying the limbs of a man, who is killed for the purpose, under the piles of a new house. Though they are a peaceful folk among themselves they are inimical to strange peoples they raid the neighbouring coasts and islands and attack any ship they meet with on their voyages. Weapons, chiefly bows and poisoned arrows, are always carried. The houses of the Mentawei natives are solidly bmlt of bamboo and atap, and stand on pUes, the gabled roof often reaching down to the floor at each side. The man is the head of his own family and marriage is either exogamic or endogamic the women are kindly treated, and immorality among married people is most severely punished, though sexual morality among the young people is very low. Divorce is forbidden, and polygamy is not practised. Religion consists in fetichism and worship of good and evil spirits the natives have no temples, but they set up a bamboo cylinder in a forest sanctuary and decorate it with Sumatra.
They are
of
thick-set
their skin
scraps of cloth, leaves,
and flowers. The chief occupations of the Mentawei islanders are fishing and hunting, though no large animals are found in the islands, and fish, flesh, and sago form the chief part of their food. Agriculture
is
at a low state of development, but coco-nut palms,
sugar-cane and tobacco are grown. The field-work and the fishing are carried on by both men and women. The islands are covered with forest, and most of the people
fruit-trees,
MENTAWEI ISLANDS
live
185
carried
on the coast and along the rivers, communication being on by water. Since the natives are a sea-faring race, the
;
chief industry consists in the building of large sailing-boats

forest products are also collected,
and are bartered with the
Malays and Chinese of the west coast of Sumatra. There is no central administration in the islands, the people being governed by their own village chiefs, who are, however, rather councillors than rulers. The chief amusement of the natives consists in feasts, accompanied by dancing and beating of drums. In their houses, language, and culture they strongly
resemble the Karo Bataks.
Engano The people of the island of Engano, who are Malay in type, are muscular and weU-buill, though short but they are neither
;
long-lived nor healthy, so that the race
is
rapidly decreasing,
and the natives only numbered 329

settlers
in 1914 apart from the
on the island. This state of affairs is probably due to lax and disease. Although the island was the first place to be reached by the Dutch in the archipelago, it is still outside their rule, and is only occasionally visited by of&cials from Benkulen. There are a certain number of Chinese and Malay traders on the coast, where they are much mixed with
morals, internecine warfare,
the natives, with

forest products.
whom
they barter tobacco, materials, &c., for
The inland Enganese were, up to a few years ago, an entirely and naked people, but now they wear Malay clothing and occupy themselves in agriculture, fishing, and collecting They are a harmless, honest, and cleanly forest products. people, and gambling and opium-smoking are unknown amongst
uncivilized
During recent years their curious houses, which looked perched on tall poles, have given place to the common Malay type of building. The people are pagans, but a mission-post is making many converts.
them.
like beehives
Biouw-Lingga Archipelago
The Benua or Orang darat of Rembang, Galang, and Batam, in the Riouw-Lingga Archipelago, who numbered about 1,000 in 1905, form the original population of this archipelago, where
there are
now
large
numbers
of Chinese, Malays,
and Buginese.
The Chinese
rule the entire economic
and
financial life of the
186
islands,
INHABITANTS
and shipping,
agriculture, and finance are largely in their Some of the smaller islands are inhabited entirely by Malays and Buginese, the former living mostly in the small
hands.
coastal villages, since they are less clever agriculturists than
and heathen woods, sheltering people, leading a wandering life in the marshy under roofs of boughs and leaves, and subsisting on the smaller forest animals and on rice, which they obtain by barter from the
the Buginese.
The Benua are an
uncivilized
and timid people, though tiey speak Malay, in addition to their Own language, they are quite different in type from the Malays, having round faces, with small noses, and low flat foreheads. Their hair is long and stiff, and they have a considerable growth of it on their bodies, so that the Malays
Chinese and Malay traders.
They
;
are a quiet
leading an independent existence
call
them orang-utan. The chief town of the Riouw-Lingga Archipelago

4,088).
is
Tanjong
Pinang (population in 1905,
Banka and
of the islands of
Billiton
The Orang darat and Orang gunong are the indigenous people Banka and Billiton. They are Malays of a very mixed origin, and of a low type, both physically and intellectually and though gentle and honest, they are apathetic, unintelligent, and weakly, and with hardly any industries of their own, and no love of work. Of late years they have collected in villages and live along the roads which join the tin-mines to the district capital, but agriculture is in a low state of development among them, and they take but a small part in the exploitation of the minerals of the islands, living largely by hunting and fishing, and by collecting' forest products. Though they are submissive to their chiefs, they do not show them any particular respect, since there are no class distinctions among them. They are Mohammedans, though they still hold many pagan
;
beliefs.
The chief town of Banka is Muntok (population in and that of Billiton, Tanjong Pandan (4,900).
1905, 4,699),
Orang
The name
of
Latjt (Sea People)
Orang
laut (sea people) is often
fishermen of the archipelago
who
live
used for all the mostly on the sea, but in
ORANG LAUT
its
187
narrow sense it refers particularly to the sea-faring race of the China Sea. These people are well-made and strong, and their
is sometimes curly. They used to live entirely in their boats with their families, dogs, and cats, and they were redoubtable pirates but now many of them are peaceable and industrious
;
hair
on the coast in small houses standing in the and often working as wood-choppers or cooHes when the weather is unpropitious, and taking to their boats to fish and collect tortoises, trepang, and agar-agar when it is fine. These ships, which have sails and masts, and are decked, are from 18 to 25 ft. long, with a, beam of about 6 ft., and in them the
fisher-folk, living
water,
Orang
laut
sesses its
own
can make surprisingly long voyages each family posboat. Marriage with members of the same tribal
;
family is forbidden.
Justice is administered by the hatin or chief, whose ofiice is hereditary, but in most cases the people are under the rule of the local authority of the island which they make their head-quarters. They always journey in companies,
of a family are strongly attached to each other. Their clothes resemble those of the poorer Malays, and Malay is largely understood and spoken, but they use their own languages
and the members
amongst themselves. The Orang laut are found in Banka, BOliton, the Riouw-Iingga Archipelago, on the Sumatran east coast, &c., and in different parts they are known by different names and have varying characteristics. They have several settlements between the Reteh and the Kampas on the east coast of Sumatra, and in the lingga Archipelago they live mostly in Dasi Strait and limbong Bay, where they were estimated to number 750 in 1905. In Banka, where they are employed to transport tin and rice by water and to load ships, and are described as strong and clever workers, they are known as Orang Rajat in the Jebu district, and as Orang Sekah in the Blinju district and in Banka Strait. In the Karimon Islands, where they live in miserable little settlements on the muddy shore, they are known as Orang Tambus, and in Borneo and Celebes as Orang Bajo. In the northwest of Borneo they have settled on the coast, though they still live a wandering life in the north-east. In the settlement made between the pirates of Borneo and the Sultans of Beran and Bulungan, the Bajo were refused the islands of Derawan and Panjang and only allowed to settle in Buja Island to the south. In Celebes there are Orang Bajo on the Tomini Gulf, where they
188
INHABITANTS
trade in the Banggai Archipelago, in Bachian, and on the southeastern peninsula. They are also found in Sumbawa, and on the
islands off the nortji coast of Flores.
Borneo
Population
:
Numbers
:
Dutch Borneo may be divided into two classes who probably overwhelmed an indigenous Negrito race of whom no traces can be now found and the Malay and other settlers. Owing to the central position
The people
of
the Dayaks, an Indonesian people,
Malays from Sumatra, Buginese from in very early times, and the Dayak peoples have been pressed back into the interior on all sides by foreign settlers, who call themselves Malays, though the name represents a social and religious status rather than membership of any ethnic group. A large number of Chinese have been attracted to the south-west district by the search for gold, and have penetrated far into the interior, but though they intermarry with the people of the country, they
of the island, emigration of
Celebes,
and Javanese from Java began
preserve their
own characteristics, and are constantly recruited by fresh arrivals of their fellow-countrymen. Though the pagan Dayaks live mostly in the interior, and there is a thriving popula-
tion of Mohammedan Malays all round the coast, the population cannot be divided into Malay coastal peoples and natives of the inland country, since Malays have penetrated far up the navigable rivers of the island (which form the only useful means of com-
munication), and in particular up the Barito in Sarawak there are conversely Dayaks living on the coast. The Malays are much
;
mixed with the Dayaks by intermarriage, the children of such unions being always Malay and Mohammedan and Dayaks who are converted to Islam also always term themselves Malays, since the name of Davak is synonymous with head-hunting and paganism. The Malays are most numerous in the north and north-west, and in the south they have almost absorbed the
;
Javanese, of whom there were at one time probably a considerable
number.
settlers
It
is,
in fact, only the Chinese, Arab,
who have
and Buginese preserved their independent ethnological

official returns,
character.
Dutch Borneo, according to

inhabitants in 1912, of
had about 1,572,460
whom
1,127 were Europeans, 138,747
BORNEO
Chinese,
189
foreign Orientals.
and 4,580 Arabs and other
This
figure is probably, however, too small,
the population of the whole of part of Dutch Borneo, on the basis of the taxation figures, has only two or three people to the square mile, and it is only in
and one authority. gives Borneo as 3,000,000. The greater
Pontianak
(16,708)
(population
fifty
in
1905,
20,984)
and Banjermasin
population rises
of these
first
and
their neighbourhood that the
above forty or
is
per square mile.

;
The
towns
the capital of West Borneo the second that of South and East Borneo. The other principal towns, with populations in 1905, are Sambas (12,096) in West Borneo, and Samarinda
(4,733)
and Martapura
are, in all, only thirteen
5,000.
South and East Borneo. There towns with populations from 1,000 to The people are mostly settled on the big rivers and their
(4,298) in
tributaries, separated in the interior
by uninhabited
stretches
of forest.
Dayahs
The Dayaks
are divided into a complexity of tribes, speaking
distinct political units they development, since some live a wandering life like the Kubus of Sumatra, whilst others are almost as civilized as the Malays. They may be divided into the Kayan group (comprising most of the tribes of Central Borneo), the
different languages,
and forming
differ also largely in
tribes of the south-east, the tribes of the west,

tribes.
and the nomad The chief peoples of the first group are the Kayans on the Bahaus, on the the Mendalam and the Upper Rejang Middle and Upper Mahakkan the Kenijas, in the interior of Kutei and on the Upper Baram the Kinyins in the interior of Bulungan. All these tribes come from the basin of the Kayan River (the Apu Kayan or Po Kejin), and have established them;
selves on- the different rivers
which they now inhabit, mixing they mostly form their with the tribes already settled there
;
names by prefixing the syllable ma to the name of their river. The general name of Ulu-Ngaju (highlanders) which is applied to the tribes of the second group, the people of the south and
east of Borneo,
is
inappropriate for the people hving on the lower
course of the rivers. Among these tribes mention may be made of the Biajus (on the Barito and in Buntok), the Ot-Danom (on the Upper Kahayan, Kapuas, and Barito), and the Olan-Maangan
(also in
Buntok).
There
is
no general name for the many
tribes
190
of the west,
INHABITANTS
among whom the chief are the Embaluk Dayaks Upper Kapuas), the Ulu Ajer Dayaks (on the Upper Melawi), the Sekadau Dayaks, and Ribuns (in Sanggau and Sekadau) the Desa Dayaks, who are thought to be descended from Hindu-Javanese colonists (in Tajan), the Manyuke Dayaks (in Landak). The people of the last two groups are far less warlike and energetic than those of the first group, the Kayan
(on the
whose hands they have suffered much in the past. country physically are the Kenyas, but the Kayans are the more skilled in handicrafts. In addition to the settled tribes, small groups of nomad peoples are to be found in all parts of Borneo, living a wandering life in the forests, of whom the chief are the Punans of Central Borneo and Sarawak. The Dayaks differ considerably in physique, but on the whole they are a well-built people, and differ little from the Malays, except that they are somewhat taller, lighter in colour, and more active. The black hair is as a rule smooth or wavy, curly hair being an exception the skin brown or dark yeUow, the eyes bright, the nose flat but not broad, and the mouth and lips comparatively thin and small. Especially in youth, their features are often well-formed. Generally speaking, they are pleasant, hospitable, honest, and frank. They are temperate and cleanly in their persons, kind to their children and thoughtful for their companions, and in spite of the head-hunting which formed, or forms, a part of their religion, they are not as a rule brave or warlike. On the whole their morality is higher than that of the Malay settlers, who have had a distinctly deleterious effect on the Dayaks, though the low state of morality and the excessive
peoples, at
The
finest people of the
indulgence at religious feasts noticeable among the tribes of the Upper Barito and Upper Melawi cannot be put down wholly to
In these respects the Kayan peoples stand on The Dayaks are usually very conservative, and lack energy and self-confidence, but they are intelligent and artistic, and they learn foreign tongues with ease. There are a number of government schools in Dutch Borneo, but the advaninfluence.
Malay
a
much
higher level.
tages of education are not, as yet,
much
appreciated.
Dayak
clothing
is
simple, consisting usually of a loin-cloth,
with a small rattan mat hanging hat for outdoor use.

slendatig, or a coat
down at
plaited rattan round the head, for the men,
the back, and a band of and a coat and large

skirt
The women wear a short and a hat like the men. None
with a
of the people
BORNEO
now go
191
naked. The native material made of bark is now being superseded by imported cotton material. Both men and women
wear old and valuable beads of agate, gold, or pearl, and many bracelets, ankle-rings, and earrings, the ear-lobes being often enormously distended by the wearing of heavy rings, or by discs
wood covered Avith gold. Tattooing is very common, particularly among the Kayans (though some tribes who have adopted Malay clothing have given up the practice), and the teeth are. usually filed and decorated with pegs of gold or copper. The chief weapons are the sword, spear, shield, and blow-pipe the sword and spear are always carried, being used for all sorts of purposes, now that warfare is more or less a thing of the past, and the blowpipe is mostly employed for hunting. The weapons are finely
of iron or
;
carved.
All the
Dayak houses stand on
piles
where they have been
particularly liable to attack, they are often raised very high above
the ground, and they are always of great length, providing a home for as many as forty or fifty related famihes. The most
common type, that of the Kayans, is divided along its length, with a common gallery where the young men sleep on one side,
and separate rooms on the
other, the central
room
in which the
chief lives being the largest.
A row of heads hangs in the gallery,
which reaUy forms the village street, and where all sorts of household goods are kept. Among the Long-Glat tribe on the Upper Mahakkan the houses are built on two floors, and the chief lives in a separate building. The houses of the Ot-Danoms have often a central passage, with a common room at the end and the separate hearths on each side, and are surrounded with an ironwood palisade, as are also the Biaju houses, which are divided like those of the Kayans, but have a central passage in addition. Each house has also a raft on the river for use as a landing-stage and washing-place. Among the tribes of the west, who have been much oppressed by the Malays, the houses are not so large and fine as among the Kayans and Kenyas, and when they are
the tribes on the Kapuas, they are often made of inferior materials since the houses are only inhabited for a few years (not more than ten or twelve), and are moved as soon as the fertility of the ground is exhausted, or owing to longlarge, as
among
continued sickness or a series of misfortunes, bamboo and palmleaves are often used in their construction. The Bahaus and
192
INHABITANTS
Kenyas, however, use hard wood by preference, and their houses and decorated with carving. These long houses, one of which often forms a whole village, are built near to and facing a river, which is largely used for (The Sanggau Dayaks, whose purposes of communication. houses are built on a different plan to those of the other tribes, Scaffolding for drying rice stands form an exception to this rule near the house, and, among the tribes of the Upper Barito, a hale or council-house, where strangers are lodged and meetings held among the Bahaus the gallery of the chief's house is used
are strongly built
)
.
for such purposes.
The vUlages
of the south
and
east of the
island are surrounded Ayith palisades,
and
in the season
when
agricultural operations are carried on the people often live in
temporary huts in their fields. The Dayaks have no political divisions except the tribe, which may consist of the inhabitants of one communal house or of -the several houses in one settlement, and vary in number from about one hundred to three hundred persons. In some parts smaller
tribes are subject to larger, as in
Apu Kayan and among
the
Long-Glats on the Mahakkan, and occasionally the villages are only territorial units, inhabited by members of different tribes. The office of chief is rather elective than hereditary, but in practice a son or daughter of the old chief usually succeeds him.
chief is responsible for the observance of the adat, entertains
strangers, looks after the slaves,

tribe,
who
are the property of the
and administers
respected
three
slaves
tribal
men
which he is assisted by the most of the community. Among the Kayan peoples
justice, in
the chief has a higher position, and the division of the people into
chiefs of the famihes, common people, and more important than among other tribes, where the divisions are not strongly marked, and the chiefs have
classes
îs
sharp distinction exists in the Melawi who are independent and those who have been for a long period under Malay rule, and have lost their Slavery still exists in the parts of characteristic institutions.
as a rule
little
power.
valley between the tribes
the country where Dutch rule has not yet been firmly established, but the slaves are, on the whole, very well treated, and are usually
able to
slave
buy
their
own
freedom, though cases of the sacrifice of a
on the death
is
of a notable
man
are
still
known.
Agriculture
settled
the chief means of livelihood
among aU
the
Dayaks, each tribe having a
definite section of land for
BORNEO
its
193
which is bound up with the and has many religious feasts, prohibitions, and duties connected with it, is at a very low state of development, wet rice fields being found only near the coast. Women take a large part in agricultural operations and the religious ceremonies connected with them. Sugar-cane, potatoes, and tobacco are also grown, and fishing and the collection of forest produce are both important as means of livelihood. There is no trade among members of a tribe, but a considerable commerce in local and forest products with other tribes and foreign traders, largely carried on by barter, though money is coming into use long journeys are made by the natives to get beads, which are much valued both as ornaments and as currency, in exchange for
use, but rice-cultivation,
religious institutions,
;
own
their goods.
Brass gongs, which are also largely used as currency,
and large glazed pots and jars, which are believed to bring luck and keep away illness, are much prized. Industry consists almost
entirely in the manufacture of articles for
home use. Pine boats are built, the war-boats being about a hundred feet long. All
the people are very clever ironworkers, each village having its own smith to smelt the iron. Clothes are made and decorated with beads, and mats and hats are plaited in every house and high artistic feeling is shown in the decoration of all the utensils
;
wood or bone, bead work, &c. The Dayaks are as a rule monogamous, though chiefs who have come under Moharamedan influence have often more than one wife. Except that a union with near relatives is forbidden,
of daily life with carving in
there are no special prohibitions concerning marriage, but a man marries by preference a woman of his own tribe and class, and if he marries a slave, he often has to take a slave's obKgations on
himself.
The
social
system
is
patriarchal,
customs, such as the residence of a
man
for
though matriarchal some time after his
marriage with his wife's people, are common, especially among the Manyuke Dayaks. A dowry is paid for a wife, but the position of women is very high, and they are treated as the men's equals. It is a matter of arrangement and convenience whether a married couple live -v^th the wife's or the husband's people, and marriage does not involve community of goods. Divorce can be obtained by either party, and daughters and sons inherit equally from
both their parents. Though morality among the young people is not at all high, married couples are very faithful to each other. The great majority of the Dayaks are pagans, and among those
NETHIiBLANDS INSIl
194
INHABITANTS
is
who have become Mohammedans,

their religion
small.
the knowledge and practice of Their animistic religion consists in the
honouring of a large number of spirits, and good and evil omens, drawn from observing sacred birds, play a great part in their life, whilst the Bahaus have an highly organized system of augury and soothsaying. The Dayaks have all a powerful system of prohibitions [pemali), designed to ward off evil influences, and they come into contact with the world of spirits through their priests and priestesses, whose help is sought in illness and misfortune, and also at the agricultural feasts and the cejemonies connected with burial. They are usually highly honoured, as people of virtuous life who have undergone a period of trial and education for their work, but among the tribes on the Barito both the priests and priestesses are people of immoral habits. A special part in the Dayak religious and social life is played by human heads, a head, preferably a fresh one, being necessary for a funeral ceremony, whilst a head is a possession much desired by every bridegroom or principal membfer of a family. Where the spread of European influence has put a stop to head-hunting, an old head is borrowed from a neighbouring tribe for ceremonial
usually
purposes.
There are about 7,000 Christian Dayaks, who usually live in and are more advanced in the practice of agriculture than the pagan peoples. The Dayak languages, which are as yet little known, are very numerous, neighbouring villages frequently speaking entirely different dialects for this reason the natives can usually speak two or more different languages, and, since the recent spread of trade, a simplified form of Malay has been rapidly establishing itself as a lingua franca. The best-known language of Dutch Borneo is that of the Ngaju Dayaks in the south and east division of the island. None of the Dayak tribes has evolved a script of its own, as several of the Simiatran peoples have. Since the nomad peoples of Borneo differ considerably from the settled tribes, a few words may be said about them in conclusion. The Punans and- aUied tribes are extrao^-dinarily shy and timid, and live hidden in the forest in groups of some twenty or thirty people, spending only a few weeks or months in one spot, to which they are attracted by the presence of wild sago, though they usually confine themselves to a particular area, and trade and sometimes intermarry with the settled people of the
separate houses
;
BORNEO
country.
195
They live on the produce of the forest, and by hunting and fishing, and they have few industries, obtaining cloth and weapons by barter from other tribes. The Punans are physically
a
fine,
light-skinned people,
who Aever seem
to suffer from the
They an innocent and harmless folk, who have all sorts of conservative prejudices, but absorb the customs and words of any tribe with which they come into contact, the culture of the settled peoples being much superior to their own. Divorce and polygamy are unknown, though polyandry occurs occasionally, and a man joins his wife's community on marriage. Their religious
skin-diseases
which
disfigure
many
of the settled tribes.
are
beliefs are similar to those of the Kayans, but less elaborate unlike the other peoples of Borneo, they have no burial cere;
monial.
Kabimata Islands
The Kiirimata Islands, which lie off the west coast of Borneo, are peopled with settlers from Lingga and Siak, who are occupied in fishing and in working the iron found on Great Karimata.
Celebes
Population
Celebes,
:
Numbers
which lies outside the old trade routes of the archiwas largely unvisited up to the middle of last century, and it is only of late years that any regular settlements have been formed and civilization introduced outside the districts of Minahasa and Makassar. Estimates of the numbers of the
pelago,
population are still therefore conjectural, the total for the whole island being estimated at about 4,700,000 in the official figures for 1914, and at 2,700,000 in the Encyclopaedie van NederlandschIndie (1917 edition). The population is very unevenly distributed, about two-thirds of the island being almost uninhabited,
though in Minahasa in the north, with 200,000 inhabitants, there are 105 people to the square mile, and in the island of Saleier 245. The whole of the Menado residency averages only about 30 people to the square mile, and that of Celebes and dependencies about 37.
In general the coasts of the island are fairly well populated, but the tribes of central Celebes are separated by large uninhabited stretches of mountainous country, their settlements Ijdng in the
river valleys
and on
isolated plateaux.
In south Celebes, owing
N2
196
INHABITANTS
and for purposes of trade, the settlements are mostly on the coast and at the mouths of the rivers, whilst in Minahasa the people live in the valleys and on the lakes. In 1905 there were three towns in Celebes with a population of over 10,000 Makassar (26,145), Menado (10,344), and Tondano with only nine other towns having a population of (10,592) between 1,000 and 6,000.
to the mountainous interior
:
Native Peoples
The native peoples are members of the Malayo -Polynesian family (with the exception of the Toalas, who are thought to be a remnant of the aboriginal inhabitants). Excepting the Minahasese, who are of a completely different type, they are probably all of one race, sometimes called the Toraja, and resemble one
another closely in language and appearance.
The name Toraja
(which is that of a tribe of west central Celebes), is, however, usually appHed to the tribes of central, south-eastern, and
who are still largely pagan, as distinct from the more civihzed and Mohammedan peoples, chief among whom are the Buginese and Makassars of the southern peninsula, whose states are monarchical, while the pagan Toraja stiU live under the patriarchal system. To this category also belong the Islamized Mandars on the west coast of Central Celebes, the people of the small countries of Parigi and Kaili, states of North Celebes such as Gorontalo, and of the kingdom of Bolang-Mongondu. The coastal population is much mixed with Buginese and Makassars, and other elements are formed by the Bajo, the sea-gypsies (see under Orang Laut, p. 187) and by the Arab and Chinese traders, who marry native wives. These, however, are few in number, as compared with other parts of the archipelago, since there were only 11,862 Chinese and 1,207 Arabs in the island in
eastern Celebes,
'
'
1905, mostly living, like the 2,836 Em-opeans, in the trading
settlements.
The name
of Alfurs is also
used for the pagan and
pig-eating tribes, as distinct from the
Mohammedans, and has no
geographical significance, since
it is
applied also to the undeve-
loped peoples of the Moluccas.
Toraja Tribes
Though the Toraja tribes i. e. the people of central, southdiffer in development, owing to their east;, and east Celebes
CELEBES
197
separation into isolated groups, and also probably to the varying admixture of Toala blood, the likeness between them is marked. The Toraja tribes may be divided as follows. It is impossible as yet to give a complete list of all the different tribes, so that an
attempt has only been made to mention the more important and better-known among them.
(a) Mountain Torajas, including (1) Parigis [and Kailis (2) Tokulawi, Tosigi, Tolindu (3) Totawaeha, Tonapu, Tobada, &c. (b) Lowland Torajas (Baree-speaking), including Toondae, Tolage, Topebato, Tolampu, &c.
;
;
(c)
{d)
Sadang group, including Toleboni, Torirampi. Tribes of South-eastern Peninsula, including Tomekongka,
,
Tololaki, &c.
(e)
(/)
Tribes of West Centre, including Toraja, Torontjong, &c. Tribes of North Centre.
The tribes, which usually fo.rm their name by adding the syllable To to the name of their chief village, frequently split up and form new communities, but the whole of the Toraja country is very
thinly peopled, partly owing to the insanitary conditions of
life,
and partly to the constant wars

power
of the past.
The Toraja
are not
a strong race, since the continual shortage of food lessens their of resistance to disease, and the dirty condition of their persons and their houses, where children, pigs, and fowls all run
about together, causes a large incidence of head and eye diseases. Very old people are seldom seen, the natives being helpless against epidemics, and infant mortality, owing to the heavy labour undertaken by the women, is high. Raids and head-hunting had probably a comparatively insignificant effect on the numbers of the people, but the continual state of unrest in the country before the establishment of Dutch rule has prevented the natives in the past from applying themselves to agriculture, and the villages were usually built on the hill-tops, with an eye to defence, where they were much exposed to wind and weather, and where the ground was unsuitable for sawah (wet) rice cultivation. The early age at which young men and girls come together, and the frequent absence of the married men in the past, seeking forest products or head-hunting, had also a deleterious effect on the birth-rate. These conditions, however, are rapidly changing under the Dutch, who have instituted far-reaching reforms. The mountain peoples are as a rule more strongly built, with more prominent cheek-bones, thinner lips, and smaller eyes than
198
those of the plains
;
INHABITANTS
they are more independent and secretive, and
lesshonest than the Baree-speakingpeoples{lowlanders), and consider themselves a superior race. The Toraja have large mouths and thick hps, and the nose is usually broad, though among the Tobada it is of a more European type the skin varies from Hght to dark brown, and the black hair, which is worn long, is usually smooth. The Toraja are on the whole an innocent and guileless race, friendly, courteous, good-tempered, and easily managed by those whom they trust, though, like most uncivilized people, they are revengeful, and human sacrifices were common up to late years. They are naturally lazy, though the women are more industrious than the men, often keeping the family from need by their work. The Toraja are primarily agriculttirists. Industries are few, and consist mainly in plaiting, pottery making, woodcarving, and working in iron. Clothing of prepared bark is stUl commonly worn, though it is being replaced by garments of European material where there is communication with the coast in Bada the bark clothing is finely decorated. Many ornaments earrings, ankle-rings, and bracelets are worn, and the teeth are commonly filed, the front teeth being completely sawn away or extracted among the Tokulawi.
;
;
Toraja society is very simply organized. A wife is usually chosen from another branch of a man's own family, so that each tribe is really one large family, each village representing a separate
branch, and there are no social distinctions and no tribal chiefs. Such a society is natm'ally ruled more by custom than by direct
government. The man is head of the family, though a bridegroom a stated period after marriage with his wife's people, and the women take a comparatively high position, usually choosing their own husband. The Toraja tribes are mostly pagan, believing in many good and evil spirits, and honouring the souls of the dead, though the Parigis on Tomini Gulf and the KaUis on Palu Gulf are largely Mohammedan, and in some places, such as Mambre and Masamba
lives for
in central Celebes,
and
in the south-eastern peninsula, the in-
coastal population has led them to up the use of pig-flesh as food. The older settlements, which were built in as inaccessible positions as possible, are often fortified like the Batak villages, with earthern walls and bamboo palisades, and the houses unpretentious buildings standing on massive piles, often decorated with carved and coloiued A\ork
fluence of the
Mohammedan
give
CELEBES
199
have strong walls, thick roofs of atap, and small entrances. They usually house four to six families, and consist of a central apartment with a hearth and several smaller rooms strongly built
;
barns for storing the harvest are found in most of the villages. Of late years, however, the Dutch Government has compelled the people to inhabit new villages, which have been built along the rivers or on the chief line of communication through their
tion.
is more suitable for sawah rice cultivaIn these new villages the houses, which are all of the same pattern, are built in neat rows, each standing in its own garden,
country, where the land
instead of being clustered together as in the hill-top settlements.
The natives were at first very hostile to this ordinance, which drove them from their villages and temples, to which they were much attached, particularly since the building of temples was no longer permitted as it was in them that the war-gods, the spirits of brave ancestors, were thought to live, and the heads brought back- from raids were kept. Yet they have been quickly reconciled. The chief difficulty has been to make the village chiefs, whose duty was formerly only to ensure the observance of local
customs, into efficient administrators of the
much
larger settle-
ments which were now put under their charge. The prohibition of head-hunting and of divination by spear -throwing and other methods has caused much irritation, since heads are regarded as a potent means of healing, and all sorts of questions and disputes were formerly solved by augury and sorcery. In order to pay the taxation imposed by the Dutch, the natives find it necessary to
go out to
evils of a
collect forest products,
wandering
all
life,
but to minimize the possible only half the men are allowed to leave
their village at once,
two months
that they bring
appointed to collect of statute labour for four days in each month, well kept roads have been built through the interior of Celebes and schools have been started, where reading, writing, arithmetic, agriculture, and These Christianity are taught by teachers from Minahasa. have been well received by the natives, and there were schools sixty-nine in the Government of Celebes and Dependencies in 1913. Slaves, who were formerly very numerous and formed a separate class, have been free since 1906, and though conditions natiu-ally change but slowly, they are now allowed to marry free
and they must not be absent for longer than is handed over to traders the produce and recruit labour. By means
women and to
send their children to school.
200
INHABITANTS
any language but
their own,
Many dialects are in use among the different tribes, who cannot
as a rule speak
is
though that of Palu
largely used as a liyigva franca in central Celebes.
Buginese and Makassars The Buginese and Makassars are two nearly-related peoples they are probably differing slightly in manners and customs descended from Toraja tribes who came into touch with the Hindu culture of Java, owing to their position in the south of Celebes, and were later converted to Mohammedanism, which Both is now also spreading among the other peoples of Celebes. the Buginese and Makassars, the former more markedly than the latter, are seafaring and trading peoples, who have carried their wares and their culture all over the archipelago, while The Makassar preserving their own language and customs. country forms a broad belt to the west of the end of the southern peninsxila, and the Buginese inhabit the rest of southern Celebes,
;
but Buginese are settled in many parts of the coasts of Celebes, as well as in Borneo and other parts of the archipelago. They are the founders and rulers of most of the principal towns of
Celebes,
and
it is
often difficult to distinguish
natives of the centre of the island
them from those who have become Islamized,
to whom they are related by inter-marriage. The numerous Buginese and Makassars of the south-eastern peninsula, who were formerly exceedingly prosperous traders owing to the plentiful supply of slave-labour and the absence of competition, have had a less easy existence since the establishment of Dutch rule there, and the suppression of slavery. The Buginese and Makassars are well built, with a hght skin. They have long borne a bad character as thieves and murderers, probably largely as a result of the misgovernment under which they have suffered, and they are still intent on making a livelihood with the least possible trouble, and are not particular as to the means employed. They are far more energetic than most Malays, but like other Malay peoples they are proud, vindictive, and passionate, and devoted to gambling and cock-fighting. Many public feasts are given, and dancing and the music of the
and
native orchestras are popular.
and Makassars are Mohammedans, but they are by no means orthodox or fanatical, and the pagan priests and priestesses are said still to have considerable authority.
religion the Buginese
By
CELEBES
201
The state organization is monarchical and feudal, and the people are divided into the princely class and the common people the slaves formerly made a third class, and though slavery is
:
now
suppressed,
it will
be some time before
its
roots in native
society are eradicated.

villages are small, and were formerly very untidy and but under Dutch rule they have been much improved communicating roads and paths have been made, and the houses arranged in rows the natives have been forced to put in order the impassable jungle of trees and weeds which surdirty,
:
The
rounded their houses, and have been forbidden to use the space under the buildings as a stable. Each village has its mosque.
The houses are built of wood or bamboo on piles, the steps up to a sort of porch. Both furnitiu'e and clothing are very simple. Marriages are usually arranged by the parents, social position being an important consideration, and a comparatively large sum of money being usually paid by the bridegroom. Exogamic and endogamic weddings are allowed, but the union of a woman of high rank with a man in an inferior
leading
position
is disliked. There are various survivals of the matriarchate haH the children belong to, and inherit from, the mother, and half from the father, and when a man marries a woman of lower social position than himself, which is a common
;
occurrence, only half the children inherit his status.
Women
hold a high place, and take part in public life. Married couples live sometimes with the wife's relatives, and sometimes with those of the husband, and each has his or her own possessions, though in the towns the Mohammedan law of inheritance is
coming more and more into
use.
Divorce,
by
either party,
is
common and
easy.
:
The Buginese and Makassars are temperate and abstemious and maize, with fish and spices, buffalo meat being only eaten on festive occasions. Industry is not sarongs highly developed, but weaving is largely carried on of fine material are made in many parts, and are exported in Plaited goods are made everylarge numbers from Mandar. where for local use, especially beautiful and varied work of this kind being done in Boni. The best gold and silversmiths are found in Makassar, Gowa, Mandar, and Boni, ironworkers in Luwu, Laiwui, and Mandar, and shipbuilders in Pambauwang, Bira Regency, and other places. Here and there the people
their chief foods are rice
;
202
INHABITANTS
profit by coUecting''iforest products. and horses are kept, but are not well cared for
make a good
cattle,
Buffaloes,
;
hunting
and fishing, which are largely engaged in for pleasure, provide an abundant means of livehhood for many people. The oldestablished sea trafl&c of the Buginese
of steamship competition.
is still
important, in spite
the
All uncultivated ground

rights of hunting,
is owned by the district, with wood chopping, &c., each man possessing
the
land he clears and cultivates, though the district keeps the sovereign right, and can alienate a man's produce from him if he does not fulfil his duties to the prince or the community. The Buginese have a peculiar written alphabet, which is used also by the Makassars, by some tribes of nort.hem Celebes, and by the people of Sumbawa, and they have also a calendar of
their own.
MiTMhasese
The people of Mnahasa, in the north-east of Celebes, who are an inteUigent race, and have been found eminently capable of development, are quite distinct in type from the other inhabiit has been suggested that they have a strain of Japanese or even European blood the skin is very light, lighter than that of any other people in the archipelago (especially among the women, who have red cheeks and lips), the nose is high, the lips prominent, and the eyes widely separated.
tants of Celebes, arid
The hair, which is black and stiff, is now usually worn short, and the features are pleasant, though rather heavy. The people are on the whole taller and stronger than the other inhabitants of Celebes. They are divided into four chief tribes the Toumbulu (in Menado and Tomohon), the Tounsea (in the Klabat peninsula, Ajermadidi and Kema), the Toulour or Tondano (round Tondano Lake), and the Toumpakewa (in Sonder, Lagowan, and Amurang). There are also the more divergent Bantiks, on the coast north of Menado, and the people of the south:
western part of the country. Eight different dialects are spoken among the various tribes. The inhabitants of the islands of Siau and Sangi are closely related to the Mruahasese, and it is probable that they all form part of an immigrant race from the north, who settled in the Phihppines, the north of Celebes, and
various smaller islands.
In spite of the very small
size of their
country the Minahasese
CELEBES
in Java,
203
number about 200,000, but the land is not over-populated, as and the people are prosperous. Minahasese society is aristocratic, and the chiefs of the Dutch administrative divisions are descended from the old noble families. They were formerly a warlike race, constantly engaged in raids and head-hunting, but a complete change has been worked, Minahasa having come into touch with European influence earher than any other part of Celebes and peace and safety rule. Each, village has its church and school. European clothes, materials, and sewing
;
machines are in use everywhere. Except for a small number living mostly in the south-west, the whole country is Christian, and it is only misfortunes, such as cholera epidemics, which bring forgotten remains of old beUefs to light. This Europeanization of Minahasa was all carried out in some seventy or eighty years, owing to the sympathetic
co-operation of the natives themselves,
many
them
of
whom now
make
use of the Dutch law which enables
to obtain a civic
and to put themselves on an equal footing with Europeans. In Java they compete successfully with the Eurasians as governstatus,
ment
clerks.
Gorontalese
eastern peninsula, are
The Gorontalese, who live in the western part of the northmembers of the Toraja family, and are
thus not related to the Minahasese, but they are largely Mohammedan, and an increasing number make the pilgrimage to Mecca.
They
are
thought to number about 125,000, including the
Buginese, Makassars, &c., hving in the country, and are a short, the inland smooth-haired, and rather light-skiimed people tribes differ from those on the coast. Rice, maize, coco-nuts,
:
tobacco, &c., are grown, but agriculture is not highly developed. There is a lively trade in forest products from the interior, and
weaving and plaiting are carried on, some of the most beautiful materials made in Celebes coming from Buol. The mines were formerly worked by statute labour, but now no natives are in a position to carry on the undertaking. The Gorontalese do not seem a strong people, and they are much given over to sexual
indulgence.
Polygamy
is
general,
since
women
are
more
good-tempered but numerous than men. dialects are used, but all resemble each Different indolent.
are
The people
other closely.
204
INHABITANTS
Todla
The existence
certain
:
of
an indigenous people in
is
Celebes, wlio
have
un-
been superseded by the Toraja,
a matter which
is still
there are, however, in different parts of the island
groups of undeveloped and unciviHzed people who difEer from the Toraja in type, and have apparently in most cases been enslaved and crushed almost out of existence by them. The
Toala of Lamontyong, and the Tokea and Tomuna of the southeastern peninsula are thought to be remains of these aborigines, though the Tokea have a large admixture of Toraja blood. Many tales of wild or invisible men are told by the Toraja tribes, and there are apparently men hving in the woods in north Celebes, too shy ever to show themselves, so that it is
possible that similar wild tribes exist in other parts of the
short people, of Toala type, with more or less ciu-ly met with also among various Toraja tribes, particularly the Tolage and Tondae, who kept of old the largest number of slaves, and these people may well represent the aboriginal inhabitants. The Toala and Tomuna, who have been enslaved by the Buginese, are a very short people, much darker in colour than their neighbours, the Tomekongka the nose is broad and flat, the mouth prominent and chin receding, the hair wavy or curly. They have a distinct language of their own, and are
island
;
hair, are
a quiet, good-tempered people.
Sangi Islands
The Sangi
Siau,
Islands,
which are very thickly peopled, have
a total population of about 107,000
60,000 in Sangi, 40,000 in
and 7,000 in Tangulandang. The people live by agriculture and fishing there is a considerable trade in wood and copra, and nutmeg is cultivated. Weaving and plaiting, which were formerly carried on by the women on a large scale, are dying out, owing to the import of Emropean material. The natives are now prosperous, and live a peaceful life under Dutch rule, though up to recent years the islands were terrorized by the pirates of Sulu. They are mostly Christians, as there are a number of missionaries living among them. Society is based on the matriarchal system, and the natives, who speak a language of their own, are related to the people of Minahasa and of the
;
Philippines (see under Minahasese, p. 202).
CELEBES
Banggai Islands
The
itself,
205
chief inhabited islands of the
Banggai group are Banggai
The coastal population number of pagan tribes living in the interior of Banggai and Peleng, who differ in little but religion from the Moslem inhabitants. The pagan peoples live largely by agriculture, and the Mohammedans by fishing. The people are poor, and hve in wretched wooden houses.
is
Peleng, Labobo,
and Bangkulu.
largely
Mohammedan, but
there are a
Saleibr most thickly populated parts in 1905 it had a population of 75,000, living largely in the western and flatter part, and including Makassars, Buginese, and Malays, with a number of Chinese in Padang, the capital. The people are Mohammedans.
Saleier is
The island of
one
of the
of the administrative division of Celebes
Molttccas
Population
:
Numbers
The Moluccas, in which are included the two residencies of Ternate and Amboina, have been for centuries a centre of trade, and the coastal population is in consequence so mixed that it is difficult to disentangle the strains of Buginese and Makassar, Javanese and Malay, Portuguese and Dutch blood, which are mingled with that of the indigenous peoples of the islands. Of the western nations the Portuguese have left the most lasting impression on languages and customs, and there are stiU many traces of Portuguese influence. It is thus only in the centre of the islands that the natives still live in their primitive conon the coast they have frequently intermarried with dition
;
the settlers, and become Islamized, since the influence of strangers had led to the widespread adoption of Mohammedanism, except in the interior, where the people are still pagan, and in Amboina,
which
is
largely Christian.
The old
religion,
however,
lies
very
near the surface.
The climate of the Moluccas is healthy, and the soil is fertile, but the islands are very thinly peopled, Ternate having only about eight people to the square mile, and Amboina thirteen. The scattered population are content to live on the easilygotten natural products of the land, without working to produce
206
INHABITANTS
of the
and markot goods, and the almost universal presence
sago-palm renders unnecessary the energetic cultivation of the soil and the raising of a rice harvest, which forms the chief occupation of most of the peoples of the archipelago. Trade is
still
carried
is
on by barter in the
vmimportant, though
interior of
fisheries,
many
islands,
and
industry
and
especially pearl-
on in many parts. In 1912 there were 325,934 people in the Amboina Residency, and 160,135 in the Ternate Residency (including the population of Merauke, South New Guinea). There were altogether 3,668 Europeans, 2,457 Chinese, and 1,735 other foreign Orientals. Japianese are less numerous than in othei' parts of the archipelago, but there are settlements of Japanese prostitutes in many of the trading communities. The largest towns are Amboina (8,328), Banda Neira (4,130), and Ternate (3,616), whilst Wahai (in Ceram), Labuka (on Bachian), Saparua (on Saparua), and Patani (on Hahnahera), have between one and three thousand inhabitants. The pagan peoples of the interior of the islands who are called Alfurs, which is equivalent to savages ', form a link between the Papuans and the Malayo-Polynesian peoples of the rest of the archipelago, since the proximity of the islands to New Guinea has resulted in an admixture of Papuan blood, parfishing, are carried
'
Separation on separate influences, has so changed the languages of the Alfurs that it is difficult now to trace any resemblance between them.
ticularly
in the
southern islands.
islands,
and contact with varying foreign
Halmaheira, with Morotai
Halmaheira or Gilolo had a population of about 30,000 in 1905, whom about one-sixth hved in the part of the island belonging to the Sultanate of Tidore, and as a result of propaganda by fanatical princes these people are aU Mohammedans, though in the Ternate division of the island the pagan Alfiirs are in a large majority. No pressure is now brought to bear to induce, them to change their religion, except in the case of an Alfur woman marrying a Mohammedan. That the new religion has not penetrated very deeply into the life of the people is shown by their adherence to their traditional customs, which are condoned by the priests. The northern peninsula is the most thickly
of
populated part of the island.
MOLUCCAS
207
The Alfurs of Halmaheira are probably more representative of the original type of the inhabitants of the Moluccas than those of any other island and their civilization is still rudimentary.
are neither Papuan nor Malay in type, having crisp, wavy and a skin even lighter in colour than that of the average Malay the men are strongly built and well made, and the women are thick set and ugly. They are modest and willing. They
hair,
:
They
are true forest people, often building themselves huts of leaves
and their dress usually and a head-covering. They get their food and drink from the sago and the aren palm, and gain a livelihood by hunting, fishing, and agriculture. In clothes, houses, weapons, and customs the districts differ largely one from another, and though the languages in use are aU dialects of the same tongue, they resemble each other so little that natives from places not far apart use Ternatan, which is commonly spoken on the coast, as a means of communication. Head-hunting is a thing of the past, though murders from motives of revenge still occur but the people are on the whole gentle, and lead moral lives. Their society is patriarchal, and
consists only of a loin-cloth
;
and branches
as a shelter for the night,
marriage is exogamic. In religion they are pagans, worshipping the souls of the dead and evil spirits, whom they conciliate with
offerings.
Trade is unimportant, and is mostly carried on by barter with Chinese and Makassars from Ternate, who make their way over the Dodinga Isthmus and the east coast linen and finery are much in demand among the natives.
:
Morotai had in 1909 a population of about 4,200, of whom about 750 were Mohammedan and 300 Christian. The AKur population coUect forest products, as a rule spending about one week in four in the search, and living the rest of the time in idleness. The island is much visited by people from Galelo and Tobelo on Halmaheira, and also from northern Celebes, to cut sago and to fish those from Galelo, who are the most numerous, confine themselves to the west and north, whilst the Tobelo
:
natives go to the south-east of the island, many of their settlements being only temporary. The Galelo language is the most used
Ternate, ivith Tidore,
Mahian, Kajoa,
Taifore, Maitara,
Mare
The people of Ternate, who numbered about 8,000 in 1905, are largely concentrated near the Sultan's palace and the town
208
of Ternate,
INHABITANTS
which
is
now but a shadow

race,
of its former seK, its
trade being unimportant.

Sultan's lands.
All the well-to-do people live
They are a mixed
who
differ little
on the from
many other related peoples of the archipelago, except that they have a language of their own, written in the Arabic character, which is used as a lingua franca in the Ternate Residency, the knowledge of it having been spread in earlier times by the soldiers of the Sultan sent to administer the islands under his rule. The Ternatans are all Mohammedans and burghers (see under Amboina, p. 214), and since they will not work except to provide themselves with absolute necessities, they are not overprosperous sago, fish, and vegetables form the chief part of their food, most of the island being covered with forest. VarioiLs amusements, such as fighting with bamboos, dancing, and the recitation of poems, are popular.
:
The people
of Tidore,
who numbered
9,624 in 1905, resemble
and customs, but they are even worse workers, lazier and more careless. They buy all their household goods in Teriiate, seUing their garden produce and fish in exchange, and many natives of Tidore travel round the islands with travelling smithies, mending cutlery and weapons. Mention may here be made of the following neighbouring islands Makian, Kajoa, Maitara, Taifore, Mare. Makian had a population of about 8,000 in 1905. The people, who are Mohammedans, are hard-working, and are engaged in weaving, fishing, and tobacco cultivation. The soil is unfertile, and neither sago nor coco -nut palms grow on the island, so that sago, which forms the daily food, is imported from HaLnahera. ,The houses, which are solidly built, are surrounded by fruit trees, and sugar-cane, maize, pisang, and a little rice are grown in the gardens. In dress and customs the people do not differ
those of Ternate in religion, appearance, language,
:
those of Ternate. People from Makian, Ternate, and Tidore have gardens on Moti, and there is a place of sacrifice on the summit of the island, but there is no settled population. The people of Kajoa who are Mohammedans are related to those of Makian, and speak the same language. They live by fishing and by growing rice on Waidoba Island, which often fails, however, owing to
careless cultivation.
much from
People from Makian have gardens on the
northern coast.
MOLUCCAS
Maitara
is
209
by Tidorese, who go there for the sake which do not grow on Tidore, and earthenware is much manufactured on Mare from the clay found there. Taifore is uninhabited, but is used as a place of call by Sangirese
inhabited
of the coco-nuts,
trading at Ternate.
Bachian and Obi Islands
In 1909 the total population of these groups was 9,021 6,166 on Bachian, 1,044 on Great Obi, and the rest on the smaller islands. This population is floating, and only about 1,300 of the people of Bachian are indigenous, the remainder being natives of Ternate, Tidore, Buton, Java, and the Talauer Islands. The people are divided into three classes, the relatives of the former and present sultans, the district heads, and the common people. The natives are supposed to have come originally from Halmahera, like those of Ternate and Tidore they live by cultivating land on a small scale, fishing, and making baskets. The Talauese and Javanese on the islands work as coolies for the Batjan (Bachian) Exploitation Company, whilst the people from Ternate and Tidore are largely employed in collecting
:
:
forest products.
Bachian is now as somnolent as Ternate, and the capital Labuka, apart from its Sultan's residence, church, fort, and
school, is only a collection of fishermen's huts.
The
island
had
formerly a language of its own, related to that of the Sula Islands and Banggai, but owing to the influx of Malay-speaking peoples it has become a mixed tongue. The Obi Islands, unlike Bachian, have no indigenous population at all, but are much visited by people from Tidore, Bachian,
Maldan, &c., who fish for pearls, cut sago, and collect forest products, only staying in the islands and taking their trove to Labuka for sale. The islands, which are rendered difficult of approach by the surrounding coral reefs, were formerly
a favourite haunt of pirates.
Sula Islands
The population and partly Alfur
of the Sula Islands is partly

:
Mohammedan
most of the pagan peoples live an isolated ife in the interior of Tahabu, not owning the sovereignty of the The chief products are rice, maize, and sago, maize Sultan. being the chief food on Sula Besi, and sago on Taliapu and ManNETHEELANDS INDIA
210
gole, while rice is
INHABITANTS
used chiefly for the payment of taxes, for tobacco and purposes of barter, and as a luxury for feastp sugar-cane are also grown, and the natives of Sulabesi weave
:
sarongs from European yarns, plait mats and build boats. Sanana, which was formerly the haunt of pirates from the Obi
Islands,
is
barely alive, despite
its
secure roadstead
and the
presence of a Dutch posthouder.

Bwrii, with
Ambektu,
The indigenous Alfur people of Burn, living in the interior, seem to be nearly related to those of West Ceram. The coastal population is, as usual in the Moluccas, much mixed, and consists of people from Buton, the Sula Islands, Galela, Amboina, natives of Buru itself, and a few Chinese and Arabs. The population was estimated at some 13,000 in 1913, 6,000 pagans, 4,500 Mohammedans, and 2,500 Christians, but the latest reckoning gives the total as 20,000. The Christians live mostly in Masarete and to the west of Wa Mala on the south coast, and the Mohammedans in Kayeli and in some of the coastal villages. The indigenous people of Buru are divided into sixteen tribes, each having a district of their own, though communities and even individuals often dwell outside the borders of their own tribe. Each tribe is divided into as many communities as the original founder had sons, and the office of chief of the tribe and but there is no of each family is inherited by the eldest son true aristocratic class, since the family of a chief does not possess his rights and privileges. On the coast the natives and the foreign settlers have each their own ruler, so that there are
;
often several chiefs in one village.
Buru, who are an Indonesian people, short but and lacking in energy and very dirty in their houses and their persons they are, however, good-tempered and quiet. The women wear a sarong and a kabaja (a sort of long coat), and the men coat and trousers, except whpn engaged in exhausting work, when they revert to the loin-cloth. Their weapons are guns, lance, and liewang.
The natives
of
well built, are suspicious, untruthful,
The teeth are filed, and circumcision is practised. The villages on the coast are larger than those of the interior, which lie very far apart and consist only of some five or six
houses, standing round the Jntma.
strangers.
fifa,
or place of lodgment for
MOLUCCAS
:
211
Marriage is exogamic considerable sums, provided by the man's community as a whole, are given for a wife, and till the whole sxmi is produced, the husband lives with his wife's people. Women are often betrothed as babies, marrying into their husband's tribe when they are of a suitable age. Polygamy is common, aU the wives and their children living together, and adultery and elopements are frequent. In spite of these conditions, the women take an equal place with the men in daily life, if not superior to them. The pagan people of Buru believe in a superior being, who is too great to concern himseK with men, so that it is only the good and evil spirits, and the souls of the dead, \\ho are honoured and invoked. Agriculture is the chief means of subsistence, but is at a low
The land is possessed by the family, all members having equal rights, and can never be sold to strangers. The coastal population, Mohammedan and Christian, live the same life as the pagan natives a few villages in Masarete and on the south coast have coco-nut plantations, and the people on the north coast are largely occupied with the preparation of
state of development.
:
oajeput
oil,
but trade
is
mostly in the hands of a few Chinese

all
and Arabs, and industry is little developed. Four dialects are spoken in Buru, which are
Amboinese.
live
related to
Ambelau has a Mohammedan population of some 1,300, who by fishing and trading with neighbouring islands. Sago is
of
imported from the south coast
Buru, where
many
natives of
and coco-nuts, and make many converts among the pagan peoples. The language is related to that of the Buru natives, but is not understood by
Ambelau
possess
woods
of sago-palms
them.
Geram, with Ceram Laut and Gorwm Islands
Ceram, with a population

islands in the
of
about 60,000, has,
like other
Moluccas, a coastal population compounded of people from Java, Makassar, Ternate, Ceram itself, and numerous other places, largely Christian and partly Moham-
The Christian natives of the west {Orang Serani) have adopted the clothing and civilization of their
medan
in religion.
neighbours, the Amboinese, to
whom
and
they are nearly related,

It
is
and
take pride in their religion
their social position.
02
212
thus only
INHABITANTS
among
the indigenous Alfurs of the interior that the
to the island are to be found. These natives, like those of Halmahera, form a link between the Malays and Papuans, and are a strong and muscular people, but owing to the smallpox epidemics of the past, and the present prevalence of fevers and head-diseases, and also to the low birth-rate (probably caused in some parts by the constant intermarriage in the tribe), they are decreasing in numbers. There are marked differences between the people of west Ceram and those of the rest of the island, and also between the various tribes. The natives of the west, who were once the most notorious head-hunters of the archipelago, are tall, proud, and fierce in
type, dress,
and customs native
appearance, while those of the centre and east are smaller, and far more peaceful in their ways. The people of Honitetu are particularly famed for their uncouth and riotous behaviour, but
since 1910 the whole island has been quiet,
and in 1914 the and prone
garrison at
cheerful,
Wahai was withdrawn. The and honest, but they are nervous,
:
natives are willing,

excitable,
to exaggeration
liberty-loving,
the western peoples are independent and
and drunkenness is extremely common among them, though rare in the rest of the island. Although Christianity may not go very deep, its results are seen in the peaceful and comparatively humane state of society, and in the cleanliness of the people.
together
the
is
east coast,
Christians and Mohammedans live quietly number of the latter, who live chiefly on the southsmall, and since their religion is more a matter of
custom than of conviction, they do not engage in propaganda. The natives are very quick to learn, and there were 68 native schools on the island in 1914. The usual clothing is very simple. The chief weapons are bow and arrow, used in warfare, the parang, the lance (used for hunting), and a decorated shield for war-dances most of the natives of the west also possess muzzle-loaders. The houses of the Christian and Mohammedan population are built on the ground, but those of the Alfurs stand on piles. The villages are never fortified. Pigs, dogs, and deer are kept, but no cattle. The people, who probably number some 65,000, are divided into tribes, who have not now districts of their ovm, though each tribe has a sphere in which it is paramount. The tribes of West Ceram are divided into two politico-religious parties, the Patasiwa (the Ternate party), in the west, and the Pata-lima (the
:
MOLUCCAS
213
Tidore party) in the east. The Pata-siwa are again divided into tlie pata-siwa putih and the pata-siwa itam, the latter being named after the blue tattooing on the chest which denoted
of the secret society, the Kakihan, to which all the boys of the pata-siwa itarri are elected at puberty. The priests of this society, which exists to maintain old usages in the face of foreign influence, had formerly a great influence, but Christians and Mohammedans are now seldom members, and have given up the practice of tattooing. The social system is patriarchal, and marriage is sometimes exogamic and sometimes endogamic a dowry of from 50 to 150 guilders is paid for a bride. Women are on the whole well treated, and take a good position, and morahty among the mountain peoples is at a high
;
membership
level.
The
chief
means
of
hveUhood are hunting and

takes
quite
fishing
agri-
culture,
position,
or
rather garden-culture,
a secondary
and is entirely unmethodical, since the sago-palm, which provides the chief article of food (eaten with fish, meat, or spices) requires no care the natives are remarkably indolent, but are clever woodsmen and hunters. Trade is in the hands of the CMnese, Makassars, and Arabs, who used to exploit the natives unmercifully. Of late years, however, since the knowledge of the value of money has become general, matters have improved. weaving and pottery-making are Industry is unimportant largely unknown, though in some parts to the south-east sarongs are made, and the only industries of the Alfurs of the interior are the manufacture of weapons and plaited goods. The houses and objects of daily use are seldom decorated, and the use of brickwork in a house was till recently forbidden, since it wag reserved for the kakihan house, which stands in the forest. The
: :
chief riches of the natives consist in china plates
and
dishes,
which are much valued.
The people
It is
are extraordinarily fond of
protracted ceremonial feasts.
remarkable that this primitive
race, without script or literature, possess their classical songs, which have been handed down since the war with the Company
in 1652.
The rehgion
of the
pagan peoples
consists largely, as in other
islands, in the propitiation of evil spirits, the worship of dead ancestors, and the observance of a very extensive system of
prohibitions [petnali).
The people
of
East Ceram beheve also
214
in a superior being,
INHABITANTS
who is manifestly bojrowed from the Mohamspoken in Ceram, so
Allah.
thirty-live different dialects are
medan
About
that neighbouring districts frequently cannot understand each other's speech. These languages are still little known, but aie
thought to be related to that of Amboina. Malay, mixed with native terms, is spoken on the coast. The people of the Ceram Laut Islands, to the south-east of Ceram, who number about 6,000, are all Mohammedans the villages, which are now tidy, and better built than formerly, lie mostly on the coastal plains. The people fish, build boats, and make knives, whilst the women weave remarkably fine sarongs. They speak the same language as is in use in the east of. Ceram, and are grouped together under chiefs. The Goram Islands, to the south-east of the Ceram Laut group, have a Mohammedan population of some 6,000, who carry on a flouxis])ing trade with the surrounding islands. The women are also famed for weaving.
:
!
Amboina, with
the Uliassers,
Manipa, and Boano
Europeans and Malays engaged in the spice trade have been
estabUshed in Amboina for so many centiu:ies that the island is notable for a much higher standard of civilization and comfort than obtains in most parts of the archipelago. The total popution is about 40,000, almost entirely Christian in the south, and Mohammedan in the north. The town of Amboina (population
some of its ancient prosperity, and is clean and some quarters the houses of the native's, and particularly of the chiefs, are as large and well-decorated as ever the European dress and the ornaments of the people arc signs of their comfortable and easy existence. Part of the Dutch Colonial army is formed of Amboinese among whom are included people from Menado, the Sangi and Talauer Islands, and the Moluccas they are strong, intelligent, obedient, and brave, and thus make admirable soldiers. The Amboinese are of superior intelhgence to most of the Indonesian peoples, just and good tempered, so that in spite of their indolence they make good officials, and are fomid in manj'^ places in the lower ranks of the administration, and as plantation overseers as the oldest subjects of the Dutch in the Indies, and as Christians they form the aristociacy of the Indies and scorn to mix with
8,328) conserves
well-built, whilst in
:
'
',
MOLUCCAS
215
other natives, but in spite of their Christianity and their suijerior position they are not remarkable for cleanliness or morality, and their long association with Europeans has resulted in the disap-
pearance of many of the virtues of primitive peoples. They are a pleasure-loving people, and in spite of their rehgion very superstitious. The people are divided into orang burger, or burghers, and orang negri. The former are the descendants of early employees of the Dutch East India Company, who were given rights not conceded to other natives, and exempted from statute laboiir and taxation, but had to serve in a civic guard which patrolled the coast. When many of these privileges were abrogated they continued to occupy a superior position to the other inhabitants, the orang negri or country-folk, towards whom they are exceedingly arrogant, though in clothes, housing, and mentality there is no difference between them. They are found also in Minahasa, Banda, and Timor, and have stUl their own administration, exemption from statute labom', &c., and Uve in a separate part of the village or in special villages of their own. Efforts are, however, being made to do away with these differences, and the Christian burghers now take an equal position with Europeans. The Amboinese are a strong and thick-set people, with dark
skin, curly or
wavy
haii-, flat
nose,
and thick hps.

all
The women
Neither
are slender in build, but are not at in the archipelago.
good-looking.
sex blacken their teeth in the disfiguring fashion so the clothing

is
common
simple
The hair
^for
of the
the
men
men is cut short and a jacket and long cotton

Jcabaja.
trousers, for the
women
a sarong and a
Different
costumes are worn by
the burghers, the orang negri, and
among
decorated hairpins, and the the Christians. ornament their hair with real or artificial flowers ; they girls are very fond of perfumes, which they prepare from fragrant
oils.
The women wear
The regents
of the Christian AriUages often
wear European
clothes.
The
villages are tidy
a church and
school
and well laid and sometimes a
out, each having as a rule

baileo,
now no
longer used
for meetings, but only for storage purposes. Agriculture is imimportant, the ground being unsuitable for many crops spice trees and coco-nut pahns, with some coffee and cocoa, are grown, and pabn-wine is much drunk, diunkenness at feasts being common among both Christians and Moham:
210
niedana.
largely
INHABIT ANT8
Sago
fruit
is imported from Ceram, and tlie people live and vegetables goats and sheep are kept in the Mohammedan parts of the island, and pigs in the Christian
on
villages.
for his daily needs,

iiese
Each native only exercises his trade or occupation to provide and industry is at a low ebb, the few Amboi:
craftsmen being found among the burghers the art of weaving is not known. The natives seem to have smaU aptitude for commerce, and trade is in the hands of strangers. The land is only cultivated by the oraTig negri, who are divided into dati, or communities, owning the ground in common and under a head, the kapala dati. The oraTig negri, who have the right to tiU the ground, have the sole right to break up new land, and to receive the profit from the products of the village fields, to the exclusion of the burgher class. Fishing provides a means of livelihood for many
of the natives.
Malay is spoken by the burghers and the Christian orang negri, except in Hitu, Asilulu, and the UHassers, which have conserved
their original dialects.
The people of the Uliassers (Saparua, Haruku, and Nusa Laut) number some 20,000, of whom about 5,000 are burghers, and
they are
is
is
now
largely Christian in religion,
Nusa Laut were formerly renowned

found, but
is insufficient for
though the people of cannibals. Sago the needs of the inhabitants and
pirates
and
imported from Ceram. Pottery is made in the islands. Boano has a popvdation of some 1,300, hving into two settlements, and divided into Boano Serani (Christians) and Boano Islam (Mohammedans). The soil is not fertile, and the people are forced to seek a hving on neighbouring islands. Manipa had 800 inhabitants in 1905, of whom a hundred were
Christians
:
much
sago
is
grown on the
Islands
island.
Banda
The Banda Islands
Neira, Lontor, Ai, Run, and Rozengain âre peopled with a mixed race numbering some Javanese, Makassars, 6,000. Theyare descended from strangers and people from the neighbouring islands settled there when the original inhabitants (who probably resembled the people of Ceram) were killed off or driven away by the Dutch East India Company in the war of extermination in the seventeenth century.
^Banda
MOLUCCAS
217
The majority of the population of the Banda Islands now resemble each other very closely, exceptmg the Butonese living on the coasts of the mountainous islet of Gunong Api, who have preserved their own language and customs.
and everyBanda, once the most important town of the Moluccas, is now small, and is not even garrisoned. Trade is confined to the Chinese and Arabs, who are the only prosperous people on the islands the natives live mostly by fishing, and nets and canoes form their chief wealth. They are indolent by nature, and industry is almost noii-existent. The native houses, made of bamboo and atap, stand in shady gardens of fruit-trees. The people are ruled by their villaga chiefs and councils, but they have no longer any poHtical power, and the pata-lima and pata-siwa communities (called here urilima and uri-siwa), into which the people are divided, have no
where are signs
of
The
islands have lost their ancient prosperity,
decay
real significance.
Society consists of three classes, the position being denoted by the form of his cap ; marriages are only made among people of the same social class, and a dowry is paid for a wife, in accordance with her rank.
of a
man
The Butonese on Gunong Api live chiefly by agricultm'e, main crop. The people in Run, who are engaged in nutmeg cultivation, are mostly Timorese and Butonese they only numbered about 140 in 1908. Ai had a total
tapioca being their
;
population of 682 in 1906, of whom 300 (including 12 Europeans) lived in the settlement of Ai, whilst the rest were engaged as coolies on the nutmeg plantations. Rozengain has a population of about 100, living in the village and surrounding gardens, where vegetables, &c., are grown.
Kei Islands
The Kei Islands have a total population of about 26,000, about 14,000 on Great Kei, 10,000 on Nuhu Boa, and the remainder in the other islands of the group. Some 8,000 are Mohammedans, and there are a few Christians, but the majority are heathen, though the Mohammedans make many converts through their persistent propaganda, and the people are rapidly
becoming semi-civilized. In the past the race has been much mixed with settlers from Makassar, Ceram, and New Guinea, so
that the indigenous type is to-day almost non-existent, the natives being partly Papuan and partly Malay in type, though
218
INHABITANTS
On
curly or woolly haired people are less

Islands.
common than on the Ai'u Great Kei there are two AoUages in the centre of the island, Banda-Elat and Banda-EK, which are peopled by
who were
driyen from
still
the descendants of the natives of Banda,

their
homes
in the seventeenth century
by the Dutch, and

:
speak their own language, though they have borrowed many customs from the Kei natives among whom they live they are all Mohammedans, and work as smiths and potters, making
most beautiful vessels. The villages were formerly surrounded by high stone walls and stood on steep hills, ascended by wooden ladders, but since the Dutch Govermnent has put an end to native warfare, they are built on the shore, and the fortifications have fallen into disrepair. The houses, which are built of bamboo and atap or palm leaves and stand on piles each in its own garden, are clustered irregularly round a holy stone and various roughly carved wooden and stone images, representing the protective spirits of the village. Each settlement has usually also a meeting-house, and in the Mohammedan villages a mosque. Numeroua
families live in one house.
Mohammedan
jacket
influence has caused the gradual appearance of
and sarong
:
in place of the loin-cloth, particularly on
festive occasions
teeth
earrings and bracelets are worn, and the and on Tayando the women have rings on their toes. Unlike the customs of many of the Moluccan peoples, marriage
filed,
endogamic, but since the tribes are widely spread, a man A large dowry, provided by the whole village, is paid for a woman, who does not come to live with her husband till the whole sum is produced. She then joins his tribe completely, and in case of her husband's death, his brother has the right to marry her with no fmiiher payment. Polygamy is rare, owing to the expense of marriage, tho'ugh the women are far more numerous than the men in Great Kei divorce is common. Great stress is laid on social position a man may not marry above his own class, and if he marries a woman of a lower class, he and his children take her rank. The three classes into which the people are divided, apart from the division into pata-liina and pata-siwa, which
is
usually takes a wife from another village.
also exists, are
(1)
Melmel
;
(the
aristocracy),
who probably
set great store
came originally from the islands to by their ancient lineage almost
the west,
all
and
the people of Dula and
MOLUCCAS
Nuhu Roa are
by the
Great Kei
;
219
melmel
(2)
Rinrin,
melmel,
and
:
live
now
in the interior of
who were probably conquered Nuhu Fut and
people from New Guinea traded to the Kei though slavery is now forbidden, it stUl exists on a voluntary and patriarchal basis. These classes are divided into tribes, and in spite of its aristocratic framework, society is democratic in organization, and is coimected with the possession of the ground, the untilled land being owned by the community and the cultivated ground by the individual. The right to the land is never alienated, and no stranger can possess ground unless he marries into the village. This system of land-teniu:e, M'hich resembles that of Amboina, is an obstacle in the way of industrial development. The ground is on the whole little cultivated, and fishing plays a larger part in native economy, each village owning that part of the sea on which its land
(3) Iri,
Islands as slaves
borders.
Sago
is
the daily food, and
much palm-wiae
is
drunk, since
coco-nuts are abundant, whilst tobacco, sweet potatoes, maize,

rice are grown for local use. Nuhu Roa is less fertile than Great Kei, and has no resident Eiu-opeans. On the whole the natives lead a simple and somewhat poverty-stricken existence. The people are dirty and quarrelsome, and there are still bloody disputes between Christians and Mohammedans, but they are not stupid, and are also described as being gay and hard-working. They are fond of hunting and fishing, and were formerly renowned sailors the nvunerous boats built in the Formerly the islands are still far the best in the Moluccas. articles of daily use were beautifully decorated, and basketwork and carving are highly developed, though European influence has caused the decline of native art.
and
Aru
all
Islands
the larger islands of the Aru group are inhabited, Though population is only about 10,000. In the western the total islands, the Voorwal (front coast), where the Mohammedans and
Christian population lives, the villages, which are built on the Amboina pattern, lie mostly on the coast and are often hidden
In the eastern islands, the Achterwal (back on high rocks. If there are many deaths coast), they stand in a village it is the custom to desert it for another site, and some years ago a large number of the people fled to the interior
in clumps of trees.
::20
INHABITANTS
;
in
the dcvawtating smaU-pox epidemics they arc being again in villages by the Government, which brought together distributes vaccine to them. The few hundred Christians and Mohammedans living on the
foaj' of
western coasts are mostly Chinese, Makassars, and Buginese. The Jiatives of the islands, who are pagans, resemble the people
of
in aspect.
Tenimber, though they are darker in colour and less fierce They belong to the smooth-haired rather than the curly-headed race, the curly-haired types met with being probably due to an admixture of Papuan blood. (The Gungai tribe, Avho live in the interior of Wokam, seldom coming into touch with their neighbours, and are thus representative of the original inhabitants of the islands, have long smooth hair). The skin is less dark than that of the Papuans, and the lips are thin. The people have a great reverence for Dutch authority, and willingly carry out the orders of the Govermnent, thus contrasting with the natives of Tenimber and the Babar Islands. The people go unarmed, and slavery and kidnapping are unknown. In general they are a gentle, quiet race, when not inflamed by strong drink there is little crime, and the old laws and customs
:
of the island are still in force.

\A'ives are
purchased, and the
of his wife, his brother
man becomes absolute master having the right to marry her on his
death.
The people
their chief
shell
of the
of the Achterwal,
who
Voorwal are more industrious than those are in an inferior and dependent position,
means
of subsistence being the trepang
and
pearl-
from the reefs round their islands, which they barter with the Voorwal peoples for sago. Some of the boats in use are made in Tarangan, though the natives are not such clever boatbuilders as those of the Kei Islands, whence many vessels
are imported.
live
The people in the interior of the larger islands by hunting, but the birds of paradise, which are much sought
are becoming rarer.
is
after,
Trade, which is concentrated at almost entirely in the hands of the Chinese and Makassars.
Dobo,
The natives are divided
into Pata-Uina
and Pata-siwa, as
;
in
other islands where Tidore and Ternate have ruled, with the exception of the people of Barkai, who are neutral there is
now
hardly any difference observable between members of the two parties. The men of the islands wear a single cotton gar-
MOLUCCAS
221
ment, only the chiefs affecting more elaborate clothes, and the women a very tight and short sarong (which they weave themselves), but many bright-coloured bead necklaces, thick belts,
anklets, bracelets,
and
ear-rings of copper
and
plaited leaves,
and combs
of
wood
or bone decorated with feathers or shell,
are worn. The women have many marks made by burning on the upper part of their arms, but tattooing is rare. The native houses, which shelter two or three famUies, are poor huts of rough wood and atap. They stand crowded together
on piles, and are entered by a door in the middle of the floor. In the middle of the village, where the protective spirit of the community lives, is a shed, in the centre of which dishes arc placed as offerings. Each village community has its chief the uncultivated ground is owned communally, and the cultivated land individually, as in the Kei Islands. Questions of land tenure are unimportant, since very little ground is tilled, and such gardens as there are belong mostly to the Christian and
:
Mohammedan population, but quarrels over the ownership of the pearl-banks on the uninhabited islands, which are also owned communally, are frequent.
pantheism resembHng that Ceram, though there are no priests. The people 'are believers in the powers of evil spirits, and in spite of the long period during which Mohammedan traders have been in touch with the Aru islanders, they make no converts among the people
The
religion of the people is a gross
of the
AHurs
of
of the Achterwal.
Tenimher Islands
Tenimber Islands is not known : it was estimated at 12,700 in 1880, and at 19,000 in 1889. The people, who are Indonesian and not Papuan in type, are strong and their hair is smooth and black, but that of the fierce-looking
The population
of the
men is often dyed yellow.7 Except for the'Mohammedan settlers,

who
superstitious.
are very few, they are all pagan, and are exceedingly Though they are trustful of strangers, cheerful,
and honest, they are an uncivilized people, constantly at war with each other, and addicted to cannibalism up to late years. The forehead and arms are often Clothing is primitive. tattooed, and an enormous bow, a bag for sirih and other trifles, and a cartridge bag decorated with beads, are always carried. The people are slaves to palm-wine, which is prepared by the
222
INHABITANTS
also fish
men, who
and hunt, search for trepang and tortoises, and

:
break up the ground for cultivation they also work iron, copper, and gold, and make ornaments. The women, who work much harder than the men, cultivate the fields, weave sarongs
and dye the yarn,

traders,
fish,
and make
linen for
of the natives, the islands are only visited
who exchange
Owing to fear by a few Makassar tortoiseshell, &c. Though the

plaited goods.
islands are not particularly fruitful, the natives easily supply

their needs
from coco-nut palms and fruit-trees, only cultivating very little ground maize forms one of the chief foods, except on Yamdena, where more rice and sago are grown. Many pigs
:
and much fish is eaten. The natives are divided into three classes, the nobles, including the chiefs, the common people, and the slaves, who were formerly very numerous owing to the niunbers of prisoners taken in the constant wars. The office of chief is hereditary, but his influence is limited, and women have often a deciding voice in the settlement of questions, even in a declaration of war against another
are kept,
tribe.
South-Western Islands
The South-western Islands, which include the Letti Islands, the Babar Islands, Roma, Wetar, and the Luang-Sermata group, are in general little known and little visited, since they are of small economic importance and since the chief source of
:
information is derived from the writings of a traveller of 1885-90, conditions may have changed. The natives are of the smoothhaired Malay type, and are usually friendly and cheerful, and very fond of songand dance they are at a low stage of develop:
ment, though they have a feudal and aristocratic social system, but they are giving up their war-like customs under Dutch influence. Only a single garment is usually worn. The houses, which stand on low piles, are crowded together on the top of steep rocks, usually near the shore, and surrounded by high
stone walls.
in
The people
:
are divided into tliree classes (except
Luang-Sermata)
the
noble and land-owning
class,
the
common
people, including those vassals of the nobles
who have
become free, and the descendants of slaves. Marriages in the same class are made wthout payment, which is exacted in the
case of misalliances,
when the
children take their mother's status.
The
religion consists of sun-worship,
and a
belief in evil spirits
MOLUCCAS
223
the souls of the dead are honoured as intermediaries, in particular that of the founder of the village, which dwells in an image standing with a holy waringin tree and a stone altar in the centre of the village. Each house has also its protecting spirit, whose
image is set in the front wall. Even Christians, who are fairly numerous, since in earlier times there was considerable misless
sionary activity in the islands, make these images, which are rudely fashioned in Letti than in the more easterly islands. The people cultivate very little land, since the islands produce food in abundance and even fishing is little engaged in.
;
about 20,000 conOn Kisar live the so-called Dutch heathen ', about 300 in number, who are descendants of European soldiers of the time of the Company, and are differentiated from the other islanders by their fair skins and blue eyes and their European names. Their Christianity, however, leaves much to be desired, and in morals and intelligence they are not superior to the other inhabitants. The Babar Islands have a population of about 10,000 6,500 in Babar, and the rest living on Wetan, Masela, Dai, Dawera, and Dawelor. The natives resemble the people of Tenimber in appearance, customs, and dress. In some parts they live in a very primitive condition, only wearing a strip of bark, though in Tepa and a few villages on Wetan they are better clothed. The natives are very dirty, and head-diseases are rife. On Dai pots are made, and iron is rudely worked on Dawelor. The Luang-Sermata Islands, which had a population of about 1,200 in 1885, are largely Christian, and Malay is much spoken aU the Christian and many of the heathen natives are wellclothed and are somewhat more industrious than in other of the South-western Islands, more land being under cultivation, and
of
:
The Letti Islands have a population

is
'
siderable cattle -production
carried on.
numbers of goats, sheep, buffaloes, and pigs being kept. The people have some capacity for trade and are good navigators, journeying to Timor and neighbouring islands to barter their goods, whUe Luang-Sermata is also visited by Makassar traders. Trepang and tortoises are collected, the women are clever weavers, and gold ornaments, much in demand in all the Southwestern Islands, are manufactured. The industry is confined to
special families, so that the people, instead of being divided
by the sharp
class-distinctions of the other islands, belong to
guilds which recall the caste system of the Hindus.
224
INHABITANTS
of
Wetar has a population

uncivilized
:
some
7,500, said to be extremely
trade in trepang, tortoises, and
wax
is
carried
on
by
barter.
The people
are ruled
by a
rajah, -with subordinate
chiefs.
New
Dutch
so that
Guinea
:
Population
Numbers
New
Guinea
is still
largely unexplored in the interior,
it is
impossible to enumerate the various tribes which

' '
Papuans ', the name appKed to aU the a word meaning woolly haired ', and is used in the same way as the name Toraja in Celebes. The coastal natives also call themselves Papuans, as distinct from the people of the interior, whom they term Alfurs, but it is found, in fact, that each tribe has a different name, and differs in many ways even from its closest neighbours, with whom it is very probably
inhabit the coiuitry.
inhabitants,
is
' '
at war. The Papuans of Dutch New Guinea are as yet little touched by civQization, though there are a certain number of traders, mostly from Ceram, Celebes, the South- West Islands,
and Ternate, on the
island,
who
collect sea
and
forest products,
mostly visiting the south and west.

ethnological differences existent
known of the among the Papuans, and the

Little is
theory that the coastal population is a mixed race, partly Polynesian in origin, while the aborigines of the interior show a Negrito strain, is not proven.
There
of their
are, of course,
no data on which to form an estimate
New Guinea, which forms part of the Amboina Residency, is given as 35,000, and the people of 111 villages in the explored part of Northern New Guinea of which a rough census was taken, numbered aboiit
numbers
;
the population of South
9,200.
Papuans
The Papuans
middle height,
are a strong
and
well-built people, usually of
with regular features, somewhat prominent cheek-bones, a broad nose, thick lips, a large mouth, white teeth and dark brown eyes. They are often quite good-looking, and make picturesque figures with their many ornaments and their garlands of flowers, but the women become ugly whilst still young, since they are considered as inferior creatures, and have to do most of the hard work. The sldn varies from nearly
NEW GUINEA
225
black to light brown, the head being often disfigured by disease. Their chief physical characteristic is their woolly hair, which
stands out in a bush from the head, and differentiates them from the smooth-haired people of the larger part of the archipelago. There is usually also a considerable growth of black hair on the face and body. On the slopes of the snow-mountains of southern New Guinea there are tribes of short natives, of which one, the Tapiro, only averages four feet nine inches in height, and so may be classed as pygmy. The Papuans are a childlike and cheerful people. In places they are stiU cannibals, and they are frequently murderers and thieves. They are extremely lazy and dirty. Though they are fond of their children and their family, they are often wild and
fierce to strangers,
who
are,
however, seldom openly attaclêd,
Papuans are cowards, and have no love for open warfare, preferring to kill their victim by stealth. Head-hunting is still rife, and it is thus never safe for a single native, or for the women and children, to go out in the bush alone. In some tribes no man is respected until he has brought home a head.
since the
society is in fact in a state of nature in many parts only the authority of the head of the family is known, the only chiefs being those who excel their fellows in intelligence and courage, and thus gain a certain influence, whilst on the north coast, where each village has a hereditary head, these have but little power, and are not differentiated in any way from the the counsels of the older other inhabitants of the settlement men, though they have no official status, have considerable weight. There are no taxes, and little trace of law and justice small misdeeds are settled by payment of fines, but the law of revenge is the only law in force. In the west of New Gviinea, which has been more in touch with strangers, conditions are somewhat different, since a sort of artistocratic class, to which the rajas of the Papua Islands and of Mo and Arfu in the northwest of New Guinea belong, has been formed through pressure brought to bear from Ternate. In many parts the natives go naked, and when clothes are worn they consist as a rule only of a piece of bark-cloth or trade cotton. Many ornaments are worn. The chief and often the only weapon is the bow and arrow daggers made from the thigh-bone of the cassowary are common, and lances, swords and choppers of stone or imported iron are met -with.
Papuan
'
'
NETHERLANDS INDIA
226
INHABITANTS
The Papuans are partly settled, as in the Schouten Islands, and on McCluer Gulf and Geelvink Bay, where they have come
into
contact
villages,
partly semi-nomad, possessing with traders and but spending much of their time in the forest
;
partly entirely nomad.

forsake their villages
The
settled peoples are easily led to
by
sickness or misfortune, so that the

;
they are not fortified, but are built, as a rule, in as inaccessible a position as possible, with the houses on high piles. Sago, cooked or raw, forms the chief food, with pisang, coconut, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, and the produce of the chase, largely pigs, cassowaries, crocodiles, kangaroos, &c., and fish. Hunting with bow and arrow, and fishing (for which the Papuans are badly equipped) with harpoons, bow and arrow, or sometimes nets, play an important part in daily life. The gardens are usually on a small scale, the products being often unimportant and of poor quality, and the land is allowed to lapse into the forest when it becomes infertile, though cultivation seems to be carried on better on the slopes of the mountains, and tobacco and vegetables are largely grown in the western peninsula. Water is often the only drink, though palm-wine is used in many places. No cattle-breeding is carried on, but a few pigs are often kept for use at feasts. Industry is almost non-existent, consisting only in the making of rough pottery (particularly on the north coast) and of plaited work. Trade is carried on by barter, though old beads are in use as currency on the coast, where the traders come for sago, shell, birds of paradise, &c. On the coast every native possesses a small boat, but inland only porterage is possible. Marriage is apparently usually endogamic, and is often attended by no special ceremony. In Arso, on the western peninsula, a man must give another woman in exchange for his wife, and in the peninsula to the south of McCluer Gulf a large dowry is paid, the man being temporarily the servant of his wife's relations. Marriage by elopement into the forest is also common, and among the Seget, living in the interior of the north-west of Dutch New Guinea, a man may not marry till he has cut off two heads.
villages are often in a ruined condition
The Papuans seem to have no definite religious observances and beliefs, though spirits are feared, and a belief in magic is general their wooden images are not apparently idols, and they
;
NEW GUINEA
have no
227
priests. In many parts there are large buildings, sometimes roughly carved and coloured, in which the young men sleep, and in which certain ritual ceremonies, of which little is
known, are carried on. The women are not allowed to approach these houses, and are in many parts of the island allowed no
part in the frequent feasts. The most developed people on the north coast are those of Tanah Merah, Muris, and Demta Bays, where many people speak Malay, the gardens are cultivated with care, and trade is better understood in spite of coming frequently into touch
;
with strangers, the people of Humboldt Bay are still very wild. There are a considerable number of Mohammedan natiyes in McCluer Bay and on the south coast, owing to the presence of
traders there.
The languages in use in Dutch numerous and difficult to learn.
New
Guinea are exceedingly
Papua Islands
There is a considerable Mohammedan population, consisting Malays and other strangers, and of Islamized Papuans in the so-called Papua Islands to the west of New Guinea (Waigiu, Grebeh, Batanta, Salwatti, Misol, and other smaller islands), in addition to the indigenous and pagan Papuans. The people of
of
Gebeh are entirely Mohammedan, and closely resemble those of Patani (on Halmaheira), with whom they come frequently into touch. The Mohammedan population of the islands lives largely
by
fishing.
Lesser Sxtnda Islands

The standard
of civilization differs
very considerably in the
islands of the Lesser
Sunda Chain, and becomes lower progres:
the people of Bali are among sively going from west to east the jnost highly developed in the archipelago, and since Lombok is partly colonized from Bali and was for long under its domination, its civilization is largely Balinese in character. The Sasaks, the indigenous and somewhat less developed people of Lombok, in their turn strongly resemble the people of the west of Sum-
bawa, but the peoples of -the more easterly islands, e. g. Flores, Timor, Sumba, &c., are very little developed, and are still largely
outside
Dutch
rule
and
influence.
P2
228
INHABITANTS
Timor, with Rotti and Savu
The total numbers of the population of Dutch Timor are not known, but it is unhkely that the natives number more than 380,000. In 1905 there were about 130 Europeans and 1,000 many of Chinese, with a few Arabs, Solorese, and Rottinese the Chinese have settled in the interior and have identified themselves with the natives. The chief town, Kupang, had a population of 3,775 in 1905. The indigenous people are
:
usually divided into Timorese, in the south-west of the island,
kingdom of Sonnebahit, and eastern Timor, representing the people of the kingdoms of Waiwiku, Waihale, and Lulia. The Timorese are described as approximating to the Malay type, while the BeUonese show a Papuan element in their curly hair and dark skin. The Kupangs, who hve in the extreme west of Timor and in the island of Saman, are distinguished as a group by a lighter skin, more slender body, and more wavy hair they are sometimes stated to be a third and separate people, and by some authorities are thought to be Timorese mixed with people from the neighbouring islands of Rotti, Solor, and Savu. It is likely that these divisions of the people of Timor are a simplification of a really more elaborate ethnorepresenting the inhabitants of the old
and BeUonese
in central
logical system.
The natives of Timor are still very primitive, and the native kingdoms, about forty in number, are constantly at war one with another. The usual dress of the men consists of two pieces of patterned cotton material, woven by the women, with a heavy decorated belt, and a bag hung over the left shoulder. The women's dress is even simpler. Armbands, often finely worked in silver, gold and silver plaques on the chest and forehead, earrings of glass or pegs of wood decorated with tufts of hair, and necklaces of glass, quartz, and clay beads (which are much valued), are the more common ornaments. The weapons of the Timorese are knife, gun, and spear, and they are great riders the BeUonese use also bow and arrow, shield, and a blow-pipe for hunting. The princes, the leaders in warfare (who are very important people in communities constantly at war) and the heralds, have special decorative garments. Tattooing is very common, each family having its special token, which is even used on the horses.
:
LESSEE SUNDA ISLANDS

The usual Timorese houses
built of
229
arc round, stand on piles, and are wood, with a roof of grass or pahn-leaves reaching nearly to the ground. There is only one room, with a central fireplace, and no windows, except in the case of the houses of princes and notables, which are larger, square, and have usually a verandah. The villages, which are small, and often the houses,
are stockaded,
and
are built in positions difficult of access.
In front of the chiefs' houses hang heads, and in many villages there is a walled enclosure, with a stone in the centre, where newly-captured heads are laid for celebrations with dancing
and singing. All, the natives hate and fear water, and clean themselves with the milk of the coco-nut. As might be expected in the unsettled and insecure state of the country, agriculture is at a low stage of development, the natives only growing enough maize or rice to satisfy their own needs. Horses and buffaloes %,re left to find their own food. Pigs and goats are numerous. Industry consists only in the making
of
ornaments and
of plaited
work.
Trade
is
mostly in
Chinese hands.
The natives are pagans, except for a certain number of Protestants in the west, and a leaven of Roman Catholics in the east.
The Roman
Catholic Mission in Belu
Many
places
^mountains,
had 2,852 converts in

stones,
trees,
rivers,
&c.
^where
1914.
offerings are made from time to time, are holy, and must not be approached. The offerings are made by priests, and among the Bellonese the chief has often priestly rank. The dead may not be buried till their debts are paid, so that the corpse is often kept above ground in a coffin for years. Polygamy is sanctioned by the Timorese, but not by the Belbnese, who, however, practise concubinage, Many dialects and languages are spoken, the commonest being Aaiuan in the west and Teium in the east. Malay is spoken by
Kupang. who number some 60,000, have a reputation for thrift and good temper they are Christianized to a considerable extent. The Rottinese language is divided into several dialects, but these bear a considerable resemblance one
foreign colonists in
The people
of Rotti,
to a,nother.
Rottinese,
The people of Savu, who are probably a mixed race of Timorese, and people from other neighbouring islands, number a large number are Christians, and there were about 15,000
;
230
861 converts in 1914.
INHABITANTS
Both the Savunese and Rottinese have neighbouring and more productive islands in emigrated to considerable numbers.
Pantar
The population
of
Pantar
is
about 7,900, the southern part of
the island being uninhabited. The natives on the coast, who are very intractable, are decreasing in numbers, partly owing to intermarriage and partly to emigration to Portuguese Timor
in search of
work
they numbered some 1,900 in 1914.
The
is
people of the interior are taller and more strongly built than the
Alorese,
and are
also
more
civilized.
The Dutch Government
endeavouring to collect them into villages, since many live in separate houses, standing in their own gardens and fields, and only assembling near the chief's house for celebrations. These villages are scattered and unfenced settlements. Agriculture, industry, and trade are similar to those of Alor (see below). Pantar is a somewhat poor island, where both food and drink are often scarce. The people of the coast are nominally
Mohammedan,
whilst those of the interior
and
of the islands of
Tewerin and Dolabang are pagans. In Blagar and Barmusa different languages are used in the interior and on the coast, mixed with many Malayan words. An Alorese dialect is used in
Pardai.
Alor
Alor, with its dependent islands, 1912, divided into coastal
sembling the Timorese in primarily warriors and hunters, agriculture being

the
had a population of 50,000 in and mountain peoples, the latter reappearance and customs. They are
left largely
to
and they are hostUe to strangers, though tranquilUty has now been estabUshed by the Dutch. The mountain peoples have become more civilized, so that they now
children,
women and
engage in trade with the people of the coast, who are descended from settlers from Java, Saleier, Solor, &c.
The Alorese are a strong and well-built race, and conditions in the mountains are healthy, although small-pox was rife some years ago. Only one garment is worn, and the bow and arrow is
the chief weapon. In spite of their warlike past, they are by no means brave, and much prefer to slay their enemy by stealth,
flying in terror
from Dutch troops.

as possible,
231
The mountain villages are always built in as inaccessible a spot and are defended with bamboo fences and sometimes stone walls the houses stand clustered together surrounded by maize- and rice-fields, and are visible at a great distance. The coastal villages are more regular in arrangement. The houses in the hill settlements, which stand on piles, are solidly built, with sloping roofs of alang-alang. The houses in the coastal villages, which usually stand on the ground, are comparatively spacious and well-built. The mountain people live mostly by agriculture, and the coastal people by fishing. Rice, maize, tobacco, and various vegetables and fruits are grown, whilst cotton cultivation has
:
lately
been introduced.
:
Hunting, however,
is
the chief occupa-
tion of the men.
Pigs are kept in large numbers.

coarse sarongs are
fields,
Industry
coast.
is
on
a very small scale

possesses
its
woven on the
;
The mountain peoples

hereditary
are divided into tribes
each family
and
rice
and maize are traded at
the coast for clothes, &c. All the mountain peoples and also many of the coastal inhabitants are pagans, having a system of prohibitions (pemali)
which is also observed by the Mohammedans

peninsula and Kiu,
of the north-western
lukewarm in the practice of their religion. The pagan natives worship wooden images, mostly of snakes and crocodiles. There are some twenty chief languages in use in Alor, differing widely from each other, each tribe and often each village speaking
are
who
a tongue of
its
own.
Flores, with Solar, Lomblen,
and Adunara
The population of Flores is estimated at 500,000. That of that of Lomblen about Adunara is probably about 25,000 32,000 that of Solor is not known. The chief town, Larantuka in the east of Flores, had a population of 4,665 in 1905. The islands lie in the zone which forms the frontier between generally speaking, the people the Papuan and the Malay race of the west of the island, the Mangarese, are markedly Malay in type, being small and lightly built, with light brown skin, smooth or wavy hair, and little hair on the body, whilst the people of central and eastern Flores and the Solor Islands are more Papuan in appearance, having a darker skin, curly hair, and a more
;
strongly-built frame, though neither the pure Indonesian or the
232
pure Papuan type
is
INHABITANTS
found.
The
different tribes are usually
named after their district, and the indigenous heathen population, of whom very little was known up to late years, has been largely pushed back into the interior by the people from Makassar, Sumbawa, Sumba, the Solor Islands, &c., who have settled on the coast inTodo, Manggarai, there are colonists who are thought to be descended from Menangkabau settlers, and the people on the Endeh coast are said to have originated in shipvwecked
:
Chinese from Majapahit.
The people
:
of East Flores,
who
are largely Christian, are said
and willing, and those of the interior are very shy they form a great contrast with the population of Central Flores and the Solor Islands, who are warlike and insolent, lovers of drink and gambling. The people of Endeh are mistrustful, but they and the Manggarese are the most developed of the natives, apart from the Christian population. The people of Ngada are said to be honest and frank in their dealings with others, brave and faithful murder, drunkenness and imto be good-tempered
:
morality are rare

persons.
among them, but they are very dirty in their The people of Endeh have a script of their own,
Since the pacification of the
resembling that of Makassar.
island in 1907, conditions have rapidly improved,
and Flores has a promising future before it. Whilst in the east aild south of the island trousers and a headcovering, and often a jacket or sarong are the common dress, in the west only a short sarong is worn, though the clothing differs considerably among the different tribes. A bag for sirih and other necessaries is always carried. The ceremonial garments
now
are often elaborate,
and anklets of more usually of ivory or shell) are worn, whilst the women wear knobs of metal, coral, or decorated bamboo in their ears. In Ngada the women's ears are hung with numbers of copper rings, and necklaces, preferably of old beads, are worn by everyone in the east of Flores and in
rings, bracelets,
and many
gold, silver, copper, or tin (or in the east
the other islands to the east. In general, the covering of the body with garments is becoming more and more usual, as a result
of foreign influence.
The
natives live mostly
by
agriculture, the chief food being
where the ground is favourable for its ciiltivation, whilst many coco-nuts grow on Adunara and Lomblen. Though considerable numbers of horses and buffaloes
maize, superseded
rice
by
LESSEE,
are kept, meat
hens,
is little
SUNDA ISLANDS
233
eaten except at festivals, when pigs, dogs,
rats, are consumed, and the Mangarese are very fond of locusts and earth-worms. The people of the Solor Islands hunt sharks and fish with harpoons, and are re-
and even
cats
and
nowned smiths
sarongs are woven, and boats built in Lomblen. Most of the inland villages stand on hill-tops and are visible from a long way off but difficult to reach, whilst in the coastal villages in the Solor Islands the houses are perched on the mountain side overhanging the water. Where European influence is< slowly making itself felt, the villages stand on the flat ground. The houses on the hill-top settlements are larger and less numerous than those in the villages of the plain, and are grouped round a square, in which stands a big tree, and, in the case of tribal villages, a round platform ^the grave of the father of the tribe, where feasts are given. The people are exceedingly dirty, so that the absence of water in the mountain villages does not distress them, and the settlements are usually very unclean and dilapidated. Those of Ngada, however, which are built on terraces, are neat, and regular in their arrangement, and are surrounded by a hedge and thickets of bamboo, outside of which stand the barns. The Manggarai houses are conical in form,
:
with a roof reaching to the
floor
they are divided into separate
rooms for the different families, and a passage where the unmarried men and the strangers sleep. In the east and in Adunara the houses are smaller, and are only inhabited by one family, the natives often living permanently on their rice-fields, and only coming into the village for feasts. On Adunara the houses of the well-to-do have an inner and outer wall to prevent the inhabitants from being struck through the wall by lance or bow and arrow between the walls is a passage where household goods are kept and elephant's teeth, imported in earlier times from Further India, which form the chief riches of the Adunarese. The houses stand on the ground, but the sleeping-places are raised. In Endeh the houses are square, and are often roomy and well-built. In Ngada they stand on piles, and have very high roofs, which often come down below the floor-level, so that the interior is very dark and stuffy in front are an inner and an outer verandah. These houses, which are decorated with carving, usually only shelter two or three families. Each village has its barns, which stand on piles, and in East Flores and the islands a pemali house, an open shed in which stand the carved sacrificial stakes.
:
234
INHABITANTS
In almost the whole of Flores the ground is owned communally by the tribe, impersonated by the tvxin tanah often a descendant of the man who first cultivated the soil in that place ^who is one of the four elders of the village and can stop calamities and avert illness where the tiian tanah is still in power, the chief or prince has no power over the land, unless he is tuan tanah as well, but in many parts the influence of the elders is waning, and the village or the district is taking the place of the tribe as a land-owning community. The cultivated land belongs to the man who first breaks it up, and only members of the community have the right to the products of the waste land but land-tenure differs in different parts, and in parts of Ngada only the hereditary tenure of the individual, as distinct from communal possession, is known. Here the prodiacts of the uncultivated land are free, and a stranger can own the land he breaks up, whilst in the rest of the island he has no rights of possession. Marriage is patriarchal in character, and the woman has no freedom of choice a wedding is arranged by the family or the community, and is the occasion of many festivities. InManggarai the husband stays for a time in his wife's home, before taking her to the new room which has been added to his own family house for their accommodation. A large dowry is paid for a wife, and the husband is bound to care for and assist his parents-in-law and his wife in every possible way, and to live with them till the dowry is entirely paid up, so that the possession of daughters is counted as great riches, and the kidnapping of young girls and children is common on Adunara and Lomblen. In Ngada, if there is a family which has no sons, the husband often goes to live and work permanently for his wife's people, clearly a remnant of matriarchal institutions. In these cases no dowry, or only a very small one, is asked. Polygamy is rare, but child-marriages, or rather betrothals, are common. The morality of married couples is, on the whole, high, and in Ngada in particular divorce is very rare. Large families of children are only found in Endeh. Bodies are usually wrapped in linen and buried, but in the case of well-to-do people they are placed in a wooden coffin, and a considerable period, during which the wherewithal for the burial feast is collected, elapses before burial. In Ngada only those who have died a natural death lie within the village, those who have perished from violence being buried outside, often in a communal grave. In Central Flores corpses are not buried but exposed on

scaffoldings,
235
and in the west of Lomblen the head of the corpse is dug up some time after burial and laid in a shed. The son or the brothers of the dead man inherits his property, and in Ngada
possession only goes in the male line. Most of the people of the interior of Flores are pagans, the coastal population being Mohammedan and Christian. In 1916
there
were about 33,000 Mohammedans, mostly living in Manggarai, Endeh, and the Solor Islands, though in Endeh there are still existent Roman Catholic practises, a remnant of the missionary activities of the Portuguese and of the
Christian
confraternities
of native
notables
the
influence
on the islanders has not, however, up to now been very happy. The pagan religion of the natives has small influence on their daily life, but as usual in these islands the souls of the dead are held in high honour, and in each large village and each ricefield is a sacrificial pillar or altar, which in the east of the island stands in a house. The people of Ngada differentiate between good and evil spirits, living in the earth and air. Feasts are numerous, particularly among the Christian population, and dance and song are popular
everyTvhere.
of Christianity
The natives are divided into tribes, ruled by elders or heads of Each village, however small, in East Flores, and also here and there in the Solor Islands, has four elders, who manage all the religious and communal duties, of whom the tuwan tanah is one. Though many villages have joined together to form districts under a district head, the real power remains with the village chiefs. In Endeh, where the society is more highly developed, the people are divided into the noble, the middle, and the lower classes. The nobles are never seen without an armed following. In Ngada there are only two classes, since slavery was abolished ^the descendants of the founder of the community and the common people a woman of the first class may never marry a man of the second class.
families.
is
the west Besides the the only thickly-peopled part of the island. Sumbanese themselves there are a number of people from Endeh
(Flores) living chiefly at
The
total population of
Sumba Sumba is not known, but
Waingapu, the
capital,
and the
larger
part of the east coast
is
inhabited by natives of Savu and Rotti,
236
INHABITANTS
are hard-working
and industrious, and are supplanting and The establishing supremacy over the original inhabitants. straight hair, and are a fine neatly-made Sumbanese have long
who
people, rather bigger than the Javanese
the
women
:
are often
handsome.
They
are said to be a dishonest, cruel,
and cowardly
they are race, and their chief virtue seems tcf be hospitality very dirty in their persons, and do as little work as possible. The men wear a shawl and loincloth and a head-covering, and but in the interior the clothes worn are the women a sarong Both sexes have simpler, sometimes only a belt and hat.
;
and ear-rings. Except in the west of the island the villages are small, and consist of only a few houses, which are large primitivelyThe villages are constructed buildings standing on piles. surrounded by strong palisades or high stone walls, and there
bracelets, gold chains,
are
graves in the square, since the natives disHke burial These graves consist generally of four upright stones with another laid across, and are often decorated
outside the settlement.
many
with carving.
The Sumbanese cultivate the soil, make baskets and fishing-nets, and turtles, and work in iron and copper, and a considerable number of the men live by theft. Mshing is confined to the rivers, as the natives fear the sea. The women make pottery, and spin, dye, and weave cotton material, except in the interior of the island where no weaving is carried
collect forest products, birds' nests,
on.
Little trade is done, except in horses, of

:
which a large
number are exported from Waingapu on by barter cotton stuff and kitchen knives being the most popular articles given in exchange, though the use of money is increasing gradually, and coins also form a favourite decoration for the little boxes which are always carried by the Sumbanese
it is
stiU largely carried
as a receptacle for valuables, charms, &c.

altars
The natives are pagans, and have no temples, only stone on which the offerings are hung in baskets officials called hatu play an important part in the frequent offerings of sacrifices. A particular breed of horses is held sacred. The feasts, which are accompanied by much music and dancing, and by mock combats on horse-back and on foot, are very
:
uproarious.
Marriages, which are
take place
more easily dissolved than contracted, by arrangement between the parents, by the payment

of a large dowry, or
237
is
by elopement.
Polygamy
common,
especially
among
the upper classes.
The Sumbanese language, which is closely allied with Savunese, has no written form it is divided into a number of dial^ts.
:
are of Malay type, but are sharply divided into the natives of the western peninsula, i. e. of Sumbawa, who greatly resemble the Sasaks of Lombok, and those of the eastern peninsula, i. e. of Bima, Dompo, and Sanggar. Except for a small number of Christians in Bima, the capital, and the pagans in the mountains to the west and north-east of
of
The indigenous people
Sumbawa Sumbawa
Bima Bay, the whole population is Mohammedan. The total population of the island is not known there are about 50,000 people in the Bima district. The island is divided into four parts ^Bima, Dompo, Sanggar, and Sumbawa. The people of the first three districts, who resemble each other closely, are short and thick set, and the women are often goodlooking and fair-skinned. Men and women wear trousers and sarong of stripped cotton. The natives are described as being somewhat stupid, timid, and weak they are divided into nobles, people, and enslaved debtors (pandeling), and the people are again divided into guilds, according to their trade. The houses, which are small and stand on low piles, have a large living room, with two sleeping-apartments divided off by a low wall, and an open verandah. Though the cattle are not kept under the houses, but in separate stables, the ground is nevertheless very dirty. The rice is kept in numerous small barns
;
Agriculture
is
the chief means of livelihood, numerous crops
being raised, in particular rice, maize, onions,

horse and
cattle-breeding are also important.
fishing is unimportant.
and
fruit-trees
Many
people live
are
by hunting, but
Rough garments
woven, weapons fashioned, and mats, &c., plaited, but only local needs are provided for. Here and there forest products are collected on a large scale, but trade is in general less than formerly and is largely in the hands of strangers. The language of Bima and Dompo, which is allied with those of Sumba, Savu, and Flores, differs considerably from that of Sumbawa, but has few dialectic differences of its own. There is only a very scanty written literature, though there are numerous native songs, which are. not committed to writing.
238
INHABITANTS
The number of people in Sumbawa, which is very thinly is unknown, being estimated at 26,000 in 1860 and 40,000 in 1876, partly composed of Makassars, Buginese, Chinese, Arabs, Orang Bajo, and a few Europeans, the interior being almost uninhabited. The houses differ very much from those of Bima, since they stand high above the ground, and are divided by movable partitions into five or six rooms. The people, who closely resemble the Sasaks of Lombok, since Lombok was formerly a dependence of Sumbawa, are timid, submissive, and comparatively uneducated and undeveloped. The men wear a gaily-coloured sarong and slendang, and the women a longer sarong and a jacket of flowered material gold and silver ornaments are never worn. The people hold firmly to the tenets of Mohammedanism, and never indulge in the noisy feasts which are common in many islands. They are
populated,
divided into the nobles, the people
who
live near the capital
and
cultivate the land of the Sultan, the
common
people,
and
the strangers.
Lombok
religion,
Lombok is who
partly inhabited
live in the
by people from
;
Bali,
Hindu by
is
north-west
the rest of the island
peopled by the Sasaks, who are Mohammedans, and are in the great majority, although until 1894 they were under the dominion of the Balinese, a solitary example of a Mohammedan people being ruled by a race professing an older pagan religion. The
total population of Bali is probably about 360,000, of
whom
over 300,000 are Sasaks. Physically there is little difference between the two races, but the Sasaks are intellectually inferior, and the long and oppressive domination of the Balinese had not a good effect they are,
;
however, industrious, patient, and docile, and their villages and houses, which are built on the Javanese pattern, are much cleaner than those of the Balinese, which are defiled by the number of pigs kept in them. In customs and morals the industry is at a high Balinese resemble their kinsfolk in Bali level, and though the Sasak industries have slowly developed under Balinese influence, they remain at a much lower level. Clothes and mats are woven, and there are now a number of gold and silversmiths. The Sasaks wear a kain and a whjte head-dress, and the
;

women
tinguish
239
long dark sleeveless jackets
their clothes thus dis-
them from the Balinese, and their Icris is longer. Since the Dutch occupation, agriculture has thriven. Export trade is
largely in the hands of foreigners, but the inland trade on largely by the Bahnese.
is
carried
The Sasaks are not fanatical Mohammedans, but they keep some of the rules and precepts of their religion with great strictness, and are very rarely converted to Hinduism, except in the
intermarriage with the Bahnese, which is, however, forbidden to Bahnese women of high caste on pain of death. The Sasak and Bahnese languages are quite distinct, and are mutually incomprehensible that of the Sasaks has more affinity with the tongues of Bima and Sumbawa, and contains many Malayan and Javanese words. Most of the more important people can speak Balinese, and the few Sasaks who can write
;
case of
their language use the Balinese script
the only literature
is
translations of Javanese or
Malayan works, written in the Bali Yawa tongue, which resembles the Javanese Krama.
Bali
The
Balinese,
who
live in Bali
and the western part of Lombok,
are descended from Hindu- Javanese emigrants, Bali having been
constantly in touch with Java, owing to the proximity of the two islands, since the earliest times. The chief waves, of emigration from Java to Bali took place in the ninth century, after
the fall of the Hindu kingdom in central Java, and again in the sixteenth century, after the fall of Majapahit. The aboriginal population of Bali was thus long ago absorbed by the Javanese emigrants, with the exception of the Bali-Aga, who live in villages in Sangsit, Krobokan, Sembiran, and Buleleng, and in the
south of western Lombok, and are thought to represent the descendants of the indigenous people. The other inhabitants of Bali call themselves Wong-Majapahit, as distinct from the Bali Aga. After the conquest of Java by Islam in the sixteenth century, Bali remained politically and socially independent till
half-way through the nineteenth century, so that it is quite Bali is permissible to speak of a special Balinese civilization. one of the most thickly populated islands of the archipelago,
its total resembling Java in this as in many other aspects population is probably about 1,182,000. The chief towns, with populations in 1905, are Singaraja (8,727) and Negara (6,651).
;
240
INHABITANTS
have
arisen,
a tjrpical Balinese, since so many but in general it may be said that the Balinese are a well-built people, having much in common with the better-class Javanese, though the skin is somewhat lighter. The dark hair is worn long, and fastened up on the head, by both sexes, except by the princes and nobles, who cut
It is difficult to describe
different types
it
short,
slim,
and often wave and curl it. The women are pretty, and well built. Both in body and mind the Balinese give
:
they are the impression of being stronger than the Javanese more observant and argumentative, and though they are polite, they are lively and outspokeil, and are always good tempered
and cheery. They are hospitable, loyal, and eager to learn careful and zealous in the practice of their religion, and, in contradistinction to most of the peoples of the archipelago, thrifty, always saving up for their cremation after death. The faults of their virtues are found in their devotion to feasting and gambling, and their indulgence in immoral practices, though the latter are more common among the well-to-do than among the poor. The women are industrious, clean, and modest, but they take a very inferior place in Bahnese society and are much overworked, though their lot has been somewhat improved under Dutch rule, and some of the more objectional customs, such as the enslavement of widows without sons, have been put an end to. The men wear a long narrow loin-cloth, and over it a garment {saput) fastened round the body under the arms, with a long end hanging in front, and a kris, or sword jackets are now common among the well-to-do. The common people wear a piece of cotton material on their heads, but the nobles and priests go bareheaded, an umbrella being held over them when they walk out-of-doors. A large kris is always carried thrust in the belt. The priests (padanda) wear long garments, with elaborate head-dresses and ornaments, at religious ceremonies. The women have two garments, one over the other, the upper part of the body being left bare, except on festive occasions. Both men and women wear flowers, natural or fashioned out of gold, in their hair, and the women distend their
;
ears with cylinders of gold or of lontar-leaves, set with a plate

of gold
and precious stones large necklaces and brooches are common, and garments of gold-leaf, with many jewels, are worn at weddings. The two great pleasures of the people are the
;

of the
241
music of the gamelan, or native orchestra, and the performances
wayang or theatre as in Java, cock-fighting is exceedingly and many dancing girls and men are kept by the princes for their amusement. The Balinese villages are built as regularly as the ground permits, the houses standing in gardens full of fruit-trees on each side of a broad road. These gardens are surrounded by high walls, which form a continuous line along the street. The chief people live in the market-place. The villages and gardens are very dirty, and the roads, which are only mended for the funeral
;
popular,
procession of a prince, are full of holes, though these matters

of Dutch rule. The inhabitants of a village are bound together by strong ties, and the rights and duties of the community are enshrined in written laws. There are two types of village societies in the older the number of members is limited to the heads of those families which are descended from the original founder, and the business of the community is managed by a council of elders. In the second type of village, those where a large number of strangers have settled, all the heads of families are members of the society. Apart from these village societies there are a number
have been improved since the establishment
of agricultural associations {Sahaha siibah) which control the possession, cultivation,
and
irrigation of the country.
The premises
stable,
of a Balinese family,
:
which are oblong in shape,

;
are divided into three parts
in the first are the rice-barn, the
and a place of lodgement for guests in the second the bedrooms and kitchen of the family, and in the third the temple belonging to the house. The living-rooms are of clay, roofed with atap or reeds, or of stone in Karang Asem and Bangli. There are usually no windows, ventilation being effected through the opening between roof and walls. Pigs, fowls, and dogs run loose The establishments of the princes and nobles in the garden. comprise a large number of different buildings and rooms.
are excellent farmers, surpassing all the other peoples of the archipelago in rice cultivation many other crops, such as coffee, tobacco, and coco-nut palms, are grown, anci the breeding of cattle and pigs forms an important part of Balinese
The Balinese
pork being the only meat eaten. The animals are very well cared for, and cattle are exported in large numbers. Rice Water is the usual drink, but palm wine and is the chief food.
daily
life,
other strong drinks are popular, and the use of opium

NETHEELANDS INDIA
is
wide-
242
INHABITANTS
spread, though the action of the Regie in raising the price of
opium, combined with the thrifty character of the natives, will probably result in a diminished consumption. Leprosy, venereal disease, and goitre are common, but serious epidemics of cholera or small-pox are now of much less frequent
occurrence, owing to vaccination
and improved hygiene.
Industry has reached a high level, and art is still alive in Bali, and is bound up with the life and religion of the people. Weaving, plaiting, metal- working, and wood-carving all flourish the woodwork is coloured and gilt, and beautiful weapons and other objects are made in embossed gold and silver. The forms of decoration, and the teliefs on the walls of the temples, show Hindu influence and are executed with a great feeHng for beauty. Many priestly possessions, such as censers and musical instruments, are made of copper in Klungkung, and material interwoven with metal threads in Karang Asem and Buleleng. Patterned baskets, mats, &c., of bamboo and leaves, and cloth decorated with gold-leaf are made in many places. Fine pottery, particularly long-necked water-jars, is also manufactured. The religion of Bali is Hindu in origin, but has become much mixed with the animistic ideas and superstitions of the Javanese and Balinese. Siva is worshipped, as well as other innumerable gods and spirits, while Krishna and Vishnu are regarded more as divine powers of Siva than as separate gods, and this Brahmanism is much mixed with Buddhism. The whole life of the Balinese is permeated with their religion, and is a continual struggle to propitiate the gods and keep away evil spirits by the observance of numerous ceremonies, and by the making of sacrifices. Transmigration of souls forms an integral part of their belief. Neither Mohammedanism nor Christianity has been able to make any headway in Bali. The religion of the Bali Aga is Polynesian in type they do not recognize the authority of the padanda, and are not divided into castes. Temples and places of sacrifice are very numerous in Bali, each village having three or four communal temples, i. e. the chief temple, the temple of the dead, the temple of the sea-god (on the coast) or of the mountain-god (in the hills). There is often also a temple to the god of irrigated fields, built in the rice-fields the chief temple is in the village, but the temple of the dead and the place of cremation are outside. The temple on the slopes
: ; :
of
Gunong Agung
in
Karang Asem
is
the holiest of
all.
Each
243
temple has a mangku, who presides over the offering of sacrifices which are made on the occasion of every family happening, and
is
much
respected in the
community
for his holy
life.
The Hindu
is still
religion brings in its train the caste-system,
which
existent in Bali, the people being divided into Brahmin, Ksatria, Wesja, and Sudra, each of which divisions consists of
The three &st-named classes form the and the last the lower class of the people. The castes have now no connexion Avith the occupations or duties of the people. The priests, who are Brahmins and holy, take a very high position, and the knowledge of the holy books of the law, and of the innumerable ceremonies, required of a candidate for the priesthood is very extensive. Women can become priests, and the wives of the priests are initiated into their husband's knowledge of holy things, but those who, at their ordination
various sub-divisions.
nobility,
vow
hood.
themselves to celibacy, take the highest rank in the priestThe rules which a priest must observe are many, and
demand great strength of wUl in the keeping, and they are in truth as a rule very trustworthy people. The low-caste natives,
the Sudra, are not despised, and are only considered unclean when they have been brought into any specifically unclean circumstances, e.g. such as is involved in the touching of a dead body. A man may marry into a lower caste, and this permission is leading to a slow levelling of social distinctions, but a woman is forbidden to marry below her caste, and any woman living with a man not of her own rank is severely punished, and
formerly suffered the death penalty. The princes, who were of the Ksatria or Wesja caste, were regarded as divine emissaries, and their commands were more powerful than the law. Though the former privileges of the noble castes, and the system by
which the punishment for wrongdoing was progressively less as the caste was higher, has been changed, those privileges which spring from ritual observances are unchanged, and the period
of uncleanness resulting from touching a corpse
is still five
times
of
as long for a low-caste
man
as for a Brahmin.
The custom
been put an end to. The Balinese language, which is also spoken in part of Lombok, closely resembles Javanese, and includes many Javanese words it is in fact spoken of as Javanese by the âli Aga, whose pronunciation is old-fashioned, and who do not use the high words, i. e. the alternative forms of many words which are
suttee has, however, at length
:
'
'
Q2
244
INHABITANTS
in addressing superiors
employed
different
and strangers
the various
forms of speech existent in Java are not, however, in use in Bali. The alphabet is derived from the Javanese, and the literature, apart from old Javanese works, consists of poems more or less strongly influenced by old Javanese examples. The Balinese have a special calendar of their own, but the European almanac is coming more and more into use among the educated
classes.
There are four forms of marriage, the most correct being that
in which the father of the
young man makes application to the
but elopements are very common more than one wife. The body is always burnt after death, except in the case of condemned criminals, or people who have died of small-pox or leprosy, but is sometimes buried for a considerable time until a suitable opportunity for cremation occurs.
nearest relation of the
girl,
well-to-do Balinese have usually
CHAPTER
VIII
GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

Home government (States-General The Sovereign) Colonial central government (The Governor-GeneralCouncil of Indian- FoZ/tsraa* General Secretariat ^The departments) Local government (Territories under direct rule Native self-government Native principalities of Java ^Direct administration Administrative divisions The Desa Eeforms of local government) Justice (Gtovemment justice ^The courts) Police ^Defence (Army Navy) Finance (Revenue Taxation ^Monopolies Government cultures and ser-
vices The budget) Foreign consular
services.
Home Government
When Netherlands India was retroceded to the Dutch in 1816, the ultimate authority in colonial affairs was vested in the Dutch
The government of the colony is still exercised in the Sovereign's name, but the former power of the Crown has passed into other hands. It now almost entirely belongs to the States-General and the Minister responsible to that body for the
monarchy.
colonies.
States-General
By the Grondwet of 1848, which defined the constitution of Holland, the States-General acquired the power of formulating the principles of colonial government, and in 1854 it enacted
a constitution for Netherlands India. Since that time the Dutch Parliament has liiade occasional use of its power in this respect, and among the laws passed the most notable are those which opened the ports of the Moluccas, determined the tariff policy, abolished slavery, enacted the Comptabiliteitswet, and
instituted local self-government in India.
teitswet
By
the Comptabili-
the States-General secured the power to control the annual budget of the colonies and, furthermore, has a yearly report on colonial affairs submitted to it (see below, Volksraad,
p. 248).
The Sovereign
Subject to the principles established by the laws of the StatesGeneral the government of Netherlands India is nominally
246

by the Sovereign, but
this control
controlled
can only be exer-
cised through the
medium
of a colonial minister responsible to
Parliament.
Minister).
By
the Indian constitution certain matters are
exclusively reserved to the
Crown
(in practice,
the Colonial
in
These are
(1)
the right to form
new settlements
the islands of the archipelago, which includes the substitution of the direct rvle of the Dutch colonial government for native
rule
;
(2)
the division of the territory into provinces
(3)
the
creation of administrative departments,
and the appointment
of certain officials, including the Governor-General, the lieutenant Governor-General (should thiS official be appointed), the Vice-President and members of the Council of India, the President of the High Court, the President and members of the Chamber of Accounts, and the general of3ficers of the army and navy. Certain powers wielded by the Sovereign under the Constitution of the Netherlands, such as royal right of coinage, conferring of decorations and noble rank, and the signing of treaties with foreign
to the colonies.
Powers (with the confirmation of Parhament) can be apphed also The royal mandate is required for the levying
of individual taxes
and duties,
for changes in the civil service
involving increased expenditure,
measures.
and for various other important The Sovereign's power finds expression in the Royal
principles of individual legislative measures are outlined.
decree (as distinct from a law of the States-General) in which the Thus,
the
amendment
of the constitution in 1903
set forth in the
was more elaborately Royal Decentrahzation Decree of 1904 which
inaugurated local self-government in India.
Colonial Centeal Goveristment

The Governor-General
The head of the Government in Netherlands India is the Governor-General, who, from his seat in Batavia, rules the
colony in the name of the Sovereign. He must be a Dutchman not less than thirty years of age, and have no private financial He has both legislative and executive interest in the colony. powers. His term of office is five years. As a legislator he can issue ordinances on all matters not already fixed by the law of
the States-General or reserved to it, and those not determined by royal decree or reserved to the Sovereign. In times of
emergency, subject to the ratification of the Sovereign or the
247
States-General, he can legislate on subjects reserved to either of them. He has the power to elaborate in the form of an
down in a royal decree. In this way the

Ordinance.
ordinance the general principles of a legislative proposal as laid Decentralization Decree, already referred to above, became in 1905 the Local Councils
The Governor-General can
also postpone the opera-
tion of royal decrees, and initiate minor legislation.
In
his executive capacity the Governor-General has first of all
and enforce the laws, and to secure the welfare of The laws are promulgated by publication in the 8taatsblad and in the Javasche Gourant. The Governor-General appoints and dismisses the higher administrative officials, fosters trade and industry, and superintends the cultures and industries
to promulgate
the natives.
belonging to the Government. He is the commander-in-chief of both land and sea forces, although the administration of the Dutch Home Squadron is subject to the Dutch Minister of Marine. In times of emergency he has the power of suspending the ordinary law and proclaiming martial law, and can make war and peace with native princes. Against undesirable persons, associations, and organs of the press, he can take the necessary repressive action, and he possesses the powers of summary arrest and deportation, besides those of pardon, amnesty, and dispensation.
The control
of foreign settlements is in his hands.
Council of India
The Council of India, consisting of a -vice-president and four members, acts as a constitutional counterpoise to the power of the Governor-General. The members must be Dutchmen over thirty years of age, whUe consanguinity between them and the Governor-Gneral is a disqualification. The Governor-General can nominate members, but appointments are made by the Sovereign acting through the Colonial Minister.
.
power, the Council, in 1836, as a result of differences with Governor-General van den Bosch over the new culture policy, was reduced to the position of an advisory body. By the constitution of 1854 it was practically confined to its consultative capacity, which was, however, strengthened by being legally. defined. The Governor-General is now compelled to obtain the Council's advice on all matters of interest, and in all acts and ordinances
Originally possessing
' '
much
of the
Government, on peace and war and general relations with
248

offices,
the native princes, on nominations to important
on
measures in case of war and revolt and on all exceptional measures of a grave nature. For the final decision, however, the GovernorGeneral is alone responsible, and he informs the Council of the
The advice of the Council is also necessary for the dispensation or repeal of the laws of the States-General. In case of a difference of opinion or a refusal on the part of the Governor-General to act on the suggestion of the Council, the decision of the Sovereign is invoked, although the GovernorGeneral can in the meantime act on his own responsibihty.
result.
Recently suggestions have been made to expand the Council by the inclusion of members from Holland, who would be expected
to represent a larger view of colonial policy.
Volksraad
The independent financial position of the colony (see p. 270) has led of late years to an agitation for a measure of colonial financial autonomy, and this has borne fruit quite recently. The States-General in the autumn of 1916 made the necessary constitutional provision for the institution at Batavia of a colonial
council, in some measure representative, which should be empowered to discuss the colonial budget and military matters with The result of such discussion was to be the Governor-General. embodied in four ordinances. This council, under the name of the Volksraad, was opened by the Governor-General for the first time in May, 1918. It is a representative body of 38 members, 19 chosen by municipal and district councils, and 19 by the Government. The first council consisted of 19 Europeans, 11 Javanese, 2 Malays, 2 Minahasese, 1 Amboinese, 1 Achinese, 1 Chinese, and 1 Arab.
General Secretariat
The vast legislative and executive power concentrated in the hands of the Oovernor-General is administered by a body of permanent officials known as the General Secretariat, with a General Secretary at its head. The duty of the Gteneral Secretariat is to superintend the publication, dispatch,
and
registrait
tion of the instructions of the Governor-General.

acts as his advisory body,
In practice
and besides co-ordinating the work
of
249
the various Government departments, it also gives both form and substance to the ordinary and secondary legislation. Its hold on the government of the colony is so complete that to it,
according to an American authority, belongs most of the real power. The tendency to over-centralization which this depart-
ment
represents wiU be considerably modified when the recently inaugurated systems of self-government are in fuU operation.
The Departments
The administration
centre, has always
of Netherlands India, at
any
rate at its
been organized to some extent departmentally. Under the Company there was a Director-General of Trade and a Master Merchant Daendels appointed an AdministratorGeneral of Trade with four Assistant-Administrators, while Raflfles had an Accountant-General with two sub-accountants. After the restoration of the Dutch in 1816, there were various experiments with financial councils which finally resulted in the establishment of a Director-General of Finance with two directors under him, one to administer the colony's domains and properties and the other for products and merchandise. These offices incidentally serve to illustrate the purely commercial character
;
of the
Government of that time. In 1832 a Director of Cultures was added, and in 1854 a Director of Public Works. In the following year the post of DirectorGeneral of Financfe was abolished and five directorates were subsequently established ^Finance, Properties and Domains, Products and Merchandise, Cultures and Civil and Public Works. In 1871 the directorate of Justice was added, in 1905 the directorate of Agriculture, and in 1908 the directorate of Govermnent Works. The departments at present are seven in number (1) Inland Administration, (2) Education and Public Worship, (3) Civil Public Works, (4) Finance, (5) Justice, (6) Agriculture, Industry, and Trade, (7) Government Enterprises. This department administers the (1) Inland Administration. system of provincial government, of which more will be said private agrithe general police and the armed police later the landrente in Java and Madura and forced labour cultiu'e
taxes akin to the landrente in the Outer Possessions the' inland system of credit the cadastral survey agrarian affairs, including matters concerning tenures, native ownership and leases, and
; ;
;
lands in Solo and Jokyakarta.
To
this
department in 1908 were
250

assistants
added an adviser with two

affairs.
(2)
and an encyclopaedic
bureau for the Outer Possessions, also an adviser for Chinese

Education arid Public Worship. ^Within the sphere of this department come matters pertaining to the education of Europeans, natives, and Chinese, and the public worship of Christians and Mohammedans. It is also concerned with the promotion of knowledge of the ethnology of Netherlands India and the arts and sciences. The Civil Medical Service and philanthropic institutions of all kinds fall within its jurisdiction, while
it
also controls lotteries.

(3)
Civil Public Works.
This department
is
waterways and
(4)
irrigation, the building, repairing,
concerned with and maintain-
ing of lighthouses, bridges, &c.
Finance.
This important department deals mainly with
taxation, with the exception of those few taxes reserved to the
Department of Inland Administration. The taxes with which the Department of Finance is concerned include all farmed taxes and estates in Java and Madura and the Outer Possessions. Under this head in Java and Madura come birds'-nest cliffs, pawnshops, Chinese gambling saloons and toll-bridges and in the Outer Possessions the retail opium trade, intoxicating liquors, Chinese gambling saloons, slaughter taxes, tolls, pepper tax, fruit tax, and others. The department also controls unfarmed taxation, direct and indirect, the go'vermnent monopoly in opium, government pawnshops, import and export duties and excise, and the public sale rooms. Attached to the department is an adviser for the recently established system of local financial autonomy. The department also has charge of the monetary system and the
;
annual passes for ships. This department administers the personnel of (5) Justice. justice with the exception of those of the Supreme Coiirt of Judicature who are appointed by the Sovereign it controls, besides, advocates and solicitors, notaries, interpreters, and trans-
lators,
and
ofl&cials for
Chinese affairs
within
its
sphere
is
the
administration of orphans and estate courts, the regulation of the admission, removal, and extradition of aliens, the examination
of regulations of the heads of provincial goveriunent
and
it
police
judges,
legal
and the administration of the prison system
compiles
statistics, advises the Governor-General in matters of pardon, amnesty, &c., and deals with such other important

subjects as the equalization of natives
251
and other Orientals with Europeans, naturahzation, wrecks, slavery and credit bondage, the press, and rights of association and assembly, and, finally,
and the recruitment of coolies. and Trade. Within the sphere of this, the most recently established Government department, are included native agriculture, agricultural instruction. Government agricultural enterprises, botanical science, laboratories, museums, and zoological science. Cattle-breeding, horse-breeding, and veterinary science generally fall within its jiurisdiction, and it administers the Government coffee Culture. In the division of industry and trade matters relating to chambers of commerce, consuls, patents, and industrial exhibitions and the societies connected with agriculture, industry, and trade are dealt with.
(6)
controls labour inspection
Agriculture, Industry,
(7)
Department of Government Enterprises.
In this category
Government
come the
postal service, telegraphs, telephones, the
automobile transport, the exploiting of the State railways and tramways, and the supervision of those owned privately. Other enterprises are the Government mines and the manufacture, transport, and sale of the product of the Government salt
monopoly. At the head of the military division of the administration is the Department of War, of which the chief is the LieutenantGeneral Commanding the Army. The department is divided
into nine sections cavalry,
:
general, the infantry, artillery, engineers
(military administration), medical service, general staff service,
and topographical service. The Department of Marine administers besides the naval forces, beaconage, pilotage and hydrographical service, and magnetic and meteorological observatories.
Local Government
The administration by the Dutch of the vast area of Netherlands India, at any rate in theory, varies very much in intensity in different localities according to the relationship subsisting between the government at Batavia and the natives of the
.particular region.
While the native
tion is everywhere overlaid with the
political and social organizaDutch administrative system
the latter in
many
places constitutes only the thinnest veneer.
Internationally,
mount everywhere, even
Dutch power may be supposed to be parain the remote and inaccessible parts of
252
Borneo and New Guinea. But apart from these few places, which can only be described as spheres of Dutch influence, Netherlands India can be divided into two kinds of territory (a) Government territory, where Dutch power is nominally as supreme as in Holland (b) territory where the natives still enjoy the right of self-goverrmient, and where the ordinances ^nd civil service of the government at Batavia can only operate as far as they are compatible with that right. The relationship of the Batavian Government with the latter is regulated by the Self-government Ordinance of 1914.
: ;
Territories under Direct
Bute
The
territories
under the direct rule of the Dutch in 1914 com:
prised the following
Solo and Jokyakarta (see p. 254) Bali and modified arrangement in Gianjar and Karang
;
Java, excepting the two principalities of Lombok, with a
Asem
the
resi-
and Benkulen, and the government of Sumatra West Coast and the Lampongs in Sumatra the southern and central districts of Borneo Makassar and Bonthain at the southern extremity of the south-western arm, and the Gorontalo and Menado districts of the residency of Menado, in Celebes the middle and southern groups of the Moluccas, and the southern half of New Guinea. (For a complete list of the Governments and Residencies, see p. 260.) Nominally the Dutch fiscal and other administrative machinery is in operadencies of Tapanuli, Jambi, Palembang,
; ;
tion in the above-mentioned places, but in fact this
is
far
from
being the case.
Native Self-government
It is frequently stated
by Dutch
of
writers, quoting
from the
Constitution of 1854, that the policy of the Dutch, wherever

possible, is to leave the
work
government in native hands, and
to substitute direct rule only where native rule has proved

unsatisfactory.
roughly as follows karta (see p. 254)
The regions where the natives enjoy self-government are the principahties in Java of Solo and Jokyathe old kingdom of Siak and its original dependencies, and Achin and its dependencies, in Sumatra the kingdoms in the north of the residency of South-east Borneo and most of the native States of West Borneo all Celebes except the south-western and north-eastern extremities all the Sunda
:

Islands except Bali and Lombok Moluccas, and the northern half of
;
253
the northern group of the
New Guinea.
The original relationship of the Batavian Government with the native States comprised in the above-mentioned regions was practically that of political alliance, by which the Company may be said to have recognized their independence. During the nineteenth century the Dutch, by means of new treaties,
gradually reduced most of them to the level of vassal kingdoms deprived of their international significance by stipulations forbidding diplomatic intercourse with Powers other than Holland.
of the constant revision of these treaties the relationship between the parties varied considerably. There were States bound only by the recognition of Dutch supremacy, a feature common to all the
allies
(Many of the vassal princes, however, and not vassals of the Dutch.)
still
considered themselves
As a consequence
with one or two obhgations of a general nature such as the suppression of slavery and piracy, while others, by a revised treaty, were obliged to admit the Dutch to a share in the internal administration of justice and finance. This, at any rate, was the
treaties,
on paper in fact, the degree of Dutch interference depended almost entirely on the military strength of the particusituation
;
lar States.
decade of the nineteenth century, in place of treaties agreement was substituted in most of the self-governing communities. This is known as the short declaration ', and contains three articles, of which the first and second embody the recognition of Dutch supremacy, and the
last
In the
of varying length, a uniform
'
third stipulates that all
Dutch regulations and commands

'
'
shall
be followed. A combination of the short declaration and the former detailed agreement, in vogue in Timor and some of its
dependencies,
Timor declaration '. Whereas the old agreement bound the ruler only and was in
is
known
as the
'
the nature of a political treaty, the new agreement binds not only the ruler but his subjects also for all time, and is in the nature of a legal enactment. Out of 350 self-governing districts about 330 are bound by the short declaration ', while in the
'
remaining few (which comprise a considerable area) the old contracts, in a simplified form, still obtain. The limits of Dutch interference allowed by the third article of the short declaration are regulated by the Self-government Ordinance of 1914. Generally speaking the attitude of the Bata' '
254

is
vian administration
all-important
that of an overseer.
native
finance,
To
for
deal with the
question of
example,
the
government has instituted district treasuries in many of the self-governing States, and into these are paid the local taxes and
other incomes, while expenses are defrayed according to a budget drawn up by the native government after consultation with the European officials. In 1910 comprehensive regulations were laid down for the management of the treasuries, and in 1911
all
an
was established whence the central The recent increase in revenue has enabled the native governments to spend money on pubhc works, for which purpose they also receive advances from the Batavian Government, which, however, cannot reclaim its short declaration Still, return from States bound by the according to official statistics the Dutch seem to be able to have this payment made to them in most cases. The department of Civil Public Works can only act in advisory capacity in selfgoverning States. One great advance was the placing of the chiefs on the Civil List. Their salaries when not fixed may not exceed 40 per cent, of the total expenses of the State, and are raised as the revenues increase. The accession of a new ruler is always seized as an opportunity for putting the relations between the State and the Dutch Government on a sounder footing.
Office of Financial Affairs
control of the treasuries proceeds.
'
'.
Native Principalities of Java
Java is the result and continuous intercourse with the Dutch, and possesses features of its own. The Sultans of Solo and Jokyakarta hold their principalities as fiefs from the Batavian Government, whose official, a resident, represents the European Power at the native courts. The princes have no military force of their own, and the Governors of their territory, although nominated by themselves, are finally appointed by the Dutch, and have the unenviable task of having to reconcile the policies of two masters, European and native. Legally, they must give preference to the commands of the Batavian Government. The princes have no right in coinage, and the teak woods, opium-trade, and
The
position of the native principalities in
of a long
birds'-nest
cliffs
in their territories are the property of the Dutch.
by the native potentates in the sphere of and police are constantly being restricted. In Solo in 1903 they almost disappeared, and on the death of the present Sultan
The
rights exercised
justice

of
255
Jokya
it is
expected
likewise abolished.
much of the native system there will be What power remains to them consists chiefly
in their control over native agriculture from which their vassals
and officials derive their revenue. They enjoy, besides, certain showy prerogatives which serve to console them for the loss of real authority, and for the upkeep of their magnificent courts they receive large salaries from the Dutch Government.
Direct Administration
a curious cross -division of responsibility. The government departments with the directors at their head, and the corps of officials under their control, are taking an increasing share in the internal administration, especially in the sphere of finance and government enterprise, but athwart the departmental system there is a second system, organized locally, with its head in the local Governor or Resident, who, while receiving instructions from the departmental chiefs, is nevertheless responsible not to them, but to the GoverGenerally speaking it may be said that the nor-General.
is
Local Governors and Residents. provincial administration there
În
the sphere of the European
Governor-Greneral
entrusts
the
administrative
side
of
local
government to the departments, and the executive to the Residents and Governors. In practice, however, the heads of provincial government, as the Residents and Governors are
called, still do'
much
of the administrative work, although the
tendency
is
for it to be
taken over by the departments.
In
Batavia, for instance, taxation is entirely in the hands of the latter, while as recently as 1913 the Resident in Banka was relieved of the control of the tin mines.
The duties of the heads of provinfeial government were confirmed by an ordinance of 1867, but, although this has been amended on
several occasions,
it
no longer gives a satisfactory idea
of their
All government officials, including present sphere of work. their control, and some of the lower European natives, are under and native officials are appointed by them. As they have to enforce general ordinances they are the local chiefs of the police, civic guards, and of other bodies not belonging to the army. When using the military they have to act in co-operation with
They have also certain responsibilities in the commanders. with local finance. connexion Besides these executive, duties they have somewhat ill-defined
256
however, to the making of by-laws enforced by the police, and a judicial authority enabling them to deal with infringements. The full account of their judicial power
legislative powers, restricted,
is given below, as also is the effect on their legislative authority produced by the recent creation of local self-governing bodies. In Java and Madura there are seventeen residents, and in the Outer Possessions, besides fifteen residents, Achin, Sumatra East Coast, and Celebes have governors, and BiUiton an assistantresident (for list, see p. 260). In Achin an army officer is at the head of the local government and combines the control of civil and military affairs. Everjrwhere the activities of the heads of provincial government vary in accordance with the degree of
intensity of
Dutch power.
',
Provincial Secretaries.
cial secretary
The Resident is assisted by a provinby whom he is usually succeeded. At one time

'
the Provincial Secretary held other
offices,
such as notary, auction
maêr, and
cashier,
and where these functions have not been
undertaken by departmental officials, they are stiU performed Some heads of provincial government in the Outer Possessions have an Assistant Resident to supervise self-governing districts, while in Palembang there is a special official for native
by him.
justice.
The province is subAt the head of each, in Java and Madura, is an Assistant Resident, and in the Outer Possessions, in some cases, a Controleur. In most places there is a separate chief for the division in which the provincial capital is situated, but in some it is governed by the head of provincial government. The
Assistant JResidents and Gontroleurs.
divided into divisions.
divisional chiefs receive a salary, their percentages having been

1 902 the heads of provincial government have issued their instructions. The divisional chiefs are often notaries and registrars they administer justice and control the police, but, except by special decree, have no legislative powers.
abolished in 1 866. Since
The further division of the province
varies in different regions.

;
In Jambi and Banka there is nothing smaller than the division the rest are subdivided entirely or in part. While in the Outer Possessions the Controleurs, with the exception of the one in the division in which the capital of the province is situated, are independent chiefs of the local administration, in Java and Madura they are merely subordinates of an Assistant Resident, from whom they take all their instructions.
257
The chief duty of the Controleur is to keep in daily touch with the native chiefs with a view to ascertaining economic and other
conditions, about which
superiors.
it
is
their function to inform their
In Java they were originally chiefly concerned with the promotion of government cultures, but soon, as a consequence of the law of 1915, the remnants of this form of culture will entirely disappear. Culture percentages were abolished in 1866* The Controleurs used also to control the kmdrente, but by the regulations of 1896 and 1897 this is now mainly in the hands of the village chiefs and collectors. To-day they are concerned with the administration of the agrarian law and industrial taxes. They must report aU crimes coming to their notice, but only administer justice in certain cases. They have no legislative authority. Outside Java and Madura the Controleur's power is more
and upon him falls the task of administering justice As he has no reliable native regent whom he can use as an intermediary, he himself comes much more in contact with the natives than officials of similar rank in Java and Madura, Aspirant-controleurs are appointed to work under an Assistant
extensive,
and
police.
'
'
Resident or a Controleur if they are not temporarily in charge of a sub-division, while candidates for the colonial civil service from Holland are termed probationers. Of other officials, generally natives, the most important are the assistants who are used by the Dutch mainly in self-governing
-
districts to act as
chiefs.
These
officials
Mnk between the government and the native are now employed in Menado, Celebes,
Ternate, Amboina, and Timor. Native Begents. Âlongside the European is a second system, the native, which, however, is an integral part of the system of
direct administration.
By Article
67 of the Regeerings Beglement
under the government of their own chiefs, appointed or recognized by the Dutch Government. Only those chiefs who are appointed are included in the administrative system of the government. These are called Regents, and are found almost entirely in Java and Madura, which is divided into 70 regencies. The institution originated in the time of the old Javanese kingdoms, in which the provinces were ruled by a hupati who rendered homage, paid When the tribute, and marched in their suzerain's army. Company had gradually annexed many of these provinces, the tribute of the regents in the form of contingents and forced
of 1854 the natives are as far as possible to be left
NETHERLANDS INDIA
J{
258
was diverted to the Dutch. These Regents were not Dutch commands, but signed agreements as independent princes. Daendels, however, made them government servants subject to instructions of the heads of the provincial government, and their position was further depressed by Raffles, who endeavoured to relieve them of their financial duties. Van der Capellen restored them to much of their former importance, and used them to work the culture system, under
deliveries
theoretically subject to
which they were remunerated by the grant of official lands carrying with it a right to the labour of the tenants. In 1854
the Begeerings Beglement,
by
the
Article 69, enjoined the Governoroffice
vacated through the decease In 1900 an increase of to the Regents to remunerate them for the loss of the right of employing forced labour, and since 1907 they have had no percentages on cultures, but are now supplied with an official residence. Since 1911 the Regents have had a society known as the Perhimpunan. The regents are still mostly of high birth, some being princes. They are appointed and dismissed by the Governor-General on the nomination or advice of the resident. Their rank is indicated by sunshades and other insignia. The regent is the head of the native administration in the regency, and is immediately responsible for the natives. He has to keep well informed the head of the provincial administration, who listens to his advice but decides independently. He has nothing to do with the collection of taxes, but has the management of the poHce among the natives, and also acts as a judge. He has no legislative power in theory, but actually many of his regulations have the effect of ordinances.
if
General
possible to
fill
of a regent
by the appointment salary was granted
of one of his sons.
The Mohammedan
religion is subject to his supervision.
Other Native Officials. ^To assist the regent in the performance of his office a native of high birth is appointed and salaried by
official who corresponds to the governor of the self-governing princes. In most of the regencies the patih acts also as a patih-wedcnio or chief of the district in which the capital of the regency is situated. The regency and the division with an assistant-resident at its head are usually coincident, but in Java there are five divisions with two regencies each, and a few cases of a regency comprising two divisions or even three. In this latter case there is a patih in each division besides a district chief. In the four divisions of old Batavia
the government as patih, an

before
259
its union with Krawang in 1901 there were no regents, but recently independent fatihs were instituted. Only the three sagi chiefs of Great Achin, who control the district chiefs, and the stadtholders of Bangli and Gianjar in
Bali,
now
called regents, resemble the regents of Java.
The
were
regents of
district
Padang and Indrapura, abohshed

and those
less
in
1913,
originally harbour-masters, the regents of South Celebes are

of Amboina village chiefs, whose than the bupatis of Java. While the regency organization of Java is seldom found on the Outer Possessions, the lower ranks of the administration are miich the same in both places. At the head of the districts into which the regencies and the territories of the four independent patihs in Java and Madm'a is a wedono, whose duties on a limited scale are almost identical with those of the regent. The wedonos receive a salary, can claim a house, and, in places where compulsory coffee culture
heads,
salaries are
much
still exists,
receive percentages.
The
districts are further sub-
divided,
and there are more
officials called assistant- wedonos,
receive a salary from the government. Outside Java and Madura the native organization is not so complete, and varies very much in different parts. In many districts, particularly where there is widespread native selfgovernment, as in Sumatra East Coast, West Borneo, Ternate,
who
and Timor, the government

tion
is
district
and
sub-district organiza-
not required.
In places such as Bengkahs, Riouw, Banka,

Celebes, where there are village chiefs
Billiton,
and South
and
no native organization, these chiefs are placed in the lowest raiik of the government administrative system instead of being
the independent heads of the village communities. Other native officials whom the government has used as district chiefs are the heads of the ulebalangs in Achin, Icuria chiefs in Tapanuli, and
pasirah chiefs in Benkulen, Palembang, and Jambi. In certain places, as in the south of Sumatra, where native district government did not exist, the Dutch have introduced it, while in 1915, in Sumatra West Coast, the district chiefs of the native organization were diminished in number and the sub-district chiefs
increased.
Wherever
possible, native institutions stiU possessing
vitality, are used for purposes of govermnent. Natives Mke the Makassarese, the Buginese,
and others from
Celebes, colonies of
whom
are found in various parts of the
K2
260

own
chiefs,
archipelago, are not included in the native administration, but
are under their
who
are directly responsible to the
In the same way there are chiefs in the Chinese and Arab quarters. These chiefs sometimes receive salaries, and
Dutch.
their instructions are issued directly to
them by the
residents.
luider-
At some
capitals Chinese councils
have been formed which
take tax-collecting and police work. Where Oriental aliens are not numerous they are subject to ordinary native organization.
Administrative Divisions
(a)
Governments
Achin and Dependencies (Sumatra) Sumatra West Coast Celebes and Dependencies
(b) Residencies
in Java and
Bantam
Batavia Preanger Regencies Cheribon Pekalongan
Rambang
Surabaya
Madura Kedu
Jokyakarta Surakarta
Madura
Pasuruan
Besuki
Madiun
Kediri
Semarang
(c)
Banyumas
Residencies in Sumatra
Tapanuli Benkulen
Lampongs
and adjacent islands Palembang Riouw and Depen-. Jambi dencies Sumatra East Coast Banlsa and Dependencies
(d) Residencies in
Borneo
West Borneo, South and East Borneo

(e)
Other Residencies
Menado
(Celebes).
;
Ternate and Dependencies (Northern Moluccas also including northern New Guinea). Amboina (Southern Moluccas also including southern New
;
Guinea).
Timor and Dependencies (Lesser Sunda Islands). BaH and Lombok (Lesser Sunda Islands).
(f )
Assistant Residency
Billiton.

The Desa
261
The basis of native society on which the upper structure of the European and native systems of administration is imposed is the village community or desa. The headman of the desa is
generally chosen by the villagers themselves subject to the approval'of the resident, although the practice varies in different
His administrative functions are chiefly concerned with a village police system something Mke the old watch and ward of the Saxons and with the collection of taxes. In Java he collects the landrente. The government police system stops at the desa. In his duties the headman is sometimes assisted by the village priest and four or five of the elders. Until recently,
localities.
' '
at any rate, he received as remuneration a percentage of the taxes he collected.
Reforms of Local Government
In the
last forty years there
have been several reforms in

substitution of
provincial government,
salaries for
among which were the
payments in land and labour, a policy begun in 1866, the abolition in 1871 of the Preanger system, which left the regents
of that region without effective stipervision, the weeding out of native government in 1874, and of the policy of retrenchment in the European administration, begun in 1900.
Urban and District Self-government. Â very important change was the institution of local self-government, which originated in an amendment to the constitution in 1903, the principles being set forth in a royal decree of 1904, and elaborated in an ordinance of 1905. The object of the change was to give the local populations some measure of control over local revenue and expenditure, and an opportimity for local enterprise in the institution and maintenance of public works. It was enacted that provincial, urban, and district councils could be constituted by means of separate ordinances. There was in 1914 only one district council, namely that for the agricultural (tobacco) area in the residency of Sumatra East Coast, but urban councils have been set up at sixteen towns Batavia, Meester Cornelis, Buitenzorg, Semarang, Bandung, Cheribon, Tegal, Pekalongan, Magelang, Kediri, Surabaya, Blitar in Java, Palembang, Padang, and Medan in Sumatra, and Makassar in Celebes. There are fifteen provincial councils, as follows Bantam, Rembang, Besuki,
in the system
:
:
262
Banyumas, Madiun, Madura, Batavia, Preanger Regencies, CheriPekalongan, Semarang, Surabaya, Kedura, Kedu, and Pasuruan, all in Java and Madura. The councillors represent the Europeans, natives, and alien
bon,
Orientals, the fixst of
which
classes preponderates.
This
is
due
to the
number
of seats occupied ex officio
the local administrative service.

certain property
by the members of Other councillors must possess

In the urban
and
residential qualifications.
councils the Europeans are generally elected, but in the provincial
GounoUs the European officials and
all
the natives are appointed.
The head
of the provincial
vincial councils,
government presides over the prowhile an assistant-resident is chairman in the

its
urban councils. The powers of each particular council are delimited by own instituting ordinance. They include the maintenance
of
public works, water supply, drains, administration of govern-
ment domains,
fire
brigade, cemeteries, slaughter houses, ferries,
markets, public health, &c. The councils take over much of the legislative power formerly exercised by the resident, but it
is
only residual, and comprises those matters only not provided by the ordinances of the Governor-General. The power of enacting police by-laws with the consequent jurisdiction also devolves upon the councils. The most important privilege of the council is its control over local finance. A subsidy based on average expenditure previous to 1903 is paid annually by the government, together vnih
for
occasional contributions for the upkeep of roads.

increasing the existing government taxes.
In addition,
the councils have restricted powers of levying local rates or
The
local taxation of
of great urgency.
the native population is only permitted
in- cases
The government
subsidies are said to have proved inadequate
for the needs of the
growing population, and until the powers
of
taxation at present exercised by the government can be delegated to the local authorities, an additional sum equal to the total amount of their contribution to the colonial exchequer
for the year previous is annually paid to them.
In Makassar
20 per cent, of the slaughter taxes are assigned to the local

council.
Through his subordinates, the ex officio members, the GovernorGeneral

is
able to exercise a close control of the councils, of

restricts too
whose powers he
wide a use, and amplifies by
263
ordinance or causes to be remedied by local by-law any omission. The police regulations must &st be submitted for the approval of the Director of Justice. Provincial Self-government. ^More recently, in 1909, another sweeping reform of provincial government was set on foot. It
proposed in this new scheme to effect the gradual division of Netherlands East India into twelve governments, each with its own exchequer but without other autonomy. At the head of each of these big divisions will be a governor with a provincial council to deal with financial matters. At the same time the number of officials is to be reduced, while they are to be better paid and more highly educated. The native government is to be given a greater degree of independence, and a new class of
is
is
controlled native officials in Java, to be called adjunct-regents, to be placed at the head of the native government thus made
independent. By 1914 these plans were complete, but, so far, all that has been done is to begin the system of training at the government school at Batavia. The effect of these changes will be to modify the tendency to over- centralization which characterized the administration towards the end of the nineteenth century.
Justice
There are two kinds of justice in Netherlands India ^that administered through the tribunals of the government, some of which are presided over by natives, and that administered through independent native tribunals. The complete government judicial system does not cover the whole territory subject to the direct administration of the Dutch, and inside this area there still remain many independent native tribunals. Again, there are two bodies of law in vogue ^that consisting of the ordinances of the Batavian government which are framed in accord with the Code Napoleon, and the native adat or customary law in so far as it is not opposed to equity. The GovernorGeneral, with the assent of the Council of India, can apply the ordinances wholly or in part to any section of the native popula-
tion.
Whereas the independent native tribunals administer the adat only, the government tribunals administer both the ordinances and also the adat. The respective spheres of the two jurisdictions, independent
264
native

;
and government, are at present roughly as follows. Java and Madura, with certain exceptions in the Principalities the Lampongs, Sumatra West Coast, and Tapanuli in Sumatra Banka and BiUiton the southern half of South and East Borneo, Avith two districts in West Borneo, and several small districts in Menado and Celebes, are within the jurisdiction of government tribunals. The rest of Netherlands India, by far
;
;
the greater area of the two,

tribunals.
is
subject to independent native

tribunals are so
The independent native

is
numerous
is
and
so various in organization that a complete description
impossible, but the following
a brief account of the government
system.
Government Justice
As already
and
is
stated, the
government tribunals administer both

amenable to government
the justice based on the ordinances and that based on the adat,
for convenience the population
is
tribunals
divided into two groups.

of
The
first of
these groups
Europeans and those associated with them, including Japanese and all Christians. There is a special set of regulations for native Christians. In the second group are the natives and those associated with them, as Arabs, Moors, Chinese,
composed
and other non-Christians. If the social and intellectual standing of a person belonging to the second group makes it desirable that he should be transferred to the first, this can be done by a special resolution. The distinction between the two groups is not absolutely rigid, and much of the European civil law (excepting laws relating to inheritance and marriage, &c.) has been applied to the Oriental aliens
of
many
The
parts of the colony.
was originally made in the interests of equitand to this day this justification stUl exists, but the inequalities arising out of the existence of two standards, particularly in criminal matters, often in the same court, have caused an agitation on the part of natives in favom* of the
distinction
able treatment,
substitution of a single standard.

in the institution of a
This has already borne fruit
new
class of judges
known
as landrecJders
all classes of
who
deliver
judgement in minor criminal cases for

all
Moreover, a new system of punishments for offenders of

the population.-'
1
penal code with a uniform

races has already been
In 1914 kmdrecJae were set up at Batavia, Semarang, and Surabaya.

published,
265
and the civil law was recently in process of reorganization with a view to; a greater uniformity. At the present time, therefore, justice in Netherlands India is in a state of
transition.
The Courts
board in Netherlands India is the High Court of Justice with its two chambers in Batavia, the president of which is appointed by the sovereign. The High Court is
judicial
The highest
a court of first instance besides in the highest resort a court for administering a kind of droit administratis. It is an appeal court for civil suits which have already been through the Councils
of Justice, for suits involving large
sums
of
money and for certain
unusual criminal cases which have been tried previously by the CouncUs of Justice. In cases of pardon, dispensation, and emancipation the Governor-General is present. In Java and Madura the next in rank are the Councils of
and Surabaya. The jurisdiction very extensive that at Batavia comprises Bantam, Batavia, Preanger Regencies, and Cheribon in Java, the Lampongs, Palembang, Jambi, Banka and Dependencies, BiUiton and West Borneo the CouncU of Justice at Semarang comprises in its jurisdiction Pekalongan, Semarang, Banyumas, Kedu, Jokyakarta, Surakarta, Rembang, and Madiun, all in Java the jurisdiction of the Council at Surabaya includes Surabaya, Kediri, Pasuruan, Besuki in Java, besides Madura, Bali and Lombok, and South and East Borneo. These Councils
Justice in Batavia, Semarang,
of these courts
is
;
of Justice are courts of first instance for
aU crimes committed
by Europeans and prominent natives besides maritime matters. They review criminal cases which have been through the landraaden of Java and Madura, and possess an appellate jurisdiction
which have been through the residency courts in Java Possessions, and civil cases from the involving a value not less than 100 florins. landraaden In Java and Madura at the head-quarters of the resident or assistant-resident, as well as at a few other towns, there is a residency court of first instance for criminal cases involving a fine up to 500 florins or three months' imprisomnent, and a restricted jurisdiction in civil cases. The court is primarily for the European category, and is presided over by the judge, a European lawyer, of the local landraad. The Resident exercises
for cases
and Madura and the Outer
266
a police jurisdiction over the natives, but in some places he has been supplanted by the local goveriunent authorities. The landraad is a court held in the capitals of aU provinces
and
their divisions,
consists of a
and at several other towns. The coiu-t European chairman assisted by native chiefs and
law officers. These constitute the ordinary courts for the natives, and they are empowered to deal with all native civil suits and most criminal cases. In the regencies and districts there are courts presided over by the native regents and wedanos, where judgement is delivered in minor civil and criminal cases affecting natives. In the piincipahties of Java justice is administered by the government tribunals wherever it is not administered by the Susuhunan of Sm-akarta and Mangku Negara, in criminal and civil matters respectively by the Sultan of Jokyakarta in the civil affairs of his relations, courtiers, and officials by the native judges of the Sultan of Jokyakarta in civil eases and the Surambi at Jokyakarta in divorce cases. In the Outer Possessions justice is administered to those amenable to government tribunals by Councils of Justice, Kke those in Java, at Padang, Makassar, and Medan, which between
; ;
them comprise
;
in their jurisdictions all persons in the Outer
Possessions not amenable to the Councils at Batavia, Semarang, or Surabaya secondly, by residency courts in all the provinces
of the
Outer Possessions
thirdly, in place of the
district courts of Java, civil cases are

justice,
regency and judged by native officers of
whose powers and organization differ in different localities. Wherever there is a landraad there is also an ecclesiastical court with the native pangulu of the landraad as president and from three to eight priestly members besides. These are all appointed and dismissed by the Governor-General. The jurisis
diction of these courts
co-extensive with that of the lundraad,

differences
and deals with
religious
and
suits
arising
from
marriage inheritance, &c.
Police
In Netherlands India there are two kinds of government
pohce, the general police and the armed poUce, both controlled by the Department of Inland Administration.
The general
police
was
in process of complete reorganization

so recently that there
Its duties are
is little
267
inforraation as to its composition.
varied. In communities where no night patrol organized by the inhabitants for the duties of watch and ward this is provided, with the necessary equipment, from the ranks of the general pohce. In the stricken provinces of Java the police are engaged in preventing the spread of plague, and in Bantam their number has been recently
numerous and
'
there
is
'
increased to prevent the imlawful use of opium. After the numerous campaigns carried out by the Dutch in recent years it was found necessary to provide a force to take the place of the military which had been withdrawn from con-
quered territory. For this pm'pose various existing corps were united in one body of armed police -with a chief in the Department of Inland Administration. The corps consists of 22 divisions, 20 of which are in the Outer Possessions and two in Java. Each division is commanded by a pensioned or active
officer, except in Acheh. The division is divided and subdivided according to temporary requirements, and the detachments are commanded by Eiu'opean or native commanders according to their size and importance. The native detachment leaders are chosen from the non-commissioned ranks of the army, and are Menadorese, Timorese, or Amboinese.
military
The rank and file are recruited from all nationalities, and it is usual to station divisions in some place other than that of which
they are natives. The detachment at Chilegon in Rantam, the division in Menado, and the detachment in New Guinea have to be composed as far as possible of Christian natives. The equipment of these police consists of a Beaumont carbine and a sword.
Defence
Royal Commission, which in 1912 investigated the
state of
Netherlands Indian defences, in 1913 issued a report in which it was stated that the very existence of Holland depended on her colony. The commissioners agreed that their main security "lay in the favourable treatment of foreigners and foreign capital, but they recommended the maintenance of military and naval forces sufficient not only to keep order within their borders but also capable of resisting the dangers nearest at hand and of constituting a formidable support to any friendly power interested in maintaining the status quo in the East.
268

Army
The army
of Netherlands India is a formation independent of

;
it is maintained by voluntary recruitment in HoUand and India, and its commander-in-chief is the Governor-General. At the end of 1914 its strength was
the military forces of Holland
stated to be 38,326 of
all
ranks.
all
Europeans with the exception of a few of other nationahties, are Dutch who have been recruited in Holland or colonial born. Their number was 1,285.
officers
The
who
are
and men, 8,678 were deshad native blood, 758 were Germans, while nearly 6,000 came from Holland. There were besides 28,543 native troops, of whom 9,282 were Amboinese, 16,758 Javanese, and the rest made up of Siuidanese, Madurese, Buginese, and Malays.
Of the non-commissioned
officers
cribed as Europeans, but of these 1,690
In the infantry there were 29,685 non-commissioned
officers
;
and men, of whom 4,813 were in. the European category the officers numbered 665. The infantry comprised the infantry staff, 21 field battalions, 4 machine gun companies, 3 depot battahons, 9 garrison battahons, and 6 garrison companies, besides training schools and commissariat. The marechaussee, a special corps originally used in Acheh, is also on foot. The cavalry, with a total strength of 937 non-commissioned officers and men and 32 officers, comprised the cavalry staff, 4 field squadrons, 1 depot squadron, and 1 squadron of life-guards. The artillery strength was put at 2,760 non-commissioned officers and men and 121 officers, and was composed of the staff, 4 batteries of field artillery, 4 mountain batteries, and 10 comBesides the batteries there were several magazines, arsenals, and workshops. In addition to the three fighting arms there are a corps of engineers, a medical service, and various other subsidiary services. panies of siege artillery.
In 1914 there were about 25,000 troops, with their headThese included, at the beginning of the year, 16 field battalions, all the machine gun companies, 3 depot battalions, including the one divided between the principalities of Surakarta and Jokyakarta, aU the cavalry, including the squadron of life-guards distributed at the two capitals of the principalities, and most of the artillery. Four companies of siege artillery together forming a battalion constituted part of
quarters in Java.

;
:
269
the defences of Batavia one siege company was stationed at each of the following places Chilachap, Surabaya, Batujajar ;
and one quartered among the towns of Bandung, Sumedang, and Nagrek. Although the head-quarters of these forces are in
Java, particular units are often stationed temporarily outside the island, as in 1914, when one battalion went on an expedition to Borneo, and at the end of that year was still there. In Acheh there were at the end of 1914, 4,779 troops, and this force included 1 field battahon, 3 garrison battahons, with a company of siege artillery at Sabang. In the rest of Sumatra
there were 2,478 troops,
all
infantry.
In the two residencies
of
Borneo there were 2,173 troops, in

;
Timor and Dependencies, 415 in Celebes and Menado, and in Amboina and Ternate, 343, all infantry.
1,423
According to the report of the State Commission a fighting

force capable of dealing with mihtary problems in Netherlands
India, including that of withstanding
an attack of a European army, should be composed in two equal proportions of the better and worse elements. This, in other words, means that the Europeans and Amboinese, whose fighting values are about
should together equal the^number of other natives. However, when various districts in the Outer Possessions become more tranquil it will be possible to make more extensive use of the inferior natives in garrison units, which already in 1912 were composed of the inferior element in a proportion of 2-8 to 1. Owing to the chronic deficiency of Europeans it was suggested that the number of Amboinese and native troops of the same standard as Timorese should be substituted for Europeans in garrison units. As an Amboinese costs as much as a European, and as the European non-commissioned ranks would have to be increased, there would be no economy in this plan. The commission suggested various financial expedients for the proposed improvement in the defences of Netherlands India, involving increased taxation in either India or Holland. There are various other armed forces, not, however, immediOne of these is the ately subject to the army administration. civic guard, which, in theory, is supposed to exist at all the provincial capitals. At the end of 1914 there were detachments at Batavia, Semarang, Surabaya, Jokyakarta, and Surakarta in Java, and also at Padang in Sumatra, Makassar in Celebes, and
equal,
in the residencies of
Amboina and Ternate.
The
civic
guards
are supposed in normal times to assist in preserving law
and
270

home
stations,
order at their
and here they are under the comof unrest,
mand of the heads of provincial government. In times
however, the Governor-General can mobilize them for service wherever necessary. For purposes of maintaining discipline, All local councils are appointed by the war department. European subjects between 18 and 45 years old, and Malays,
Moors, Bengalese, and Buginese between 16 and 40 are liable for service. There are numerous exemptions, including many professions and civil servants, and these pay an aimual contribution based on their incomes for the purpose of buying
uniforms for the guards. The total strength of the force at the end of 1914 was roughly 3,180 men with 117 officers. The Legion of Mangku Negara is an historic formation, which, at the end of 1914, consisted of a battalion of infantry and a haK squadron of cavalry, together munbering 764 men with 26 native
officers.
are the three harisans of Bangkalang, Pamekasan,
The only other native units at the government's disposal and Sumenep
in Madura, which together muster 1,367 foot soldiers with 38
native
officers.
Navy
two branches, the Indian MUitary Marine, and the squadron of the Dutch Royal Navy. The former is administered by the Governor-General and the Netherlands India Marine Department the latter, while at the disposal of the Governor-General and maintained by him during
service of the colony has
;
The naval
its
sojourn in the East,
is
administered by the Dutch Minister
of Marine.
At the end
of 1914 the Indian Military Marine con-
sisted of 4 old gunboats, 9 torpedo boats, the oldest of
which
was
and the most recent in 1906, and 5 survey ships. At the same date the squadron of the Dutch Royal Navy consisted of 4 armoured ships, the Seven Provinces being of the most recent construction (1908), and 6 torpedo-boat destroyers, most of which are of comparatively recent construction.
built in 1887
FrNANCE
Bevenue
The revenue of the government of Netherlands India is derived from taxation, the sale of government products, monopolies, government industries, and other sources. It is interesting to note the change in the fiscal policy of the government as it is reflected in the comparative receipts of taxation and the sale of

products.
271
In 1875 the receipts from taxation amounted to about 20 per cent, of the total revenue, and the sale pf products to about 50 per cent. According to the estimated figures of 1916, taxation was expected to yield 40 per cent, and the sale of products only 12 per cent. The receipts from monopolies have within the last fifty years more than doubled, and now
constitute about 20 per cent, of the total revenue.
Taxation
The most important of the direct taxes is the landrente, which is imposed on land held by native right in Java and Madura and consists of a proportion of the produce, rice, nipa palm, &c. It was first instituted by Thomas Stamford Raffles. There are
taxes of a similar kind in a few places in the Outer Possessions, such as the tithe of the rice yield in Celebes and the tax on the
rice-fields of Bali
and Lombok.
Royal Decree, or by a freehold right conferred by Raffles, is subject to a ground tax or Verponding. It is imposed throughout the whole colony. A tax on industrial and other incomes was first imposed by Raffles for the purpose of obtaining a contribution from those natives not engaged in agriculture, and therefore not liable to
Greneral Ordinance,
landrente.
Land held by
It is
now
levied
on natives and Oriental ahens, and
has been extended to the Outer Possessions. A tax on business incomes is paid by Europeans, and one on professional incomes by both Europeans and Oriental aliens. Europeans and those in the same category also pay a sumptuary tax assessed on yearly rent, furniture, and vehicles.
There are
many
other direct taxes of special kinds, varying
in character in different locahties.
There are, for instance, a tax on spice plots in Banda, one on diamond mines in Borneo, and numerous capitation taxes in other places. A tax of especial interest is the poll tax imposed on those who have been exempted from statute labour. In Java the compulsory labour of the natives is used for some the upkeep of roads^ the tranor all of the following purposes sport of road-making materials, the maintenance of dams, waterworks, embankments, and canals. The maximum number of days which can be exacted differs in different places, and varies, as a rule, from 20 to 10, although in two localities it is 6 and 3 respectively. A day's work, including travelling and rest, cannot exceed 12 hours, and except in Preanger the native cannot be
:
272
compelled to work more than 8 miles away from his home. Forced labour for the benefit of native chiefs and officials except
prohibited. The inhabitants by the Governor-General, are exempt from this labour. Those exempt are subject to an annual capitation tax, which varies in amount in different localities from 1 florin to 2 J florins. Dutch writers are inclined to be apologetic when dealing with this institution, and it appears that movements are on foot to raise "sums which will
in the case of village
of free desas,
if
headmen
is
registered as such
enable the government to do without forced services. In all parts of the Outer Possessions this institution is in vogue, and the labour comprises all kinds of pubhc services, in some places
and protection of travellers. Only in Makassar, apparently, is a poU. tax imposed in its stead. The indirect taxes comprise the ordinary legacy, transfer and stamp duties, the tax on gambling establishments, besides the dues on public sales, which are all conducted by government auctioneers. There are various excise imports, on native spirits in Java and Madura, on Javanese, Chinese, and foreign tobaccos and petrol, and matches (1913). Ail over Java and Madura and in many places in the Outer Possessions, a tax is imposed on the slaughter of domestic animals, while outside Java there are numerous local taxes levied on different products. Within an area designated as the customs sphere in which the customs duties ^ are levied under the auspices of the Dutch
including, for instance, the guiding
' '
administration (practically the whole colony), import duties
from
6 to 12 per cent,
ad valorem,
;
i)esides fixed charges accord-
ing to weight, are levied on numerous articles in the following

places
:
Java and Madura
the government of Sumatra's West
Coast, the residency of Tapanuli, the Singkel district of the
Government of Achin and Dependencies, the residencies of Benkulen, the Lampongs, Palembang, in Sumatra the residency of Banka and Dependencies, the assistant-residency of BiUiton,
;
and the residency

spirits
of
South and East Borneo.
The
chief
exemp-
tion from this tariff applies to all goods with the exception of
exported from other parts of Netherlands India. In the an export duty is levied on hides, petroleum products, tobacco, tin, and birds' nests. In the Outer Possessions, besides those regions already enumerated, there are others which are included within the
places above mentioned
^
The
description of
the import and export duties
is
from Begeerings
Almanak, 1913.

:
273
customs sphere. They are as -follows that part of the Government of Achin and Dependencies not already mentioned, the residency of Sumatra East Coast with the exception of the Siak coast, with which is included the Siak River, Banka, and
Kubu and
;
adjacent islands, certain districts of the residency of

in
of
Riouw and Dependencies, and the residency of Jambi, Sumatra the residency of Menado and the Government
Celebes and Dependencies in Celebes, eight districts of the residency of South and- East Borneo, the residencies of West
Borneo, Amboina, Ternate, and Dependencies, Timor and Dependencies, and Bali and Lombok. .With the exception of a few special provisio(is, mainly applicable to the importation of salt, the tariff of import and export But, duties already described also apphes to these places. except in the case of Bali and Lombok, the Governor- General by virtue of his right under Article 5 of the Tariff Law, has levied an additional export duty varying from 6 to 10 per cent. ad valorem, and in a few cases consisting of fixed charges according to weight, on articles exported from the remaining places. These extra duties are arranged according to locality into four tariff tables, in three of which they are levied on not more than a dozen articles, and in the fourth, Achin and Dependencies, on as many as twenty. There is no differentiation of duties in favour of particular nations they are raised for revenue purposes only. The task of collecting the taxes falls chiefly on the Department of Finance, although it is often supervised by the local The landrente in Java officials of the provincial government. and Madura is subject to the control of the Department of Inland Administration and the import and export duties are, in most places, collected by the local officials of the same department. In certain places any official is empowered by the Department of Finance to collect excise duties. A few taxes in Java are farmed, as the duty on gaming establishments; in the Outer Possessions the number of farmed taxes is much greater.
;
Mono'polies
The
of this
chief
government monopoly is opium. The consumption

is
drug
it
lands India.
others
is
In some places
variously regulated in different parts of Netherit is totally prohibited, while in

;
forbidden to natives only

g
elsewhere there are
NETHEELANDS INDIA
274
vogue and in some places the consumption Within a limited area, mainly in Achin and Dependencies, the sale is farmed out, but is supervised by a staff of inspectors belonging to the Department of Einance, who enforce regulations and prevent smugghng. The state
licence systems in
is
unrestricted.
monopoly is a recent creation and it is only embraced the greater part of Netherlands India.
of the administration
is the chief of subordinates include four eontroleurs with Many Chinese are employed.
lately that
it
At the head, the Opium Service, and his
many depot-holders.
In 1903 the Government began to substitute state ownership pawnshops which had hitherto been in the hands of private individuals, generally Chinamen. In 1913 government shops were in existence all over Java and Madura, though the farming system survives in the Outer Possessions. To administer this
of
service there
is
a special staff of
officials
consisting of a chief,
various inspectors, and
pawnshop
eontroleurs.
In Java and Madura, in both residencies of Borneo, and in most of the government territory in Sumatra, the Government possesses a monopoly in the sale of salt. In other places the manufacture is forbidden but importation is unrestricted, and elsewhere, as in Celebes, the Lesser Sundas, the Moluccas, and New Guinea, both the manufacture and importation are quite free. The salt is sold loose and in briquets for storage purposes there are a number of depot warehouses controlled by European warehouse masters, and for purposes of sale the Government possesses auction warehouses with staffs of European and native
;
officials.
Government Cultures and Services

the cultures originally worked by the Government for their own profit, only coffee now remains, and this in recent years has been confined to Java. There are other government cultures of a more recent origin, such as quinine and rubber, of which the former has proved the more profitable. Teak and wild timber forests are also exploited by the State. The tin mines of Banka are worked by the Government and the product
Of
all
is
tra,
European markets the coal from Ombilin in Sumahowever, is for purely local consumption. There are, further, certain public services which the Government endeavours to work at a profit to itself. In railways and
sold in
;

tramways alone the
275
State, at the end of 1914, had invested over twenty-one millions sterling, and in that year made a profit of over one million and a quarter. In 1916 the profit was roughly
1,500,000.
Posts, telegraphs,
far,
hand, have so
and telephones, on the other except in one or two years, shown a deficit.
The Budget
The budget
of Netherlands India
is
composed
'
of the
',
maxima
and the
of expenses for a period
known
as the
service year
assignment of means to meet these expenses. The estimate of the expenses has two columns, in which respectively are placed the colonial expenses in Holland (interest, pensions, leave-pay, army, navy, &c.), and the expenses in India. Across this division according to locality there occurs a further division of expenses under departments, in which besides the nine government departments are included expenses under the two heads of governing and high boards and local self-government. The items of the estimate are set out in some detail, and in the budget of 1915 there were 203 entries in the column of expenses in Holland and 986 in that of expenses in India. In every departmental division there is provision for unforeseen expenses, and further opportunity for revision is afforded in the supplementary estimates and the statutes of adjustment. The revenue does not appear in the budget in detail but it is merely indicated what receipts are to be assigned to cover the
various expenses.
The two columns of expenses are prepared respectively by the Minister of the Colonies in Holland and by the GovernorGeneral and his assistants in India.
They
are then submitted
for the approval in legal form, of the States-General.
A some-
what belated commentary on the budget is afforded by the colonial accounts prepared by the departments of colonial government and audited by the Chamber of Accounts at
the actual expenses in Holland have been added by the Minister of the Colonies the accounts and a bill based upon them are sent to the Second Chamber. The Batavia.
When
approval of the States-General is not legally necessary. At one time these accounts were not produced until a period as great as twenty years had elapsed since the year to which they referred, but of late they have appeared as soon as three years
S2
276
277
products is subject to violent fluctuations, and to a lesser degree there is uncertainty about the yield of the monopolies. In 1914 the amount realized on the sale of the government products was roughly 2,360,000, as compared with 4, 120,000 of the previous
A partial recovery was expected in 1916. Although, therefore, the colony during this period of capital expenditure cannot be expected to contribute to the treasury of the Netherlands, yet it is independent financially. The
year.
recognition of this fact

of a colonial council
by the Dutch resulted in the known as the Volksraad (see p.
institution
248).
Foreign Consulak Services

Foreign consular representatives were established in 1913 at various points in Netherlands India as shown in the following
table, in
which the asterisks indicate representatives of the Powers named in the left-hand column. The list of British representatives is corrected to January 1, 1918, when there were at Batavia a consul-general, vice-consul, and pro-consul at Semarang two vice-consuls at Surabaya a vice-consul and two pro-consuls at Makassar a vice-consul at Medan
; ;
a vice-consul and a pro-consul

in addition to places
at
Padang a
vice-consul, and,
named in the following table, a viceconsul at Sabang and a consular agent at Kupang.
CHAPTER IX
GENERAL ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
of economic products (Plant productsLive-stock Agrarian and industrial conditionsLand tenureÂgricultural educationLabour and wagesBanking and credit CurrencyWeights and measures CommerceMining regulations.
Summary
^Minerals)
Manufacture
The purpose
of this chapter is to furnish a
review of the
most important economic products of Netherlands India, and of agricultural, industrial, and economic conditions generally, leaving details concerning the production and industries of Java and the various divisions of the Outer Possessions individually to the two following chapters.
SuMMAEY OF Economic Peodtjcts

Plant Products
The luxuriant vegetation

plants, both indigenous
characteristic of a great majority
number of and imported, which can be used in the service of man. Hundreds of species of timber and fruit trees and shrubs are found. For example, teak, oak, and chestnut trees give wood for shipbuilding and for the Emopean timber market. The bamboo supplies the native population with the chief material for their simple houses and primitive furniture, while rattans, lianas, and fibrous leaves and plants of many kinds are utilized for weaving, rope-making, and wickerwork. The coco-nut palm is first in importance among food-producing trees by reason of its varied uses and wide
of the islands of Netherlands India includes a large
distribution.
From
its
sap palm-wine, arrack, vinegar, yeast,
and sugar are prepared. Its nut is eaten raw or cooked, and when immature has medicinal properties. The fully ripe kernel yields palm oil. The shell can be fashioned into spoons, cups, and other vessels, the fibres can be made into ropes, mats, or brushes. The young leaf -buds are eaten as a vegetable, and the older leaves are plaited into baskets and used,
SUMMARY OF ECONOMIC PRODUCTS

for thatching.
279
The wood of the stem is hollowed out for waterpipes or aqueducts, and is also employed for rough building pmposes, and the dried flesh, or copra, from which oil can be extracted, is in increasing demand as an article of export.
Other valuable palms include the areca or pinang, which produces the betel nut, the gebang, which flourishes in West and South Java, and east of the Straits of Lombok, and the sago and sugar-yielding lontar of East Java, Bali, and the dry
Timor, Ceram, and Celebes, the leaves of which were formerly used by the natives as writing material. The nipa or dwarf palm grows on the seashore and in low marshy situations. Its leaves are largely used for thatching native buildings. The areng or sugar palm thrives in the plains, on the coast, and in the more temperate regions above the 2,000 ft.
districts of
level.
'
It yields sugar, arrack, a horsehair-like fibrous substance
is used for cordage, matting, and brushes, and a light spongy tissue (baruk) which is valuable for caulking boats, and when dried and mixed with other materials forms good tinder, of which about 70 tons a year are exported from Cheribon to Singapore. The areng sugar or Javanese sugar is prepared from the flower stalks and dried by heat. It is chiefly sold on a small scale in the native market, but in some districts of Java it is prepared in large quantities, and about 6,000 metric tons of it have been exported in one year. The leaves of the areng are utilized for the wrappings of cigarettes. An inferior kind of sago is made from the pith. In addition to timber and food-producing trees, santal or sandal wood, ebony, and the camphor tree, with other resinous or gumyielding trees of economic value, grow wild in various parts of the islands. The archipelago is remarkable for the number and variety of its edible fruits, seeds, and berries. Many of these appear to be indigenous, and the most characteristic species are too perishable for exportation, and are also often too capricious for introduction into other countries. The mangosteen, durian, pisang or banana, duku, rambutan or hairy fruit ', tamarind, papaya, papaw, or melon-tree, nangka wolanda or sour-sop, and the kindred sweet-sop and custard apple, are all distinctive tropical products. Different kinds of gambu or roseapple tree (Eugenia), melons and pumpkins, guava, pineapples or ananas and pomegranates grow in profusion, with
'
{duk) which
280
oranges,
GENEEAL ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

'
lemons, limes, shaddocks or pompelmosses, and mangoes. The scaly salak, sometimes called the forbidden fruit ', grows on a prickly palm-bush indigenous to East Java. The Suoo Manila produces a fruit resembling a potato, and wood which is much in request for fine cabinet work. The proHfic nangka or jade-tree bears large nutritious fruits which are in great demand among the natives, and also jrields the hard yellow jacqueira wood of commerce, which is used in building
and in
joinery.
To the same order belongs the
bread-fruit
unripe fruit of which is roasted and eaten as a vegetable by the natives. Wild strawberries, introduced from India, and figs and somewhat small and sour grapes abound. The
tree, the
bonie or wonie, which is like an English currant, the mundu, an orange-coloured fruit resembling an apple, the kechape, which tastes like an inferior peach, the acid blimbing and lobie-lobie, with innumerable other kinds of fruits and nuts,
are eaten
raw or in jams and pickles by both natives and Europeans. Rice takes the first place among cultivated cereals, but maize is widely grown, both as a first and second crop, and in some districts, notably in the Timor group of islands, has replaced rice as the staple native food. In the islands of Sawu and Rotti lontar palm sugar forms the chief native means of subsistence, while in the Moluccas sago from the sago-palm is the most important native food. Millet and the oil-producing sesame are cultivated, and wheat is raised in the hiUs of Java, though with no great success. The natives grow green vegetables, pulse and esculent roots for home consumption, either in the fields as first or second crops, or in the gardens which surround their houses. The leguminous or podbearing plants which they call by the generic name of kachang afford highly nutritious food. The green seeds of the kachang iyo, the unripe pods and ripe beans of the kachang kedele, and the young pods and ripe seeds of the kachang tanah, or earth-nut, are eaten as vegetables. The seeds of the kedele are used for bean-cheese or tao-hu, and in the preparation of soya or ketchup, the well-known Cliinese sauce. The groundnut, a valuable secondary crop, is principally cultivated for the sake of its oil. Among plants with edible roots, the natives are particularly fond of the yam and the sweet potato. The ordinary or American potato is also grown in abundance,
' ' ' '
SUMMARY OF ECONOMIC PRODUCTS

and
281
thrives in upland regions, above the 2,000 ft. level. The cassava, from the tuberous roots of which tapioca is derived, grows peculiarly well in Java, and has recently acquired great industrial value in the European market. AJrrowroot is pre-
pared in a similar way from the roots of Maranta arundinacea,

of several kinds of arum and convolvulus also serve for food. Onions, though apparently not indigenous, are cultivated cucumbers, a favourite food Avith the natives, are often planted as a second crop after rice, while in the higher and more temperate regions, cabbages, artichokes, and other European vegetables flourish. Turnips were intro;
and the bulbs and tubers
duced into Java by the English, and watercress, which grows

luxuriantly.
The natives
are particularly fond of capsicums or chillies,
from which Spanish pepper and Cayenne pepper are prepared. The pungent aromatic leaves of the Chavica betle, sirih, or pepper-vine, mixed with areca nuts and other ingredients, furnish the narcotic sirih, which is habitually chewed by the Javanese natives of all classes. The betel or pepper- vine is grown in the lowlands on irrigated land in Java, but the more
important spice islands of the archipelago are Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas, which produce great quantities of pepper, nutmegs and mace, cinnamon and cloves.
The
so-called
'
great cultures
'
of sugar-cane,
coffee,
tea,
cocoa, tobacco,
quinine,
and rubber,
are principally under

into thriving
European
direction,
industries, It is estimated that capital invested in rubber is British, 70 per cent, of the though British planters are very few. There has recently been keen competition between British and Americans for The cultivation of indigo is control of the rubber export. in native hands, and the native oil industry is of impornow
and have developed conducted on a large scale.
modern
tance.
cinal
Many
oil-yielding
foreign consumption,
and
fibrous
plants are grown for home and and the natives also cultivate mediplants, and use vegetable dyes, extracted by
primitive processes, in their textile manufactures.
Live Stock
The Dutch have
tried
to
promote cattle-breeding and
veterinary science in Netherlands East India, but even the comparatively enlightened Javanese are still, as a rule, content
282
with a yoke of a couple of buffaloes or oxen for farm-work, and the fowls and ducks of their poultry-yards, with fish and buffalo-meat for animal food. Horses of different breeds are found in Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Sawu, Rotti, Timor, Celebes, and Sumatra. Cattle are of great importance in the islands as draught animals and as food they are little used for dairy purposes. There are wild cattle in Java, in the forests east of Pasuruan, a district in which the land is ploughed by oxen. But though the ox can be used to plough fight upland soils, in the wet rice fields or sawahs of the lowlands, where the ploughing is heavy, the strong hardy buffalo or Jcarbouw is found indispensable. It is a sofidly built animal, living by preference in damp situations, capable of working aU day in muddy slush, and protected both from sun and from insects by the caked mud which collects on its hide, It is gentle and amenable to control, and it yields a rich milk which the natives drink. Buffalo flesh is a valuable article of native food, and thousands of animals are kiUed yearly for meat. Though not indigenous, the buffalo is widely distributed throughout the archipelago, and in some districts herds of practically wild buffaloes are found. Sheep are of little importance in the few places where they are found they are mainly used for food. Goats are usuaUy kept in the native villages, and their flesh is also eaten. The Chinese and some of the non-Mohammedan natives eat the flesh of pigs. Wild deer are sometimes fattened for food, and dried venison, horns and deer hide are articles of commerce.
; ;
Fisheries,
cfcc.
and seas of an important means of subsistence for the dwellers on the coasts and in the valleys. Whales are caught in the eastern seas, turtles are found on the seashore, and the Javanese eat land tortoises and the eggs of the crocodile and of the small aUigator, while the Chinese are fond of trepang. In many parts of the archipelago there are pearl fisheries, and a certain amount of mother-of-pearl is exported to Europe and America. Large numbers of edible birds' nests are exported from Java for Chinese consumption, and there is also an export trade in
There are
varieties of fish in the rivers
is
many
the archipelago, and fish
birdskins.
SUMMARY OP ECONOMIC PRODUCTS

Minerals
283
The mineral wealth of Netherlands East India is very great. Sumatra and Borneo in particular are rich in minerals coal, petroleum, gold, silver, quicksilver, tin-ore, and copper. Borneo produces precious stones, platinum, and antimonyi Banka and BiUiton and Singkep in the Lingga Islands are famous for their tin. There is gold in Celebes, and also coal, iron, and copper. Gold and copper are found in Timor and Bachian, petroleum in Borneo, Sumatra, Timor, Ceram, Java, and Madura manganese, iodide of copper, and coal in Java. Lead exists in Sumatra, with sulphm", naphtha, alum, and saltpetre in the volcanic regions, and also lignite and magnetite. Salt, which is a Government monopoly, is obtained from sahne springs, which abound in Java, and from sea-water. In Madura a direct Government manufacture of salt from seawater is carried on by European methods. In the following chapters it wiU be shown to what extent this and other
mineral wealth has been developed.
Manufacture
Apart from industries connected with such products as sugar and petroleum, organized manufacture is of httle importance. Of the tbiij.y million inhabitants of Java and Madura only about 60,000 are so engaged, in upwards of 2,000 workshops or factories. Nearly aU of these depend in a greater or less degree on the importation of half-manufactured products. These originally came from Europe, but since the war have been imported from America and Japan. The largest number engaged in any one branch of industry (12,000) is concerned with repairs for aU kinds of machinery and railway plant, and only a few less are employed in chemical manufacture and in that of foodstuffs and luxuries. Among the chemical industries
.
included the native iatih industry, described below in this nearly 8,000, mainly women, are employed. Among foodstuffs the preparation of cassava meal and tapioca in Chinese miUs and European factories, where in all over 2,000 natives are Other activities belonging to employed, is of importance. baking of bread, the manufacture of butter this branch are the and margarine, the roasting of coffee, and the manufacture Two kinds of cattle of lemonade, cigarettes, ice, and soap.
is
;
284

'
food, bungil,
made from seeds, and molascuit ', from a by-product of the sugar manufacture, were manufactured for export in 1913 to the extent of 20,000 tons. The making of hats from bamboo and the leaves of the pandanus or screw pine, is a native industry, carried on largely a.t home, but developed as a factory industry by French and British enterprise, and is of commercial importance. In respect of the coarser kinds of pandanus, the industry has suffered through competition. But in 1913 over 5,500,000 bamboo hats and nearly 4,125,000 pandanus hats were exported,
principally to Europe, the United States,
and Australia
in
1915 the figures fell to 3,332,000 and 4,008,000 respectively. In the Outer Possessions manufacturing activity is much less than in Java and Madura, and is largely concentrated in Sumatra's east coast. The petroleum industry in South and East Borneo employs over 8,000 natives. Ship-building. In Java and Madura there are about twenty and in the Outer Possessions four yards for shipbuilding, where
motor boats, praus, and native
sailing vessels are constructed.
Recently iron cargo praus in parts have been imported. Native shipbuilding of any significance is concerned with the construction of various types of seagoing craft, of which the most important are the paduwaJcang, trading vessels of the Makassarese and Buginese, the mayang of the north coast of Java, and the orembai of the Molucca islanders, which are principally fishing boats. The industry is carried on chiefly in the residency of Rembang in Java, where it is one of the main occupations of the natives by the Chinese at Pontianak, and at Negara by natives, both in Borneo, at Jembrana in Bali, in South Celebes at Lemo-Lemo, Bira, Bonthain, Bulu
;
Kumba, and by
the natives of
;
Muna
Island
at
Pambuwang
in Middle Celebes (Mandar)

of the orembais are built of Flores
;
;
most on the island of Palowe to the north and at Ruka-Ruka on the west coast of Sumatra.
at
Boano
in Ceram, where
In the eastern part of the colony, the industry flourishes chiefly in the Kei Islands, whence dmring the favourable monsoon numbers of praus are exported for sale in Amboina, Banda, and Ceram. Native Handicrafts and Trading. In spite of the import of European manufactured goods, the natives retain a number of handicrafts, and to a great extent provide for their own needs
MANUFACTURE
*
285
by home industries and local trading. Much of the trade with the natives and many of the home manufactures are under Chinese or Arab control. Local retail trade is also largely carried on in native markets or pasars, and by travelling hawkers or pedlars. The chief native handicrafts are plaiting and weaving, metal- working, building, wood-carving, and pottery-making. References to the ability of various native peoples as craftsmen are made in Chapters VI (on the natives of Java) and VII (on those of the Outer Possessions). Some of the industries have attained a certain celebrity. This is notably the case with the batik industry of Java, in which figures are painted in wax on a smooth white cotton ground with a small tool. The stuff is then dyed the wax-covered patterns remain white, and the wax is melted off with boiling water. This industry has increased, and there are a number of batik factories under the management of Chinese or of
;
half-castes.
The best and most

;
characteristic batiks are
made
west of the Manuk River the industry is only found in Batavia and the environs of Buitenzorg. There is some foreign demand for these products.
in the principalities
Agrarian and Industrial Conditions

According to the census of 1905, about five-eighths of the inhabitants of Java and the Outer Possessions who could be reckoned as following a definite calling were engaged in agriculture. The islands of Netherlands India are for the most part naturally fitted for the development of a simple form of
agricultural
their partial
community, practically
subsist with a small
and
is
introduced and
and able to the other hand, progressive development by the Dutch has spreading European industrial organization
self-sufficing,
amount
of labour.
On
of towns and extension tend to raise the native standard of living. In particular the' gradual substitution of money payments for payments in kind has to a great extent revolutionized the system WhUe the natives require cash and are more of exchange. wfiling than of old to alienate the land which no longer suffices to supply all their wants, a demand for land has arisen among the foreign commercial settlers, and a class of dependent wageearners, working for capitalist employers, has been evolved.
and
ideas,
and these and the growth
of trade
286

Land Tenure
of most of the land of Netherlands nominally vested in the State. Part of this land is State-administered as well as State-owned, and constitutes Crown land, State domain or Government land in the narrower sense. In a further considerable proportion of land the natives enjoy possessory rights of usufruct, individual or communal, while in addition it is possible for them to acqxiire a proprietary title which, under the name of agrarian ownership ', was created by the Agrarian Law of 1870. A third category is formed by the so-called particular lands ', which are held by individuals or by companies in full proprietorship as the result In the principalities of of former sales by the Government. Jokyakarta and Surakarta the native princes are stiU the sovereign lords of the land, and pay their officials with land grants or appanages ', which carry with them certain fiscal and pubhc rights. There are also native official lands ', survivals from the days of custom law. An elaborate and extensive system of leasehold tenure has been gradually superposed on these proprietary and possessory rights. Much land is held by a heritable leasehold title (erfpacht), which practically ensures security and perpetuity of tenure to the landholder, while much is let on long or short leases of a terminable nature. The leasing of land by natives to Europeans is hedged about with legal restrictions, designed to safeguard the native landed interest. In 1914 it was officially estimated that the Government held about 83,000 acres of coffee plantations in Java and about 2,000 acres of quinine plantations, while it rented more than two-and-a-half million acres of agricultural land and let about half a million acres to private cidtivators. More than two million acres of agricultural land came under the heading of particular lands ', and about half a million acres were leased to Europeans in the principalities. The total amount of land in Java held from the Government on lease or by heritable leasehold tenure (erfpacht) was about a million and a quarter acres, of which more than a million acres were in the hands of joint-stock companies, and the remainder was leased by individual Europeans and Chinese, or by natives. The native Javanese landholders had let some 317,000 acres to Europeans
The ultimate ownership

is
East India
'
'
'
'
'
LAND TENURE
287
and Oriental aliens for the cultivation of rice, sugar, and other crops, and for building and other purposes. About two million acres of particular lands were also held by companies and by Europeans. Of these, Chinese held about 300,000 acres, and natives and Oriental aliens about 23,000 acres. In the Outer Possessions rather more than five million acres
'
'
were held as hereditary leaseholds (erfpacht) or as agricultural concessions from the Dutch Government or from the native self-goveiming authorities. About 4,000 acres were cultivated under agreements with the native population, and some 12,000 acres were included in the particular lands of Celebes and its dependencies, Benkulen, Menado, and the West Coast of Sumatra. The State regulation of land in Netherlands East India has a twofold aim the protection of native rights, and the encouragement of progressive agriculture and industry. Ancient customs are respected as far as is compatible with economic prosperity, while the retention of Government lands under direct State administration and the development of leaseholding give opportunities for scientific experiment and individual initiative. Two main types of agriculture may thus be distinguished in the islands ^the native and the European. In the one the land is parcelled out in small shares, generally about If acres to a family, among peasant holders living in village communities and cultivating on a small scale chiefly for home consumption. In the other, large estates of 1,000
' '
:
acres
It has
direction,
and more are cultivated iinder European capitalist by means of paid skilled labour, free or indentured.
been calculated that land under native cultivation produces on an average, in the most fertile parts of Java, the equivalent of about 7 per acre per annum, but in many districts it is much less. By permitting the natives to let land to foreigners on short leases and leasing waste lands on favourable terms for long periods the Government hopes to save the native from reckless alienation of his land, and to offer an inducement for the cultivation of waste land. Experiments have recently been made in colonizing in the Outer Possessions from the surplus population of the Javanese group
of islands.
288

Agricultural Education
The need
for agricultural
and technical education has been
fully recognized
by the Netherlands East Indian Dutch since when a special Department of Agriculture was established. 1905, Before this date demonstration fields had been started in connexion with the Buitenzorg Botanical Gardens, but from
1905 onwards local educational organizations were brought into
direct touch with the central
Govermnent.
By
1914, in addition
and the School of Cultivation at Sukabunii, in the Preanger Regencies, there were eleven primary agricultural schools in Java and Madura, of which two were Govermnent schools, entirely supported by Government, and nine were State-aided private schools, organized and managed by local committees of Europeans and natives. In the principalities the native princes had borne the cost of establishing three schools of this class. In the Outer Possessions two private agricultural schools of primary grade had been started. In these schools the children of native cultivators receive theoretical and practical instruction adapted to their local circumstances and given by trained native agricultural instructors under the supervision of a
to the Secondary Agricultural School at Buitenzorg
European
chief instructor.
Agricultural instruction
is
also
given in the schools attached to Government plantations or private estates, and in some cases municipal or village schools have gardens in which the native pupils work under direction.
Agricultural instructors
by meetings and supply seeds and
exhibitions.
seedlings,
and officials further promote knowledge They give practical advice,

plant demonstration
fields,
try
agricultural experiments, help to check disease in the crops,
generally assist native farmers in matters of trade, credit,
and and
are
co-operative
action.
The native
agricultural
officials
trained at the Buitenzorg Higher Agricultm-al School and do
two years' practical work before they are eligible for a certificate examination. The European instructors are, as a rule, graduates of a Dutch Agricultural University who have passed a further qualifjdng examination after local experience. Provision is made for agricultural teaching in the ordinary teachers' or training colleges, and Buitenzorg has a native Veterinary School. The whole system centres in the Information Bureau of the Department of Agriculture, under an Inspector of Native
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
Agricultural Education, and in the celebrated Selection
289
Seed Garden at Buitenzorg, with East Java.
its
and and branches in Central
Labour and Wages

In Java a class of free labourers has grown up since the middle of the nineteenth century, in connexion with the establishment of great State-owned or private plantations and factories. Many small Javanese peasant cultivators have thus been forced or tempted to hire themselves out as daylabourers, but many also have resisted the temptation, and, protected from want by their share in the communal fields, have clung to their accustomed way of life. Still more has this been the case with the inhabitants of Madura and the Outer Possessions, where there is much less density of population, and European influence is not so strong. On the other hand, since European labour has tended to be absorbed by the military and civil services, European employers have been thrown back
least in the has been found necessary, in order to overcome the inertia of the native workman and to obtain security for the employer, to use indentured or contract labour. Such labour has been regulated by the Government of Netherlands East India through the Coolie Ordinance of These ordinances recognize three 1880 and its successors.
on coloured labour, native or Chinese, and, at

Outer Possessions,
it
'
'
categories of
workmen
;
(1)
contract coolies,
Coolie
into
an agreement under the
who have entered Ordinance, involving
(2) labourers with an agreement which does not involve legal penalties, under an Ordinance of 1911, and (3) labourers whose contract does not fall within either of these classes. In every district there is also a class of free workmen or day labourers, which is constantly recruited from the timeexpired foreign coolies, who settle in the land of their adoption. The Coolie Ordinances provide for agricultural, mining, or industrial contracts between employers and labourers who are not natives of the district in which they are to work. The agreements may in no case exceed three years. They contain regulations as to the amount and manner of payment of wages and advances, the kind of work required, re-engagement, holidays, &c. They also lay down the employer's obligations
legal penalties
'
'
NETHERLANDS INDIA
290

free quarters
towards the labourer, including regular payment,
and medical treatment, and the labourers' obligations of regular work and obedience to orders. The contract is registered by Government after the workman has voluntarily accepted the conditions, with a full knowledge of what is implied, and no
breach of contract is legally punishable until such registration has been effected. The Government has established a Labour Inspection Bureau on the East Coast of Sumatra, and coolies may bring their grievances before Government officials. The working day stipulated for in a contract may not exceed ten hours. The wages paid to contract cooUes vary considerably in On rubber different districts and with different occupations. estates men usually earn 14 cents Amsterdam currency a
day, and
women
12 cents with an extra 2 cents a

their contract.
day
for
men
Experienced rubber tappers generally receive a monthly bonus of 1 to 1*50 florins, or 40 to 60 cents. On tobacco plantations the average earnings of the coolies who actually plant the tobacco amount to as much
as 32 cents a day, while ordinary labourers get 14 to 16 cents.
when they renew
where living is dear contract wages are proporMining work is paid at a rate of 16 to 24 cents a day, with food allowances. Advances on wages are commonly granted, but they are legally limited in amount, and the monthly repayments which are deducted from wages may not Contracts usually exceed a quarter of the monthly wage. state that the employer may pay a limited portion of wages in the form of food, but most employers only avail themselves of this permission to supply their workpeople with rice, the staple food, at a fixed price. Mine-owners, however, as a rule provide their men with all the food required. The workers live either in barracks or in separate houses. Labourers whose agreements do not come under the Coolie Ordinance proper are subject to the Ordinance of 1911, which allows contracts to be made verbally, except in the case of labourers recruited in Java, whose contracts have to be drawn up in a prescribed form. Industrial managers in Java and Madura are permitted to recruit labour either in these islands or in the Outer Possessions without a Government licence. For Java they can get all the labour they need at home, but the Javanese are in great request as coolies in the Outer Possessions. Until 1909
In
districts
tionately high.
LABOUR AND WAGES

this recruitment
291
was unrestricted, but in that year the recruiting Java and Madura for commercial, industrial, or agricultural work in the Outer Possessions was regulated by a Recruiting Ordinance, which was rendered specially necessary by the sudden extension of agricultural enterprise, particularly on the East Coast of Sumatra, owing to the rubber boom of the years 1909 and 1910. This gave a great impulse to the demand for labour, and led to keen competition in the labour market, where the numbers of recruiting agents working under the Ordinance, and charged with the cost of transporting
of natives in
'
'
recruited labour to the Outer Possessions, increased rapidly,
and
while the cost of recruiting more than doubled between 1909 1914. Planters also sometimes obtain Government
on their own behalf through their general Employers' Associations. The Javanese coolies constantly renew their contracts and remain permanently in the Outer
licences to recruit
Possessions, either as contract labourers or as free
workmen.
There is, moreover, a certain amount of inter-insular labour migration within the Outer Possessions. The whole supervision of the relations between employers and employed in the district where the Coolie Ordinances are in force falls to the Department of Labour Inspection and the system of regulated labour is
said to
work
fairly well.
tions the wages, housing, feeding,
Under the operation of these regulaand general treatment of
the labouring population have notably improved, while the hands of the employers have been strengthened and their In authority over their men has been legally recognized.
1914-15
statistical returns
gave 240,751 contract coolies as
employed in the Netherlands East Indies, of whom 164,251 were Javanese, men and women, and over 89,000 were Chinese. Of these coolies 187,340 worked on the East Coast of Sumatra, 25,463 in the other districts of Sumatra, including Achin and its dependencies, 1,470 in Amboina and its dependencies, 7,058 in Riouw and its dependencies, 1,795 in Menado, and In Borneo, where the returns 17,625 Chinese in Billiton. date from 1912-13, the number of contract coolies was 8,916. At the end of 1913 there were 163 coolies working under contract in Ternate and its dependencies and at the same date there were 21,379 Chinese contract coolies in Banka and its
dependencies.
292

Banking and Credit
The Java Bank, founded in 1828, is now a limited liability company, but the Government supervises the management, and without subscribing any of the capital receives a fixed proportion of the profits. In practice, though not legally, the Government has allotted to it the responsibility of regulating the currency, and this it does by controlling shipments of specie. By acting as a bankers' bank it has become the cornerstone of the domestic money market. It is further the mainstay
' '
of the financial position of the colony in its external relations,
and adjusts the rate of foreign exchange by payments from its gold reserve in Holland and Netherlands India. In this latter task it is assisted by the Netherlands Bank in Holland, which holds its whole gold reserve at the disposal of the colony's
foreign credit.
The head
karta,
office of
the bank
is
at Batavia,
and there
are
agencies at Surabaya, Semarang, Cheribon, Surakarta, Jokya-
and Bandung in Java at Padang, Medan, Bengkafis, Palembang and other places in Sumatra at Pontianak and Banjermasin in Borneo and at Makassar and Menado in Celebes. The choice of positions for branches is jointly decided by the Government and the directorate. At these places the bank carries on ordinary banking business, which includes
;
; ;
furnishing capital for large industrial undertakings.
While there are several institutions in Java which carry on a purely banking business there are others which combine the
functions of banker and entrepreneur.
is
Chief among the latter the Netherlands Trading Company, founded in 1824, which originally dealt with all the State produce. As regards the
sale in
Holland of Government produce

it
it
still
retains this
receives 1^ per cent, commission. It also engages in industry on its own account, and since 1882 it has
function, for which
developed a large banking business. The British banks with branches in Netherlands India are the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Company and the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China. For small savings the Post Office has a bank (see p. 428). While the work of financing agricultural enterprise on a large scale is in the hands of privately owned institutions, the credit system for the native agriculturists and producers and traders
BANKING AND CREDIT
293
on a small scale, at any rate in Java, is principally maintained under Government supervision. Previous to Government intervention there were in existence (chiefly in Java) various native friendly societies and kindred
institutions.
Besides the Prijaji Bank, a friendly society for native Government officials, there were mutual burial and pension clubs, village storehouses for the communal storage of
selected rice seed (lumbung
rice
bibit),
and
village stores for lending
{lumbung miskin or lumbung amM), while in Bali there were village savings banks which advanced money to the villagers. The Government system, inaugurated
to the necessitous
in 1904,
now includes
three institutions, the village rice
bank
(in
lumbung desa and in Sumatra lum,bung negari), the money-lending bank, and the divisional banks (Volkshanken) of which the Prijaji bank was the prototype.
called
(1)
Java
Village Rice Banks.
The
capital of these institutions
from farmers or, though much less Where the frequently, of the produce of communal lands. inhabitants are not numerous enough to form an initial stock the Government will advance, without charging interest, the money necessary for the purchase of rice and buildings. The rice is lent to needy farmers during the period of field work, and repayment with interest from 25 to 50 per cent, is made out of the ensuing harvest. Any surplus stock is sold and a cash reserve accumulated at the nearest Volksbank. The management of the bank is in the hands of a committee of villagers, including the village headman, and the books are kept^by a paid clerk or mantri who visits a group of villages in rotation. The committee receives a share of the profits.
consists of contributions
The bank
rice
serves the useful purpose of acquiring a quantity of
from each harvest, with which it subsequently supplements the local food supply. In this way the cornering of the entire harvest by dealers and the consequent rise in the price of But recently the improved means of foodstuffs are avoided. communication and the consequent freer competition has so cheapened rice as to modify the importance of. rice banks. Seventy-six of these banks in Java were abolished in 1914, at the end of which year the total for Java and Madura was still as many as 12,206. In the residency of Sumatra West Coast, at the end of 1914, there were 298 banks of this
kind.
294
(2)

Village Money-lending
banks).
The
Banks
(desa,
initial
capital of these
negari and marga banks usually consists
from the local Volksbank or the reserve of the rice Small sums, usually not exceeding 1, are lent to villagers at high rates of interest, ranging from 24 to 40 per cent, per annum. Borrowers not only repay principal and interest, which is done by weekly or monthly instalments, but also a further sum which is treated as a deposit. This deposit is in some cases turned into shares of small amount. A borrower must be approved by the general body of the bank's clients. As in the case of the rice banks the work of management is in the hands of a village committee, and it is said to be the Government's object to invest the bank with as much of the co-operative character as possible. This is less easy to accomplish in Java than outside. The Javanese peasant does not yet fully realize the use of money as a medium of exchange, though he is being led to do so by its power to purchase
of a loan
bank.
luxuries.
During 1914 the number of desa banks in Java and Madura increased by 367, and the total number was 1,670. The total capital amounted to 94,750, of which nearly half was accumulated profit. At the end of 1914 there were 490 banks in the
residency of Sumatra Buleleng in Bali.
West Coast and 30
in the division of
These have developed (3) People's Banks (Volksbanken). from the savings 'banks and provident institutions of native officials, and now the sphere of an individual bank covers variously a district, a regency, or, as in the Outer Possessions, a whole province. Their character is that of a savings bank and credit institution, and they are used both by natives and by non-natives. Têir initial capital was furnished by the Government at 4 per cent. the interest, however, was not paid but used to form a reserve. One or two of the banks are attempting to form a small share capital. The Government has ceased to lend them money, except for special purposes
;
such as the importation of foreign cattle, or to finance the emigration of Javanese to the Outer Possessions. Advances for ordinary purposes are now furnished by the Central Bank. Deposits in the People's Bank are usually of four kinds (1) fixed deposits which can be withdrawn at several months' notice (2) savings withdrawable without notice (3) com: ; ;
BANKING AND CREDIT
295
pulsory deposits bearing an interest of 6 per cent., which are only refunded to clients in cases of absolute necessity and (4) current accounts of the village banks. Of the amount lent by the banks the bulk is borrowed by Europeans. European administrative officials preponderate in the management, although native bookkeepers are employed, and clients are being induced to share in the management.
;
'
In Java in December 1914 there were 73 People's Banks with a capital of 1,422,660, of which 70,000 had been advanced by the Central Bank. In the Outer Possessions five new banks were opened during 1914 at Banjermasin in Borneo, Sumatra West Coast (Volksbank Minangabau), at Buleleng in Bali, Sumatra East Coast, and at Langsar in Acheh-. There are also banks at
:
and at Palembang and Kuta Raja in is that at Telok Betong for the use of Javanese colonists in the Lampongs. Central Bank. In 1912 a central institution was established at Batavia, the capital of which, furnished by the Government,
in Celebes,
Menado
Sumatra.
bank
of special interest
will be gradually increased to 400,000. Its objects are to furnish capital for people's banks and to assist in their manage-
ment. It charges 6 per cent, on advances to the banks and a fee for auditing their books. It deals only with well-managed institutions. The staff consists mainly of civil service officials under a director, who is responsible to the Department of Inland Administration. The salaries of these officials are paid not by the Government but by the bank. In those regions chiefly in the Outer Possessions, where the system of Government credit institutions has not yet penetrated, private moneylenders, generally Chinese, still pursue a thriving trade. Although the rate of interest charged is often exorbitant it is nevertheless true that without the capital supplied by the money-lender, and the stimulus of indebtedness, the natives would cease to produce for foreign markets. In the towns of the colony there are various friendly societies
and private savings banks.

CtTRRENCY
The currency, like that of the mother-country, is on a gold standard, and the gold coins, which are legal tender to any
amount, are the 10-guilder and 5-guilder pieces
;
but silver
296

medium
of exchange.
coins are the usual
Silver coins in the
same category are the 2j-guilder piece (Ryksdaaler), the guilder, guilder silver coins, and the ^ guilder. The J guilder and besides the 5 cent nickel piece, and the copper 2|- cent, 1 cent, and ^ cent pieces, are legal tender only to a limited
extent.
Minting, which
is
done at Utrecht in Holland,
is
free as
regards gold, but silver coins are only struck in quantities

circulation in Netherlands India. Coins of 2^ guilders, 1 guilder, and ^ guilder are only minted to replace those withdrawn, and in extreme circumstances silver can be melted down to the value of 25 million guilders. An important branch of the currency is the note issue of the Java Bank, which in October 1914 amounted to 11,600,000. The Java Bank is authorized to issue notes of a value not less than 5 guilders, and its actual issues consist of notes of 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 300, 500, and 1,000 guilders. While the bank is not restricted in its issue of notes, it is obliged to maintain
necessary for
and other demand or short-notice a reserve of two-fifths in coin and bullion. At least three-fourths of this reserve must be kept in Netherlands India, and at least half must be in the legal tender ciirrency of the colony. The currency of the Dutch Colonial Government has not even yet completely established itself in all parts of the colony. As a consequence of the close commercial connexion between
against notes in circulation
liabilities,
these districts
and Singapore, in northern and eastern Sumatra and West Borneo, the Straits dollar was for some time the standard coin, and in 1906, when its value was fixed at two shillings and fourpence, it gained a stronger influence still. A writer in 1911 states that after 1906 the coolies on the tobacco plantations of Deli and Serdang were paid in Straits dollars.
Besides the Straits dollar various other coins like the British trade dollar, the so-called Hong-Kong dollar, the old Spanish dollar, the old and new Mexican dollar, the Japanese silver yen, and the Philippine dollar were in vogue, as were also copper
coins from Sarawak, Brunei, North Borneo,
Hong-Kong, Kwan-
tung, Mauritius, and other places.

authorities could not but regard this state of derogatory to their prestige, and steps were taken to purge the currency of foreign money. To what precise extent
affairs as
The Dutch
CURRENCY
297
they have been successful is not clear, but it is stated in an article published in 1912 that the colonial coinage and bank paper are now the sole means with ganeral recognition (throughout the colony) of making payments. Anomalies of a minor kind still exist, however. Copper coins of the time of Van den Bosch existed until recently in Middle Celebes, in the Padang Highlands, and the Lampongs. The silver two-stiver pieces,
issued
by the
old
South Celebes.
Company, are still in use in Saleier and in In Bali and Lambok there is a widespread
'
circulation of Chinese copper
the Residency, kepengs.
cash ', or, as they are called in These are circulated in strings of 200 pieces called ataks, eight of which go to the rix-dollar which alone of Dutch coins has any vogue in the Residency. While this rate of exchange is common in the bazaars the officials of the opium monopoly demand 1,750 kepengs to the rix-dollar, with the result that the natives try to procure in the bazaars Dutch money as wherewithal to buy opium.
Weights and Mbasttres

measures in
Besides the metric system there are other weights and common use. There are, besides, many local native
1
weights and measures.
bouws or bahus,
nally
it
bouw being approximately

is
Areas are usually given in terms of equal to 1*75 acre.

Origi-
The pikol weight
used in foreign as well as local trade.
varied locally but has been fixed by the Government. It is equal to 61-75 kilograms or 136 lb. The kati, first introduced by the Chinese, is now a general trade wdght, though used particularly in connexion with opium and precious metals.
There are 100 katis to the pikol 1 kati equals 1 lb. 6 oz. avdp. nearly. The koyang is a local weight, used especially for rice. It varies in different parts, being equal in Batavia to 27 pikols, in Semarang to 28 pikols, and in Surabaya to 30 pikols. It thus equals, roughly, from Ij to 1| ton.
;
Commerce
Exports
In 1914 the value of the total export from Netherlands India was 57,054,600, of which 3,200,000' was for government account. Of the remainder, goods and specie to the value of
20S
GENERAL ECONOMIC CONSTDERATTONS
28,417,300 were exported on private account from Java and Madura, and to the value of 25,434,250 from the Outer
Possessions.
.
The export
consists almost entirely of the products of the
and mining, a few only like sugar, cassava, and petroleumreceiving treatment before exportation. The following table serves to indicate the chief commodities and the extent to which they were exported over the years 1912, 1913, and 1914, from Java and Madura and the Outer
forests, agriculture,
Possessions respectively.
COMMERCE
299
rubber, almost as much Java tea as Holland, a large quantity of tapioca meal, tapioca flake, dried cassava roots, and, in an exceptional year (1914), a great amount of sugar, also cocoa,
nutmegs, and white pepper. Germany was chiefly interested in vegetable oils and took a large quantity of copra, and also
the largest quantity of white pepper. The United States of America took most tapioca meal, and considerable quantity of damar and native-grown coffee, also kapok and tea. British India was an important customer for Java sugar (superior white)
of which in 1913 it took the largest quantity, also molasses and a large quantity of teak sleepers. China is a large consumer of Java sugar (superior white), sack sugar, and molasses, as is also Japan and, to a lesser degree, Siam. Much of the produce of the native markets of the archipelago went to Singapore and Penang chiefly sugar, native-grown tobacco, vegetable oils, and a variety of commodities in transit for destinations not stated. Australia took a quantity of maize, sugar, and tea. Other buyers were France, for private tin, timber, and coffee, Austria for private tin and coffee, and Italy for timber and
quinine.
The conditions of shipping during the war (cf. Chap. IX, Conditions during the war ') have diverted from the mother country a large percentage of her colonial trade, perhaps permanently. It is reported (1918) that fears have been expressed by middlemen in Dutch ports that producers of coffee, tea, rubber, tin, &c., in Netherlands India, having established direct trade with America, Great Britain, and other countries, and found it more economical and profitable, will not be willing to resume shipping their produce through Dutch agents in Holland. As a single example, the case of coffee is cited in 1917 the export of Netherlands Indian coffee from Holland to the United States had ceased, but the direct export of coffee from Netherlands India to the United States was nearly six times greater in 1917 than in 1916.
'
:
Imports
In 1914 the value of imports into Netherlands India was about 38,500,000, of which over 2,500,000 were for governtable shows the chief commodities and the extent to which they were imported into Java and Madura
ment account. The following
300

1912,
and the Outer Possessions respectively over the years 1913, and 1914:
COMMERCE
301
almost disappears. The copra harvest has, in recent years, exercised great influence on the native demand, which is also affected by the state of money circulation.
Trade Organization
Trade, both export and import, is in the hands of a few great and trade houses. These are financed and managed for the most part by Europeans, although in recent years Chinese have built up similar organizations which are chiefly concerned with the export of sugar, and also with the general trade with China. The important function of the Chinese, however, is to act as a middleman between the big trade house and the natives, who, except at Padang, rarely come into direct contact with the European trader. The middlemen, among whom there are also a few Arabs, are by their position enabled to exercise a powerful influence on native production, and their long credit system, which reduces the native producer almost to the condition of slavery, is described as a serious abuse. While Batavia and Surabaya in Java, together with Singapore, are the chief trade depots and ports of shipment for the colony as a whole, the local importance of Makassar, Padang, and'Belawan is very great. Makassar is the trade centre for the eastern half of the colonylm3~3eals with the export and import trade for Celebes, the Moluccas, New Guinea, and the Commodities eastern islands of the Lesser Sunda group. exported from this centre include coffee, copra, maize, gum
institutions copal,
rattans,
hides,
deer-skins,
deer-horns,
spices,
shells,
oil.
birds-of-paradise skins, tapok sandal wood,
and cajeput
From Padang
are exported the products of western Sumatra,
including copra, coffee, tobacco, mace, quinine, cinnamon, and forest products. The port of Belawan taps the rich economic
region in the Residency of the East Coast of Sumatra, and exports petroleum, rubber, coffee, copra, and pepper. Apart from the international exports and imports there is
active local trade between district and district, and between one island and another. This is chiefly concerned with commodities for native domestic consumption, and includes rice, coco-nut oil, coco-nuts, native-grown tobacco, sirih, betel nut,
an
dried fish, building materials for native dwellings, baskets, and native pottery. Singapore is the centre for much of the local trade in an area embracing Sumatra, Java, and West Borneo,
302
and Makassar serves a similar purpose in the eastern region of the colony. Trade on a smaller scale is carried on between the numerous small ports on the coasts and rivers of the different islands, while in Java among the Malays of western Sumatra and
market at intervals of Here fish, fruit, and vegetables are the chief commodities bought and sold.
in Bali every small village has its pasar or
a week or
less.
Mining Regulations
In Netherlands India the issue of a licence for prospecting must precede a concession to exploit minerals. Licences for prospecting and concessions are granted to Dutch subjects, inhabitants of, or companies incorporated in, Holland or Netherlands India. Prospecting licences are granted by the Resident within whose jurisdiction the particular area lies, after he has consulted the Director of Government Industries. The licences are granted for three years, and applies to areas not exceeding 10,000 hectares in extent. Before a prospector can obtain a concession he must make good his claim before the expiry of the prospecting Kcence. Concessions are granted generally for a period of seventy-five years, and as regards the exploitations of a bituminous material, for an area not exceeding 2,000 hectares in Java and Madura and in Sumatra West
as regards other minerals the maximum area for which concessions are granted. Holders of prospecting licences pay a tax at fixed rate per hectare, and a royalty of 40 per cent, on production over the value of about 420. Concession holders also pay a tax ten times as much per hectare and 4 per cent, on the gross product. There are in the colony certain areas on which private mining
Coast,
and 4,000 hectares elsewhere

is
1,000 hectares
is
forbidden, and others reserved for the Government's prospec-
tors.
CHAPTER X
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS OP JAVA
RiceSecondary cropsSugarCoffee Spices) Forestry, products, &c. (Forestry administration TeakCoconutpalmsFruit cultureRubberCinchona Rattan) Live-stock^Petroleum
-TeaCocoaTobaccoIndigo CocaFibresVegetable
forest
Agriculture (Agricultural methods
oils
and other mineral products.
Agriculture
Agricultural Methods
The most important department of native

is
agriculture in
Java
the staple food of the populaion. Maize and other cereals and vegetables, pulse and edible roots are commonly grown, and often supply secondary and subsidiary crops, supplementing the rice harvest, or providing substitutes when the rice crop is inadequate. Native agricultural implethe cultivation of
rice,
ments are simple, though they compare not unfavourably with The plough for irrigated those of other primitive peoples. land, generally of teak wood, with a yoke of bamboo, and the point tipped with iron, is drawn by two buffaloes. A still simpler plough is used for dry and mountain cultivation. For gardens and the little fields adjoining villages the small Chinese
plough with one buffalo is often employed. A harrow, the pachul or hoe, the arit, a weeding knife or small hatchet, the
ani-ani, the characteristic knife used to reap the rice ears,
and
perhaps a roller
and a
dibble, complete the native's equip-
ment, and he
European
tools
Irrigatian.
unwilling and slow to accustom himself to and machinery. The provision, distribution, and drainage of the
is
water needed for agricultural purposes is specially important in Java, where the rainfall is unequally distributed both in place and time, while the most extensive rice-fields and the densest population are found in those low-lying regions where
artificial
of water required
drainage and irrigation are essential. The amount may be gathered from the estimate that for
the yearly irrigation of one howw (about 1*75 acres), an average
304
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
is needed for a period of about 120 days. The sources available for irrigation are reservoirs of rain or Reservoirs are river water, lakes, wells, springs, and rivers.
of a litre of water per second
most frequently found in East Java, where they are used to supplement the rainfall in times of drought. The natives make simple ponds or reservoirs called waduks, which play
a considerable part in the irrigation of the Solo valley. This kind of irrigation is crude and wasteful, as the waduks take up a space disproportionate to the supply of water stored. More practical, and much more widely used, is the system The natives earlj' of canalization from running streams. practised primitive methods of raising water by a scoop or water-wheel. They also developed a system of irrigation by terracing and canahzation, on which the sawah or wet cultivain constructing dams,
The natives show considerable ingenuity and carry water across ravines in aqueducts of hollowed coco-nut trunks supported on bamboo posts. In 1912 it was estimated that nearly three million acres (1,700,000 bouws) of land in Java were irrigated by native waterworks. But the dams are often swept away by floods, and the general expenditure of time and labour are disproportionate to the results. The older native system, moreover, neglected the equal distribution of the water and the drainage of the irrigated fields, while the regulation and control of the water-supply was inadequate.
tion of rice depends.
It is only since the last decade of the nineteenth century that the Dutch have elaborated a scientific irrigation system in' Java, which has supplanted, adapted, or supplemented native methods. The Oosterslokkan and the Westerslokkan
canals,
which were constructed in the neighbourhood of Buitenzorg in the eighteenth century, were primarily intended for navigation, though they were applied to the purposes of
In the nineteenth century an impulse was given
irrigation.
to the formation of a national system of irrigation
introduction of the culture system.
by the The most famous water-
works which were constructed as a result of the introduction of the culture system were at Sampean, Brantas, Cheribon, and in particular at Demak, in the residency of Semarang. In
1885 the so-called Irrigation Brigade, a special section of the Corps of Engineers, was entrusted with the preparation and
JAVA
305
execution of irrigation works, and the irrigation service was kept as far as possible distinct from the other functions of the Department of Waterways. Further reforms were rendered necessary by the decline in the irrigated area, which fell in twenty years from nearly two and a half million acres to about one and a half million acres, in spite of an increase of 300,000 in the population. In 1889, in accordance with the suggestions of a commission appointed two years previously, the first irrigation division (irrigatie afdeeling) was started in connexion with
the Serayu, the most important river of the southern coast. Following this experiment a general irrigation scheme was
brought forward, and by 1912 Java had seven irrigation divisions, six in full working order, and one, Madiun, working in part. The divisions were Serayu, Brantas, Serang, PekalenSampean, Pekali-Tyomal, Madiun, and Manuk. These fall
within the larger administrative divisions of the Department of Waterways. The irrigation divisions are entrusted with the
management of and the control
rivers of all
and open waters, irrigation, drainage, works which serve for the supply and
discharge of water, or for inland navigation. The work, in so far as it does not come under the General Civil Service, is carried out by the local authorities, by the people, or by various public bodies, and, exceptionally, by private individuals.
The head of the irrigation division is an engineer of the Department of Waterways, but he and his staff are under the general authority of the local resident, and in specially important cases the head of the division of the Department of Waterways is
consulted. Of late years there has been a reaction against the tendency to over-centralization in European hands which was
perceptible in the irrigation administration after 1885.
Up
to that year the distribution of the water from the irrigation works had been left to the native officials and population, with
such unsatisfactory results that the extremely detailed distributive schemes which were introduced after 1885 deprived the people of all initiative. Experience has shown, however, that with small areas of about 150 to 250 bouws (250 to 440 acres) the natives are competent to carry out the direct distribution and management of the water for themselves. According to official statistics for 1914 there were in Java and Madura, exclusive of the principalities, 5,480,707 bouws of irrigated and dry rice-fields under native cultivation, on
NETHERLANDS INDIA
306
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
whichrice was grown for home consumption. Of these, 2,231,141 bouws were sawahs watered by rivers and streams, 1,047,652 bouws were sawahs entirely dependent on rain, 78,379 bouws were marsh sawahs, and 2,123,535 bouws were tegal or unirrigated fields. This meant an increase from the previous
bouws 9,573 bouws of river-fed sawahs, bouws of rain-fed sawahs, 10,496 bouws of marsh sawahs, and 120,844 bouws of tegal fields. The total extent of land under native rice culture in Java and Madura irrigated and unirrigated, amounted in 1900 to 4,041,735 bouws, in 1905 to 4,111,875 bouws, and in 1910 to 4,700,907 bouws.^ In 1913 a sum of nearly two and a half million florins was expended on the prosecution of seventeen great irrigation and drainage works, in addition to considerable expenditure on smaller works, repairs, and measures of economic development. Forty-eight million florins had been spent on irrigation works by 1912, and by 1910 scientific irrigation works for flooding areas exceeding 10,000 bouws had been constructed, or were in course of construction, in the residencies of Bantam, Batavia,
j'êar,
1913, of 160,306
19,453
Cheribon, Pekalongan, Semarang, Surabaya, Madiun, Kediri,
and Besuki, while extensive works in Pasuruan are in progress. The rivers utilized are the Ujung, Liwung, Sedani, Angkee, Manuk, Sangarung, Jengkellok, Pemali, Gung, Rambut, Waluh, Tyomal, Serang and Tuntang, Bodri, Surabaya, Brantas, Madiun, Sampean, and Bedadung. The modern irrigation works in Java are often fine pieces of engineering. The main Pamali canal, which irrigates about 35,000 bouws, claims the largest aqueduct in the world. The
^ For greater ease hundred acres, thus
:
of reference these figures
may
be given to the nearest
JAVA
prises d'eau, or canal heads, are well designed
307
and constructed, and there are elaborate arrangements of secondary and tertiary canals, aqueducts, syphons, dams, and sluices. There is some difference of opinion as to the wisdom of these large schemes from the financial point of view,, but their
influence
on agricultural production is generally allowed to be good. The area of irrigated rice-fields has increased steadily if slowly during the twentieth century, and the total rice production has risen, on an average, about two million pikols a year since 1905. The average yield of rice per bouw on wet
rice-fields is
in excess of the yield
fields, and about a third on fields entirely dependent on rain. The improvements in methods of irrigation under the modern system are great. One of the most ingenious plans for the fair and economical distribution of water is the golongan or group system. The fields of all the desas concerned are divided into six roughly equal portions. The fields of A, the
about double that on dry
'
'
golongan or portion of all the desas, receive water at the beginning of the wet monsoon, November 1, and must be fully planted by December 1, using up thus one-sixth of the total water capacity. The second group of fields, golongan B, is watered on November 15, and has to be planted by December 15. The four subsequent groups are watered on December 1, December 16, January 1, and January 16 respectively. By January 16, then, all the available flood-water will be in use. The season during which the crops have to stand in water Thus golongan A can be drained lasts from 3^ to 5 months. by about March 6, golongan B by April 15, and the sixth and The result is that the whole last golongan, F, by June 1. water is only in use for a couple of months, from provision of January 16, when the flooding ends, to March 16, when the drainage begins, and that the demand for the river water, small at the beginning of the wet monsoon, when the supply is also small, increases proportionately to the increase of supply in the course of the monsoon, and decreases in the same way with the decrease of supply towards the close of the wet season. The intimate local knowledge and interests of native authorities make it advisable to entrust the smaller details of local irrigation to them, and the fact that irrigation invites cooperative action, has probably tended to strengthen and perpetuate the communal organization of the desas. The work
first
U2
308
of irrigation
ECONOMIC PKODUCTS
may
and sharing the
be performed by a village group acting concost, or as a compulsory service rendered to an individual overlord, or to the State. The compulsory labour system Avhich has been used in the past for the maintenance and repair of irrigation and drainage works is to be replaced in the future in the Government service by free paid labour. In some districts the priest was formerly the regulator of the water-supply. The Dutch Government has abohshed this practice, but a special irrigation official is sometimes added to the local administrative body. In other cases the work falls to the village headman.
jointly
Rice
The name Java (Jawa-diuipa) is now usually accepted as meaning rice-island and it is probable that rice was grown by the native Javanese from very early times, before the coming of the Hindus. In 1911 it was calculated that 5,438,000 of the 7,460,000 acres then cultivated by the natives in Java and Madura were under rice. Although rice yields best on low moist ground, it can be cultivated on high land and under comparatively dry conditions. Hence the distinction which is made between the two chief forms of rice cultivation, the gaga, ladang, humah, legal or dry system, and the sawah, or wet system. Mountain rice is generally used in dry cultivation, as it reqmres less water than other Idnds, and thrives on comparatively dry soil and often at high latitudes. Dry cultivation, the simplest and probably the oldest form of rice culture, was formerly common in Java, but it has been discouraged by Government, and in 1874 the natives were forbidden to take
'
',
waste land into dry cultivation without express permission. Since 1900, however, there has been a noticeable and steady increase in the area under dry cultivation. In 1914 the total area of all dry or legal rice-fields in Java and Madura was 3,716,300 acres, as against 5,875,000 acres of wet or sawah
fields of different kinds.
Dry
cultivation also persists to the
exclusion of
servative
all
other methods of agriculture
among
the con-
and isolated Baduj of the Bantam residency. The chief drawbacks to dry rice cultivation are the rapid
exhaustion of the soil, the reckless felling of timber to bring fresh land under the plough, and the restriction of cultivation by its dependence on rainfall and on physical and climatic
JAVA
309
conditions. Thus it is neither so convenient nor so profitable as wet or sawah cultivation, which is so closely identified with agriculture generally that the same word, tani, is used in
Javanese and Sundanese for both. Sawahs, or wet rice-fields, are commonly divided into three classes (1) fields fed by running water (2) fields dependent for their water-supply on rain alone (3) marsh sawahs dependent on stagnant water, or on ground-water '. Sawahs are level fields, divided into compartments by low dykes, which enable them to be flooded and drained at will. Such fields are found both in the plains and on hill-slopes to a height of about 3,500 ft. As a rule they are arranged in embanked terraces, for purposes of irrigation, in order that the water may be banked up in the field or allowed to flow through sluices from one terrace to another. Marsh sawahs have a constant supply of water, but little can be grown on them except rice, and they are few and unimportant as compared even with rain-fed sawahs, while these extend over less than half the area covered by river-fed sawahs, which are relativelyindependent of rainfall. The sowing usually takes place in October, at the beginning of the rainy season, and harvest is reaped from three and a half
:
'
to six months after the transplanting of the young plants. These are laid ready for planting on the saturated field by men,
wMle women usually do the planting. The harvest is reaped by women. The reapers are paid by a share in the harvest,
varying from one-tenth to one-fifth, and the harvest season, followed by the time when the rice is stamped or pounded, is a period of rejoicing, when feasts are held and marriages are celebrated. After the rice has been stacked and dried it is threshed either by treading with the feet or by stamping in a hollow wooden mortar with a long wooden pole. It is then peeled or hulled in a second mortar, and the grain is finally separated from the bran by winnowing. The bran is used for fodder and the straw can be utilized in the hat manufacture. Women and girls are employed for stamping and pounding, but in some parts of Java rice is peeled or husked in mills driven by water-power or by buffaloes. These mills, however, are mainly used to prepare rice for the European market. It
is
said that four-fifths of the total

in the
number
of rice-mills in
Java are
hands
of Chinese proprietors.
310
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
.traditional
The
character of
native
rice
cultivation,
in
its
which it is interwoven with village life, have made it difficult for Europeans to introduce modern methods of culture in Java and Madura. But the native population increases rapidly and at the same time the European demand for Java rice is considerable. Between 1885 and 1900 the superficial area under rice cultivation had only increased 16 per cent., while the population had increased 30 per cent. The import of rice into Java largely exceeds its export, and though this is partly due to the exportation of the better qualities .and their replacement by inferior foreign grain, this does not fully explain the preponderance of imported rice in a country which at the end of the eighteenth century was the rice-granary of the Malay Archipelago, with an important export trade among the neighbouring islands. The Government is thus faced with the difficult problem of stimulating and improving the native rice culture in Java without discouraging the foreign rice trade. The Department of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce has issued reports on the rice crop and the Eastern Asiatic rice market, and official educational pamphlets have been published. Inquiries into the diseases of the rice plant have been instituted at Buitenzorg, and a special section of the Department of Agriculture is occupied with selecting, importing, and distributing rice seed and plants for native cultivation. Attempts have also been made
historic
and
religious associations,
and the way
to obtain
new
species
by
cross-fertilization,
and in
this
way
large-grained varieties for export have been produced,
and the
output of some of the native varieties has been increased. nursery-beds for the seedling rice-plants have been introduced into some of the native estates in the Cheribon Residency, after experiments had shown their superiority over the traditional wet seed-beds, and modern ploughs are in use among the native farmers in the Pasuruan district..
Dry
The communal functions
of the desa or village
community
extend to matters affecting rice-cultivation. There are common seed-beds, and many village rice-sheds have been started, to
lend seed-rice to cultivators, and to
rice
buy common
are
stores of
when
prices
are
low.
Several villages
generally
local
grouped together for these purposes under a native

official (mantri).
The average annual produce
of
sawah
rice for
Java, Madura,
JAVA
and the
311
Principalities is estimated at about 25 pikols per bouw, or about 1,943 lb. avoirdupois per acre, allowing 1361b. avoirdupois to the pikol and 1-75 acres to the bouw, and ranging from about 2,798 lb. per acre in Kediri to about 1,321 lbs. per acre in Madura. Dry rice-cultivation has about half this annual yield, 12|- pikols per bouw. The general
average of production per
bouw during
the years 1905 to 1915
was remarkably steady.

of rice
Principalitiesi
In 1914 the approximate production in the whole of Java and Madura exclusive of the
of
was 93,114,970 pikols (about 6,529,000 tons), between eight and nine million pikols since 1910. Returns for 1915 show that in that year the heaviest wet rice crops were reaped in East Java, while the greatest extent of land from which wet rice crops were successfully gathered in was found in Central Java, and the widest area of successfully harvested tegal or dry rice-fields in West Java. Of aU the residencies the Preanger Regencies produced the greatest amount of sawah rice. The Chinese are the chief middlemen between the native producer and the European merchant, but the greater part of the Java rice which is exported to Europe is grown on private estates in the residencies of Cheribon and Batavia. The best quality, which commands a high price in the European market comes from the great private estates of Indramayu West and Kandanghauer, in Cheribon. Java rice ranks first among the different kinds imported into the Netherlands from India, Indo-China, Japan, or Persia. The export of peeled rice from Java and Madura amounted, in round figures, to 62,000 metric
an increase
tons in 1913, 38,000 tons in 1914, and 33,000 tons in 1915. chief countries which bought these consignments were the Netherlands, France, Austria, and Australia. The export to
The
Australia, which
rice,
had
risen
in 1913, dropped to 335 tons in 1915.
from 11 tons in 1910 to 1,178 tons The export of unpeeled

fell
always inconsiderable,
to nothing in 1915.
Java from British and Singapore was about 258,416 metric tons in 1913, 215,743 tons in 1914 and 334,455 tons in 1915, a rise which led to the exaction of guarantees by the British Government that the rice was for home consumption and not
of foreign-grown rice into
The importation
India, Saigon, Siam,
for re-exportation.
312
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
Secondary Crops
The fertility of the soil of Java makes it possible to grow more than one crop in a season in the same field. Where there is abundance of water this second crop may be rice, but
frequently the rice-fields
lie
fallow for awhile after the harvest,

till
and are used as pasture

crops,
for cattle
a second crop of a different kind.
Among
they are planted with these secondary

called
which alternate with

are
rice,
and are
millet,
by the
,
natives
palawija,
peas.
included maize,
tapioca
or
cassava,
ground-nuts, sweet potatoes, soya beans, sesame, and green
Maize. Maize (jagung) is grown as a subsidiary food-crop round native dwellings, as. a first or second crop on dry (tegal) fields, and as a second crop on sawah fields after the rice harvest. In East Java and Madura, where it is very generally cultivated on dry rice-fields, it is either planted a few months before the rice, or between the rows of young rice. It ripens in two and a half to four months. In some parts of Java and Madura, particularly in mountainous districts, it has prac-
Elsewhere it is regarded as a substitute if the rice harvest fails, but in seasons of plenty its use as human food is a sign of poverty, and it serves chiefly to feed horses and poultry. It has become an important article of home consumption and of export. In 1913 about 40,000 metric tons of peeled maize were exported, and more than 57,000 tons in 1914. In 1915 maize was harvested from about 3^ million acres. The maize-fields lie chiefly in East Java, but Central Java also contains a large number. The largest area planted with maize was in the residency of Pasuruan, the smallest in the residency of Batavia. Millet. The Javanese call the large-grained millet maize rice (jagung pari). MiUet is grown everywhere as a subsidiary food-crop. It is sometimes planted between the rows of rice on the sawahs, and, like maize, it is prolific and useful, and is
tically replaced rice as the staple native food.
'
'
extensively cultivated
Cassava.
by the native population.

plant,
The
cassava
from the roots of which
since the beginning of the twentieth century its cultivation has spread widely, and the -preparation of tapioca for the European market has become an important industry. The natives boil, bake, or dry the
tapioca
is
made, grows
well,
and
JAVA
roots,
will
313
and prepare them for food in various ways. Cassava grow where there is a poor water-supply, where the rice crop has failed, on dry fields, or on native farms. It is rather
a supplementary crop, or a catch-crop, than a secondary crop in the sense of alternating with rice on the regular wet or dry rice-fields. The cultivation and preparation of cassava for the market, once practically limited to West Java, has spread over Central and East Java, and, particularly in the Preanger Regencies and in Kediri, has assumed considerable industrial importance. The number of factories engaged in preparing tapioca flour and other products of the cassava plant constantly increases, and in Kediri and elsewhere former coffee plantations are now used for cassava cultivation. Nearly all the cassava products exported from the Netherlands are prepared in Java. The natives make cassava flour in great quantities in a primitive way. It is called kampong or village flour, to distinguish it from the factory flour made usually under European control. In 1914 about 600,500 acres in Java and Madura were under native cassava cultivation, ranging from about 282,000 acres
in Madura. Preanger Regencies and in parts of East Java, are gccupied almost entirely in the preparation of cassava or tapioca flour, which is an article of export, but fetches much lower prices than factory flour. The native flour-makers sometimes sell the undried product to Chinese miUers, who wash, sift, and dry it. The flour is shipped chiefly to Great Britain, the United States, France, and Holland. The waste from the manufacture, or ampas, is collected and dried, and is exported to Europe for use as cattle fodder or in Dried cassava roots, or gaplek, are also exported distilleries. for cattle fodder and to be used in distilling cheap alcohol. The value of tapioca as an economic product is attracting attention in Java, and attempts to produce new varieties of the cassava plant have been matde at the Buitenzorg Experimental Station for rice and secondary crops. In 1914 there were ten large European tapioca factories in Java, of which three were in the residency of Kediri. The total area planted with cassava in Java and Madura in 1916 amounted to about 682,000 acres, and cassava was harvested from about 987,000 acres. The largest area under cassava was in Central Java, the smallest in West Java. The exports of tapioca meal for
in Central
Java to between 47,000 and 48,000 acres

villages, especially in the
Many native
314
tlje
ECONOMIC PEODUCTS
years 1913, 1914, and 1915 were about 53,200 metric tons
in 1913, 48,500 tons in 1914,

chief buyers
and 43,800 tons
in 1915.
The
were the United States, England, Singapore, and the Netherlands. In the same three years the exports of tapioca flake and pearl, dried cassava roots (gaplek), and tapioca waste (ampas), were approximately as follows 1913, flake, 10,400 tons pearl, 778 tons gaplek, 25,941 tons ampas, 14,159
:
tons
1914, flake,
;
8,200 tons
pearl,
;
1,324 tons
gaplek,
;
37,249 tons
pearl,
ampas, 6,541 tons

;
1915, flake, 5,500 tons

;
459 tons gaplek, 31,456 tons ampas, 2,612 tons. The chief buyers were England, a purchaser of large quantities of tapioca products, the United States, and the Netherlands. France was also a purchaser of flake tapico. In 1915 prices rose at first owing to a demand from the Netherlands and Germany, and though they dropped when tapioca products were declared contraband, only the exports of ampas and of pearl tapioca were seriously affected.
Sugar
The sugar industry is not in native hands. The independent European manufacturer is, as a rule, the planter of the raw material and the master of day labourers. This development
was, probably rendered inevitable
by
the sugar
crisis of
1884
and the epidemic of sereh disease which broke out in 1883. The fortunes of the growing industry were jeopardized, and only European direction and capital could prevent disaster.
Since 1892 the average production per acre has greatly increased
facture,
and improvements have been made in sugar culture and manuand the development of the industry has been due in the main to the efforts of the planters themselves, though the central authorities have shown concern for the progress of the
sugar trade. The sugar estates of Java lie almost exclusively in the centre and east. Though a few small plantations are found west of the Manuk, that river may be taken as the western boundary of the sugar area, which stretches in a belt reaching from the sea to the foot of the hills along the northern shore from the Manuk to the mountains of Eembang, and will extend still further in the same direction when all the prospective schemes for new estates have been carried out. In the corresponding plain south of the central mountain range many sugar planta-
JAVA
315
>
Xi
316
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
In East Java sugar
is
tions are also found.
chiefly cultivated
on the plateaux between the volcanoes of Madiun and Kediri, in the wide alluvial lowland on the north shore of the eastern part of the island, and on the coast facing Bali Strait. The highest number of factories and the largest acreage under sugar cultivation are in the Surabaya residency, the fewest factories and the smallest acreage planted with sugar-cane are in the residency of Kedu. The ancient sugar works in Batavia and Kiawang no longer flourish. The distribution of the sugar-growing lands, though partly due to the soil, is mainly determined by climate. Abundant rainfall during growth and a dry harvest season best suit the cane, and these are found in East and Central Java rather than in the western districts. According to an estimate in 1914 there were 184 sugar factories working in Java in 1912, nearly 347,000 acres were planted with cane, and the total aimual production amounted to more than a million tons avoirdupois. The total area under cane cultivation was considerably larger, as the cane crop takes more than a year to mature, and fresh fields are planted
in the valley of the river Brantas,
simultaneously with the harvesting of the preceding year's

crop.
The natives grow sugar-cane on both dry fields and sawahs, but the great manufacturers cultivate almost entirely on irrigated land. The right of using the local irrigation works
included in the rent of the estate. On private estates held perpetuity and in the principalities the planters have d practically free hand in the disposal of irrigation- water. As the chief cane-fields are situated in populous districts, there is not much difiiculty in obtaining temporary free labour for cane cultivation. The heavy labour is performed by men.
is
in
Women cut the cane crops, weed, and water, while children destroy insects and do other easy work. When the .rice harvest is cut the land is prepared for cane. Of the many diseases to which sugar-cane is subject the most formidable are the infectious sereh, a disease of the vascular tissues, to which the extensively cultivated Cheribon cane is peculiarly susceptible, and the dongkellan, a rot which attacks the roots. There are still many small factories in Java, generally in native or Chinese hands, in which sugar or syrup is prepared for domestic use by primitive methods. The more complicated
JAVA
317
modern system has developed from these early methods, which were introduced by the Chinese, and at the present time Java
excellence of
among sugar-producing countries for the factory equipment. The sugar season generally lasts from May to September, so that both planting and manufacture fall within the east monsoon, or dry season.
is
distinguished
its
Experimental stations have been established at Semarang in Central Java, Kagok in West Java, and Pasuruan in East Java. There is a general syndicate of sugar manufacturers, which acts as an advisory committee to the Government. Before 1874 Java sugar was almost exclusively shipped to
Holland.
year,
After the abolition of preferential duties in that of the Dutch beet-sugar industry in Europe, the export sugar-trade was to a great extent diverted to England, while the by-products were largely bought by
and with the growth
China and the East.

also
considerable
amount
of
Java sugar
After 1890 America became an important purchaser of Java sugar, though the trade declined somewhat when the Spanish-American war gave the United States sugar-growing colonies, and also stimulated the American beet-sugar industry. Meantime there was a steady and increasing demand from Japan and Hongkong for raw sugar to be used
direct to Singapore.
went
in the refineries there. Hongkong imported the raw material from Java and exported the refined product to British India. The Java manufacturers were deterred from tr3ring to capture this trade by the risk of establishing refineries on a large scale in a country like Java, which exports some 90 per cent, of its produce, and is dependent on the varying fiscal regulations of external Powers. White sugar, however, which could be consumed without further refining, was regularly manufactured for export from 1903, and became popular in British
India.
The export
to British India rose in the ten years
between 1905-6 and 1915-16 from about 116,000 to about 381,000 metric tons. In 1910-11, when there was a failure in the European beet-sugar crop, and the import of white sugar from Europe and Hong-Kong almost stopped, it stood as In years of bad home production high as 530,000 tons. Australia has also turned to Java for much of her sugar-supply. The total exports of sugar from Java and Madura amounted
in 1905 to 1,049,871 metric tons, in 1910 to 1,316,946 tons,
and
in 1915 to 1,967,277 tons.
While in 1913 Java exported
318
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
of sugar to England and over 700,000 tons, including molasses, to British India, in 1914 more than 600,000
about 300 tons
tons went to England as against about 450,000 tons to British
and in 1916 the export to England exceeded 217,000 tons, and the export to British India was about 550,000 tons. The Java sugar industry holds, therefore, an important position in the world -market. Java stands second to Cuba as
India,
a cane-sugar producing country. In 1914 there were about 186 factories in working order, employing on an average 500 to 600 workers, male and female, per factory, in addition to
field labourers.
Palm Sugar. The native manufacture of sugar from the areng palm, though not of great economic importance, deserves notice. Tapping the areng palm for saccharine juice is almost an hereditary occupation in parts of Java, where the natives, by long experience, have acquired great skill and knowledge. The sugar is packed in palm-leaves and sold in the native market.
Coffee
was introduced into Java It was a Government monopoly under the culture system, and though this monopoly has been abolished in Bantam, Krawang, Japara, and Rembang, there are still extensive districts in the Preanger Regencies and the residencies of Pekalongan, Pasuruan, Besuki, Madiun, and Semarang, as well as in Kedu, Kediri, Surabaya, and Banyumas, in which it persists. In 1914 there were about 83,000 acres in Java under Government coffee cultivation. The Government estates show steadily decreasing revenues, and the future development of the coffee industry will probably depend chiefly on private European planters. Coffea Arabica, or Java coffee, the kind almost exclusively cultivated in Java tUl 1875, will grow at any height up to 4,000 ft. above sea-level, but thrives best at an altitude of from 1,500 to 3,000 ft. Coffea Liberica, which was introduced from West Africa in 1875, flourishes on low ground, from sea-level to about 1,500 ft. On forest land the ground is cleared for coffee either by cutting down all the trees except a few which are left as a wind-screen, or by leaving the trees intact, rooting up all shrubs, and planting the coffee beneath the shade of the forest. The coffeecultivation of the coffee plant
The
at the end of the seventeenth century.
JAVA
319
tree begins to bear after two or three years, but does not yield abundant crops for five or six years. The fifteenth year
is
the usual limit of productivity.
In high altitudes the fruit
sometimes takes seven to twelve months to ripen, but it matures more quickly on lower levels. There are usually three crops a year, the previous ', big ', and after crops, which
' ' ' '
follow in rapid succession. The coffee plant is subject to a destructive leaf -blight, and to the depredations of the ' coffee-louse ', the coffee-borer or weevil, and the leewah, or palm -marten.
'
'
The natives simply pound their coffee with heavy poles in troughs, but the European factories are generally fitted with modern appliances. There are two methods of preparing the beans, the local or ordinary method and the West Indian,
' '
is now almost universally adopted. By the first method the berries are dried in the sun or by artificial heat, and the husks are removed by coffee pulpers or huUers worked by water or steam. About 700 lb. of freshly picked berries will yield 136 lb. of prepared coffee. By the second method the berries are pulped immediately after picking, deprived of their fleshy pulp by washing, dried, moulded or stamped, and fanned to get rid of the husk. Up to 1875 Arabica coffee was almost the only variety cultivated in Java, but other kinds have been introduced since that date, notably Liberia coffee and Robusta coffee. In many districts Liberia has superseded Arahica. Bobusta, an African
Brazilian, or
'
wet
'
method, which
'
'
coffee, is often preferred to Liberia, as better
suited to the
Javanese climate and peculiarly fitted to resist disease. A new variety of coffee, Quiloa, has been tried in Java, and promises well. The cultivation of coffee -hybrids has not been very
successful.
Java ranks third among countries producing coffee for the world-market. In 1915-16 the island produced about 650,000 bales. Though it seems probable that, considering the dense and growing population of Java, the area available for coffee cultivation cannot well be extended, on the whole the coffee industry has fair prospects. Coffee production fell in Java between 1880 and 1910 to one-fifth of its previous amount. In 1911 and 1912 it improved again. In 1913 private planters exported about 19,500 metric tons, in 1914 about 20,000 tons, and in 1915. about 34,000 tons. The exports went mainly to
320
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
the Netherlands, Genoa, France, Austria, the United States,
Port Said, and Singapore. It has been suggested that Java merchants might place sorted, roasted, and moulded coffee of the finer kinds on the market, instead of merely selling the prepared beans. This would involve building more factories and connecting them more closely with the coffee gardens. The growers have an agricultural association in Central Java for the promotion of coffee cultivation, though more might be done in this direction, and co-operation is needed to place the produce advantageously on the market. Local trade might also be developed, for the average consumption of coffee per head in Java is very small. The area of foreign trade might be extended, and the producer and the great retail merchants might work in closer connexion. In recent years the majority of coffee planters have recognized the speculative character of the trade and have combined with coffee-growing the cultiva-
Thus the crises in the and in particular the serious fall in prices owing to Brazilian competition, have helped to bring about more promising conditions than at one time seemed
tion of tea, cinchona, rubber, &c.
industry, the attacks of leaf -blight,
possible.
Tea
After the passing of the Agrarian Law of 1870, whereby Government let out land on long leases, the cultivation of tea in Java, which had become free from Government control in 1865, but was in a declining condition, began to improve. From the time of the introduction of Assam hybrids in 1878, and pure Assam teas a little later, the industry increased steadily and rapidly. The present Java tea trade deals almost entirely with Assam tea and hybrids. The tea plant is hardy, and can be grown on different soils, at varying altitudes, and under all kinds of climatic conditions^ Assam tea thrives in Java at a height of 6,000 ft. above sea-level, and yields more than in lower altitudes. The success of a plantation depends largely on the supply of cheap labour, and in Java labour is both cheap and plentiful. The method of plucking the leaves of the tea plant depends on the quality of tea required. Young leaves of fine quality
yield a smaller quantity but
command
a high price
coarser
leaves give a larger harvest at lower prices.
Java planters
JAVA
32]
appear to incline more to quantity than quality, which may explain the comparatively low prices of Java tea in the London market. The plucking is done entirely by women, who are paid according to the supply of labour and the distance which the leaves have to be carried to the factory.
factories is the
and one of the most modem of the Ja,va tea Tanara Malabar factory, built in 1905, in which on an average 150 natives a day work under European supervision. Java has two testing-stations for testing tea-seed and carrying out investigations, at Buitenzorg and Salatiga in Central Java. There is also a tea expert office at Bandung. The largest area of tea plantations is in West Java, especially
largest
The
but tea cultivation is spreading in Central Java, though it has hardly touched the eastern districts. Plantations are usually from 500 to 3,700 acres in extent, and the capital involved in an average-sized factory is about
20,000.
in the Preanger Regencies,
The great Malabar and Tanara
estates
form the
largest tea-producing area under the direct supervision of one
in the world, and have an output representing about per cent, of the world's total supply. They cover 3,000 acres, of which 2,000 are cultivated, and each year the output approximates to 2,500,000 lb. of tea of different grades and varieties. These factories employ about 3,000 natives under a European staff of about twelve officials. In many factories people's tea' is sold to the natives at a low price. This is specially the case in the Preanger Regencies, where in 1915 about 39,500 acres were planted with tea of this description. The total number of plantations in Java growing tea alone or in conjunction with other crops was 286 at the end of 1915, covering an area of about 182,000 acres. Of these plantations, 195 were in the Preanger Regencies, 41 in Batavia, and 13 in Pasuruan. The remaining residencies had less than ten tea plantations apiece. The production of tea from these estates in 1915 was more than 30,000,000 lb. in excess of that of the previous
1^
*
manager
year.
The exports of tea from Java in 1915 amounted to about 92,000,000 lb., in 1914 to nearly 65,000,000 lb., and in 1913 to about 59,000,000 lb. The tea was shipped to the Netherlands, England, Russia, Canada, the United States, Australia,
and Singapore.
increased in 1915
NETHEELANDS INDIA
The direct shipments from Java by more than 2,000,000 lb.

JJ
to
London
322
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
Cocoa
The cacao-tree was imported into the Bast Indies by the Spaniards, and has been cultivated for the market in Java eince the second half of the eighteenth century. Of the two
main cultivated varieties, oriollo and forastero, only the first was grown in Java till 1886, when a specimen of forastero was
introduced into the Jatirungu estate in Semarang, which produced by crossing with the Java criollo the Jatirungu cocoa hybrid. Cocoa cultivation is principally carried on in Central Java, but in some places it has been abandoned to make room for rubber and Bdbusta coffee. Though Java cocoa beans are
esteemed in the European market, there are obstacles to_ the development of the industry. The cocoa-tree, especially the
Java criollo variety, is susceptible to disease, and suffers greatly from insect pests, in particular the helopdtis or Assam teabug ', which can destroy entire crops. It is also very dependent on soil and climate. Hence the number of cocoa estates in Java fell between 1908 and 1914 from 118 to 43, and the production of cocoa declined by about 50 per cent. In 1914 there were about 15 cocoa estates in Semarang, 8 in Pasuruan, and smaller numbers in Kediri, Pekalongan, Surakarta, Besuki, the Preanger Regencies, Surabaya, and Batavia. In 1915 Java and Madura exported 1,481 metric tons of cocoa in 1914, 1,583 tons in 1913, 2,260 tons. The bulk of these exports went to the Netherlands, but Great Britain and Singapore were good purchasers. In 1915 the fall in exports to Europe was somewhat counterbalanced by an increased demand from the United States.
' ;
;
Tobacco
Forced tobacco cultivation, which had not proved a success, was abandoned about ^864. After 1864 private plantations were extended, and tobacco cultivation was concentrated in the districts best suited to its development Besuki, Pasuruan, and the principalities. The European planters pushed the export trade energetically, sending the bulk of their produce to Holland. But from 1864 onward the Sumatra tobacco industry became a rival to the Java trade. Java was at this time producing both tobacco-leaf for the covers of cigars and krossok.
JAVA
323
the tobacco used inside the covering leaf. It was in the production of leaf-tobacco that Sumatra excelled, and the Java planters were compelled to accept lower prices for their product. Still, since Java tobacco was comparatively inexpensive and of uniform quality, the industry held its own, and the yearly export increased, though its value had declined. In the fifty years between the abolition of forced Government culture and 1914 the export of tobacco increased almost five-fold,rising from 107,000 bales in 1865 to 490,000 bales in 1914. There were 84 tobacco factories in Java in 1914, 41 in Pasuruan, 35 in Besuki, 35 in the principalities, and the remainder in Batavia, Pekalongan, Banjumas, Kedu, and Kediri. The security of land tenure in the principalities, owing to the system of long leases, has tended to improve tobacco cultivation, which is, moreover, under European supervision. Whereas in the principalities tobacco is exclusively grown on saivahs, in East Java
The are also used for tobacco cultxire. planted after the rice harvest, in the spring, generally sufficiently late in the season to give it a chance of rain before the harvest, which is from two and a half to three months after the planting. Much tobacco is grown for the native market, particularly in Besuki and Kedu. Primitive nurseries are laid out in or near the desas, sometimes under trees, to avoid the trouble of making a shelter. The general method of cultivation differs little from that followed by European growers,
legal, or dry tobacco crop
fields,
is
except that
is
it is less
carefully carried out.
An
artificial
aroma
sometimes produced by treating the tobacco with odoriferous The exports of tobacco from Java resins, hemp, or opium.
amounted to 60,789 metric tons in 1913, to 49,433 tons in 1914, and to 61,871 tons in 1915. The bulk of this tobacco was shipped
to the Netherlands, where large consignments of leaf tobacco and krossok were purchased. Cut tobacco, however, was chiefly
exported to Singapore, and, in Penang.
much
smaller quantities, to
Indigo
profitable and important Java indigo industry is comparatively insignificant. Yet Java indigo ranks next to that of British India in the market, and the indigo plant flourishes in the island. The industry reached its height under
The once
now
the Culture System,
when the
State
made
large profits
by
X2
324
ECONOMIC PEODUCTS
oppression of the native population. By 1865 the Government monopoly was abandoned in Java, and from that year the bulk of the Java indigo came from private plantations on leasehold estates in the principalities. At the present time indigo is cultivated on a small scale by both natives and Europeans. Indigo is often grown by natives on legal or dry fields, while, except in Pasuruan, Europeans grow it on sawahs, generally after a rice crop. The best indigo comes from the principalities, especially from Surakarta. The chief market is at Semarang. The European entrepots are Rotterdam and Amsterdam, but
Prance imports
directly. Since the invention of artificial indigo the industry has tended to rely more and more on the Far Eastern market. In 1915 there were nineteen European indigo plantations in Java, with an area of about 4,700 acres, and about 4,800 acres were under native indigo cultivation in Java and Madura. Between 1913 and 1915 the yearly export of
indigo rose from 76 to 314 metric tons.
Coca
prepared from the leaves of the coca shrub, which grows well in Java at a height of 1,000 to 2,000 ft. above sealevel. It is generally raised as a second crop or as a catch crop. It is also sometimes grown in hedges. The young leaves are exported on a large scale, and there are two cocaine factories in Java at Sukabumi and Ungaran. Amsterdam, the chief European market for coca, has also two factories. The exports of coca leaf from Java and Madura reached 1,333 metric tons in 1913 and 1,353 tons in 1914, but dropped to 777 tons in 1915. The area under coca cultivation in Java, exclusive of Madura, was about 5,000 acres in 1915, distributed among seventy-three estates in Kediri, Pasuruan, the Preanger Regencies, and Bantam. About half this area was exclusively devoted to coca cultivation. On the remainder coca was grown in combination with other crops.
Cocaine
is
Fibres
The most important
fibre-yielding plants of
cotton, different kinds of
hemp, and rattans.
Java are kapok, The fibres of the
coco-nut and areng-palms, widuri, a kind of wild vegetable silk, and other native products, are of local rather than of international value.
JAVA
Kapok.
325 young, but

it is
The kaj)ok industry
is still
thought
likely that it
may increase to double its present size. The Malay
Archipelago produces about seven-eighths of the world's production for export, and by far the largest proportion comes from Java and Madura, where the kapok tree grows freely, and yields a better product than in any other country. It is found everywhere on land under native cultivation, along the fields
and
roads, and on some estates under European management. Of about 68,000 acres in Java and Madura which were planted with kapok in 1911 more than 52,000 were cultivated by natives. Kapok is chiefly grown in the Japara district, but small quantities of specially good quality come from Madura, and a
amount is raised in the east of Java. The export trade in kapok has only acquired importance since the beginning of the twentieth century. Some of the factories are managed, by Chinese, but the trade is almost exclusively in the hands of
considerable
European exporters in the principal ports of Java though a few European planters ship direct to foreign purchasers. The chief markets for Java kapok are found in the Netherlands and in Australia. Direct shipments are made, however, to America, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. In England, Norway, Sweden, and Russia the demand for kapok, though still comparatively small, is on the increase. The exports of kapok from Java and Madura rose from 8,377 metric tons in 1910 to 9,017 tons in 1913, 9,363 tons in 1914, and 10,858 tons in 1915. The area under kapok cultivation in Java, exclusive of Madura, was about 27,000 acres in 1915. About 11,000 acres were planted with kapok alone on the remainder kapok was grown in combination with a variety of other crops. There were ninety-two kapok estates, of which twenty-eight were situated in the Semarang Residency. ^The cotton trade, though of ancient origin in Java, Cotton. The production of cotton is is in a somewhat backward state.
;
chiefly for the
home market,
the culture
is
almost entirely in
native hands, and even in the native market home-grown cotton has to compete with the cheap woven goods and cotton yarns imported from Europe. European cotton yarn is, as a rule,
stronger and finer than the Javanese product, as the Java cotton fibres have short threads, and are not very satisfactory for spinning and weaving. The cotton plant, which is indigenous in Wemak and Kediri, is often planted by the natives
326
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
as a second crop or as a catch crop after rice, on sawahs or on
dry Pelds. The co-operation of European capital in the cotton trade has been chiefly confined to buying the raw product and deahng in it, or to supplying seed and cleaning the raw cotton,
and the cotton cultivation attempted by European planters has not been successful. Nevertheless, as an additional crop, cotton has been sufficiently profitable to warrant some hope of its future development, though this is perhaps more likely to take place in the Outer Possessions than in Java. The export of cotton certainly seems to have risen steadily if slowly from 1910 to 1912, but between 1913 and 1915 it was inconsiderable, and the effort which was made to establish an export trade in
oil-yielding cotton-seeds
Hem'p.
The agave plant, which has only been cultivated in
proved a
failure.
Java for commercial purposes since the beginning of the twentieth century, grows wild in the archipelago. Many agave plantations were started between 1903 and 1905, when the
market prices of hemp were very high. Agave Cantala, or Cantal hemp, appears to be indigenous in Java, where it grows luxuriantly. Its fibres are tliinner, more flexible, whiter, and better suited for spinning than the coarser fibres of the other main variety, Agave JRigida Sisalana, or Sisal hemp. Hence good Java Cantal fibre fetches a better price than Sisal fibre. Agaves are easily cultivated and yield well in Java. The chief ports of export for agave fibres are Surabaya and Semarang, and the exports to Europe show a steady increase. ManUa hemp is made from the leaf sheaths of the great banana plant Musa Textilis, which is not indigenous in Java, but grows well
when it is introduced into the island. It is cultivated alone, or gi'own as a second crop on rubber estates. In 1913 Java exported 8,741 metric tons of Cantal and Sisal hemp and 232 tons of Manila hemp. In 191i the exports rose to 13,303 tons for Cantal and Sisal hemp and fell to 62 tons for Manila hemp. In 1915, 13,231 tons of Cantal and Sisal hemp were exported, and 119 tons of Manila hemp.
Vegetable Oils
Copra.
Java possesses an abundance
of oil-yielding plants,
but the home consumption of oil is very large and the exports are comparatively small. The coco-nut stiU supplies much of the oil used by the natives for domestic purposes, but it has been to
JAVA
327
a great extent supplanted as a lamp oil by the cheaper kerosene, with the result that large quantities of coco-nuts have been thrown on the market, and the trade in copra has enormously increased, while the growing value of this product has led to a great extension of the area planted with coco-nut trees, especially in Central Java.
Nearly
all
the coco-nut plantations are
in native hands, as
European
capital has only recently been
attracted to the industry.
When the native demand for coco-nut oil has been met there remains a supply of nuts which can be used in the preparation of copra. The owner of the coco-nut trees may deal with his own fruit, or the fresh nuts may be sold in the open market to oil or copra manufacturers, who are usually Chinese, occasionally natives, but very rarely Europeans. Central Java is the chief seat of the industry. Large quantities of copra oil are consumed in the archipelago, and the manufacture of this oil is steadily increasing in Java, where there are several well-equipped factories. The export of home-manufactured copra oil beyond the immediately adjacent countries is still in an experimental stage, but the residuary oil-cakes are usually exported. The export of coco-nut oil was about 24,000 gallons in 1915, an extraordinary increase from 1914, when only about 6,000 gallons were exported. The copra and coco-nut oil export trades were on the whole, however, unfavourably affected by the war. Prices fell, and the export of copra dropped from about 70,000 metric tons in 1914 to about 51,000 tons in 1915. Copra was declared contraband by England and France, a copra bureau was established at Amsterdam to regulate the trade, and not only was the export to the Netherlands limited, but ultimately the export of coco-nut oil was stopped altogether. they are cultivated Ground-nuts are an important product on sawahs as a second crop between two rice crops, on unirri:
gated land, and on sugar-cane plantations directly after the cane harvest. The cultivation is in native hands, and the trade was formerly considered only fit for Chinese, to whom and to natives the preparation of oil from ground nuts was left. In the European market Java ground-nuts were considered inferior to those grown in Africa. But since about 1904 the conditions of the industry have changed, and Java nuts now hold their own with the African product in Europe. Earlyripening kinds have been introduced, to replace the old slowly-
328
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
and Madura, and
developing Java variety, and at the end of 1915 about 145,000

acres were planted with ground-nuts in Java
the area harvested amounted to about 458,000 acres. The The largest area under this cultivation was in East Java. demand from the Netherlands has recently greatly increased,
owing to the need
for materials for the margarine industry.
Kapok
Seeds.
The third place among the oil-seeds of Java,
as far as value is concerned, may be assigned to the seeds of the kapok-tree, which until about 1905 were thrown away as useless. Part of the abundant supply is now exported to Europe, while
the remainder is used for oil-making in Java. The oil factories are generally in Chinese hands. The oil is used in native cooking, and as an ingredient in the manufactui'e of hard soaps. The residuum serves as manure on the sugar estates and is utOized
in
Europe as food
for cattle.
Other Vegetable Oils. The small export trade in cotton seeds has ceased since about 1912, though two cotton ginneries were recently started in Java, one of which was connected \^dth an
oil-mill.
The export
is
of castor-oil seeds
from Java
is
also small,
a fair demand for them for medical and technical use. The industry as a whole is not flourishing, and the cultivation of the castor-oil plant is decliniag. In some parts of
though there
Java the natives extract oil from sesame seeds, and the trade kachang (katjang) oil, derived from the soya bean, is not unimportant. In 1915 the export of this oil amounted to more than 33,000 gallons. In the same year nearly 3,000 metric tons of oil-yielding jarak kernels were exported to Europe from Java and Madura. Many East Indian trees, shrubs, and grasses yield essential or volatile oils. The Java variety of the grass from which citroneUa oil is distilled will, under good conditions, give a better product than the Ceylon variety. The oil is exported to Europe and used in the manufacture of soap. Lemongrass oil is also distilled in Java and exported to Europe, but the trade in this article is insignificant, and the plantations of lemon grass in Java are said to have been to a great extent given over to sereh grass. Canagra oil comes from the flowers of a tree which is chiefly found in West Java The natives have long
in
.
prepared it for their own use. It is only recently that exporters have turned their attention to it as a possible source of commercial profit, and it is now exported in increasing quantities to Europe and the United States.
JAVA
Spices
329
spice islands of the East Indian Archipelago. None of the finer kinds of spice is indigenous to the island, and though many of them thrive when planted, the spice production is comparatively small. Java has, however, some export trade in pepper, nutmegs, and mace. Pepper was once the principal export and one of the compulsory levies under the Culture System, but the chief pepper trade has now passed to the Outer Possessions, though Batavia is the
Java does not rank among the true
collecting centre for Banka and Sumatra pepper. The exports for 1913 were 2,058 metric tons of white and 5,300 tons of
black pepper, for 1914 the exports ,were 1,947 tons of white and 8,394 of black pepper, and in 1915 the export of white pepper fell to 788 tons, but 6,788 tons of black pepper were exported from Java. The chief purchasers were the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, the United States, and Singapore. Nutmegs and mace form an important subsidiary crop on estates in Java which are owned by Europeans. Both are exported, chiefly to the Netherlands and to England. The exports of mace are smaller than those of nutmegs, but the demand for both leaves and fruit is fairly steady. The cultivation of cinnamon has practically died out in Java since 1865, when the compulsory levies were dropped. The native Javanese, who do not care for black pepper, cloves, or nutmegs, eat various kinds of capsicum in great quantities. The small pungent capsicums known as chillies grow wild, and other species are cultivated by the natives on wet and dry rice-fields after the rice harvest. Central Java, the only part of the island where there is a surplus, exports a few hundred tons yearly from Semarang to Singapore.
EoKESTRY, Forest Pbodctcts, etc.
The
forests of Java,
though they cover only one -thirteenth
of the total area, are of high economic importance. forests are famous,
The teak
and the
island is rich in
many other kinds of

fruit-trees.
jiimber trees,
and
in various species of
palms and
Forestry Administration
The Government has foimd it necessary to undertake the administration of the forests in Java, and the special importance
330
of teak is
ECONOMIC PEODUCTS
'
'
shown by the accepted division, for administrative and commercial purposes, into teak forests and wild timber forests ', including all other species. The area of teak forests is estimated to be rather more than 1,500,000 acres, and that of wild timber forests between 2,000,000 and 2,500,000 acres. In early days little care was taken to preserve the forests in Java, or to consider the effect of the destruction of mountain timber on the water-supply. The native dry or ladang system of agriculture involved reckless destruction of forest trees, and
' '
'
the East India
Company exploited the forests in its own interest.
imposed on the native far as possible, provided by the inhabitants of certain desas in the neighbourhood of the forests, who devoted themselves to this work, and were exempted from other forced services. The native word for the felling and hauling of wood is blandong, and the Javanese who performed blandong people '. The this compulsory service were called Chinese, too, were allowed to fell wood for building their coasting vessels, and this led to great inroads on the extensive Rembang teak forests. By the second half of the eighteenth century most of the accessible teak woods on the north coast of Java were nearly exhausted, and by the end of the century attention began to be called to the decline of these forests. After the fall of the East India Company the Government took over all teak forests which were not the property of private individuals or communities as State lands, while special treaties, modified from time to time, were made with the principalities. In 1819 the whole forest service was reorganized, but the introduction of the Culture System in 1830 was followed by the virtual abandonment of the old regulations for the management of the forests. The Culture System involved the building of sugar factories and indigo factories and the use of large
fixed contingents of teak were
chiefs,
Heavy
and these were, as
'
quantities of fuel, while the establishment of tobacco factories
and plantations, especially
in
Rembang, did much
to bring
about the destruction of the teak forests. Large quantities of wood were also used for defensive and other public works. The forests were put under the Director of Culture in 1832, and from 1857 trained forest officials were regularly sent out from
Holland, while a resident inspector of forest service was appointed. Timber-felling was now concentrated as far as possible on certain spots, sale by lot was reintroduced, the
JAVA
cleared ground
331
was resown with teak, and the whole service was supervised by European and native officials. The old
blandong system, however, remained in force till 1865, when it In Rembang the blandong people divided the working year into two portions from April or May to November was the period of felling and hauling and of the conveyance of the timber to the rivers, and from the beginning of December to the following spring, the season of the wet monsoon, was the time for floating the timber-rafts down the rivers. With the increase in the demand for wood in the second half of the nineteenth century the Government teak monopoly was felt to be a hindrance to industrial development. After various experiments, the Colonial Ordinance of 1897 brought the forest officials under the direct control of a special Forest Service, which was subsequently transferred to the new Department of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce. Finally, an Ordinance
was abandoned.
'
'
of 1913,
which came into force on January 1, 1914, established Java and Madura, which promoted State exploitation and management as against the system of private agreement and sale which had grown up since 1864, when State exploitation of the teak forests had been abandoned
new
forest regulations for
in favour of private competitive enterprise.
The new system,
which reflected a change in public opinion, was rendered more easy of application by the increasing efficiency and wider organization of the Forest Service. The teak and wild timber
' '
forests are divided into districts

staff of
managed by rangers with a subordinate officials. The higher officials are mainly European, with native subordinates, and the general administration is under the immediate direction of a chief inspector, supervised by the Director of Agriculture, Industry, and
Commerce.
In 1904 the course of training for forest officers was connected with the newly-founded Royal Higher School of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Forestry, but both European and non-European forest overseers are in future to be trained in a special school. A forestry experimental station to deal with scientific and technical questions was started in 1913. Under the reorganized Forest Service the capital value of the forests has greatly increased, and the financial profits, though they showed some diminution in 1914, have also risen
considerably.
332
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
Teak
The forests on the low-lying ground consist in large part of the teak -tree, the native jati, the valuable Java teak of commerce. The teak-tree is found in British India and in several islands of the Malay Archipelago, but nowhere in such
' '
abundance as in Java. It is peculiarly fitted for shipbuilding, and is largely used for house-building, furniture-making, and
many
other purposes.
In Java the teak forests are mainly situated in the centre and east of the island. In the mountainous volcanic regions In a vertical of the west they occupy only a small area. direction teak has a somewhat restricted extension. A height of little over 2,000 ft. above sea-level may be taken as the limit of the Java teak forests. In Central and East Java teak grows in the low-lying districts, by preference on somewhat hilly ground, such as the hills which stretch out from the eastern foot of the Ungaran Mountains in Surabaya. Of the area covered by teak forests (rather over 1,500,000 acres, as already stated) more than 500,000 acres are situated in the residency of Rembang, while the remainder lie chiefly in the residencies of Madiun, Semarang, Surabaya, and Kedtri. In the other residencies teak grows in small quantities or is
altogether absent.
to
The exports of teak from Java and Madura amounted in 1913 1,383,915 in 1914 to 1,220,153, and in 1915 to 702,976
cubic feet.
Coco-nut Palms
pahns but loses its productiveness comparatively early, and the Kalapa dalem, which matures slowly, but retains its productive powers for a long period of time. Although the coco-palm thrives best in tropical heat on low ground near the sea, it will grow at a height of 3,000 ft. above sea-level but these mountain palms are usually cultivated for sap rather than for fruit. The coco-palm bears fruit throughout the year, and plays a prominent part in the life of the Javanese peasant, who plants it close to his house, since it is popularly supposed to
the Kalapa gendjah, which bears
The Javanese distinguish two main groups
of coco-nut
fruit in its third year,
languish
when
it is
beyond the reach
of the
human
voice.
It
JAVA
is
333
grown on a large scale on private estates, and the Dutch Government has encouraged its cultivation on waste lands,
(For the copra industry, see above, p. 326.) Fruit Culture
Attempts have been made to introduce the fruits of more temperate climates, but without any striking success, and Java and Madura have a considerable import trade in fresh fruit with Europe, Singapore, China, and Japan, and, in particular, with Australia. The chief fruits imported are grapes, apples, pears, oranges, lemons, cherries, plums, peaches, and apricots. The vine was at one time cultivated in East Java, but the Dutch East India Company, fearing competition with the South African wine trade, discouraged Javanese viticulture, and it gradually died out. The green Java orange is cultivated
in the east of the island, but not in sufficient quantities to
preclude importation, and lemons are comparatively scarce. Although in 1911 about 66,000 acres of orchard ground were
and Madura, fruit-culture is backward, and the remarkable natural wealth of the islands might be utilized to much better purpose. The natives plant fruit-trees, notably the blimbing, in their villages, but wide expanses of orchard planted with one kind of fruit are rare. Such native fruit-gardens or orchards (hebonan) as exist are usually dry (tegal) fields, on which grow a few coco-palms and mangoes, duku, mangosteen, nangka, jambu, rambutan, and other fruit-trees, with perhaps some êfe-trees, the unripe seeds of which taste like garlic, and so-trees, which yield edible fruits" arid leaves as well as useful fibres. These orchards
assessed for land-rent in Java
still
are generally outside the desa or village, as there are

superstitions
many
and
traditions connected with the planting of
them the amount of necessary cultivation, which consists chiefly in irrigation and in the preservation of the fruit-crops from birds. The Chinese and Arabs are better gardeners and fruitgrowers than the Javanese, and the wealthier among them paj'
certain trees near houses, but the natives easily give
small
high prices for choice kinds of table-fruit. Of late years the Dutch in Java have recognized the importance of fruit-culture and have made efforts to encourage it, especially among, the natives. There are extensive guava orchards or gardens near Semarang, and orchards of various sorts of citrus trees between
334
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
Batavia and Buitenzorg. At Buitenzorg, also, a society has been formed to promote fruit-growing, while in Demak the hlimhing has been successfully cultivated on a large scale by native enterprise, and mangoes are grown for the market in the Cheribon and Probolinggo residencies. There is little doubt that there are openings in Javanese fruit-culture both for increased production and better distribution in the home
market and
for the preserving, canning,
and exportation
of
native produce.
Bubber
The rubber industry

of late years.
of
Java has assumed great importance
In former times practically all the rubber produced in Java came from Ficus elastica, the native karet. The systematic cultivation of these trees for commercial purposes dates from about 1864. By 1900 a considerable number of rubber plantations had been started in West Java, and the Forest Department was beginning to pay attention to rubberplanting. The simple early methods of tapping have now been replaced by more elaborate and scientific methods. Attempts to introduce the South American rubber-tree, Manihot Glaziovii have not been very successful, while the Central American
Gastilloa
elastica.
has disappointed the expectations of
its
by 1913 the area planted with it in Java had shrunk to about 7,000 acres, and its yield of rubber was only
growers, and
about 2 per cent, of the total output. All other species of including the Ficus elastica, have yielded to Hevea Brasiliensis, which produces the Para rubber of commerce, first planted in the Experimental Gardens at Buitenzorg in 1876. Though it thrives best in low situations, it does well in West Java at an altitude of nearly 2,000 ft. above sea-level. Other crops, such as Robusta coffee, or leguminous plants, are often grown between the rubber-trees to provide vegetable manure. In 1914 there were 408 rubber estates in Java, exclusive of Madura, of which 81 were in the Preanger Regencies. On private estates growing rubber alone the acreage under Hevea was nearly five times as great as that under Ficus elastica, while other kinds of rubber occupied proportionately smaller areas. The total area under rubber cultivation, exclusive of Government estates, was estimated in 1914 at about 248,000
rubber-tree,
JAVA
acres, 152,000 of
335
which were planted with one or more crops The Grovernment rubber estates covered about 22,000 acres, in round numbers, and here, too, Hevea preponderated. Government rubber cultivation has long been
in addition to rubber.
part of the work of the Forest Service in Java, and in 1910 the management of the Government rubber industry was concentrated under an official of the Forest Department. Since
1910 the service has been further organized and specialized, trees have been planted, while attempts have been made to improve the yield of the old Ficvs elastica planta-
and Hevea
tions.
In 1911 the Netherlands Commercial Company took over the sale of Government rubber, and the sales were transacted
Amsterdam and at Rotterdam. The number Government factories has increased, and the produce is said to have doubled yearly since 1910. The capital invested in rubber in Java in 1913 amounted to nearly 117,000,000 florins. In 1913 the exports of rubber from Java and Madura were
alternately at
of
estimated at 2,570 metric tons, of which 2,345 tons were Hevea. In 1914, 3,812 tons were exported, of which 3,607 were Hevea, and in 1915 the total export was 7,458 tons, of which 7,304 were Hevea. The Hevea rubber was chiefly purchased by the Netherlands or by Great Britain, while in 1913 and 1914 Belgium, the United States, and Singapore also bought, in smaller quantities. France and Germany took a few tons in 1914, and Japan became a purchaser to the extent of 117 tons. The most remarkable recent feature of the trade was the rise in the export of Hevea rubber to the United States, from 20 tons in 1913 to 186 tons in 1914, and 3,336 tons in 1915. The Ficus elastica rubber was mainly bought by Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Singapore. It was reported in October 1918 that the export of rubber from Netherlands India had
been prohibited.
Gutfa-percTia is also an East Indian product. It is obtained from various trees of the Sapotacea family. There is a State nursery at Chipetir in Java for gutta-percha-yielding plants and also an experimental gutta-percha factory. In 1914 between 2,000 and 3,000 acres of Government land in Java were planted with the Palaquium species of gutta-percha
tree.
336
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
Gitichona
Since the middle of the nineteenth century Java has been the principal source of the world's supply of cinchona, kina,
quinine, or Peruvian bark. The Pengalengan plateau in the Preanger Regencies is the centre of the cinchona industry. In 1914, out of a total of 97 plantations, 69 were in the Preanger district, including the seven estates stiU held by the Government. Cinchona is grown on cleared forest ground and on terraced lull slopes. In spite of a crisis in 1893-4, the cinchona industry has made rapid progress in Java since 1880. In 1886 the cinchona of Java was already about two-thirds of the world's supply, and by 1910 Java was producing more than 8,500 tons annually, while 450 tons was the approximate yearly produce of British India, and 200 tons was that of all other countries. In 1915 the area under cinchona cultivation was about 35,000 acres for 109 plantations. In 1914 statistics were returned for 112 estates, including 7 Government plantations, 101 leaseholds, and 4 private estates. TiU 1896 Java cinchona was sold by public auction in Holland. This resulted in a combination of great quinine manufacturers, chiefly in Germany, to keep the prices of the raw material low, and the Java industry was seriously threatened. In 1896 a company was formed to prepare the bark and extract the alkaloids in the island, and a quinine factory was established at Bandung, in the Preanger district, which now produces some of the finest quinine in the world, and has a considerable export trade. The company has its head-quarters at Samarang, and the quinine is sold by auction at Batavia. Home factories of this kind might perhaps be used by Government to supply quinine on easy terms to the Javanese natives. Almost the whole export of Java cinchona bark goes to the Netherlands, and in 1913 the producers of bark in Java made an agreement with the owners of certain quinine factories in Europe, whereby a combination of factories arranged to take the Java bark up to a guaranteed quantity, containing a specified amount of quinine, at a minimum price. A central office was established
at
Amsterdam
to
control
the
receipts,
deliveries,
it
and
analysis of bark,
and
to fix the prices at
which
was
quoted.
JAVA
Rattan
337
The rattan or rottan

smaller
is
the stem of certain species of palms,
belonging chiefly to the Calamus family. It is found in much quantities in Java than in Borneo, Celebes, and Sumatra. Java even imports rattans from Borneo. The Java rattan trade is in the hands of Europeans and Chinese. The cut stems are exported in considerable quantities to Europe and America, where rattan is much used in the manufacture
of furniture
and trunks, and in basket-work. In 1913 the exports amoimted to 101 metric tons, in 1914 they fell to 99 tons, and in 1915 they rose again to 753 tons.
Livestock
Though the Javanese do not concern themselves much with

horse-breeding, stock-raising, or dairy work, there is a breed of small strong horses in the island, used chiefly for riding, draught, or transport. The humped Java cattle tend to
and are often crossed with the beautiful wild cow The wild cattle come principally from the forests of the Pasuruan district. The flesh of the young hanteng makes excellent meat, and the hide of the older animals is used for leather. The flesh of the buffalo is a common article of food, and in addition to its value in ploughing and other farm-work, the animal yields good milk. The well-stocked native poultry-yards and the abundant supplies of fresh- and salt-water fish further provide
degenerate,
or hanteng, to strengthen the breed.
supplement the standard diet of Javanese remain primarily a rice-eating people.

plentiful food to
rice,
but the
Petrolextm and other Mineral Pkodtjcts Java is not rich in minerals, with the exception of petroleum, but the petroleum trade, though of recent introduction, offers great possibilities of commercial expansion, especially in the markets of the Far East. Petroleum is found in Semarang, Rembang, and Surabaya. Since its beginnings, in about 1890, the industry has made rapid progress under the main direction of the Royal Dutch Company for working petroleum springs in the Dutch Indies and the Dordrecht Petroleum Company. By 1908 twenty-eight petroleum concessions had been granted in Java, and the industry is now one of the most important in
NETHEELANDS INDIA
338
the island,
substantial
pelago.
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
although reports of production show a slight decrease in 1916 compared with the previous year, whereas
increase was recorded elsewhere in the archiPetroleum working is regulated in Netherlands East India by the Mining Act of 1899 and the supplementary enactment of 1906, and since 1910 petroleum working has been almost entirely under Dutch control. The deepest well drilled in the island is in East Java. There are large refineries at Wonokromo in East Java, where the raw oil is evaporated into benzine or petroleum spirit, kerosene or illuminating oil, liquid fuel, lubricating oil, and sometimes paraffin-wax, from which candles and batik wax for the native batik work are made. Java has special paraffin factories, fitted with all modern appliances, which produce a large quantity of excellent wax. A lubricating-oil factory has also been started. The petroleum oil of Java has a low specific gravity and high contents of benzine and lamp oil, but in 1915 the island was still importing considerable quantities of kerosene from the United
States.
Coal-mining has been attempted in Java, and there is a fairly promising eocene coalfield at Bajah in the south of the Bantam residency. Lignite has been found in various parts of the island, but it is of poor quality and of no great value. Though there is coal in Jokyakarta and in a few other districts, none of the seams shows special promise. A little iodide of copper is found in Semarang and some manganese in Jokyakarta. Salt, which is a Government monopoly, is obtained from saline springs and from sea-water. In Madura a Government manufacture of salt from sea-water is carried on by European methods.
CHAPTER XI
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS OF THE OUTER
POSSESSIONS
Sumatra and adjacent islands Guinea ^Lesser Sunda Islands.
BorneoCelebes^Moluccas
and
New
In dealing with the economic products of the Outer Possesit is desirable to distinguish, more explicitly than in the case of the more fuUy developed industries of Java, between production which is purely in native (or non-European) hands, and production under European control. The following sections on each territorial division therefore deal successively with (a) native production, and (b) European enterprise, even though this involves the consideration of certain commodities
sions
under both headings.

'
native
'
production, a distinction
In the majority, again, as concerning is necessary between pro.
duction by dwellers in the interior and that by the coast

peoples.
Sumatra and adjacent Islands

Native Production
Native agriculture in Sumatra is largely concerned Rice. with the cultivation of rice. As in Java, this is carried out on ladangs or dry fields and on sawahs or wet fields, but, owing to the inferiority of the general standard of civilization, the lesser density of population, and the absence of education in scientific methods, the average level of the culture is lower. The use of manure, however, is peculiar to Sumatra. Ladang culture exists ^de by side with sawah culture in many places, and in the inland districts of Middle Sumatra it preponderates. The care bestowed on this method of cultivation varies in different parts.
clear a space
by burning
little
trees
thus cleared receives

^
or
The Batak peoples, for instance, and brushwood, and the ground no working. This method involves
Including Riouw-Lingga, Banka, BiUiton, &c.
Y2
340
the destruction of
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
much
useless,
valuable timber, and the ground itself with the result that from time to time the community is compelled to remove to another locality. In the districts of Rawus and the Lebongs in Palembang, on the other hand, the ground is more thoroughly cleared, and is subsequently well worked with a plough drawn by buffaloes. Here the seed is transplanted from seed-nurseries. Where ladang culture is in vogue the period of ripening occurs during the rainy season, at the end of which the rice is harvested. Sawah culture is most successful in the West Coast Residency, where the Menangkabau Malays have an ingenious system of irrigation, involving the use of water-wheels, which is peculiar to themselves. In the building of irrigation works the Malay In this region riceis said to be the equal of the Javanese.
soon becomes
cultivation in
Sumatra reaches
its
highest level.
Besides the use of running water, rain-water is utilized, and In in Tapanuli the natives construct rough prises d'eau.
this source.
Sumatra East Coast also the sawahs are dependent mainly on In many places, including Acheh, rice is cultivated on marsh sawahs, but the results from the use of stagnant
water are not favourable. The relative prevalence of the two methods is not ascertainOfficial returns of 1914 give figures able with certainty. which cover onlyîhe two residencies of Benkulen and Palembang. In Benkulen, which was described in 1905 as entirely devoted to ladang cultivation, reference is made in the statistics of 1914 to 38,500 acres on sawahs. Judging by the harvest figures, however, ladang culture in this residency still greatly predominates. In Palembang five times the area devoted to sawahs was cultivated by the dry method, and this is just as widespread in Jambi, where sawahs are mainly confined to the districts of Korinchi and Bangko. In these places the rice culture is so successful as to permit of export to the residency of Sumatra West Coast On the mainland of Riou w and Dependencies the culture seems to a great extent to be on marsh sawalis inundated by the overflow of the Indragiri and the Retih. In
.
Acheh sawah
culture, chiefly in the Pidir valley, is much more common than ladang, and occurs on irrigated and marsh ground.
In 1910 the Government appointed two engineers to inquire

into the question of irrigation in Sumatra,
engineers
were
appointed for
Acheh,
and in 1912 irrigation the government of
SUMATRA
341
Sumatra West Coast,- Benkulen, and Palembang. In 1914 expenditure on irrigation works is recorded in Acheh, Sumatra West Coast, Tapanuli, and Benkulen. Judging by the statistics given for Palembang, the rice crop
is
subject to serious misadventure. During 1914 a quarter of the crop, mainly on saivahs, was destroyed by a long drought. In the wilder parts of the island the rice grown on the ladangs
suffers
from the inroads of wild animals, against which it is necessary to keep a constant watch. Agricultural advisers appointed by the Department of Agriculture, Industry, and Trade are stationed at Kuta Raja in Acheh, and Muara Enim in Palembang, while at Fort de Kock in the government of Sumatra West Coast, and at Benlsulen, there are European agricultural instructors. In these places experimental gardens have been established for the enlightenment of native agriculturists and the improvement of the quality of the crop. The harvest varies considerably from year to year, and export is naturally high in those provinces in which the convenient ports are situated. The export from Riouw and Dependencies in 1914 nearly trebled the amount exported in 1913, and this residency, with Sumatra West Coast (in which the port of Padang is situated), heads the export list. The smallest quantity exported came from the Lampongs. Much of the exported rice goes to Penang and Singapore. Although
a large quantity is thus exported, the amount of imported rice In 1913 two-thirds of the is more than twenty times as great. imported rice went to the residency of Sumatra East Coast, presumably to feed the large coolie population. Apart from the import into this province, however, the amount imported
was seven times as great as the total export, all the other provinces receiving large quantities. Much of the imported rice came via Singapore from the same sources from which Java is supplied (British India, Saigon, and Siam). In the course of 1915, as a consequence of the shipping shortage and
the high cost of freights, the export of rice from Sumatra dwindled almost to nothing. Maize. Âmong other crops cultivated by the natives for
food purposes maize

particular
is
The Bataks in is perhaps the chief. grow it on ladangs as a primary crop. Elsewhere it produced as a secondary crop.
342
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
grown to eke out domestic consumption, and the potatoes of the Bataks
Vegetables of various lands are everywhere

rice for
have some reputation. The bulk of the coffee produced in the Outer Coffee. Possessions for export comes from Sumatra, where in the West Coast province the Government's Culture System had been in
force
up
to 1907.
Coffee
is
still
extensively grown
by
the
natives of Sumatra, and some varieties of the old Java coffee,
such as the Mandailing of Tapanuli, which is in demand in America, and the Kru coffee from Benkulen, are important and profitable. But the growing of the average product is said to be unprofitable as far as the native grower is concerned. The berry ripens suddenly, and the assistance of hired labour is required to harvest the crop, with the result that the work The helpers is done hastily, with much damage to the trees. have to be remunerated with a disproportionate share of the harvest, and the excessively small price obtained from the Chinese middlemen, to whom the crop has been to a great extent mortgaged, leaves little or no profit to the grower. It is hoped that the depression of this culture will be remedied by the introduction of the inferior but hardier Robusta variety under the auspices of the Government. The harvesting of this crop extends over a long period, thus demanding the constant attention of the grower, who will also be enabled to deal with the whole harvest with little assistance. It is thought
that the abundance of the harvest and the small cost of production will enable the growers to compete on favourable terms with exporters of Brazil coffee. For the purpose of encouraging the planting of Robusta, the agricultural and administrative officials have started experimental gardens, but the conservatism of the natives makes progress difficult. The native crop is grown both in plantations (tuinen) and in the forest. Java coffee is principally grown, but Liberia and Robusta also. It is not possible to distinguish clearly the extent of native plantations or the quantity produced, but only to give general statements concerning those provinces in which the native growing overwhelmingly preponderates. The free native culture of Sumatra West Coast,which has succeeded the Government's Culture System, is responsible for the largest export, and from Padang 54,316 pikols, probably inclusive of 2,000 pikols from Tapanuli, were exported in 1914. Some may
SUMATRA
also
343.
have come from Benkulen, which in the same year exported over 20,000 pikols to Padang, Palembang, Batavia, and Singapore. In Palembang 14,250 pikols of Bobusta coffee were harvested as against 3,250 pikols of Liberia the export,, however, was inconsiderable. In certain districts of Jambi,
;
Muara Bungo, Korinchi (whence
in 1914, 3,460 pikols of Qoffee
were exported to the adjoining province of Sumatra West Coast), and Bangko, coffee-growing is extending. In Bangko during 1914, 700,000 shrubs were planted. During the last ten years export abroad has fallen off, while export to other provinces of the colony substantially increased. Tobacco is extensively grown by natives for their own consumption as a secondary crop on rice-fields. A quantity of cut tobacco is produced for the native market, aiî a further
amount of krossok or scrub tobacco for export abroad. Sumatra West Coast is the chief producing province, the best sorts coming from the districts of Lumindai and Lunto. In this region the Government is at some pains to advise the natives in seed selection and as to methods of overcoming plant diseases. In the Lampongs, Benkulen, and a few districts in Palembang there is regular cultivation for
insignificant
export,
whUe in Acheh the culture has been started under the supervision of a Government agricultural adviser. The natives
grow the tobacco under bond for European exporters, who maintain establishments for drying and storing the product. Tobacco for the European market goes to Holland and that for the native markets of the Archipelago to Singapore. Pepper. Pepper-growing is one of the oldest established industries in Sumatra. Both black pepper and white pepper are produced. In 1913, 18,126 tons of black pepper were exported as against 4,156 tons of white pepper. This included the export from Banka. A large quantity of the black pepper, exclusive of the amount exported via Java, was produced in the Lampongs, where pepper culture is the main occupation of the natives, and the proprietors of the gardens are men of wealth employing coolies from Java at the time of the harvest. The natives of Acheh and the Achinese settled in the Langkat district of Sumatra's East Coast were responsible for nearly all the rest of the black pepper production. A fair quantity came from Palembang, where the culture is confined to the districts of Ogan Ulu, Komering Uli, and Muarodon. The
344
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
is
production of white pepper, which requires more care and skill, carried on largely in Banka and Dependencies, where the industry is organized by Chinese. Palembang, the Lampongs, and Riouw also export considerable quantities. The example of the Chinese in Banka is encouraging the natives to take the necessary pains, and now the culture is said to be their principal
means
Gambir.
is
An industry which in the Riouw-Lingga Archipelago
of livelihood.
carried on in conjunction with pepper is the preparation of gambir extract, which contains catechine and tanning materials, but is consumed in considerable quantities in the Malay Archipelago by chewers of betel-nut. In the Riouw-Lingga islands the culture and "the preparation of the extract is organized by Chinese, who export a large quantity via Singapore to Java. Prom this region were exported, in 1913, 6,689 tons 2,443 tons pame from Sumatra East Coast, where Europeans are experimenting with the culture, and a considerable quantity from Sumatra West Coast. Nutmegs, Mace, and Cloves. ^For many years the culture of spices has been settled in the western districts of Sumatra, but it has never attained any great dimensions, and is carried on with profit only by natives on a small scale. In 1914 Sumatra West Coast produced 3,141 pikols of nutmeg and 742 pikols of mace. In the same year Acheh produced 1,320 pikols of nutmeg and 240 pikols of mace, and Tapanuli 491 pikols of nutmeg and 60 pikols of mace. Cloves are produced in only one or two districts of Benkulen, and the export is small. Pinang. Everywhere in Netherlands India the pinang palm is grown on village lands for the sake of its seeds {pinang or betel-nut). When these have been dried and the husk removed, the kernel is consumed by the sirih chewers. The young nut is also used as a medicine both for human beings and cattle. A huge quantity of these nuts (12,091 tons) was exported in 1913 from Acheh, and about one-third of this amount from Palembang. Most of the export is to Singapore and Penang, from which places the commodity is re-exported to British India, Cambodia, Indo-China, Siam, and HongKong a little goes to Java. At Singapore some of the nuts were boiled to extract tanning material, but owing to the state of the market the experiment did not develop. Cotton. Cotton-growing in Sumatra is practised on a small
;
SUMATRA
scale in
345
Palembang, where, cultivation by Europeans having

it is still
so far proved unprofitable,
in native hands.
Experi-
ments under Government auspices have been made with foreign varieties, but these have been unsuccessful except in the case of the long-staple Bourbon, which is raised as a secondary crop on Hevea rubber plantations. The best results are obtained from well-selected' indigenous varieties such as Bulu Kuching and Kapas Ulu. According to one authority, however, the staple of native cotton is not long enough for
spinning purposes. At present the raw product is collected by Arabs and Chinese,
is is sold by them to merchants at Palembang, where there a modern ginning installation. The total production of cotton in 1913 was about 9,000 tons, of which 411 tons were ginned at Palembang. Nearly the whole of this quantity was exported to Europe, where its ultimate destination was Germany. Nearly 8,000 tons were exported in an imcleaned state, and most of this would go to Singapore, where the bulk of Palembang cotton is cleaned before re-exportation. Marseilles took some, but the destination of the largest quantity was Japan. Kapok. Â native culture which has developed during the last ten years is that of kapok fibre. Although the production in Sumatra, where it is entirely in native hands, is far behind that of Java, it is making rapid strides in certain districts, The bulk of the kapok at present comes chiefly in Acheh. from Palembang, which in 1913 exported 325 tons. The production in the following year was small, owing to drought, and in 1915 neither Acheh nor Palembang exported as great a quantity as in 1913. In Sumatra the preparation of the fibre is largely in the hands of Chinese, and it is in consequence not done so efficiently as in Java, where the work is organized by Europeans. Copra. For many centuries the natives of Sumatra have produced not only for their personal wants but also for the This production was and still is largely foreign market. The most financed and organized by Chinese and Arabs. important commodity thus produced is copra. The increasing value in Europe of the oil extracted from copra, which is used largely in the manufacture of soap, and latterly as an edible, has begun to attract European capital, but as yet the planta-
and
346,
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
An indication of the popularity
tions are mostly in native hands.

of this culture can be gathered
from a statement in the Kolonial Verslag, 1914, which records the extension of the growing of coco-nut trees in Benkulen on lands previously devoted to sawah culture. In the same year over 20,000 trees were planted in Billiton. The trees flourish almost anywhere round the coast, and at present the industry is most developed in Riouw and Sumatra West Coast, but is also considerable in Sumatra East Coast, Acheh, and Tapanuli there is considerable export from Billiton. From Padang,in 1915, 17,268 tons were exported, this figure including some of the output from other provinces, principally Tapanuli. This represents an increase on the figure of 1913 of 2,784 tons. A comprehensive figure for the whole of Sumatra, including Banka and Billiton, is ayftilable only for 1913, when 40,900 tons of copra were exported. In Sumatra the trade suffers through being in the hands of the Chinese they advance a miserably small sum to the native grower, who takes little trouble over an enterprise from which he derives only small remuneration. This, and the desire of the exploiters to take advantage of the market, results in the nuts being plucked prematurely and artificially dried. Padang copra, which is of inferior quality, often cannot be sold immediately, and is therefore kept for a period from the market. The Government is endeavouring to induce natives to refrain from plucking unripe fruit, and also to dry the nuts in the sun rather than over fires, which seriously diminishes the value of the copra. Such ad\dce is said to be useless as long as the present system of financing the industry obtains, and the Government has established a credit bank in Padang which will lend cheap money without imposing conditions on copra production. Coco-nuts. Besides the local trade in copra there is an trade in the nuts themselves. important In 1913 Banka exported 289,000 nuts to Jambi, and the Lampongs exported 672,000 to Java. The bulk of the oil made from the fresh nuts, which is used throughout the archipelago for culinary purposes, is consumed locally. Only the Government of Sumatra West Coast produces for the export trade, which is mainly inter-provincial. The eastern provinces of Sumatra are partially dependent on oil imported through Singapore from the residency of West Borneo.
; ;
SUMATRA
347
Ground-nuts. Âs a consequence of the demand in Europe for materials for the manufacture of margarine, ground-nuts
were before the war beginning to be exported from Sumatra West Coast. In 1913 a total quantity of 488 tons, chiefly in husk, was exported' from Padang this export has since the
;
war
fallen off considerably.
Forest
rattan,
Products.
Various
products,
chiefly
wild rabber,
and resins, are obtained from the forests of Palembang and Sumatra West Coast. Wild rubber, or jelutong, is the product of trees belonging to the Dyera species of the Apocynaceae family, and in a lesser degree of the liana Willughbeia firma. Tracts of forest are exploited by associations of native collectors who have received permission from the Grovernment. Indiscriminate felling of trees is forbidden, and a system of
tapping is prescribed. After slight treatment the rubber is delivered to Chinese traders for export. Palembang is the chief port for this trade, and in 1914 exported 2,042 tons. The
Palembang
jelutong is said to be superior to that obtained in Borneo, but as a result of the fall in rubber prices there has been a considerable decline in the quantity exported. The bulk of the export goes to Singapore. Various resins, known generally to the natives as damar,
by natives from the forest. By traders this name applied only to the product of the Hopea and Shorea species of the Dipterocarpaceae family of resin-producing trees.
are collected
is
The
resiif is
is
sometimes found exuding from the tree-trunks,

also
made to tapping. Beyond this, little is methods of collection. It is practised in the forests of Palembang and Sumatra West Coast. The more valuable varieties are designated white damar, glass damar, and cat's-eye damar, the quality from Sumatra being considered, because of its even colour, slightly superior to that obtained from Borneo. The industry is organized by Chinese and Arabs, who have establishments in Batavia for treating the commodity before export. The Chinese also control the collection of rattan fibre, of which, in 1915, 1,894 tons were exported from Padang and 5,318 tons from Palembang. Large quantities are sold in the
but resort
known
of
the
Singapore market. Timber. Native wood-cutting with an object beyond supplying domestic needs rarely exists, except in Palembang, where
348
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
Ironwood
is
in the eastern districts

sale.
ebony and sandalwood are cut for local In Sumatra the timber of two trees, Gassia florida and Sloetia SideroxyUm, is known under this name. Complaint is made of the wasteful methods of native wood-cutters and their Chinese masters. For building materials, the natives of the inland districts largely depend on the forest, in which, subject to Gtovernment regulations and the local adat, they can fell timber for their personal needs.
sold to dealers.
Rubber.
^Native rubber-growing for export
is
inconsiderable.
There is a decrease in the cultivation of Ficus elastica, of which scattered plantations formerly existed in Benkulen, Tapanuli, Palembang, Acheh, and Sumatra East Coast. Gradually, with the encouragement of the Government, the growing of Hevea rubber is being substituted in Benkulen, the Lampongs, Riouw, Banka, and Billiton. In Palembang and
Jambi the natives
are said to
show keenness
.
in adopting the
industry as an occupation for their spare time Hevea planting is being extended also in Siak and in the Kuantan districts of Riouw. The decline in price, however, has operated to check expansion. The results of the experiment are not yet
apparent, and export
Livestock.
is insignificant.
Though sometimes slaughtered for food purposes,
both oxen and buffaloes are used in Sumatra mainly as draught animals. The people of Sumatra West Coast are the chief flesh-eaters, and according to the statistics they possess the greatest number of both oxen and buffaloes. Achelf, in which an annual cattle-fair is held at Kuta Raja, is next on the list. The few horses found in Sumatra do not belong to a native breed but to an imported stock. They are kept chiefly by the Bataks of Tapanuli and by the highland people of Sumatra West Coast. The Batak breed is small and only of use for ceremonial purposes. The horses of the Padang highlands are bigger, and are ridden by Europeans and native chiefs. From both places there is some export, chiefly to Sumatra East Coast. In the Christian districts of Batakland there is a good deal
of pig-keeping
;
on the island
of
Mas
off the coast of
Tapanuli,
the pig
is
practically the only domestic animal.
Cattle-breeding in Sumatra, as elsewhere in the Outer Possessions, is carried
for
on in a primitive way, the beasts not required draught work being turned out into the fields under the care
SUMATRA
of boys.
349
There is no selective breeding, and diseases like the Batak pig plague spread unchecked. It is only recently that the Government has taken any steps, but in 1907 a school was opened for the training of native veterinary surgeons. The Government also supplies stallions for breeding, purposes.
Fishing.
In addition
to rice, fish is a
common
foodstuff,
and is procured to a considerable extent by the natives both from rivers and from the seas. Trawling from praus and sampans is carried on all round the coasts in Siak the fisher;
belong to a trade association. Where the native crew itself does not share out the catch in fixed proportions it generally faUs to Chinese, who provide the working capital. Most of the small export trade in fish is in Chinese hands. The centre of the dried fish industry is at Bagan Si Api Api, in Sumatra East Coast, whence, in 1914, 19,000 tons of dried fish were exported. Shells, trepang, and a large quantity of trasi, or the condiment got from prawns, are also exported. Fishing as a means of livelihood is declining, and with it native boat-building, which was formerly of importance in Acheh. The natives of the coastal districts are now devoting their attention to more profitable commodities, such as copra. As yet, however, the import of dried fish is exceeded by the amount exported. Mining. ^Native mining is of little significance in Sumatra. In Sumatra West Coast a little gold-washing is carried on, and in the same region lead, tin, and mercury are also worked. Native tin-mining is of more importance in Indragiri and the Karimon Islands. In Palembang peat coal (about 1,000 tons in 1913) was produced for local use, while in 1914 about 900 tons of anthracite were exported from mines in the same residency. At the capital this coal fetched only 8s. to 9s.
men
per ton.
European Enterprise in Sumatra and Adjacent Islands
To a much
greater degree than
any other
island of the Outer
Possessions Sumatra has proved suitable for the employment of capital on a large scale. Agricultural and mining enterprises,
nationalities, exist in
organized both by the Government and by companies of various many parts of the island, but there is also an extraordinary concentration in some districts of the residency of Sumatra East Coast, which makes it economically one
350
of the
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
most important regions of
all
it is
in the case of rubber-growing
Netherlands India. Except not possible to indicate the
relative extent of the interests of different countries.
Rubber. Capital began to flow into the rubber-growing industry as a result of the boom of 1909. According to the
'
'
handbook
N. Swart, Rubber Companies in the Netherlands East Indies, 1914, there were in Sumatra, including Riouw and Dependencies, 102 companies with a total paid-up capital of nearly 10,000,000. Of these 49 were British with a paid-up capital of 5,000,000, 35 were Dutch with a capital of ovej" 2,800,000, 14 French and Belgian with a capital of nearly If millions, 3 American with a capital of over 1,400,000, and 1 German with a capital of over 21,000.
of A. G.
The
chief plantations are in the districts of Deli
and Serdang,
Langkat, Asahan, and Simulangan and Karolands in Sumatra East Coast, in which residency, in 1914, there were 205,615 acres planted with rubber alone and 45,234 acres of rubber with In various catch-crops, principally coffee and coco-nuts. Riouw and Dependencies there were 12,737 acres planted with rubber alone, and 7,981 acres with rubber and other crops. Acheh had an acreage of 9,500 acres with rubber alone and 4,440 acres of rubber and other crops, and Tapanuli 8,250 acres with rubber and only a small area under mixed cultivation. In the Lampongs, on the other hand, an area of about 12,000 acres was almost entirely devoted to the mixed cultivation. Various experiments have resulted in the almost universal adoption for culture on this scale of the Hevea tree, although there is still a small acreage devoted to Ficus elastica and other
varieties.
The labour necessary

Coast
is
for the plantations in
Sumatra East
Chinese.
tion in
by the importation of coolies, chiefly The Government tried using Achinese on its plantaLangra, but they proved unsuitable. The cost of
supplied largely
production of 1 lb. of dry rubber from a plantation of 1,700 acres has been estimated at about Is. As most of the companies did not begin exploitation until 1910 the trees will not produce to their fullest extent until about 1920, when it is expected that 1 acre will produce 3751b. of rubber. In 1915, 9,178 tons of Hevea and 425 tons of Ficus were exported from Sumatra East Coast, as against 4,760 tons of Hevea and 382 tons of Ficus for 1914. In 1915 Tapanuli exported 515 tons of Hevea, but no
SUMATRA
351
Ficus, as against 322 tons of Hevea and 41 tons of Ficus in 1914.
The total export from Sumatra in 1915 was 10,125 tons of Hevea and 444 tons of Ficus. The great increase over the production in 1914 was due to the increasing number of trees ready for
cutting for the first time. Tobacco. In the course of the last fifty years Sumatra has become celebrated for the production of leaf -tobacco, which
is
grown exclusively on European plantations. The special quality produced has taken its name (Deli leaf) from the region
which it is to a large extent grown. In 1914 there were 84 estates in Deli and Serdang which produced 228,560 pikols ; 35 estates in Langkat which produced 103,234 pikols 2 estates
in
;
Asahan which produced 6,593 pikols, and 2 lungan and Karolands which produced 4,103
in
estates in
pikols.^
Simu-
About
a third of these estates were devoted to other cultures also, chiefly rubber and also tobacco. It is estimated that about 12,000,000 of capital is invested in the tobacco culture in Sumatra and that the armual export amounts to over 5,000,000 in value. The bulk of the product goes direct to Holland and is sold at Amsterdam and, to a lesser degree, at Rotterdam. The rubber 'boom diverted much capital from coffeeCoffee. growing, which had always been a precarious enterprise, and at present it exists mainly in conjunction with other cultures. In 1913 there were only 2 estates in Sumatra East Coast devoted to the exclusive cultivation of coffee, against 67 for coffee and other cultures. In Sumatra West Coast, the original
'
home
the
of coffee cultivation,
two forms
of cultivation were
coffee
where the estates are smaller, the about equal in number, while in
in conjunction with
Lampongs
was only cultivated
rubber or coco-nuts.
The prospects of coffee cultivation are said to be more promising as a result of the substitution of the hardy Robusta plant for the native Java, and the Liberia, which succumbs easily to plant diseases. The change began in 1909 and now practically no new planting of Liberia is being carried out. In Sumatra especially the change is being rapidly effected, and now the area planted with Liberia is less than one-sixth that planted with Bobusta. A review of the situation as it was in June 1914 showed that in Sumatra East Coast, on the mixed culture estates 38,054, acres were planted with Robusta against
^
These figures indicate a total production of about 20,800 tons.
352
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
7,673 acres of Liberia and 500 acres of Java coffee. Exclusive plantation of Bdbusta extended to 5,030 against 2,320 acres of Liberia alone, and none at all of Java coffee. The total
acreage under coffee for the other provinces was as follows

5,510 acres in Sumatra
acres in Palembang,
West
Coast, 1,775 acres in Tapanuli,
1,613 acres in Benkulen, 11,200 acres in the
Lampongs, 2,796
Of the total
and 5,332 acres
in Acheh.
acreage five-sixths were devoted to Bobusta and the bulk of the remainder to Java coffee. In 1914 the greatest production
occurred
in
the
residency of Sumatra East
Coast, where
45,766 pikols were harvested.
Next
;
in
amount was the Lam-
pongs province with 22,425 pikols 10,450 pikols were produced in Palembang, 5,190 pikols in Sumatra West Coast, 9,000 pikols from Benkulen, and 741 pikols from Tapanuli. These figures indicate a total production of about 5,600 tons. Copra. An industry which of late years has begun to attract not only the efforts of natives living in the coastal districts, but also the attention of Europeans and others able to furnish capital for industry on.a large scale, is coco-nut planting. Along the east coast of Sumatra the trees are grown in conjunction with coffee, rubber, and tobacco on the big plantations. On the smaller estates of western Sumatra they are often grown alone and sometimes with coffee, Hevea rubber, rice, or sugar-cane. In Acheh there are 37 estates for coco-nuts alone, many of which are owned by Chinamen. Export figures for the copra industry as a whole have already been given.
Tea, Cinchona,
<&c.
^Tea
plantations exist in Benkulen,
Sumatra West Coast, and Sumatra East Coast, where there

are seven estates, but
tant.
the production is as yet unimporIn Sumatra West Coast there is a small cultivation of
cinchona.
European capital
is
in the exploitation of forests,

sions for timber-felling
also interested to some extent and there are numerous conces-
and the collection of forest products, including wild rubber and gutta-percha.
Tin. Sumatra possesses large deposits of tin, coal, and petroleum. Twenty per cent, of the world's output of tin comes from Netherlands India, where it is found on the islands
of
the mainland.
and Singkep, adjacent to Sumatra, and on Tin has been exploited under European supervision in Banka for a century. The industry in Banka is now in the hands of the State in Billiton it is worked by the
Banka,
Billiton,
;
SUMATRA
35:$
Billiton Company with a concession from the Government, and in Singkep by the Singkep Company with a concession from the Sultan of Lingga and a grant from the Government
working of the sea tin under territorial waters. In Banka the tin ore is found in alluvial deposits. Vein ores exist but are not worked. The percentage of ore is generally about 2 to 4 per cent, of the ore stratum, but in some places as
of the
'
'
much
as 10 per cent. The grain of the ore varies in size from pebbles as big as a man's fist to fine powder. Most of the mines, some with a depth of 80 ft., occur on the northern and eastern sides of the island. The mines are worked almost exclusively by Chinese coolies, who number about 20,000. These work in communities, or kongsis, subject to regulations and technical
The total production for the working year 1914-15 was about 14,500 tons, as against nearly 15,000 tons for the working year 1913-14. The cost price of 1 pikol (about 136 lb.) in the warehouses in Banka was fl. 41-20. The whole product is sent to Holland for sale at Amsterdam and in the year 1914-15 the net profit per pikol was fl. 119-34, but it was
supervision.
fl.
146-24 in 1913-14.
The Billiton Company, with a capital of 416,000, first obtained its concession in 1852 and this was renewed in 1892. Fiveeighths of the profits go to the Government. The form of the deposit is much the same as in Banka except that there are several veins rich enough to be worked. Chinese coolie labour is employed. During the year 1914-15 from 7,400 tons of ore, smelted partly at Singapore and partly at Lepat Kajang, 5,214 tons of tin were obtained. The product is sold both at Singapore and Batavia. The profit for the year 1912-13 was In 258,400, of which the Government received 161,580. the preceding ten years the share of the State amounted to
1,770,250.
The Singkep Company, with a
capital of 125,000,
first
secured, in 1887, from the Sultan of Lingga, a concession of
100,200 acres and in 1907 a concession from the Government work the sea tin '. Four per cent, of the gross profit on the sea tin goes -to the State. The working of the large deposits is smaller deposits are carried out as in Banka and Billiton
to
' ;
worked by means
of
'
adits
'
in the hill-sides.
The sea
tin is
obtained by dredging. The company was for some time working at a loss, but since the sea tin has begun to be worked
NETHEKLANDS INDIA
354
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
prospects are said to have improved.
In the year 1914-15 867 tons of tin were produced, of which amount 483 tons were The product was sold at obtained from the sea-bottom. Singapore at a profit of 58,820. Coal was,discovered in Padang in 1868 and mining was begun
The mines in this region are worked by the Government. The OmbiUn coal-field in Padang, which lies along both sides of the Ombilin River and comprises an area of 15,000 acres, was estimated in 1875 to contain 200,000,000 metric tons of Eocene coal. The present mining activity is confined to the Sungei Durian field, which is estimated to contain 93,000,000 tons. The thickness of the seams varies, some being as much as 75 ft. The composition of the product is given approximately as 77 per cent, carbon, 6 per cent, hydrogen, 13 per cent,
in 1892.
oxygen and nitrogen, 4 per

of
cent, moisture, 0-35 to 0-6 per cent,

1
sulphur, 0-7 per cent, ash, and
per cent, resin.

is
working
is
solely
by
adits.
The mining
The method done by contract
and by forced labour (3,323 natives in railway connects the fields with Emmahaven. In 1914, 354,856 tons of mixed coal, 63,225 tons of dust, 25,024 tons of fine coal, and 35 tons of briquets în all 443,140 tons ^were produced in the Ombilin field, as against 411,017 tons in 1913. Originally the coal was used entirely by the Government, but
coolies (1,445 in 1914)
1914).
in 1913 its consumption
was only 82,000 tons, against 314,000 by private customers, chiefly the Dutch steamship companies and the Acheh Tramway. It is not used by the Dutch Navy. The sale of coal is said to suffer from lack of means of transport and the necessity of burning it in special
tons used
furnaces.
Outside the Government mines there are in Sumatra West Sumatra East Coast, and Indragiri, several small concessions with no production worthy of mention.
Coast, Benkulen,
German and Japanese offers are reported (1918) to have been made for the Bukit Sunur concession, 18 miles from Benkulen.
In Palembang there are six concessions comprising 8,000 acres belonging to the Sematang Exploration Company. Hopes are
entertained of the recently-exploited Sematang district.
is
It
reported (1918) that every transition from brown coal to anthracite and graphite is found here, and that the anthracite
has
been proved satisfactory in the furnaces

is
of warships.
The production
limited to 4^000 tons a
month by
the low
SUMATRA
355
carrying capacity of the Tanjong-Muara Enim railway, but a metre-gauge railway will enable 20,000 tons a month to be carried. It is intended to build such a line to Palembang and to erect a coal-tip for sea-going vessels there also to
;
power plant and briquetting and coking factory at Muara Enim. Petroleum. The most important mineral of Sumatra is petroleum, which is found chiefly in Langkat and Perlak in the north, and in Palembang, but also in Sumatra West Coast, Nias, Indragiri, and Jambi. The crude oil obtained in Sumatra contains a great deal of benzine but little paraffin. The benzine is very light, and after distillation is so pure as to make treatment by sulphuric acid unnecessary. The best kerosene produced in Netherlands India also comes from Sumatra. The petroleum industry all over Netherlands India is controlled by the Royal Dutch Company and the Shell Transport Company, which jointly established two other companies the Bataafsche (Batavian) Petroleum Company at the Hague and the Anglo-Saxon Company of London. The shares of these two are held by the first-named concerns in the proportion The Batavian Company manages mines and reof 3 to 2. fineries, the Anglo-Saxon the transport, while a third company, the Asiatic Petroleum Company of London, carries out the
establish
electric
an
sales.
The establishments
follows
of
the
combine in Sumatra are as
(a) The Muara-Enim Company founded at Amsterdam in 1897 with three concessions in South Palembang, Muara Enim, Babat and Banjarsari, and a large refinery at Plaju near the town of Palembang. (6) The Musi-Ilir Company, founded at Amsterdam in 1901, with two concessions in Middle Palembang, one of which has been returned to the Government as unprofitable. The Royal Dutch in 1906 contracted to work its oil and refine it at Bagus Kuning, and gradually acquired all the shares. (c) The Sumatra-Palembang Company, founded at the Hague in 1897, with a concession in North Palembang which, with its refinery at Bayung Lintyir, was bought by the Royal Dutch in
1907.
{d) The Mine, Wood, and Agriculture Exploitation Company, founded in 1894 by the Shanghai Langkat Company of
356
ECCJNOMIC PRODUCTS
Tanjong Pura, with a concession at Bulu Telung in Langkat, a refinery at Rantau Panjang, and establishments in Pulu Sembilang Island and elsewhere, acquired in 1910 by the Batavian Petroleum Company.
Besides these acquired establishments there are the original undertakings of the Royal Dutch, which include the productive Telaja Said concession, with a refinery at Pangkalan Brandan, another on the Besitang River in the' Bukit Mas concession, and a shipping station at Pangkalan Susu on Aru Bay, connected by pipe-line with Pangkalan Brandan. Moreover, there are subsequent undertakings begun in Perlak in South Acheh in 1901 and the works of the South Perlak Company, which since 1907 has sold its oil to the Royal Dutch. In the various South Sumatran concessions, which in 1914 were thirteen in number, 216,451 tons of crude oil were obtained, and of this amount the Muara-Enim concession produced 99,905, the Suban Jerigi 44,814, and Babat 22,813 tons. In Sumatra East Coast the concessions yielded 105,448 tons of crude oil, of which the Bulu Telung concession produced 96,824 tons. From the total amount of crude oil, 56,082 tons of petroleum and 30,302 tons of benzine were obtained. In Acheh the Batavia Company produced 1,361 tons, the Perlak Company 135,709 tons, and the South Perlak Company 11,433 tons of' crude oil. In Palembang there has been a dechne in production since 1909, when the output of crude oil reached over 350,000 tons. The output in Acheh, which in 1909 was almost as great, shows a still more marked falling off, producing in 1914 only Sumatra East Coast, which in 1909 slightly 148,503 tons. exceeded 200,000 tons, fell by over 100,000 tons in 1911, recovered in 1912, and in 1914 fell to 105,448 tons. The production of the Sumatran fields generally in 1916 showed a moderate increase. Precious Metals. Of minor importance is the exploitation of gold and silver, for which concessions have been granted in Acheh, Tapanuli, Sumatra West Coast, and Benkulen. In 1914 in Benkulen three concessions produced about 2 tons of gold and nearly 10 tons of silver. The Government in 1913 was investigating Tambang Sawah in Benkulen.
BORNEO
Borneo
In Borneo there are two grades
practised
357
of native agriculture, that
among
and that in vogue the peoples of alien origin (Malays, Javanese, Buginese, Chinese, and others) inhabiting the coastal districts and the basins of the chief rivers.
of the interior
by the Dayaks
Dayak Production
Rice cultivation among the Dayaks is on much the same level as in central Sumatra, and from its wasteful methods is described
by the Dutch
Ladangs are formed by burning and the ground thus cleared receives no further preparation. The plough is unknown except to the Dusun Dayaks in North Borneo. The season of sowing is fixed in arbitrary fashion by consulting the stars and by similar means, while the harvest is celebrated by feasts and dances. Land is used only once in about three years and after twelve or fifteen
as roofbouw.
clearings in the forest,
it is necessary to resort to virgin ground. If this is not obtainable in the vicinity, the whole community is compelled to remove. The Government is doing its best to induce the natives to adopt sawah culture, but only with effect in Landak
years
and Mampawa.
Other Crops.
to a less extent.
raise other crops, but These are maize, sugar-cane, tobacco, and Tobacco is only of importance in the highland potatoes. districts of Ulu Sungei and Upper Dusun, where it is grown for domestic consumption chiefly, with a little for the native market. In 1913 export from the whole Residency of South and East Borneo for the native market amounted to 59 tons.
The agricultural Dayaks
Production by Coast Peoples of Borneo

Pice.
The coast peoples vary in agricultural

way
as
many
districts rice cultivation is carried
efficiency. In on in the same un-
satisfactory
among
the Dayaks.
Some
of the coast
people of South and East Borneo, who are of mixed Malay and Javanese origin) are more capable than the pure Malay, while the Chinese colonists of West Borneo are more efficient still. In both localities sawah culture is the rule. The returns available for 1914 refer only to 6,160 acres, in West Borneo, situated
in the
Ketapang
division.
Reference
is
also
made
to export
on
358
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
a large scale from the diHtrict of Pamangkat in the Sambas The export of the whole Residency in 1913 was division. 450 tons as against an import of over 15,600 tons, of which the bulk came from Singapore and the remainder from Java. In
the South and East Residency rice culture is more extensive and productive, chiefly round the mouths of the rivers. Returns of 1914 record 13,273 acres of sawah irrigated by running water,
43,063 acres dependent on rain, and 3,069 acres of marsh sawah. There was also reference to 12,776 acres of ladang, most of which were cultivated irregularly. Production in Banjermasin and Ulu Sungei is stated to have suffered as a result of drought. The harvest in 1914 in the first-named district amounted to
district
in the second 584,864 pikols, against 1,416,800 pikols of 1913 in 1914 was 1,49 3,705 pikols against the harvest 1,704,902 pikols in 1913. In 1913 there was a small export of 180 tons, but 27,500 tons were imported during the same
;
year.
Copra. Âll round the coasts, especially in the Residency of West Borneo, the growing of coco-nuts and the preparation of copra is increasingly practised by the Malays and Chinese. A vast quantity is produced in the Kapuas delta, and Pontianak is the market for the copra of Sukedana, Simpang, and other coastal districts. The trade and, to a considerable extent, the
industry are in Chinese hands. From the whole Residency in 1913 there was a total export of 28,000 tons, most of which went directly abroad. Nearly the same amount was exported in 1914, but in 1915 there was a falling-off in the export from Pontianak. In the Residency of South and East Borneo
the culture is also extending, particularly in the districts of Ulu Sungei and Samarinda. For many years copra oil has been manufactured at Pontianak, apparently for domestic consumption only the extract
;
from the fresh

Sago.
Chinese and Malays in Sambas and the Kapuas delta
fruit is exported.
cultivate sago, of which 1,283 tons were exported in 1914 from
West Borneo.
Pepper. In districts of both residencies of Borneo both the black and white varieties of pepper are produced. In West Borneo the crop is raised by the Dayaks and Chinese of Singkawang, Lara Lumar, Buduk, and Seminis districts of Sambas.
In South and East Borneo
it is
grown
in
Pagatan and Kusan,
BORNEO
and
359
also in Pulu Laut. The prevalent culture is white pepper, of which, in 1914, 694 tons were exported from West Borneo
and 373 tons from South and East Borneo, against an export of black pepper of 69 tons and 318 tons respectively. Gambir. In the Singkawang, Buduk, and Siminis districts of Sambas the Chinese are also engaged in the preparation of gambir, which is consumed locally as a rule, although there is
occasional export.
Rubber. Native rubber plantations exist in Sambas, since 1914 in Mandor and along the Little Kapuas, and in the
Ulu Sungei, Banjermasin, Dusun, and KualaKapuas in South and East Borneo. In the Tanjong district of Ulu Sungei the trees in 1914 numbered 450,000, but few of
divisions of
these are ready for tapping. Of these also 1 1,000 were destroyed by alang-alang fires. So far export has not been of great importance. From West Borneo the export consists chiefly of
Ficus rubber, which in 1915 amounted to 312 tons. In South and East Borneo Hevea is of more importance, and in 1915 400 tons were exported. The recent plantations in Mandor and along the Little Kapuas in West Borneo are of Hevea. Pinang. Âs everywhere else in Netherlands India the pinang palm is grown extensively, and the export of betel-nut from West Borneo in 1914 amounted to 2,881 tons. In the district of Riam Kanan in Banjermasin sirih is grown. Forest Products. An important means of subsistence for both economic classes in Borneo is the collection and disposal of the various forest products. These include wild sago as a foodstuff for Dayaks in times of rice shortage, and for trade purposes rattan, damar, jelutong, camphor, and wild honey. The rattans from South and East Borneo are of an inferior kind and are exported only to other provinces of Netherlands India and to China. The export in 1914 from West Borneo was valued at Bornese damar is slightly inferior to that of Suma10,798. tra. A product of the same tree as that from which damar is produced is tengkawang, or Borneo tallow. The chief export is from Pontianak where there are mills for treating the nuts. Besides Dayaks, bands of Malay adventurers are engaged in
the collection of forest products. They make expeditions into the interior, returning to the nearest Malay settlement where they dispose of their produce to Chinese traders. ^From the residency of South and East Borneo there Fish.
:?60
KrONOMIC PRODUCTS
fish.
is
and Chinese are engaged
a considerable export of dried and salted in the industry.
Both Malays
Mining. Native mining in Borneo is of some account. In West Borneo gold washing is carried on in several places by Chinese. The chief production is in Sambas, Sanggau, and Landak. In the Landak River in 1914 diamonds to the value of 416 were obtained. In the Embau and Salembau district and in the districts of Upper and Lower Bunut a small quantity of coal is mined. In South and East Borneo native mining is more important. In the Martapura and Pleihari districts there are diamond diggings from which stones to the value of 4,060 were obtained in 1914. The product of the native gold undertakings was valued in 1 9 1 4 at 430. In the same residency
there are several native coal mines, of which the anthracite
In 1914 these mines produced 12,945 tons of coal. Other coalproducing districts are Riam Kawa, Riam Kanan, Dusun, and Samarinda.
diggings at Parapatan in Kutei are the most important.
European Enterprise in Borneo

Agricultural undertakings on a great scale are not as yet numerous, and Dutch writers refer to a disinclination to invest capital in Borneo. This is true in particular of West Borneo, which, about 1889, was overrun by gold and land speculators whose enterprises came to nothing, with the result that the
region got a bad reputation.
Land in government territory is leased in erfpacht, whUe in the territories of independent princes concessions, of which the Dutch Government must first approve, are obtained. Besides European planters the lessors are also Chinese, and Arab and native priests. Of erfpacht leasehold properties there is a large number in the Banjermasin division of South and
East Borneo, on which chiefly rubber and coco-nuts, and also Liberia coffee and rattan are grown. Oiily one is reported in West Borneo, on which the Catholic Mission grows rubber. But in West Borneo there are a good many concessions in Sambas, Pontianak, and Sanggau where rubber and coco-nuts are produced. Concessions in South and East Borneo are nearly all in Kutei, where Liberia coffee, rubber, and coco-nuts are grown. Many of these concessions, however, are not worked. Rubber. Rubber-growing on a large scale has only recently
BORNEO
361
begun in Borneo. The acreage planted in West Borneo in June 1914 was 3,500 acres and on this area Hevea alone was jiroduced. Of 4,980 acres of rubber plantations in South and East Borneo 2,890 acres are planted with Hevea and 2,086 acres with Ficus. Of eight rubber companies in Dutch Borneo six were British with a paid-up capital of 600,000 and two Dutch
with a paid-up capital of 225,000. Petroleum. In 1913 Borneo yielded about half the petroleum production of Netherlands India. The chief producing districts are Tarakan Island at the mouth of the Sesayap River and the region of the Mahakkan delta. The working of the wells is in the hands of the Batavia Petroleum Company, and in 1914, 866,718 tons of crude oil were produced, which represented an increase of nearly 100,000 tons over the production of 1913. A further increase was recorded down to 1916. Bornese crude oil varies considerably in composition. At different depths in the same field at Sanga-Sanga are found oils of the following kinds (1) Heavy crude oil with a specific gravity of 0-95 containing no benzine or kerosene and no
paraffin.
(2) Oils of a specific gravity of 0-85 yielding up to 18 per cent, of benzine and more than 50 per cent, of kerosene,
but no paraffin. (3) Oils of a specific gravity of 0-85 containing up to 15 per cent, of benzine, more than 45 per cent, of kerosene, and from 8 to 13 per cent, of paraffin. The heavy oil of Tara-
kan
Island, after a simple preparation, yields excellent fuel
motors. Bornese benzine requires no refining. At Balik Papan there is a large factory for obtaining the best kerosene. The paraffin refinery here is one of the largest and best equipped in the world. Roughly speaking, two kinds of paraffin wax are produced, a soft wax with a melting point of 125 to 130 F., and a hard quality with a
for Diesel
melting point of 135 to 140 F. Bornese oil contains many paraffins which can be separated when there is any demand. At Balik Papan also there is a factory which manufactures candles for export, and a factory for making sufficient sulphuric The oil acid to supply all the refineries of Netherlands India. is brought from Sanga-Sanga to Balik Papan by a pipeline
65 miles in length. Goal and Iron. Next in importance to petroleum is coal. The principal enterprise is on the island of Pulu Laut off the south-
east point of Borneo, where mines, once
worked by a company.
362
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
were taken over by the Government in 1913. Before that year the mines had rarely been worked at a profit and generally at considerable loss. It is hoped that in the future they will be worked with greater success and even attain a production equal
to that of the Ombilin mines in Sumatra. In 1914 the production
was 128,505
tons, of
which 110,383 tons were large coal and

This represents a shght falhng-off
18,122 tons were dust.
compared with previous production. The chief private coalmining enterprise consists of concessions by the Sultan of Kutei to the East Borneo Company, which by its own mining and by
the purchase of the native product obtained 16,808 tons in 1914, against 8,643 tons in 1913. It is stated (1918) that a company
has been formed in Singapore to acquire concession rights in Sebuku Island to work coal, iron, and timber. Coal has been proved, and a superficial bed of soft limonite occurs, mostly along the shore. Such a development of coal and iron together might have an effect upon the industry of Singa-
and lead to the development engineering there.

pore,
of
ship-building
and
Although there are concessions to Europeans for working other minerals little or no exploitation has taken place.
Celebes
As in the majority of the islands
fairly distinct
of the
economic
societies at least
Outer Possessions, two can be recognized
that of the natives of the interior and that of the natives inhabiting the coastal districts. The distinction is between the tribes
termed Torajas, which inhabit Middle Celebes and the south-eastern peninsula, and the Buginese, Makassarese,
collectively
Mundarese, Gorontalese, and Minahasese the north and south-west of the island.
who preponderate
in
Production by Torajas
Bice. The Torajas of Middle Celebes are naturally the less developed. Originally cultivation was everywhere on ladangs cleared in the forest. Rice was raised the first year and in the
and tobacco for domestic consumption. Their chief food crop, rice, was very uncertain in consequence of the method of cultivation, and additional supplies were obtained from the coast by bartering
following year maize, vegetables, sugar-cane,
CELEBES
forest products^'attan,
363
damar, wax, hides, and deer horns. and trinkets were also accepted by them, and by this means the natives, among whom communism was practised in an extreme form were enabled to acquire private property. Since 1892 the Government, with the object of encouraging the Torajas to adopt a more settled mode of life, has brought them down from the mountains to live in villages
Cloth, knives,
,
near a supply of running water, as already described in Chap. VII. Sawah culture, which was not unknown in Middle Celebes, having been practised by the natives of
Kulawi Valley and elsewhere, was, where

compulsory.
Restrictions
tions into the forest,
possible,
now made
have been placed upon expediso that male labour will be available
for agriculture. The Chinese and other traders who fit out the expeditions for collecting forest products are confined to fixed
villages from which to recruit workers. The best and largest sawahs are situated on the shores of Lake Poso. To the south,, stretching along the north shore of the Gulf of Boni is the Masamba plain, which has been called the rice granary of Middle Celebes. Forest Products. Celebes is by far the most important exporter of forest products. The Torajas range through the
forests in the region of the great lakes,
and the products are
carried overland or
rice.
by
river praus to the coastal settlements,
where they are bartered to Buginese and Chinese traders for This trade is specially active in the Gulf of Tomini, which is visited at regular intervals by the steamers of the Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij from Makassar. Before the war the North German Lloyd also ran a service for the same
purpose.
Copal (both the hard and soft varieties) is exported from Makassar, in 1914 to the value of 47,160. In 1914 the value of the damar exported from Makassar was 45,830, and from Menado 36,580 the rattan from these two ports was valued at 76,160 and 50,080 respectively. The hides and horns of cattle and deer, procured from the Torajas, are also exported in considerable quantities from Makassar. Although the interior of Celebes is thickly wooded, little has been done, beyond investigation, towards the exploitation of the timber. Teak is found in small quantities in the island of Muna.
;
364
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
Production by Coast Peoples
The agriculture of the various coastal peoples is in a Rice. more advanced condition than that of the Torajas. In the
Menado Residency there were, in 1914, 32,324 acres of rice sawahs irrigated by running water, 4,317 acres dependent on rain and a small acreage of marsh sawah. Reference is also made to 72,834 acres of ladangs, some of which were not in regular cultivation. The culture is developed most highly among the Minahasese at the eastern end of the north-eastern
peninsula.
rice
is
Among
also largely cultivated,
the Buginese peoples of southern Celebes and the districts of Maros,
Pankajene, Soppeng, and Sidereng, all in the south-west, are mentioned as regions producing more rice than is necessary for their own consumption. From the Government of Celebes and Dependencies a considerable but varying amount is annually exported, and sometimes a little from Menado. Both provinces depend on a huge amount imported every year. Maize. In the south-west of Celebes maize is almost as important as rice. In Turateya, Kajang, Saleier Island, Boni, Wajo, Mandar, and Kaili Luwu it is the chief foodstuff of the natives, by whom it is cultivated as a first crop. It is grown extensively on the shores of Lake Tempe when, during the east monsoon, the lake is partially dried up. The export from the government of Celebes and Dependencies steadily increased in the years 1913, 1914, and 1915, in the last year of which the export amounted to 33,977 tons. Export was mainly to the Netherlands, although Australia took 3,000 tons. Commodities produced purely for trade purposes are copra and coffee. Copra is the chief trade product of Celebes. Coco -nut trees are grown all round the coasts of the north of more recent development is the extension of the culture among the Buginese in the south. The Chinese trade in Bonthain is important. The natives of Saleier Island are extensively engaged in coconut growing and the preparation of copra. The value of the export is more than twice that of all other commodities together. It is exported in equal quantities from each of the
two provinces. The principal coffee-growing was at one time on the Coffee. plantations of the Government in Minahasa, but now is chiefly in native hands. It is cultivated with good results only in a
CELEBES
'
365
few districts. In the Latinojong hill districts the Duri variety of Java cofEee is grown in small quantities coffee pacho Bonthain is another variety of Java coffee which is cultivated at a profit. In Gowa, where the ground in the hill districts is suitable, the culture has not yet entirely vanished, but is dwindling. The best coffee is got from Pao. As far as Eure, ûlu Tanah, and Kindimg are concerned it is said that the
; '
causes of the failing culture are the greed of the princes, who hurry the harvest, the crude method of gathering the fruit, and the general lack of care. If these conditions continue coffee
cultivation in South Celebes will eventually disappear.
The
doing what it can to avert this, and at Sanggai large nurseries of the Bobusta plant- have been laid out. The young plants are sold to the natives at a small cost and the effect is stated to be that the natives display a revived interest in coffee-growing. In 1914 27,080 pikols of coffee were exported from Celebes and Dependencies, and 2,645 pikols from Menado. Manila hemp, which was of importance in Minahasa, is finer and whiter than European flax. The natives, however, have not, sufficient skill or diligence to work the industry at a profit, so that the Netherlands Trading Company has given up its branch at Menado. On the islands of Sangi and Talaut the culture is in native hands but practically only for domestic consumption. Kapok. Celebes is the chief producer among the Outer Possessions of kapok fibre, the kapok being grown almost entirely on the haphazard plantations of the natives. Of late years, however, there has been a tendency in South Celebes to cultivate the plant in a more regular way. From Makassar in 1914 1,220 tons were exported. The kapok seeds, which are thus available in large quantities, are treated in a large European factory established in 1913 at Makassar (Manders Seemann & Co.) for the purpose of extracting oil. Experiments in cotton cultivation are being tried Cotton. in Middle Celebes. Nutmegs, Mace, and Gloves. Nutmeg cultivation in Menado (chieflyin Siau, Sangi Islands and Minahasa) is still considerable, and in 1914 10,428 pikols of nutmeg and 2,032 pikols of mace were exported. Prom Celebes and Dependencies also the export was not unimportant. This culture, however, is everywhere giving way to coco-nut growing.
is
Government
366
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
of
Fishing. The Orang Bajo and the Buginese South Celebes especially the latterare celebrated throughout the archi-
pelago as seafarers and fishermen. Fishing fleets from Makassar sail to the Moluccas and as far as the north coast of New Guinea to obtain trepang. Fishing for turtles and mother-of-pearl is
also carried
on off the east coast of Celebes. This industry is, some extent, directed by Arabs belonging to Amboina. to Mining. Native exploitation of metals is insignificant. For many years a small quantity of gold, washed by the natives in the north, has been exported from Menado. Other minerals found in small quantities are iron^ copper, lead, and nickel in South Celebes a little coal has been found.
European Enterprise in Celebes

scale has so far made little In Menado there are some concessions devoted chiefly to coffee and coco-nuts. There is official reference to only seven estates, which in 1914 produced a small quantity of coffee (2,125 pikols). In the same residency there are numerous small estates (largely owned, however, by Chinamen), growing coco-nuts and nutmegs. There are a few forest concessions, in Celebes and Dependencies for timber of all kinds, and in Menado for ebony. It is reported (August, 1918) that the erection of coco-nut oil mills in Makassar is being undertaken by two Dutch concerns also that speculators (including German traders) were holding there about 90,000 tons of copra for shipment after the war. In Menado also there are eight concessions to Europeans to exploit gold. Four of these, Totok, Paleleh, Pagnat, and Bolaang Mongondom, the two first being the most important, produce jointly the greater part of the gold and nearly all the silver obtained from all Netherlands India. In 1913 the Government was investigating the Sasak district with a view to obtaining gold. The government has also recently investigated the country near Usu Bay at the north-east corner of the Gulf of Boni, where a commission reports (1917) the discovery of nickel ores in paying quantity, and also very large deposits of excellent iron ore, notably near Larona. Here power would be available from the Malili river, but the difficulties of
European enterprise on a large

in Celebes.
headway
CEIjEBES
:
367
development and transport are considerable the construction of a railway to Usu Bay and the provision of shipping facilities there would be involved, while the scanty population of
the district renders difficult the
question of labour.
this district
It is
stated, however, that the possibilities of
have
been found worthy of close consideration.
Moluccas and
New
Guinea
Native Production
The low standard of native agriculture in the Moluccas due to the prevalence of the sago palm, the pith of which is the staple food of the natives everywhere except in the Uliassers. When under cultivation the tree requires only little attention generally it grows wild. The product of one tree will suffice to maintain a family of average size for two or three months. Certain islands where the population is scanty and the sago tree abundant, furnish supplies to the more densely populated islands. Thus Haruku, Saparua, Nusa Laut, and also Amboina are supplied from Ceram, and Ternate, Tidore, and Bachian from the Obi Islands and Halmaheira. In both cases it is
Sago.
is
;
necessary for the natives to
make
expeditions to secure their

is little
own
supplies.
Agriculture for the production of foodstuffs
practised,
and in undeveloped islands

activity.
like
Ceram
it is
quite a subsidiary
Rice on dry fields is cultivated on various islands, such as Ternate, Bachian, in a few districts of Halmaheira, and by the Binangkorese coolies in Amboina. In 1913 there was a small
export of 70 tons from the residency of Ternate and 176 tons
from the Amboina residency. Maize is grown chiefly in Haruku, millet in Buru.
Vegetables avid fruits of
many
kinds serve to eke out sago in
the diet of the natives.
Nutmegs, Mace, and Gloves. The chief contribution by the Moluccas to the world market consists of spices, chiefly nutmeg, mace, and cloves. Except in the Banda group, this culture is in native hands, and with the present condition of the market only native cultivation on a small scale pays its way. Nutmeg culture of this kind exists all over the Moluccas, and though the product is as a rule inferior to that produced under European
368
supervision, in
of
ECONOMIC! -PKODUCTH
some
cases, as in
Halmaheira, the nuts are

of the
classed for trade purposes with those
Banda. In Ternate, once the home
grown on the plantations European industry,
the
wild
nutmeg nutmeg
is
now
cultivated with the assistance of coolies
from the Talaut Islands.

is
New New Guinea is described as an excellent spice, and it is marketed

and
separately at Makassar.
In the thickly wooded islands the found, as in Halmaheira, Bachian, Obi, Ceram, Guinea. The mace yielded by the wild nutmeg of
widely distributed, and a reguis for the natives of this island and those of the neighbouring Uliassers an extra source of income. The culture, however, is diminishing, although it is said that despite the low prices obtained, a profit would be possible if the necessary labour were available. Export figures for nutmeg, mace, and cloves are given below in connexion with the European cultivation of spices. Copra. Spice culture by natives has to some extent yielded ground to what is at present a much more profitable and less laborious occupation that of growing coco-nuts for copra. Everywhere in the Moluccas the growing of coco-nuts is being practised with the encouragement of the Government, and even the natives of Ceram and New Guinea are being induced In 1913 the Ammore and more to take up the culture. boina Residency exported 3,484 tons of copra, and Ternate
The growing
of cloves is less
lated culture exists only in
Amboina, and
Of great importance in the Moluccas and Guinea is the collection for export of forest products, which include resins, rattan, cajeput oil, various kinds of timber, hides and horns, and the skins of birds. Moluccas damar, which has a special reputation in the market, is similar to the Borneo variety. It is collected on
2,694 tons. Forest Products.
New
several islands, generally

collection of
by the inhabitants
of the interior of
Ceram, Halmaheira, Bachian, Sula, and Obi.
In Bachian the
supervised by a European company which manufactures and exports quantities of damar candles.
damar
is
The export from West Ceram
is
also considerable.
Cajeput oil is obtained chiefly in Buru and also in Ceram. It is obtained by distillation from the leaves of Melaleuca Cajeputi, which grows mostly in a wild state. Kayeli and other villages along the north coast are almost all engaged in the
MOLUCCAS AND
preparation of this commodity. Chinese and Sulanese.
NEW GUINEA
The industry
is
369
organized
by
Ironwood (Nania
Islands,
is
vera),
also obtained
which is found chiefly in the Kei from the forests of Ceram, Halmaheira,
and its thickly wooded neighbouring islands. Ebony is also obtained. The hides and horns of deer are exported from Halmaheira, while the skins of the bird of paradise form as yet the chief commodity exported from New Guinea.
European Enterprise in
the
Moluccas and
New
Guinea
Nutmegs, Mace, and Gloves. Individual European enterprise in. nutmeg production succeeded the old system of compulsory cultivation which had existed for two and a half centuries under the Dutch East India Company and later the colonial administration. Up to 1894 prices were high and the planters of Banda made huge profits. From that date, however, as a result of competition, prices dropped, and many of the planters were ruined. Banda, once the home of so much
wealth, became poverty-stricken. Most of the plantations have been acquired by the Banda Trade and Credit Association, and it is thought that the concentration of the industry
in the
hands
of
one concern
will
make
for
economy.
In 1913
there were thirty-one plantations in Lontor and three in Banda There are a few also on Run, Ai, and Rozengain. In Neira.
1914 the total export from the Amboina Residency, both
was 15,115 pikols of nutmeg and 3,806 of the product was exported without preliminary treatment. In the same year Ternate exported 1,692 pikols of nuts and 243 pikols of mace, being the produce The of native growing and exported without preparation. export of cloves from the Uliassers and Amboina was in 1914 51 tons and 103 tons respectively. Fishing. Ânother considerable industry largely in European hands is that of pearl fishing, which has its centre at Dobo in the Aru Islands. Originally wholly iri the hands of the Aru
European and
native,
pikols of mace.
Most
Islanders themselves,
who
still
retain the sole right of fishing to
a depth of 30 ft. at low water, pearl fishing in territorial waters, in so far as it does not infringe this right, has been leased by
the Government to an Australian concern, the Celebes Trading Company. The head-quarters of the fleet is at Dobo, and in a good season they are said to employ about 100 luggers on
NETHUBLANDS TNDIA
f^
370
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
the fishing beds off the east coast of the islands. In 1914, mother-of-pearl to the value of 58,000 was exported from Dobo. This includes the value of the native product marketed
by the Arab
European
in
dealers.
capital has been attracted recently to the growing
which there are several concessions, notably employment, however, is in purely trading operations, buying and selling native produce. Minerals. At Bula and Nief in Ceram there are petroleum bores, which in 1914 yielded 458 tons and 28 tons of crude, oil respectively, and the output is said to have substantially increased down to 1916. Although coal has been reported to exist in Halmaheira, Buru, Ceram, and New Guinea, the only mineral concession has been made to the Bachian Exploration
of coco-nuts, for
Amboina.
Its chief
Company
in respect of all mineral deposits in Bachian.
Lesser Stjnda Islands

Timor and Dependencies
The administrative division of Timor and Dependencies comprises the islands of Sumbawa, Flores, the Solor, and Alor groups, situated in the main chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands and the islands of Timor (excluding the eastern half, which belongs to Portugal), Savu, Rotti, and Sumba, which together form a southern loopline. It is only within recent years that the pacification of this region has been taken in hand, and even yet it is not completely accomplished. Information as to economic conditions is therefore incomplete. Native Production. In the islands of the main chains two societies can be distinguished, that of the mountain dwellers of the interior and that of the coastal communities which are mostly of alien origin. The natives who live in the high country of the interior are agriculturists, while those on the coast are traders, fishermen, and engaged in the preparation of copra. Between the two there is a certain amount of trade on a small scale. Agriculture is everywhere very primitive, cliiefly on ladangs. Maize is the chief crop produced for home consumption a small quantity is also exported. Rice is raised on sawahs and ladangs in western Sumbawa and by the natives of West Sumba, being in both places the chief foodstuff. Elsewhere

it is
371
a luxury. In Timor there are experimental sawahs, but as yet the Timorese have no notion of irrigation, and only the most primitive means of ploughing. The export of rice from the whole
is not inconsiderable, being 1,078 tons in 1913. Nearly double this quantity was imported during the same year. All kinds of vegetables are grown to eke out the food supply, and a quantity is sold to people on the coast. Timor onions
proviilce
are well known.
In Savu and Rotti the lontar palm furnishes palm sugar, which is an important article of native diet in these islands in Timor palm-wine is made from the sap, the nuts are used as a foodstuff, and mats are made from the leaves. Tobacco is grown in the highlands of Sumbawa and Plores, but mainly for local consumption. There is a small export from Maumere on the north coast of Elores. Cotton is grown both in Elores and in Sumbawa. In East Elores experiments have been carried out under the supervision of the Dutch administration, and hopes are entertained of a successful future for the crop. There is a small export to Savu and Roti. Coffee -growing exists in the Manggarai and Ngada districts of Elores. Both Java coffee and Robusta coffee are cultivated, the latter being a recent experiment in Manggarai. A small
;
exported annually to Makassar. In Sumbawa for home consumption. The coast dwellers, who are chiefly Buginese and Makassarese, carry on an active fishing industry, trepang and mother-ofpearl, along with other marine products being obtainable
quantity
is
coffee is
grown
The natives of round the shores of the different islands. where society is more homogeneous, are Timor and Sumba, averse from seafaring. As everjnvhere else round the coasts of the Dutch possessions, coco-nut cultivation is extending in Timor and Dependencies. A remarkable instance showing the appreciation by the coast people of the economic importance of copra is afforded in the Endeh district of Elores, where the dominant Makassarese have let out the ground to their former slaves for purposes of
agriculture, while they themselves devote their energies to
Copra is perhaps the most valuable growing coco-nuts. product of the province, and in 1913 was exported to the
value of 70,900.
Aa 2
372
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
Timber and forest products, originally of importance, are not so now. Sandalwood is exported from Timor and Sumba, while in Sumbawa there is a little teak. Dye-woods, of which sapan wood is the chief, are found in all three islands, though the largest quantity is in Sumbawa. Export is inconsiderable. Wax and wild cinnamon are other forest products exported. An industry almost as important as agriculture and fishing According to official is that of cattle and horse breeding. statistics the number of buffaloes and horses in the province is much greater than in any other province of the Outer There are different breeds of horses in the Possessions. different islands. The Sandalwood breed from Sumba is the best known and is thought by some to be the best breed in Netherlands India. Although the biggest, it stands little over twelve hands. In Sumbawa there are two kinds, the Sumbawa The Sumbawa, in the west and the Bimanese in the east. though not so big, is better for draught purposes than the
Sandalwood
for riding.
Bimanese.
the Bimanese is of lighter build and more suitable The ponies of Savu and Rotti are similar to the There is also a Timor breed much used by the
;
natives of that island.
In
all
the islands the horses run wild,
and no attempt
is
made
at selective breeding.
As the
best
animals have been exported for use in the cavalry, the breed has deteriorated considerably. Lately, however, the Government has taken steps to improve the stock by furnishing Arab and other stallions. Though exporting considerably less than Bali and Lombok, Timor and Dependencies, for the export of cattle and horses, is second in importance in the Outer Possessions. There is also a brisk trade in horns and hides. Minerals are found in small quantities in some of the islands iron, brimstone, pumice-stone, and saltpetre in Plores, and gold, copper, and gypsum in Timor. For some time it was thought that tin existed in Flores, but recent investigations revealed no trace of it. According to an official publication, petroleum is known to exist in Timor.
;
tically non-existent.
European Enterprise. ^Private European enterprise is pracExperiments with tea and sugar-cane in Timor came to nothing. In Sumbawa there is a concession of
over 17,000 acres for the cultivation of coco-nuts,
tobacco, and cotton.
coflfee,

Bali and Lombok
373
Native Production. Native agriculture among the Balinese people of Bali and Lombok stands at a very high level, higher
even than in Java.
upon sawahs.
it is cultivated almost entirely In the building of reservoirs [waduhs), the construction of aqueducts and arrangements for drainage, the Balinese excels. Moreover, the natives have their own irriga-
Rice
is
the chief foodstuff, and
tion associations or subahs.
Each
of these associations controls
supply, the distribution of which is systematically arranged. The association further enacts rules governing the possession and alienation of fields, the
its
a district with
own water
planting of the ground, the tending of cattle, and the collection of landrente. It arbitrates also in disputes between sawah
proprietors.
In 1914 an area of 135,875 acres of sawah was irrigated by running water, and 67,110 acres were dependent on rain, in Bali and Lambok. There was no record of ladang cultivation. In the prdduction of rice the position of the Residency is the most favourable of all the provinces of the Outer Possessions, the total production in 1914 being 4,193,771 pikols. The Buleleng division imported a little, but in Jembrana and South Bali the harvest was so abundant as to permit of considerable export. Against an import of 3,044 tons, Bali and Lombok exported 11,600 tons in 1914. In Bali, which formerly yielded almost the entire production of ground-nuts in the Outer Possessions, the output From Buleleng in 1914, 25,988 pikols is now diminishing. were exported, as compared with 39,014 pikols in 1913. Cotton cultivation occurs in Lombok, but only on a small Experiments undertaken there with foreign varieties scale. have proved unsuccessful. There are no ginning appliances on the island, and the raw product is exported from Ampenan. In 1914 about 8,523 pikols were exported, a decrease on 1913. Copra production is very considerable, the export being 15,708 tons in 1913. The officials of local administration are. endeavouring to induce the natives to exercise greater care in the preparation of this commodity. The prevalence of the coco-nut tree enables the natives to participate to a consider?ible extent in the interprovincial trade in coco-nut oil.
374
ECONOMICPRODUCTS
In the hill districts a good deal of coffee is grown, mainly markets within the colony. Here again the authorities have difficulty with the natives on account of the lack of care bestowed on the cultivation and in harvesting the fruit. That prepared for the market by Chinese is superior to the product prepared by natives. Buleleng in 1914 exported 34,203 pikols. In both Bali and Lombok a quantity of native-grown tobacco is produced, and the bulk of this goes to the native market. Other products of the residency are indigo, areng and lontar palm, fruit in Karang Asem, and onions in the Batur
for
district.
6ccupation among the Hindu Balinese, second only to is that of cattle and pig-breeding. In Buleleng especially, attention unusual among natives is devoted to stock-rearing. The Government encourages the import of Australian and Bengalese breeds of cattle. The export of cattle is more important in Bali than elsewhere in the Outer Possessions, and there is besides considerable export of hides
agriculture,
An
and horns. Although expert metal working is carried on by the natives, minerals are not found in any quantity. In 1912 Bali and
Lombok were
available.
prospected for minerals, but the result
is
not
European Enterprise. Apart from two or three companies which maintain plant for peeling rice by machinery, there is little European capital invested in the proAance.
CHAPTER
I SHIPPING AND
External communications
Conditions during the war
XII
COMMUNICATIONS
PORTS
statistics
Inter-insular and coastwise communications PortsShipping River transport.
External Communications
of the sea communications of Netherlands India there are two conditions which it is necessary to bear in mind (1) the comparative economic importance of the different islands (2) the position of the chief economic regions in relation to the principal markets of the world, and in this last condition is implied their position in relation to the main trade routes. To the second of these conditions reference has been made in Chap. I. The great volume of traffic is westward to Europe the bulk of the imports are from Holland and Great Britain. There is considerable trade with Asiatic countries Singapore and British India to the west, and Japan and China to the north. Another connexion of importance is that with Australia, and one, which has developed since the outbreak of war, with America. Excepting the east coast of Sumatra the colony lies slightly aside from the main route to the west, with which the natural point of contact is at the port and emporium of Singapore. The geographical position of Singapore makes it the
: ; ;
In a consideration
natural centre of the whole western system of communications of the Dutch colony. But the political and economic importance of Java is such as to warrant the maintenance of direct communication between the island and Europe. Still, this is largely artificial and due to the dependence of Holland on the colony. The development of Belawan and possibly of other ports on Sumatra East Coast may affect, though not seriously, the unique
position of Singapore.
In relation to China aiid Japan the role of Java is more important and the island lies on the direct route from Singapore
;
to Australia.
376
COMMUNICATIONS
is
The following description
of the situation before the
war
such changes as are known to have taken place in 1915 are specially mentioned in a separate paragraph. Europe. The Nederland S.S. Co., a Dutch firm, maintained cargo and mail-boat ser\dces between Holland and Netherlands India. The mail service which sailed fortnightly followed the route Amsterdam - Southampton - Lisbon - Tangier - Algiers Genoa - Port Said - Suez - Colombo - Sabang - Singapore Batavia. A weekly through freight service from Amsterdam to all ports of Netherlands India, with transhipment at Sabang, Padang, Singapore, Batavia, and Surabaya to the steamers of the Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij, called at the ports of Sabang, Penang, Singapore, Padang, Batavia, Semarang, Surabaya, with occasional calls at Cheribon, Pasuruan, Probolinggo, and Panarukan. A third service was run in conjunction with the Rotterdam Lloyd, departing fortnightly from Amsterdam and Rotterdam alternatively, and called at Genoa, Penang, Singapore, Sabang, Semarang, Surabaya, Balik Papan, and Makassar. The boats of the Nederland Co. were used for the
transport of mails, government products, and government

passengers, and received a subsidy from the Goverrmient.
subsidy from the Italian Government is also mentioned. The Rotterdam Lloyd, the sister company of the Nederland, was founded in 1883, and runs a fleet of mail-boats and cargo steamers. The company ran a fortnightly mail-boat service alternatively with the Nederland. It started at Rotterdam and called at Southampton, Lisbon, Tangier, Marseilles, Port Said, Suez, Aden, Perim, Colombo, Padang, and Batavia. Like the Nederland the Rotterdam Lloyd carried mails, government passengers, and goods, and received a subsidy. Both companies were members of the combines known as the Dutch Shipping Union and the Java Pool. The Netherlands Ocean S.S. Co. is registered at Amsterdam but is almost entirely owned by Alfred Holt & Co., of Liverpool. With four cargo steamers it maintained a regular service in conjunction with Ocean S.S. Co., Ltd., between Java, Liverpool, and Amsterdam. The company is a member of the Java
Pool.
The German-Australian
S.S. Co.
with ships from 7,000 to
14,000 tons maintained three services which served Netherlands India two on the return joui'ney from Australia and one direct.
SHIPPING AND PORTS
377
Of the two returning from Australia one touched at Makassar, Java, Singapore, Cochin, Marseilles, and the second at Chilachap, Batavia, Padang, Marseilles, on their way to Hamburg.
The direct service every six weebs from Hamburg called on the outward journey at Antwerp, and sailed via the Suez Canal
to Makassar, Sabang, Padang, Batavia, Cheribon, Semarang,
and Surabaya, then back

This
via the Suez Canal to
Hamburg.
company shared with
the Nederland, Rotterdam Lloyd,
and the Ocean the bulk of the freight traffic to Europe. Less direct means of communication was afforded by the Peninsular and Oriental S.N. Co., whose service to China and Japan connected at Singapore with the inter-insular system of the KoninklijkefPaketvaart Maatschappij and a branch service maintained by the P. and O. to the Deli coast in Sumatra. At
Singapore also, the fortnightly service of the Messageries Maritimes from Marseilles to China connected with the K. P. M. system. At the same port there were from the main service to the East of the North German Lloyd branches to Deli and Asahan, on Sumatra East Coast, to the northern Moluccas, and via Batavia, Makassar, Amboina, and Banda to German New Guinea. There was a branch line also from Penang to Deli. China and Japan. ^The Java-China-Japan Line, established in 1902 as a joint enterprise of the Nederland and Rotterdam Lloyd, has contracted with the Netherlands India Government to make at least 13 voyages annually. From the Government it was in receipt of a decreasing subsidy extending over the first fifteen years, and this has to be repaid gradually out of its profits. The company possessed 8 boats with a tonnage of 3,000 to 6,000 tons and maintained two services. The first, which ran two to three times monthly, started from Batavia
on the round Cheribon-Semarang-Surabaya-Makassar-HongKong-Muntok-Batavia. The second, starting at Surabaya, called at Semarang, Cheribon, Batavia, Hong-Kong, Amoy, Shanghai, Maji, Amoy, Hong-Kong, Banka, Billiton, Batavia, Cheribon, Semarang, Surabaya. Cargoes carried on the company's steamers are said to be chiefly sugar to Japan and rice from Saigon to Java. Chinese coolies for the mines of Banka and Billiton are carried, and the ships are chartered by the Government for the purpose of repatriating the labourers. The ships' officers of this line must be of Dutch nationality. The Nanyo Kusen Kaisha, a Japanese line, founded in 1912
378
COMMUNICATIONS
of a subsidy
Government, accomplished Hong-Kong, Singapore, Batavia, Surabaya, Semarang, Makassar, and back via Saigon, Keeling, and Kobes This line was a keen competitor of the Java-China-Japan Line and each company offered a
its
and in receipt
from
15 sailings annually on the route Kobe, Maji,
considerable rebate to shippers binding themselves to ship

exclusively
by the one line. The Chinese of Java are said to have boycotted the Japanese line. Besides these lines running directly to China and Japan, there are those from Europe with which junction is effected at Singapore.
Siam.
British
The K. P. M. ran a monthly service to Bangkok. India. ^The Rotterdam Lloyd and. the Nederland
Companies together maintained a service via Rangoon to Bengal. They made 19 voyages in the year and sailed monthly or bi-monthly according to the season of the year. Sabang is a regular port of call on this route. The British India Steam
Navigation Co. of Glasgow and the Asiatic Steam Navigation Co. of Liverpool maintained services of cargo-steamers running between Java and British India where they called at the ports of Rangoon, Calcutta, Colombo, Pondicherry, and Madras. They voyaged also to Bombay and Karachi. The great bulk
of the freight consisted of sugar.
service for pilgrims to Jidda.
was maintained by the subsidized K. P. M., in which enterprise the Government originally undertook to bear a proportion of the loss. Batavia was the port of departure, and the ports of call were Semarang, Surabaya, Thursday Island, Brisbane, Sydney, and Melbourne. The ships of the Burns Philp Line on their way from Singapore to the east coast of Australia through the Torres Strait called once a month at Java. From Singapore also a combined service of the British India Steam Navigation Co. and the Ocean S.S. Co. ran at irregular intervals to Western Australia. The West Australia S.N. Co. ran from West Australia to Surabaya and back. The North German Lloyd maintained a service of cargo-steamers to which reference has already been made, with six sailings yearly from Australia to Europe via Javanese ports and Padang, in Sumatra West Coast, while
The Nederland and Rotterdam Lloyd run a Australia. A direct and regular service to Australia
Arabia.
joint
SHIPPING AND PORTS

by the Hansa
joint efforts of the
379
another German service between Australia and Java maintained
German Australian
S.S. Co.
and the
been referred to above. U.8.A. ^The same combination of German firms maintained a regular monthly service between Java and New York. Several of the petroleum companies maintain tank steamers for overseas traffic the biggest fleet belongs to the AngloSaxon Petroleum Co. Statistics. The foreign traffic with Netherlands India was, in 1914, shared by ships of the different nations as follows
S.S. Co. has already
Inward
380
COMMUNICATIONS
Inteu-Insflar and Coastwise Communications
The
inter-insular
and coastwise
traffic
(for this is
what
is
comprised in the term kustvaart or coasting trade as it is applied to Netherlands India) was open to ships of all flags between ports open to general trade. Between other ports not in that category the coasting trade could only be carried on by Dutch ships, ships registered in Netherlands India and by native boats. There were about 70 ports open to general trade. To ports belonging to those regions of the colony not under the direct rule of the Dutch, access is available to ships
of all nationaUties.
The western and vastly more important system of local sea communications of Netherlands India comprises the littorals of West Borneo, northern Java, and the east coast of Sumatra,
aind the seas enclosed thereby.
The natural centre
of this
Singapore, to which the general trend of traffic is inclined, but this to some extent is counteracted by the pohtical
system
is
and economic
pull exercised
by Java.
It has not, however,
been possible to treat the subject regionally, although from the facts that foUow the importance of the western system will be apparent.
The
steamer
Koninklijke
traffic
Paketvaart
Maatschappij.
Înter-insular
of
was to a considerable extent in the hands

'
the subsidized Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij, which acted as a feeder company to the Nederland and Rotterdam Lloyd. In contrast to its predecessor, which was financed mainly by British capital, the K.P.M. is wholly Dutch, with
'
ships which are mainly of
Dutch build and
ships' officers of
Dutch
ships,
nationality.
Its fleet consisted in 1914 of 60 passenger

;
largest vessel
the 20 freight ships, and 4 stern-wheel river boats was about 5,000 tons. Since .1891 the company has carried all the inter-insular mails of the colony and was used by the Government for the transport of bulKon and
government passengers.
The civil authority could charter its boats for special purposes. Reference has been made to the special services to Siam and Australia maintained by the company in addition to these
;
it
was bound to maintain local services on a minimum of thirteen routes. In practice the system embraced 48 routes and 300 ports. While the company is said to have possessed the
SHIPPING AND PORTS

monopoly
petition in
of
381
passenger
traffic,' it
experienced keen comservices,
freight-carrying.
The compulsory
in
accordance with a Government ordinance of 1907, which has been amended and enlarged since, were in 1913 as follows
:
Compulsory
services.
Sumatra
No.
1. Once a fortnight from Batavia via Telokbetong, Kru, Benkulen, Padang, Oleh-leh (Olee Lheue), Sabang, Olehleh, Sigli, and Lho Seumawe to Langsa and back by the
No.
same ports. 2. Once in four weeks via
Saibi (Mentawei Islands), Ayerbangis, Natal, Sibolga, Barus, Gunong SitoH, Singkel, Tampat Tuam (Tapatuan), Analabu (Meulaboh), Chalang, Oleh-leh to Sabang, and back by the same ports to
Padang.
No. No.
3.
4.
Withdrawn by the Government.
Once in four weeks from Tanjong Priok (Batavia) via (in Banka), Palembang, Muara Saba by Jambi and back. No. 5. Once in four weeks from Tanjong Priok via Belawan (Deli), Tanjong Balai (Asahan), Labuanbihk (Paneh), Bengkalis to Siak, and from there back by the same ports
Muntok
to Batavia.
Borneo No.
Once in four weeks from Tanjong Priok via Sukadana and Sungei-Palembang (in the island of Great Karimata) to Pontianak in West Borneo, and back by the same
6.
ports.
No. No.
7. 8.
Withdrawn by the Government. Once a month from Surabaya via Langapura (Bawean), Banjermasin, and Kota Baru (Pulu Laut) to Samarinda (Kutei, in South-East Borneo), and back by the same
Withdrawn by the Government.
Celebes
ports.
No.
9.
No.
Makassar via Buton, Salabangka, Bungku (Sakita), Kolonodale (Mori Kandari, Gulf), and Luwu to Bunta and back by the same ports.
10a.
Once
in four weeks from
382
COMMUNICATIONS
Compulsory
services.
No. 10b.
Once in four weeks from Makassar via Bonthain,
Sinjai (Balangnipa), Bajowe, Palima, Kolaka, Palopo, Malili (Usu Bay), and back by the same ports to Makassar.
Saleier,
Lesser Sundas
No.
11. Once in fouf weeks from Surabaya via Ampenan, Sumbawa-besar, Beina, Waingapu (Nangamesi), Endeh (in Flores), Savu, Roti, Kupang (in Timor), Atapupu, Ilwaki (Wetar), Kisar, Serwaru (Leti), Wulur (Damar), and back
by the same ports
to Surabaya.
Southern Moluccas and South-East Neio Guinea
No.
Once a month from Amboina via Banda-Neira, Tual Dobo (Aru Islands), Merauke (New Guinea), and back by the same ports to Surabaya.
12.
(Kei Islands),
Central Moluccas
and West
New
Guinea
No. 13a.
Once in eight weeks from Amboina via Saparua, Amahai, Banda-Neira, Geser Kaimana, Fakfak (New Guinea), Kokus, Wahai, Piru, and back by the same ports to Amboina.
Northern Moluccas and
New
Guinea North Coast
No. 13b. Once in eight weeks from Amboina via Kayeli, Laiwiu (Obi Islands), Bachian, Ternate, Tobelo, Buli, Weda (the
Halmaheira), Serong, Manokwari Run, Wakde, Humboldt Bay (New Guinea), and back, with few exceptions, by the same ports to Amboina.
last three ports are all in
(Dori),
Other Services. Other services for passengers and goods were maintained by the K.P.M. without a subsidy and unfettered by obligation to the Government, and it is interesting to note that they all tended westward to Singapore and the region of recent economic development in the residency of Sumatra East Coast. They were as follows Every fourteen days from Surabaya via Batavia to Singapore
:
and back.
SHIPPING AND PORTS
383
Every fourteen days from Surabaya via Batavia and Singapore to Deli. Every fourteen days from Batavia to Deli. Two services, one every four weeks and another every fourteen days, from Singapore via Sumatra East Coast and Deli round to Penang.
Weekly from Sabang to Deli. Weekly from Penang via Deli and Langra and back.
to
Batu Bara
Three services, each weekly, from Singapore via Penang to the ports of Sumatra East Coast.
Two
services
at
irregular
of
Brandan and the ports
intervals between Pangkalan Sumatra East Coast.
General /Semces. =-Mention has already been made of the branch services in the archipelago of the small steamers maintained by the North German Lloyd, Ocean S.S. Co., and the Peninsular and Oriental S.N. Co. from Singapore and Penang to Sumatra East Coast ports. But apart from these
special lines there is a host of small steamers plying along the coasts and from island to island. The bulk of this traffic has its centre at Singapore, whence steamers of a tonnage
varying from 5 to 1,000 tons engaged in goods and passenger services chiefly to the mainland of Sumatra East Coast, the islands adjoining thereto, to western Java and West Borneo. Of about a dozen steamers engaged thus with West Borneo (to Pontianak and Banjermasin), several sail under the British flag the majority of the owners are Chinamen. The traffic with Sumatra East Coast and the islands of the Riouw
;
is much more considerable. In the intercourse with the economic region in the residency of Sumatra East Coast, Penang has an important share. Here also the majority of the owners are Chinamen, and the greater proportion of the traffic is under the British flag. There are special services of tank steamers which serve the petroleum districts in Borneo, Sumatra, and Java, and ports like Balik Papan in Borneo, the ports in Aru Bay and its vicinity in Sumatra and the port of Sambu in the strait of Singapore owe their importance chiefly to this traffic. Government Services. Steamers also engage in purely coastal traffic as distinct from inter-insular, and ply between the, ports of Sumatra East Coast, round the entire coast line of Dutch
Archipelago, Banka, and Billiton
384
COMMUNICATIONS
Borneo and along the north coast of Java. In 1912 the Government subsidized a service of motor-boats on a route between Batukalas, Pajandaran, Kalipuchang, and Chilachap on the south coast of Java. In the same year was instituted under the auspices of the Department of Public Works the East Java Sea Transport, consisting of a tug and about half a dozen
cargo praus for the purpose of carrjdng packed salt from Kalianget factory in Sumenep (Madura) to the warehouses on the coast Of Pasuruan and Besuki, and also for the purpose of transporting loose salt to the Kalianget factory. A fleet of about twenty-five small steamers and motor-boats, together with numerous craft of other kinds, was used by the Govern-
ment
for administrative purposes in different parts of the
colony.
Native
Traffic.
So far only steamers have been mentioned,

called the western
and
in
what has been
tions they play the chief part.
There
traffic
is.,
system of communicahowever, engaged in

fleet
the inter-insular and coastal
a large
of sailing
and native praus. Langkat and Padang are the principal centres in Sumatra and Banjermasin in Borneo. Eastward of the system of' communication designated the
ships, consisting of Chinese junks
western system, in a region roughly delimited by the Lesser Sundas in the south, the east coast of Borneo in the west, and New Guinea in the east, the character of the traffic changes so considerably that, though there is in practice no line of demarcation, it is possible to regard it separately under the name of the eastern system. Surabaya and Makassar and Amboina are its chief centres, and the steamer traffic is inconsiderable as compared with the great number of sailing vessels engaged. The native boats are to a large extent owned and manned by the seafaring folk of Madura and of Bonthain in Celebes. Of 2,504 boats registered, in 1914, in Java, 1,560 were Madurese, and of 344 belonging to Celebes, 191 were from the Buginese port of Bonthain. Statistics. The general total of steamers belonging to Netherlands India in 1914, was 196 with an aggregate tonnage of 137,359. It is not quite certain, though it is probable, that these figures, which refer to boats of 2 tons and over, include the steamers of the K.P.M. The native and Chinese craft (vaartingen) for the whole colony in 1914 numbered 3,780, with
SHIPPING AND PORTS
385
a total tonnage of 39,369 tons. Here again there is some uncertainty as to whether boats belonging to ports situated in territory not subject to the direct rule of the Dutch are included. These would not seriously affect the figures. A class for which no provision is made in the figures is a large lighter averaging 1,000 tons capacity, which appears in the shipping statistics of individual ports. Thus 57 of these vessels entered Palembang in 1914, and at Balik Papan, 102. These have only recently been in use, and it is possible that they are large cargo praus which are taken in tow by steam tugs.
Conditions duiiing the
Wae
Shortage of Shipping. Â report at the end of 1915 states that there was a shortage of shipping throughout the greater part of the year and a rise in charter rates. While connexion
with Marseilles was not absolutely broken off, the services of the Erench Messageries Maritimes almost disappeared. The requisition of the boats of the Ocean Company by the British
Government resulted in the Dutch mail services being overwhelmed with cargo. It was found impossible to charter British vessels, and neutrals imposed the impossible stipulation of being allowed to break their journey for private trade.
number
of shipowners
known
as the Conference Lines took,
it was agreed to reserve; space for certain fixed products. By this means the export of sugar was in 1915 little less than in 1913, and more than it;
joint action
on the cargo question, and
was in 1914.
Chap. IX.)
(See further the
section
on
'
Commerce
'
in;
New Lines. Owing to the absence of much of the usual shipping and the diversion of trade in new directions, steam-; ship companies new to the trade of Netherlands India made their appearance. The Conference Lines decided to permit exporters consigning goods to Genoa, and to the ports of France, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Baltic ports other than German, to ship by Det Ostasiatiske Kompagni of Copen-^ hagen, the Norwegian Africa and Australia Line of Christiania, and Rederiaktiebolaget Transatlantica of Gothenburg. These lines were intended chiefly to replace the service to France^ originally maintained by the Messageries Maritimes, which declined to take cargo either direct or from Singapore Shipping
.
NETHERLANDS INDIA
]j
386
COMMUNICATIONS
and
1915, while trade
to France declined enormously in 1914 to Copenhagen was suspended.
Services to America. Judging by the shipping activity on that route, trade between Netherlands India and America developed considerably since the outbreak of war. This
development
(1914) 102
;
is
represented
(1915) 123.
Several
by the figures new steamship

:
(1913)
services
100
have
come into being. Java-New York Line. In conjunction with the Conference Lines, this company began a service to New York at the end of 1914. At the beginning of 1916 their boats were running
once every four weeks. Holland- Ameriha Line. În conjunction with the Conference lanes this company began a service between Java and New York. The first ship reached New York in December 1915, and began the return journey in February 1916. Java-Pacific Line.^^The cessation of the service of the Pacific Mail S.S. Co. induced the Java-China-Japan Line ttf open a service on the route Batavia, Semarang, Surabaya, Makassar, Manila, Hong-Kong, and San Francisco, and back by the same The route. The first ship left Batavia in December 1915. Nederland Royal Mail and the Rotterdam Lloyd lines have since entered the trade, and it was stated in August 1918 that the three lines together were sending at least three steamers a month in each direction across the Pacific. At the end of 1915 the local traffic, disorganized by the shipping shortage, was not quite normal, owing to the use of ships on routes outside Netherlands India. Nine ships were put on the line to Australia,' on which they carried sugar and maize on the outward journey, and coal on the return voyage. Several ships were employed to carry sugar to Rangoon, returning laden with rice. (From Dutch reports of January 1918 it appeared that the British authorities had recently temporarily suspended the export of rice.) The K. P. M. put two ships on a new route from Deli via Singapore and Penang to Hong-Kong and other China ports, and this new venture is stated to have given good results. This new service was opened at the request of the DeM planters,
who desired means of transporting coolies to and from China. A new line of the Japanese S.S. Co. between Java, Makassar,
Sandakan, and Japan was reported in July 1918.
SHIPPING AND PORTS

Ports
Classes of Harbours
387
(a)
The harbours of Netherlands India Harbours open for general trade,

(b)
are of three
for ships of
main
classes
aU nations at
' '
and those licensed for coasting trade are admitted,
Harbours to which only native vessels Native (c) harbours, being those which belong to the territories of native princes or other territories not under the direct control of the Dutch. To these all ships without exception are admitted. In the first class is the harbour of Riouw which is also the only free port in the archipelago it is situated on the island of Riouw, opposite Singapore. Other ports in this class which are open to general trade but subject to their local regulations, were in 1913 as follows Anjer, Bantam, Batavia, Indramayu, Cheribon, Tegal, Pekalongan, Semarang, Juwana, Rembang, Surabaya, Pasuruan, Probolinggo, Besuki, Panarukan, Banyuwangi, and Chilachap, in Java Padang, Priaman, Ayerbangis, Natal, Sibolga, Barus, Benkulen, Telokbetong, Palembang, Jambi, Bengkalis, Oleh-leh, Sabang, Sigli, Lho Seumawe, Singkel, Meulaboh, Sinabang, Kru, Langsa, Isli, Chalang, Gunong Sitoli, and Tapatuan, in Sumatra Muntok in Banka Tanjong Pandan in BiUiton Pontianak, Pamangkat, Sambas, Singkawang, Banjermasin, Sampit, Kota Baru, and Setagen in Borneo Makassar, Menado, Amurang, Ratah Totok, Kwandang, and Gorontalo in Celebes Amboina, Banda, and Ampenan and Labuan Haji in Ternate in the Moluccas Lombok Pabean in Bali Kupang in Timor Tual in the Kei Islands Dobo in the Aru Islands Merauke in New Guinea. There are about 70 native harbours, and these include Belawan, Pangkalan Brandan, and others of importance on the in Borneo the chief native harbours east coast of Sumatra Balik Papan. are Samarinda and The remaining harbours (of category b) are unimportant.
' ' ;
: ;
peace with Holland,
Harbour Dues,
dbc.
Netherlands India is divided into districts for the purposes measurement, which function generally devolves on the local harbour-master, or, where there is no such person, on a government official who, in some cases, is the native wedono.
of ship
Bb2
388
COMMUNICATIONS
tax
(in 1913,
A harbour
all
ships entering
16 cents per cubic metre) is levied on any harbour or roadstead where import and
export duties are collected. From this charge, ships with a capacity less than 60 cubic metres, local ships going occasionally beyond the buoys, or boats engaged exclusively in fishing, were exempt. The tax is due as soon as the ship enters the harbour,
but cannot be levied again in the same or other harbour of the The government colony during the following six months. official responsible for the collection of import and export duties also collects the harbour tax.
Construction, Upkeep,
and Administration
The construction and upkeep of harbour works are carried out by the Department of Public Works, while harbour administration is subject to the control of the Department of Marine. One account, dated 1914, states that the administration of important harbours is now subject to an official of the Water section of the Department of Public Works, assisted by an advisory board composed of the leading members of the commercial community and representatives of the Departments of Marine and Finance. In the Kolcmial Verslag of 1915 there is no evidence of this. Whereas originally the harbours naturally formed at river mouths sufficed for the purposes of coasting trade, the advent of ocean-going vessels necessitated anchorage in the 'roads ', where the cargo was unloaded into native boats. This method still obtains in many harbours of the colony, although the Government is constantly engaged in making artificial improvements. The following is a brief description of some of the more important harbours.
Java
Tanjong Prioh is the harbour of Batavia. Originally the harbour formed by the liwung sufficed for the needs of the
small coasting vessels, and subsequently ocean-going ships anchored iii the Batavia Roads where the cargoes were loaded and discharged by means of lighters. In 1877 the construction of an artificial harbour was begun at Tanjong Priok, a headland forming the eastern horn of the bay into which the liwung
flows.
The port now
consists
of
an outer and two
inner.
SHIPPING AND PORTS

harbours.
389
The outer harbour is enclosed by two stone breakwaters running north and south, the eastern being 6,150 ft. and the western 5,560 ft. in length the breakwaters, which are about 3,600 ft. apart at. the shore end, converge at the sea end where the entrance is about 525 ft. wide. The channel through to the inner harbour is about 28 ft. in depth at the entrance and 24| ft. at other places. The inner harbour first
;
constructed was excavated into the land and is about 3,500 ft. long and 560 ft. broad with a depth at low- water of 24^ ft.
This harbour aEords every facility in the

storage, coal wharves,
way
of
quay space,
and
oil supplies,
and
possesses cranes
worked by steam and electricity. There is a floating dock with a lifting-power of 4,000 tons. The second inner harbom:, which in 1914 was in course of construction, is situated to the eastward of the first, and when completed wiU have berthing with a depth of 40 ft. in its northern portion and 30 ft. elsewhere. Its length will be 3,300 ft. and its breadth about 500 ft. A new petroleum harbour is projected, while some way up the canal between Tanjong Priok and BataAda a new prau harbour is in course of construction. Tanjong Priok is connected with Batavia by railway, road,
and
canal.
Semarang.
Eastward from Batavia about
250 miles along
the \north coast of Java is the roadstead of Semarang. The town straggles along the banks of a river and is separated from the sea by a low-lying marsh. Connexion between the town and the sea, originally along the Semarang River, is now by a
The silt which threatened the ruin of the river as a waterway also affected the canal, and it was found necessary to lengthen the western of the two moles by which the canal was conducted seawards. In 1914 a huge quantity of mud was dredged from the river and canal, and a further lengthening of the western mole was then contemplated. The roadstead is open, and exposed to the north-west monsoon. Large vessels anchor three miles out, and cargo is discharged into lighters. A scheme for the construction of a spacious lighter harbour, with two basins for customs purposes and a small harbour for fishing vessels, is in course of execution. The total water space will amount to about 21 acres. Besides the customs buildings there will be five godowns, two bonded stores, and storage sheds. The new harbour will be connected by rail
canal.
390
COMMUNICATIONS
with existing local systems. The town of Semarang is connected by rail with Surabaya along the coast to the eastward, with Surakarta in the interior, and by tramway with Cheribon. The railway to Surakarta is continued to Chilachap on the south coast and thence northwards to Batavia. Cheribon is on the direct northern route to Batavia. Out of a total population
(1905 census) of 96,660 there were in Semarang 5,126 Europeans 76,413 natives, 13,636 Chinese, and 698 Arabs. Surabaya. Further eastward along the north coast opposite
the eastern end of the island of Madura by which the roadstead is protected is Surabaya. The town, second in importance in
on the Kali Mas, while the Kali Sampir, a town almost parallel to, and distant 1,100 yds. from, the Mas. Both rivers are navigable only by boats. The neighbouring country is flat and intersected by boat ehannels, and for a considerable distance to the westward, marshy. Between the mouths of the Sampir and the Mas is the Government marine establishment which is equipped with modern mechanical and engineering appliances. The entrance to the Government basin is between two stone piers where a depth of 34 ft. at high water is maintained by dredging. For ordinary mercantile purposes communication with the land was, at any rate until recently, maintained by lighters which proceeded about two miles up the KaK Mas to the Customs House and the warehouses. The small frontage here available for storage purposes and the narrowness of the channel at low water led, in 1907, to expenditure on the construction of quays along thf banks of the river, and the broadening and deepening of the channel. More recently, harbour construction on an extensive scale has been inaugurated. It is intended to create a large basin in the natural bay to the west of the mouth of the Kali Mas, which, when completed, will enclose an area of about 200 acres. There will be about 8,000 ft. of wharf for ships up to 29 ft. draught, about 1,200 ft. for small ocean-going vessels, and on the south side of the basin 1,000 ft. of quay for lighters. Storage accommodation is being erected in proportion, and there will be, besides, two floating docks of 14,000 and 3,500 tons capacity respectively and two floating steam cranes. It was reported in August 1918 that these works were nearing completion, and part of the wharf is in use. The railway runs seaward from Surabaya along the side
Java,
is
situated
tributary, flows along the east side of the
SHIPPING AND PORTS

of the Kali of
391
Mas
to Kali
Mas
station.
Surabaya totalled 156,752,
of
In 1915 the population which 8,063 were Europeans,
124,473 natives, 14,843 Chinese and 2,482 Arabs. Chilachap. The inlet of Chilaohap on the south coast of Java is opposite the eastern end of the island of Nusa Kam-
bangan. With the exception of Segoro Wedi Bay, Chilachap is the only harbour on the south coast affording protection during the south-east monsoon, and is safe at all seasons of the year for
light-draught vessels. Moreover, it tance on the south coast of Java.
is
the only port of impor-
The town is situated on a tongue of land flanked on the east by the exposed Schildpadden Bay and on the west by the estuary of the River Donan. To the south it is protected from the Indian Ocean by the eastern end of Nusa Kambangan. The entrance to the harbour between a projecting headland of Nusa Kambangan and South Point on
the tongue of land opposite, is IJ mile wide, but owing to a sandbank the channel varying from 29 ft. to 48 ft. in depth, is very narrow. Cargo is discharged and taken in at a quay on the eastern bank of the Donan. Recent undertakings for the
improvement
of 23
ft.
of the port will,
when completed, allow
of vessels
draught to berth alongside. According to the census of 1905 there were in Chilachap 295 Europeans, 15,060 natives, 894 Chinese, and a few Arabs. In 1887 the town was connected by railway with Batavia, Surakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya, and as a consequence of the development of the hinterland shipping at the port has
greatly increased.
Sumatra
the northern end of Koninginne Bay, Padang on the west coast of Sumatra, is Emmahaven, the port of Padang. The bay, which runs in a direction north-north-west and south-south-east, is bounded by steep and wooded banks, the eastern shore being formed by
Ât
Emmahaven.
3 miles
southward
of
a high ridge of hUls. Prom the western shore of the bay a breakwater, nearly half a mile long, has been built, and this, with a shoal on which another breakwater stands roughly at right angles to the fiLrst, forms a basin about half a mile
square with depths from 17 to 20

is
ft.
The main breakwater,
There owing to heavy seas, are several wharves, including a coal wharf where coal from the
often in need of repairs.
392
COMMUNICATIONS
/
neighbouring Ombilin field is brought by rail to the waterside. Ships unable to come alongside load coal from lighters. Behind the wharves is considerable storage accommodation, and behind ..these again is the railway station with post and telegraph -offices. The distance by rail to Padang is about 4| miles. When certain extensions begun in 1913 have been completed there will be 1,715 ft. of quay exclusive of coal wharfage, with storage accommodation in proportion. The port is connected with the Padang system of railways, which has sprung up round the Ombilin coalfield. Lately a railway has been projected, which will connect Padang on the west coast with the Siak estuary on the eastern side of Sumatra. Sdbang. On the north side of the island of Pulo Weh, situated off Acheh Head at the northern extremity of Sumatra, is Sabang harbour. The harbour is at the head of a spacious bay nearly one mile in length, the entrance of which is not quite half a mile across, with a depth of 70 to 120 ft. The harbour proper is at the head of the bay, which is completely sheltered
from wind and sea at aU seasons. The construction of harbour works began in 1898 under the auspices of the Sabang Bay Harbour and Coal Company, which in 1909 transferred its property to the Government subsequently it was leased to the Company for a period of 50 years. The harbour is used chiefly for purposes of coaMng, and five electric transporters are employed at the coal wharves of which the extent is 1,679 ft. Vessels up to 30 ft. draught can moor alongside, while iron lighters convey coal to ships Ijdng at anchor in the bay. Welsh, Bengal, and Sumatran coal can be obtained. On the eastern side of the bay there is a petroleum wharf, and two tanks with a capacity of 4,000 tons. There is a floating dock and a slipway for vessels. No port or anchorage dues are charged. There is a Dutch settlement at the head of the bay with a combined post, telegraph, and harbour-master's office. The island is healthy and there are no epidemics. There is a submarine cable to Oleh-leh, and a wireless station Dutch mail steamers and those of the K. P. M. make regular calls. Belawan (Deli). Belawan, said to be the most important port of northern Sumatra, is situated on Pulu Belawan, an island composed of mud and mangroves formed at the estuary of the Deli and Belawan Rivers. The harbour, constructed by
; ;
"
SHIPPING AND PORTS
393
the Deli Railway Company, lies on the western side of the island. The entrance to the Belawan mouth of the River Deli
had a depth in June 1914 of 14^ ft. at high water, at which time only was it possible for big ships to enter. Abreast the town of Belawan the water deepens to 30 and 40 ft., while in the harbour itself there are depths from 30 to 36 ft. Harbour construction and upkeep have been taken over by the Government. There are about 1,500 ft. of wharfage owned partly by the Government and partly by private companies, besides considerable storage space. The port itself is unhealthy, and Europeans reside at Labuan Deli, a few miles up river. The settlement, which is extending, includes a number of Chinese. Belawan is the terminus of the Deli Railway which crosses the chtinnel south of the island by a bridge. There is constant steamship communication with Penang and Singapore, and
the boats of the K. P. M., plying along the east coast of Sumatra, call at the port.
The economic development of the hinterland Deli, Langkat, and Serdang ^has of recent years given rise to a controversy as to whether the district would be better served by the Acheh tramway with a port in Langsar Bay or Aru Bay, farther to
the north (see below). Meanwhile, attempts have been made to deepen the channel into the river mouth to enable big ships to enter at low water. A powerful dredger was set to work,
it was reported in 1915 that a depth of 10 to 14 ft. at low water is now maintained. The creation of an ocean harbour is contemplated, and the work was to have been begun in 1915. Aru Bay. Â little more than forty miles to the north of Belawan is Aru Bay, which has been mentioned as a rival site for the port of the productive hinterland. The bay, inside the islands of Kumpei to the north and Sembilang to the south, is 6 miles in length and 3 miles broad, but a large portion of it is dry at low water, with numerous shallow passages leading to the various streams which discharge into the bay. These unite in two channels which may be considered as the continuation of the largest of these streams, principally the Besitan and the
and
Salahaji.
The shores at the head of the bay largely consist of mud overgrown with mangrove trees there are various islets of the same formation. On the shores of the bay there are no important settlements. The approaches of the bay are by the
;
394
COMMUNICATIONS
Sembilang and Kumpei channels. The Kumpei Channel is between Kumpei Island and Sembilang Island and the Sembilang channel is between Sembilang Island and the mainland.
The
latter is the deeper of the two. Petroleum steamers made great use of the pier on Pulu Sembilang where the Eoyal Netherlands Company had a
branch.
On
of a small river,-
the mainland abreast the Sembilang pier, at the mouth is Telok Tabuhan, the terminus of the Acheh
Tramway. Here there is a pier. Four miles south-east of Pulu Sembilang
is Pangkalan Brandan, which lies about four miles above the mouth of the Sungi Babalan. At this place there is a fort and a petroleum pier. Pangkalan Brandan is the northernmost termfnus of the Deli Railway. A road running from Pangkalan Brandan across the Besitan and Salahaji to Kuala Simpang in Acheh
in course of construction. By this means the various establishments of the Bataafsche Petroleum Company will be connected and a junction effected between the DeH railway
is
system and the Acheh tramway. Palembang. ^The port of Palembang is situated about I 54 miles up the Musi RiverJ which flows into the Banka Strait. It is a tidal harbour, large ships being able to cross the bar only at flood tide. JThe town is built out from the river banks and is partly on piles. -Europeans and important natives live on the left bank. On this side there are wharves, the most recent of which, built in 1909, is further down stream than the other. Near it are the offices of_the K. P. M. Small steamers only can
come
I
alongside.
Palembang, which is the capital of the residency of the same name, has a considerable trade with eastern ports, in the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and ChinaJ There is also important trade with the hinterland and much up-river trafiic. The steamers of the K. P. M. maintain a daily service via Muntok, in Banka, to Batavia, andlthere is regular communication with ports on the east coast of Sumatra. A railway between Palembang and Telokbetong on the Sunda Strait is in course of construction/ Telolcbetong. Telokbetong is the chief town and seat of the Government of Lampong district, and is situated at the head of Lampong Bay on the Sunda Strait. At Telokbetong there is a landing pier at which only small vessels can lie alongside.
SHIPPING AND PORTS

Loading and unloading for bigger ships
is
395
by
canoes.
At
Panjang, 2^ miles to the eastward, there is a small harbour completely protected by a natural breakwater of reefs. This place is visited by the freight steamers of the Rotterdam Lloyd. A railway from Telokbetong via Muara Enim to Palembang
is
in course of construction.
According to the census of 1905 there were 62 Europeans, 2,774 natives, and 830 Chinese resident in Telokbetong.
Riouw or Tanjong Pinang. The free port of Riouw or Tanjong Pinang is situated on the Tanjong Pinang peninsula, originally the island of Riouw in the Strait of Singapore, and separated from Pulo Bintang by a creek which has been filled up. The roadstead affords an anchorage in 15 ft. of water and there are two piers and a third in course of construction. There is communication daily with Singapore and once a fortnight with Batavia.
Borneo
Pontianak. The port of Pontianak lies on the Little Kapuas River almost at the junction between it and the Landak, and 12 miles up the estuary. The entrance is obstructed by a bar of mud which only permits vessels of a draught not greater than 9 ft. to enter at neaps vessels of that draught must enter by the Padang Tikar to the southward, and from thence by the Southern Kubu branch to Pontianak. The town is situated on low and marshy ground, and built on piles at high water it is partly inundated. On the tongue of land between the two rivers is the house of the Sultan. On
;
;
bank are the Dutch administrative head-quarters, the and houses of a few Europeans and Chinese not in the service of the Govenmient. This quarter of the town is tfte busiest, and here the Chinese have control of the trade. There is a wharf about 500 ft. in length at which vessels up to 12 ft.
the left
garrison,
draught can
in the river
lie
alongside.
For others
it is
possible to anchor
which at
this point is 400 yds. wide.
Round about
the Sultan's house are the houses of the Malays and a colony of Buginese. On the right bank are a number of Chinese carpen-
and here there is important shipbuilding activity. Pontianak is the capital of the residency of West Borneo and the main
ters,
outlet for the produce of the hinterland.
Chinese junks
the
main trade
is
It is a port of call for with Singapore. In 1905
396
there
COMMUNICATIONS
were in Pontianak 223 Europeans,
13,278
natives,
7,085 Chinese, and a few hundred Arabs
Banjermasin. Banjermasin, the capital of the residency of South-east Borneo and the chief town of Dutch Borneo, is on the right bank of the River Martapura, 3 miles up from its junction with the Barito, and 12 miles from Cape Burung at the mouth of the Barito estuary. The width of the entrance
to the estuary
half a mile,
is
and other
Orientals.
3 miles, but the navigable charmel only about

this again diminishes further
is
and
up the
river.
The depth
in the channel across the bar
thence northwards for 6 miles, 18 to 24 ft., to Banjermasin 24 to 48 ft. The Dutch quarter of the town is bjiilt upon the island of Tatos, a mud bank nearly covered at high water. Many of the houses are built on piles and rafts. There is a Chinese quarter on the left and natives on both banks of the river. Fifty-seven mUes up from Banjermasin is the coalfield of Orange Nassau,
about 6 to 18 ft., and from this point
which is worked by the Government. Before the war Banjermasin was included in two services of the K. P. M. In 1905 there were 455 Europeans, 12,684 natives, 2,581 Chinese, and 910 Arabs in Banjermasin. Balih Pajpan. Balik Papan Bay, on the east coast of Borneo, is, a safe, harbour at all seasons, and affords anchorage in a water space of 4 miles long by 1 mile wide, with depths from 36 to 72it. On the eastern side of the harbour not far above the entrance is the landing pier of the petroleum company the biggest ships can moor alongside. Connexion with the oilfields is maintained by means of small tank boats and lighters,
besides pipe-lines.
Europeans live on the shore at Klandasan and between this and Panjur via intervening landing-stages is a regular motor-boat service. The export trade is largely oil, and the port is likely to develop. Already it is spoken of as the fourth
,
place
port of Netherlands India.
Samarinda. The town of Samarinda is situated about a dozen miles up from the Mahakkan delta in Kutei. The entrance to the river is through the delta, of which the greatest breadth east and west is 20 miles and the greatest length north and south 40 miles, and in which there are four main channels ^Muara Jawa, the southern Muara Bekapi, which joins Muara Bayor the eastern and main entrance and Muara Berau, the northern.
SHIPPING AND PORTS
397
Muara Bayor, the principal entrance, about 30 miles long, is narrow and tortuous in the middle. After the junction of the two main channels the Mahakkau is 1,200 yds. across and
maintains this breadth to Samarinda. Samarinda extends for two miles on either bank of the river, the native quarter, partly built out on to the river being on the right bank. On this side also is the residence of the Sultan of Kutei. The European settlement is on the left bank. In 1905 there were 109 Europeans, 3,375 natives, and 1,162 Chinese at Samarinda.
Celebes
is
Makassar. Outside Java, Makassar in south-west Celebes probably the most important trading port in Netherlands
Between the shore and a ridge of coral reefs half a mile out is a safe anchorage in deep water. Up to 1900 the port was served by its primitive harbour ; the building of a screw-pile wharf with warehouse accommodation was begun in 1902 and a sea-wallin 1911. In 1914 an additional quay was put in hand at this, when completed, ships of deep draught will be able to moor alongside. At the same time alterations to the lighter harbour were begun. The total quay space provided is 3,608 ft. for ships up to 30 ft. draught, 2,025 ft. for those up to 26 ft., and 1,148 ft. for lighters, with storage accommodation in proportion. The works are reported to be finished (July 1918). Large godowns with iron storage sheds have been built by a Dutch company, and other godowns are being built by a Japanese company. Menado. Besides Makassar there are fewports of anyimporIndia.
;
tance in Celebes. Menado, at the north-east extremity, is the capital of the residency of the same name and is situated on a spacious bay which, however, is exposed during the north-west
monsoon, especially in the months of December, January, and February. From November to April sailing vessels generally anchor at Kema on the eastern- side of the peninsula, whence goods are conveyed overland to Menado. At Menado the mole built out south of the Menado River can only take alongside, at low water, small praus and flat-bottomed boats.
The Molvxicas
Amboina {Ambon).
an
inlet
The harbour of Amboina is situated on which penetrates Amboina Island in the central group
398
of the
COMMUNICATIONS
Moluccas .for 14 miles. At the entrance it is about 5f miles in width and continues so for about 10 miles, when it contracts and forms a narrow passage leading into an inner harbour. The depths on the outer bay are very great and anchorages are few. The passage to the inner harbour widens into a basin 3 miles long by IJ mile broad. It is well protected, but owing to its unhealthiness is not used by ships. The town of Amboina is on the eastern side of the bay, a little over a mile short of the passage to the inner harbour, and about 8 miles from the entrance. Near the shore is Fort Victoria, and the European quarter is to the south and north-east of the fort. To the south-west is the Chinese quarter, while the The European natives live in the neighbouring negories. quarter of the town is regularly laid out with wide streets, many of which are paved with stone. There are several public buildings and two parks. In 1905 there was a total population of 8,328, including 879 Europeans, 539 Chinese, 277 Arabs, and 6,567 natives, counting Javanese and traders from Makassar. Ternate.The only other Moluccan port of importance is Ternate on the island of the same name in the northern group. In 1911 there were two piers, but only at the coaling jetty was there sufficient depth of water for large vessels. Communication with Singapore was maintained by the Wee Bros Line, a British firm, and the North German Lloyd. Connexion with Batavia is by the K. P. M., which also included Ternate in its service to northern New Guinea.
Sunda Islands and New Guinea Owing to the undeveloped state of the Lesser Sunda Islands and New Guinea there is no port of importance. The roadstead of Singaraja on the north coast of Bali is frequented by steamships and a large number of native sailing vessels, but the anchorage is exposed and landing is difficult. On the other hand there are one or two fine natural harbours Mke Bima Bay in Sumbawa, for which there is at present little use. Waingapu, in the south-west corner of Nangamesi Bay in Sumba, carries on a brisk trade with ports in Celebes, and
Lesser
is
growing in importance.
At Fakfak
in
New
is
McCluer Gulf, there
Guinea, on the coast just south of an excellent anchorage for small craft.
SHIPPING AND PORTS

Shipping Statistics, 1914
Port.
399
400
COMMUNICATIONS
Shtppikg Statistics, 1914
(conti',
SHIPPING AND PORTS

In the foregoing
statistics
401
only the ports in the first rank Java have been mentioned. There are several others, such as Cheribon, which show a high figure in ships entered and cleared, but these, as in a lesser degree, also Batavia and Se.marang, to some extent, owe their place in the statistics to the traffic on its Way to Sural)aya, whose
on the
iforth coast of
Two other ports of the north coast of Java, not mentioned here, but of some importance, are Pasuruan and Probolinggo.
relative importance is consequently not apparent.
Sabang in Sumatra owes its high figure to the fact of its constant use as a coaling station, and this is also true of Setagen on the island of Pulu Laut, at the south-east corner' of Borneo.
Sambu (not mentioned) in the strait of Singapore, is important only as a storage port for Bornese petroleum, and Pulu Sembilang in Aru Bay is used almost exclusively for exporting the same product.
RiVBB, TRAi^SPOET
The rivers of two islands only are of importance, those of Sumatra and Borneo. In Java the rivers are mostly rather a hindrance to communication than otherwise. Java. Some of the larger rivers are used in parts by native boats and rafts to transport agricultural produce, fish, and building materials. In East Java, the Solo and the Brantas are navigable in Remban^ and Surabaya. The Solo is also used for shipping in Surakarta, and its tributary, the Madiun, in Madiun. The Brantas is navigable in Kediri. In Middle Java the north-
coast rivers, while serviceable for agriculture, are practically useThe swift flow of the rivers of this division less for navigation.
which discharge into the Indian Ocean precludes any but the Serayu from being of use for transport. In West Java the Tarum is navigable from Chikao, and the Manuk from Karang Sambung. The only river of this division flowing into the Indian Ocean which is navigable for any distance is the Tanduwi, in East Preanger. The stony beds, shaUows,
and rapids
in the rivers of the southern limestone ranges
generally render
Sumatra. În Sumatra there is a series of navigable riversflowing through the eastern plain to the Malacca Strait. Even here the banks which form at the mouths of the rivers present a difficulty, and in most oases ingress for big ships is only
JMBTJIEELANDS INDIA
them
useless for navigation.
Q Q
402
COMMUNICATIONS
But
of late years
possible at high water.
some progress has
been made in deepening the channels to permit of ocean-going steamers entering at all states of the tide. In the upper reaches the removal of obstacles has been in some cases undertaken.
The rivers in the north of the island are affected by the beria, a wave 3 ft. high, which runs up the rivers after each new moon. Rapids, and changes in the height of the river due to irregularity of the supply are also difficulties. The Talangbawang in the south is navigable for ocean-going steamers as far as Menggala, to which point there are regular services. On the Musi in Palembang, ocean-going vessels can navigate as far as the town of Palembang, which is 54 miles above the
pilot
vessel
at
the entrance.
From Palembang
there are
for over 200 miles up the Musi and its tributaries. It is possible for boats to penetrate about 330 miles inland. The Batang Hari in Jambi permits of navigation by oceangoing ships as far as Jambi, about 50 miles from the mouth, and from this point motor boat and steam launch services extend for many miles up the main river and its tributaries. The maximum navigability of the Jambi is given as 497 miles. On the Indragiri (Batang Kuantan) the ocean-going vessels can penetrate as far as Kulachenako, beyond which point there is a regular river service as far as Cheranti. Pulo Muda, 18 miles up the mouth of the Kampar River, is said to be the limit of safe navigation for ocean-going ships. Owing to the bore and rapid tidal streams there is httle traffic. On the short Siak River fairly large steamers can penetrate about 70 miles inland to Pakan Baru. Besides those described there are seasonal river services maintained in the upper reaches and on further stretches the passage of barges and lighters is possible. Borneo. Borneo is even more dependent than Sumatra on its river communications. On the Kapuas in West Borneo the Government in 1911 started, in conjunction with the services of the P. K. M., a regular service between Pontianak and Sintang, 200 miles up river. When possible, places beyond are visited. In favourable conditions small steamers can ascend about 550 mUes, and sampans 125 miles further. Besides government passengers and goods, private individuals and their goods are carried in
regular services of steam launches
and motor-boats
SHIPPING AND PORTS
403
a houseboat towed by a tug, and accommodation is provided for collies who are needed for the various undertakings up river. The service, at any rate for the first three years, did not pay. Generally, the Kapuas has the busiest river traffic in Borneo. In the delta the native freight boats have been supplanted by small steamers, of which there were in 1914 about 40. Several tugs were engaged in towing cargo praus up to Sintang and even further. These services, however, were not
regular.
river of the south coast is navigable for vessels drawing 12 ft. up to Banjermasin on the Martapura, and for smaller craft many mUes further in the west monsoon, vessels with a draught of 7^ it. frequently reach Muara Teweh. The K. P. M. runs a
The
largest
and most frequented

is
the Barito, which
service every fourteen days to
are
Paruk Tyahu owned mainly by Chinamen.
the other boats
Other rivers in southern Borneo are the Kumai, navigable can cross the bar for about 15 miles the Sampit, broad and generally navigable 53 miles up the Mendawai, which moderate sized vessels can navigate for 170 miles the Kahayan, navigable for vessels of 8 to 10 ft. draught as far as Pahandut, 80 miles from the mouth. Steamships on the Martapura are able to penetrate to the town of the same name. The chief river on the eastern side of Borneo is the Kutei or Mahakkan, which is navigable for ocean steamers up to Tenggarung, about 60 miles up from the sea. The K. P. M. maintains a service every 10 days between Samarinda and Long Iram other boat services between Samarinda and places on the upper river are maintained by Europeans and members of the family of the Sultan of Kutei. On the upper reaches of Borneo rivers where steamship traffic ceases big decked rowing-boats are the chief means of transport for Europeans and wealthy natives, and where it is no longer possible to use tugs for towing cargo praus, smaller On the navigable rivers of Netherlands craft are employed. generally, extensive use is made of stern wheelers with India,
for ocean-going vessels that
;
;
small draught.
cc
CHAPTER
XIII
COMMUNICATIONS
II.ROADS, EAILWAYS, POSTS, &c.
Roads Motor transport Railways ^Tramways. : Outer Possessions : Roads (Sumatra Borneo Celebes Other islands) Railways and Tramways (Sumatra 'Banka and BiUiton) Cables Telegraphs Wireless Telegraphy Telephones ^Postal arrangements.
Java
Java
Roads
The old native roads of Java, which still exist in mountainous

and thinly populated
parts, were mostly tracks along which the native two-wheeled carts could be driven, or horse-tracks and footpaths in the more difficult country. The first main
road, the great Post Road,
was made by Daendels between 1808 and 1811, and since then Java has been gradually well supplied with roads, particularly in the north and centre. The roads are divided into first-class roads, the main roads which are usually kept in repair by the Government, and are second-class roads, about 4 yds. wide over 5 yds. wide and desa roads, which third-class roads, about 3 yds. wide in order b;^ the village community. The natives do are kept statute labour on the roads, except on those in important places and towns, and any manufacturer using a road for heavy traffic has to repair it at his own expense. For metalling gravel is mostly used, though the Java gravel is very soft, and is' quickly ground to dust. Near the coast shells are used with a layer of brick or coral underneath lately broken stone and asphalt have been employed. The following table gives details concerning the roads repaired by the Government in 1903 statute labour, even under Government control, has been found unsatisfactory in the Preanger Residencies, so that a large proportion of the roads are repaired by the Government
;
there.
JAVA: ROADS
Residencies,
405
406
COMMUNICATIONS
usually live near their work.
men
large
Native goods are usually

rare.
carried free of charge
by
the passengers, since natives vsdth

are
stocks or
businesses
The
fares
are low,
minimum
fare of one
cent
(less
than a farthing), being
is necessary if the railways are to be of use to the natives, so that the profits have to come the average charge for the largely from the goods trafiic carriage of one ton for a distance of one kilometre is about one penny, but a ton of goods of small value is carried for as low a charge as li cents (about one farthing) for a kilometre
;
general on all the lines, as
in
some cases. The railways are divided

e.
into the Eastern State Railways
(i.
the lines east of Surakarta), the Western State Railways
(i. e.'the lines west of Jokyakarta), and the line of the Netherlands India Railway Company, from Semarang to the Principalities, with its branches.
State Railways. Each of the two sections of the State Railways, the eastern and the western, has its own general manager and staff, and there is a chief inspector controlling the whole system. The head-quarters of the eastern lines are at Surabaya, and those of the western lines at Bandung. In 1914 the receipts were 1,315,000 in the east (net profit, 625,646), and in the west 1,344,152 (net profit, 561,433). The less favourable financial position of the western lines is due to the more difiicult nature of the country and the lack of the remunerative sugar traffic of East Java. The lines have a gauge of 3 ft. 6 in., including 75 miles of tramway of the normal gauge, and the line from Batavia to Buitenzorg (taken over from the Netherlands India Railway Company in 1913). They have a length of 1,564 miles 657 miles in the east and 907 miles in the west, with 359 stations and halts. There are 433 locomotives in use, which also run on the tramways with normal gauge, and Qf which particulars are given in the table
on
p. 407.
In addition there are the 4-6-0 engines used for goods and mixed trains, and the 2-4-0 small tank engines used for fast passenger trains, which belong to the Batavia-Buitenzorg line taken over from the N. I. Co. There were 1,160 carriages in use in 1914, 253 luggage vans, and 9,177 trucks. The latest type of carriages are eight-wheeled corridor coaches, weighing about 12 tons, and sometimes having an open platform at
JAVA: RAILWAYS
the end, but a
also
407
number
of
older four-wheeled carriages are
employed. Eight-wheeled dining-cars, weighing about 15 tons, are run on express trains. The majority of the trucks have four wheels (though there are a few with eight) and take an average load of 8^ tons. All couplings are of central and semi-automatic type, and there are no side buffers. The very light rails, weighing 17 lb. to the foot, have been changed on the main lines for rails weighing 22 J lb. to the foot the permanent way is of the ordinary continental type. The signals are disc signals, worked by double wires from the station, from which they are never far distant. Points are moved by hand-levers at the points themselves. There are three classes on the eastern lines, and four on the western ;
;
in the east 97 per cent, of the passengers are third class,
2 per cent, second class, and less than 1 per cent, first class. In the west 91 per cent, are third class, 4 per cent, are fourth, 4 per cent, are second, and 1 per cent, are first. In 1914 1,834,440 tons of goods, not including materials for use on the line, were carried in the west, and 2,607,000 tons in the east, with a total of 25,000 tons of luggage. Goods traffic is fairly evenly divided over the whole year in West Java, but in the east and centre there is a busy period from May to November, when the sugar is transported from the factories to the shipping centres. Sixty-nine people were killed on the railway in 1914.
Cylinders.
Driving
wheels,
Type.
Weight in working
order.
tons. cwt.
surface.
Where employed,
ft.
ins.
sq.ft.
Simple, with tender,
18 21
X 23J X 20 ^
4 11
3 3 3
87
12
8 18
1,700
Surabaya-Banjar.
Banjar-Chibatu.
4-6-2 Simple, tank, 2-12-2
75 8
8
61
1,660
1,490 1,460 1,100
Compound, tank,
2-6-6-0 Compound, tank small, 2-6-6-0
large,
20M
ISfj
13J1
c,r.
20J
15
X X X
20
57
53
51
4
18
11
Chibatu onwards. Heavy goods and mixed trains in E. Java. Level track outside
Batavia.
Simple, with tender.
23i
20
2'
4 11 4 11
4 3
Compound, with
tender, 4-4-0 Simple, with tender, 2-4-0
920 560
1,090
Surabaya-Pasttruan.
23}
15
X
Ix
f
18
8
8
32
12 18
Surabaya-Paauiuan.
Padaralang-Buitenzorg. Gradients severe, but trains
light.
Compound, tank,
0^-4-2
12 18
20
40
Two engines frequently used.
408
COMMUNICATIONS
The main line of the State Railways runs from Batavia to Surabaya. On leaving Batavia the line is level for a short distance, but soon begins the climb to Bandung, which is over 2,000 ft. above sea-level. From there to Chibatu it winds along the mountains, vsdth considerable changes of level, and then drops steeply to Banjar, and more gently to Maos* Gradients on this mountain section are very severe, I in 50 being common, and 1 in 45 occurring in places. Curves are very sharp, and short, high bridges over deep and narrow ravines numerous, but tunnels are few, there being only four in the whole of Java. From Maos to Jokyakarta the line rises slightly, falls a little to Syrakarta, and is fairly level the rest of the way to Surabaya. In this section several large rivers are crossed, and the bridges have to be built to withstand the sudden heavy storms, which quickly swell the rivers. The cjiief branch lines on the State Railways are from Surabaya to Banyuwangi, with a branch to Panarukan from Batavia to -Cheribon, with steam -tramway to Semarang ; from Batavia to Labuan, with branch to Anjer Kidul and the loop-line round the Arjuna and Kawi Mountains via Banggil and Malang, rejoining the main line at Kertosono. With the exception of a short length in Batavia, the whole system is single line, but the express trains are not delayed at -all at passing stations. The service consists as a rule of one or two fast trains, and some six or eight slow mixed trains, stopping at all stations Goods trains not conveying passengers, are also run, but the larger part of the traffic is carried by the ' mixed trains this applies also to some of the tramways. No trains are run at night, as the Dutch do not trust the natives, who form most of the railway staff, though there is a fair number of Dutch and half-castes among them. The distance from Batavia to Surabaya is about 540 miles the quickest time now is 24j hours, which is good running considering the small gauge and the nature of the Line. If night running was allowed, the journey could be done in about 18 hours. The longest non-stop run is from Surakarta to Madiun, 60^ miles in 89 minutes going eastward. Trains ran in 1915 at an average of 40 miles an hour in the plains, for which speed the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge has proved quite suitable, and it was then proposed to run still faster trains. State Railways in construction and recently opened. A line
;
; '
'
'
JAVA: RAILWAYS
is
409
in course of construction from Banjar to Parigi, and one from Cheribon to Kroya was opened at the beginning of 1917. The Banjar-Parigi line was to be finished in 1918, and was open as far as Kalipuchang in 1916. Narrow-gauge tramways are also being built in Krawang and Besuki. NetJierlands India Railway. ^The Netherlands India Railway Company's line from Semarang to Surakarta and Jokyakarta is a level line the inclines are slight and the curves have a wide
In order to avoid the mountains, particularly the volcanic group of the Merapi and the Merbabu, a somewhat circuitous route is taken it is 71 miles by the road from Semarang to Jokyakarta, and 103 miles by the railway. Considerable difficulties had to be overcome in the construction of the line the largest bridges are the iron bridge over the Tuntang, with a span of 164 ft., and the bridge over the Serang consisting of two iron sections of 66 ft., and one of 92 ft. The workshops are at Semarang and Jokyakarta. The stations are very simple, the following being the most important Semarang, which lies to the north of the town, near the shore, and has extensive workshops, and branch lines to the harbour canal and to the warehouses. Kedungjati, junction for the Willem I branch. Chindik, junction for the tramway to Purwodadi, and starting-point of the tramway to Surabaya. Surakarta, or Solo, junction for the eastern lines of the State Railway. Jokyakarta, originally the terminus, but the line has since been continued to Jokya Tugu (a distance of about half a mile), the terminus of the western lines of the State Railway. By laying a third rail so as to provide the narrower gauge between Surakarta and Jokyakarta, the two systems of the State Railway have been connected, and it is thus possible to transfer freight without the change from the narrower gauge of the State Railway to the broader gauge of the Netherlands India line. Jokya Tugu is the junction for the Jokya-Brossot and Jokya-Willem I tramways. The central offices of the railway are at Semarang, in the neighbourhood of Bojong. The construction of the line from Kedungjati to Willem I was fraught with great difficulties owing to the mountainous natufe of the country the line was projected for military
radius.
; ;
;
'
410
**^
COMMUNICATIONS
o d
a
"^
o g
J d
1^*
d
-s
61
^ g
bo
eg
0:1
Si 'Xi
eg
u O
>|^-gia'
is aa5
in 00
[Q
ffl
IIS
JAVA: RAILWAYS
%
411
412
COMMUNICATIONS
purposes to connect the fortress of Willem I with the railway system, and after the garrison of the fortress was reduced the traffic declined largely, but since Willem I was made the junction for the Jokya-Willem I tramway, thus bringing the
in coimexion with the railway system, traffic has again greatly increased. The starting point of the line at Kedungjati is 118 ft. above sea-level, and the terminus 1,554 ft. The differences in level to be negotiated were considerable the gauge is the narrower one of the State Railway, and the curves have a smaller radius, making the use of the rolling-
Kedu Residency
The stock of the Semarang-Jokyakarta line impossible. bridges and culverts total 656 ft. in length, the largest span being 92 ft. The Netherlands India Railway has a total length of 128
miles, with 34 stations
and
halts.
It
had 58
less
engines, 112
carriages,
26 luggage-vans, and
1,326 trucks.
In 1914
1
it
per cent, were first class and 2 per cent, were second class, and 798,000 tons of goods its total receipts were 430,175, and its net profits 187,428. The engines are divided into broad gauge and narrow gauge. The older broad gauge locomotives are 0-4-2, with inside cylinders, and the newer 4-6-0 they are
carried 3,351,706 passengers, of
; ;
whom
than
used for main line trains between Jokyakarta and Semarang. The narrow gauge engines are principally 2-6-2 tank engines, used on the main line and on the Jokyakarta-Magelang tramway they have a very high-pitched appearance.
;
Tramways of Java The steam tramways of Java, which are private undertakings, play an important part in the through traffic they serve as links where the construction and exploitation of railways would be a difficult matter, since it is possible for a tramway to pay interest on the capital employed in its construction with a very small daily profit. They are railways of a simplified type, running as far as possible along the side
;
of roads,
though they sometimes take short cuts across country.
They
are thus cheap to build, but can never attain a high
speed, though a maximum of about 28 miles an hour is now allowed where the trams do not run along the road, and they sometimes run fast trains, i.e. trains not stopping at all stations. The stations and halts are similar to those on the
' '
JAVA: RAILWAYS
railways.
1,320 miles.
413
net profits India Railway Company paid the highest dividend in 1914, 14 per cent. With the exception of the tramways from Chikampek to Chilamaya, and from Batavia to Meester Cornelis, they have all the normal gauge of the railways, so that the
The total length of the steam tramways is some The total cost of running was 665,000, and the 647,000. The lines belonging to the Netherlands
same rolling-stock can be used on both systems. The table on pp. 410-411 gives a list of the tramways of Java.
Otttee Possessions
Roads
A new era in road-construction began with the establishment some years ago of a road inspectorate for the Outer Possessions, and Sumatra in particular, under the Department for Civil Public Works. Before this the initiative in road-making and mending lay with the local administration, and was carried out by statute labour. The original rude path, with its temporary bridges or primitive ferries over the rivers, was gradually widened and improved by small successive efforts, government
help being sometimes forthcoming for the removal of obstacles, &c.. In the course of time permanent bridges were built but it is often years before a road becomes fit for trafiic, and even
;
apt to deteriorate very quickly. A widespread netis in existence in the Outer Possessions, but they are confined to more or less thickly populated districts where they the ground does not present any very great difficulties have a local, or at most a regional, character, since the native state frontier is frequently combined with a natural boundary, such as a range of mountains over which the construction of a road is a difficult matter. As a rule, the administrative centre of a country has been first connected with the surrounding centres of population, and in their turn these have been joined to the inland markets, usually situated in Sumatra and Borneo at the point where a river ceases to be navigable. From here roads are made up-stream, and later down stream, to improve communications between the coast and the interior except in Palembang, however, this latter class of roads is mostly still non-existent in the Outer Possessions, and owing to the difficulties of construction it is only the making of the interior net-
then
it is
work
of such roads
414
COMMUNICATIONS
iindertaken. On the smaller islands and where there are practically no navigable rivers, communications consist mostly in roads between the administrative centres, which are joined to the other population centres in their turn by branches from the main roads inter-regional traffic is badly served by this system. The obvious need of the Outer Possessions, with their increasing economic importance, of a centralized system of communications, and a general improvement in the linking up of the local and isolated roadand systems, led to the establishment of the inspectorate the old system of local road construction and improvement now goes on side by side with the making of new arteries of
work which has been
in Celebes,
traffic.
Roads in Sumatra. Â provisional plan forming a complete though wide-meshed network over the whole of Sumatra has been prepared, and in 1913 fifteen roads were being constructed
as links, as follows
(1)
:
Krvr-Liwa-L. Ranau-Mudra Duwa (70 miles), to join centres of population round Liwa and L. Ranau with the west
coast.
(2)
join in
Lorok Road, PalembaTig-Talang Anak Ayer (15 miles) to Palembang to the system of motor transport in operation Upper Palembang. (3) Pasar Ghurub-Muara Aman (44 miles), to join the Ben-
kulen mining district with the capital. (4) Central Sumatra Road, Sijunjung (Padang Highland) through the Batang Hari districts to Pulu Punjung (51 miles), to join the road-systems of Jambi and the west coast. (5) Muara Bungo-Muara Tebo (27 mUes), to join the road in Upper Jambi with the Batang Hari, which is only navigable to Muara Tebo. (6) Telok Nihung-Bungus (6 miles) to join the road-systems of Padang and Painon.
(7) Lubuk Banghung-Pahan Baru (101 miles), to join the Padang Highlands to Parit, and from there by the existing road to Pakan Baru, on the Siak, navigable by sea-going
vessels to this point.

(8)
of the
(9)
Reo-Muara Sipongi (16 miles), to Padang Highlands and Tapanuli. Tunah BatUr-Toriola (22 miles), to
join the road-systems join Mandailing with
the harbours of Natal.
OUTER POSSESSIONS
the
ROADS
415
(10) Sibolgor-Tarutung (42 miles), to join the
yoad system of
Toba Highlands with that
of southern Tapanuli.
NarumoTida-Pematang Siantar-Tebing Tinggi (36 miles), Toba and Sibolga Highlands with the east coast. (12) Belawan Deli-Labimn (2i miles), to join Medan with Belawan harbour. (13) Alas Boad, Kaban Jahe-Kota Ghane (85 miles), to join the Alas country with the Karo plateau and the east coast road(11)
to join the
system.
(14) Gajo Road, Bireuen-Takengon (47 miles), to join the Gajo country with the north coast. (15) Taratah Buluh-Simalayang (16 miles), to join the settlements on the Kampar Kiri with the existing road Taratah Buluh -Pakanbaru, to which point the river is navigable for sea-going
ships.
These roads are constructed at government expense, since the sparsely-populated nature of the country and the difficulties of construction made the use of statute labour impossible.
It was reckoned that these roads would have been entirely completed by the present time, but recent conditions have delayed the work. In 1913 numbers 8 and 14 were complete, 2, 6, 10, and 13 nearly so, and the rest in varying stages of construction. On their completion Sumatra will possess about 2,200 miles of main roads (1,700 miles metalled), and about 4,200 miles of secondary roads (550 miles metalled). Plans had also been made in 1913 for the joining by roads of Palembang and the Lampong districts, Palembang and Jambi, and Korinchi and Tapan, and the connecting of the road-systems of Benkulen and Padang, and the East Coast Residency and Acheh. Motor Transport in Sumatra.In 1907 a Government motor service was started in Palembang and Benkulen, where the transport of people and of goods was' carried on under great difficulties. The undertaking went through a difficult period, but seems now prosperous, and showed a profit of 4,177 in
1913, the total receipts being 16,316.

of
The
service is in charge
an
official
who has
his head-quarters at
Benkulen, and
Industries,
is
responsible to the Director of
Government
In
1913 there were in use fourteen motors working in Palembang, seven in Benkulen, and three 32-ton lorries for goods transport 20,4:36 passengers were carried. The service ran over a distance
416
of 667 miles,
COMMUNICATIONS
from Muara Enim to Blimbing, Batu Raja Padang Bumai, Pagar Alam, and Muara Klingi, with the intermediate places and from Benkulen to Muara Klingi (where a junction is effected with the Palembang service), Muara Aman, and Padang Guchi. From Muara Enim the service is weekly, either for goods or for mails, and from Benkulen biweekly, for goods and mails, except to Padang Guchi, which has only a weekly service. Since 1913 the road to Palembang from Muara Enim has been finished, and the motors have been
;
Since 1916 the mails are taken as far as Gunong Megang by rail. There is also a private line of motors running in the mining district of Benkulen, providing for goods transport only. Since 1916 the mails between Fort de Kock and Matur, Padang Sidimpuan and Sipirok, Penyabangan and Tanah Batu, and Padang Panjang and Port van den Capellen have also been carried by the motors of the government service. A similar motor service has also been started which carries maUs between Sibolga, Tarutung,
able to run there from Blimbing.
and Balige. Roads in Borneo.
Road inspection is also being begun in other parts of the Outer Possessions. In Borneo, in 1913, a survey was made for a road from Long Iram, on the Upper Mahakkan, over the northern divide with the basin of the
Bulungun, where communication is up to now carried on only up the rivers where navigation is difficult, and by a bad mountain path. In Borneo, however, communications are stUl exceedingly imperfect. Roads which are more or less passable for horses and carts are only found quite close to the chief settlements apart from these, communication is carried on on foot, and is even then often rendered very difficult by the thick forest and marshes. Wherever possible the rivers are made use of, and land transport is limited to a footpath joining one river-system to the next by the most direct route, going up and down hill and through rivers and marshes. Over the most difficult streams and bogs tree-trunks are laid, but no effort to harden the track is made. Such paths are usually only broad enough for one person, and are made simply by cutting down the trees and plants the conservative natives seldom diverge from such a line, once it is known, except when a village is moved. The roads are rather better in Apo Kayan, where water-communication is particularly bad. The Dayaks
; :
OUTER POSSESSIONS
manage
ROADS
417
to travel over the country with comparative ease, but Europeans only undertake a journey across the divides for
special political or administrative reasons.
Roads in Celebes. In Celebes a large amount of attention has been devoted to road-making by successive governors.
Menado and Minahasa in particular have a good road-system, and much has been done of late years in the recently conquered
part of the island. In 1917 it was decided to join the roadsystem of Maros with that of the coast of the Boni Gulf by means of a new road. Roads in Other Islands. In Bali and Lombok the prosperous population co-operates voluntarily in road construction, and shows considerable technical knowledge and aptitude. Banka
and
facilitate transport to
have been provided with a good road-system to and from the tin mines. In 1910 there were 1,180 miles of roads in Banka fit for wheeled traffic, 298 miles kept in repair by the mining companies. All the bridges are being strengthened to allow of motor traffic, which is coming more and more into use. In the Moluccas there are roads sufficient for local needs in the smaller islands such as Amboina, Ternate, and Banda, but in the larger and lessdeveloped islands, such as Halmaheira and Ceram, the system of communications is still in its infancy. The same may be said of the islands in the Timor Residency, but a riding-road from Kupang to Atapupu and thence southwards was in course
Billiton
of construction in
Timor
in 1912, 31 miles being finished
in 1917 20,000 guilders were voted for a survey
and on which to base

;
a plan for road-construction in the island.
Railways in
the Outer Possessions
Sumatra
Sumatra is the only island of the Outer Possessions having railway or tramway communications, with the exception of a few small private lines for transport on private estates such as those in Borneo from BalikPapan, and from the Pulu Laufc mines, to the coast and in Sumatra there were only 209 miles of railway and 402 miles of tramway working in 1914, though plans for the exploitation of a regular railway system under
;
government and private auspices had been drawn up. West Coast State Railway. The West Sumatran Railway was built to connect the coalfields at Sawah Lunto and the populous Padang Highlands with the coast and Uie harbour of Emma-
NETHEELANDS INDIA
J) (J
418 haven.
COMMUNICATIONS
Its financial position is
various causes
the short length of

by the
not very favourable, owing to line working, the compara-
tively small amount of traffic, and the large increase of 3rd class passengers since the institution in 1911 of a universal charge for
such travellers of about id. per mUe.

largely affected
The returns
are also
from the government mines, for which branch of transport there are no countervailing receipts. The total receipts in 1914 were 213,745, the net profits being 84,698. The line is 152 miles long, with a gauge of 3 ft. 6 ins., and runs from Emmahaven to Fort de Kock, Solok, Muara Kalaban, and Sawah Lunto, with a branch to Lubuk Alung via Sungei Limau and Pariaman, and another from Fort de Kock to Padang Panjang and Payakomb6.. Two extensions from Payakombo to Padang Suliki (15i' miles) and Balai Panjang (T-j- miles) are arranged, and are probably in course of construction. Considerable portions of the line are built on the rack and pinion system. In 1914 3,001,079 passengers were carried, and 638,680 tons of goods, the latter traffic being considerably the more important. There are 37 stations and halts, 68 engines, 97 carriages and luggagevans, and 792 trucks. Deli Railway. The Deli Railway, which belongs to a company having a monopoly of railway construction in that part of the island, consists of 57 miles of railway and 105 miles of tramway, built to serve the growing industrial and commercial needs of East Sumatra. The line runs across flat and often marshy country, from the harbour of Belawan Deli via Medan to Deli Tua, and is continued by the tramways in all directions. In 1916 the lines had reached Pangkalan Brandan in the north, and Pematang Siantar in the south. Concessions were given in 1913 for extensions from Tebingtinggi to Tanjong Balai, from Timbang Langkat to Kualu, from Medan to Arnhemia, and from Lubu Pakan to Bangun Purba. The gauge is the normal one of 3 ft. 6 ins. There were, in 1914, 54 stations and halts on the system, of which Belawan is the chief, though Medan is the central junction for the branch lines. There were 38 engines of three classes, weighing 23, 30, and 40 tons, 139 carriages and luggage -vans, and 960 trucks these are in use on the tramways as well as on the railways. In 1914 there were 3,079,482 passengers on the whole system, and 580,990 tons of goods were carried. The receipts were 184,802 and the net
cost of transporting coal
OUTER POSSESSIONS
profits 100,525 (13 per cent,
RAILWAYS
419
railway, with receipts
on the capital outlay) on the 90,199 and profits 32,663 on the tramways. There has been considerable controversy, since the rubber-boom of 1909 gave the hinterland of northern Langkat and its products an important position in the export trade,
between the company owning the Deli tramway and the Acheh tramway authorities, that is to say, between those who wanted the trade to go to Belawan and those who wanted it for Aru Bay. Various plans for extending either or both lines to serve this new territory, have been proposed. The latest scheme is to join the Deli to the Acheh tramway by a line from Pangkalan Brandan to Telok Tabuhan on Aru Bay. Acheh Steam Tramway.- This steam tramway was constructed for military and political, not for economic, purposes, and it has been gradually lengthened to keep pace with the needs of .the troops 'occupying the country. It now runs from Kuta Raja along the north-east coast to Kuala Simpang, passing through Sigli, Bireuen, Lho Sukon, Idi, and Langsa. In 1913 permission was given for the continuation of the line from Kuala Simpang to Besitang, and also from Pangkalan Susu to Telok Tabuhan on Aru Bay, with a connexion between Pangkalan Susu and Besitang. The section between Kuala Simpang and Besitang was almost finished in 1916. This extension will give the Acheh tramway its natural terminus on Aru Bay with an accessible harbour, and will probably largely increase its economic utility, since it is intended to make Aru Bay into the port for the export of the products of Acheh, and the promoters of the plan hope to turn it into a formidable competitor of Belawan, if not of Singapore and Sabang. The gauge of the tramway is 2 ft. 6 ins. It is 293 miles long, and has 59 engines, 132 carriages and luggage-vans, and 795 trucks. In 1914 2,968,708 passengers were carried, and 119,696 tons of goods. The net profits were 6,337 (under 1 per cent, on the capital outlay), and the total receipts 76,221, the low rate of profit being explained by the political rather than financial reasons which determined the course of the line. Bailways in Construction, and Proposed Railways. The line from Palembang to Muara Enim and Telok Betong is in course of construction, and about 141 miles were open in 1917. Work is being continued at both ends, more slowly near Telok Betong than near Palembang. It is not yet decided where the line
D d2
420
COMMUNICATIONS
from Palertibang to Batu Raja, and from thence to the railhead of the Lampong line, shall run. The line to Muara Enim was open between Kartopati (Palembang) and Gunongmegang in 1916. These two lines form part of the plan to construct a complete network of railways to serve the developing and valuable districts in southern Sumatra, and ultimately to provide through railway communication from north to south of the island, with branch lines to connect up the various economic centres. These railways will traverse country as yet very largely undeveloped, and it will therefore- probably be impossible that they shall be from the first paying concerns so that the Dutch Government has undertaken their construction, instead of leaving it to private enterprise. The new line mentioned above, connecting Palembang and Telok Betong, will be of immense importance in developing the Lampong districts where river transport is lacking, especially when connected with the communication system of Java. With this in view, a branch line has been constructed from Chilegon, on the Batavia-Anyer line, to Merak, on Sunda Strait, from whence a boat will run to Oosthaven, a safe harbour some miles to the south of Telok Betong, whose harbour is unprotected. Telok Betong will be coimected with Tanjong Karang and with Oosthaven by a regular motor-service. It is proposed in course of time to connect the Wai Lima country, Menggala, Muara Dua, Lontar, and Tanjong Raja to the main line by branches. For the line which is ultimately to join Muara Enim in the south to the Deli tramway in the north, there are two possible routes over the mountains one across Kepahiang Pass to the east of Benjiulen (2,510 ft.), the route taken by the motor-road, and the other over a pass up to now unused to the south-east of Benkulen, which is 2,198 ft. high at its highest point on the northern slope of Mt. Dingin it would have various branches, and would connect with the Central Sumatran railway. This line, for which a preliminary plan had been made in 1913, is designed to provide an outlet for the important coalfields of Ombilin on the east coast, which will obviate the necessity for the long and expensive sea-journey from Emmahaven, making it difficult for the Sumatran coal to compete with that from Japan, Further India, or Australia in the coaling-stations of Singapore and Sabang. It will also provide a far betteroutlet to the east than Padang for the products of the interior
:
OUTER POSSESSIONS
RAILWAYS
421
and the Menangkabau country. It is proposed that this line should run from Muara Kalaban on the Western State Railway to Sawah Lunto, Taluk, Gunong Sahilan, and Pakan Baru on
it will be 250 miles long, will cost about 2,281,000, take about eight years to build. Various other plans for completing the Sumatran network of railways have been
:
the Siak
will
and
made, but have probably, as yet, taken no practical shape. Banlca and Billiton Tramways. In Banka there is a steam tramway, 16 miles long, at Blinyu, largely occupied in goodstraffic and tin-transport, in connexion with steamer services. In Billiton there is a steam-tram system, 27 miles in length, and a section is in construction from Merak to Mang (3 miles), as well as several other narrow-gauge lines.
CAbLES
The East Indian islands are connected with each other by an extensive system of Dutch government cables, and with the
outside world
Australasia,
by
the cables of the Eastern Extension Telegraph,
and China Company, and those of the German Netherlands Company. This latter company was formed to bring an end to the dependence of the Netherlands Indies for purposes of communication with Europe and the East on the cables of a British Company alone. When facilities were improved by the opening of the German line from Menado to Yap and Guam in the Carolines (and thence to Shanghai) in 1905, and by the opening of the French line from Pontianak to Saigon in 1906, the necessity for improved cable communication between the islands themselves was obvious, and energetic measures were taken, including the provision of a cable-laying
ship, the Telegraaf.
The lines of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company join Batavia with the Cocos Islands and Mauritius with Eremantle and Adelaide in Australia and with Singapore, and thence with Europe and the East. There is also a line from Banyuwahgi (Java) to Darwin in Australia, and from Belawan (Sumatra) to Penang. The German Netherlands line, which is subsidized by the Dutch Government, provides the cheapest service to America and the French line gives communication -with Indo-China. This line has been out of commission since
; ;
1914, in spite of efforts
made
to repair
it
by the
Telegraaf.
The Dutch
lines are as follows (the places
mentioned are in
422
COMMUNICATIONS
:
Java unless otherwise stated) Batavia-Semarang-SurabayaBalik Papan (Borneo )-Kwang(iang Bay (Celebes )-Menado (Celebes). Batavia-Padang (Suniatra)-Sibolga (Sumatra). Batavia-Tanjong Pandan (Billiton)-Pankal Pinang and Muntok (Banka)-Palembang (Sumatra). Situbondo-Banjermasin (Borneo). Situbondo - Makassar (Celebes) - Balik Papan (Borneo). Situbondo - Buleleng (Bali) - Ampenan (Lombok). Sabang (Sumatra)-Kuta Raja (Sumatra)-Belawan (Sumatra). Singkel (Sumatra)-Tapatuan (Sumatra). Singkel (Sumatra)Simalur Island. Anjer-Telok Betong (Sumatra). Gorontalo (Celebes) -Kema (Celebes) -Ternate (Moluccas). It wiU be noticed that though the western islands are well supplied with cables, there are none in the eastern islands, i. e. the Moluccas, New Guinea, and the Timor group, with the exception of the line to Ternate. In 1914 172,232 messages were sent and received in Java and Madura by the Eastern Telegraph Extension Company, and 74,197 in the Outer Possessions. By the German Netherlands (Yap) line 31,072 messages were sent and received in Java and Madura, and 10,429 in the Outer Possessions, but this line has been closed to the public since the outbreak of war. A message to Europe via Yap-Kiakhta, YapVladivostok, Madras-Suez, Cocos-Suez, or Madras-Teheran, costs 2 guilders 25 cents (3s. 9c?.) per word. Government
telegrams via Cocos cost 1 guilder 77 cents (2s. ll^d.) per word, and 4 cents more via Madras. The tariff to San Francisco via MenadoYapGuam is 4s. 6d. per word for ordinary messages.
Is. 5d. for press messages, and 3s. lid. for Netherlands East Indian and German Government telegrams.
Telegraphs
In 1916 there were 6,846 miles of overhead telegraph line in the East Indies 1,179,274 telegrams were sent and received in Java, and 414,314 in the Outer Possessions 287,930 of the
:
total
were sent
to, or
received from, outside.
There are no
private telegraph lines except over personal property. The government lines are laid as far as possible along railways, and iron posts are extensively used where their transport does not
difficulties. The wires are also often affixed by preference to iron-wood or kapok trees. Considerable difficulty was experienced in line-construction through the Sumatran forests the wires were frequently destroyed by
present too great

to trees,
TELEGRAPHS
423
wild animals, arid the natives in charge did not repair them properly, but conditions are now improved. To obviate the inconvenience of stoppage on one line, two are laid whenever
possible.
In Java there are telegraph wires along all the main lines of communication. In Sumatra in 1914, in the south, Telok Betong was joined to Palembang, Jambi, and Benkulen (with lines to Lebongsulit, Menggala, and Pageralam). There was also a line in the west from Benkulen to Mokko Mokko (with branch from Tapan to Sungaipenuh), Padang, Port de Kock, Padang Sidimpuan,
and Singkel. Padang is also joined to Jambi via Sawah Lunto and Muara Tembesi, and to Bangkinang via Payakombo and Kota Baru. In addition there is a line along the north-east coast from Kuta Raja via Medan to Tanjong Balai, and from thence across the island to Padang Sidimpuan, where it meets the connexion to Padang and the south. In Celebes there is a line from Menado' to Ayer Madidi and Amurang. Borneo has telegraphic communication from Banjermasin to Tanahgrogot, Balik Papan, and Samarinda, and from Banjermasin to Kota Baru. There is a two -circle tariff for telegrams. Messages for a
Sibolga,
' '
place within a radius of 46 miles cost 5 cents (Id.) per word,
with a
minimum
of 25 cents,
and
for a longer distance

of 50 cents.
cost 10 cents per word, with a
minimum
they These
word (minimum 25 cents) for and by 10 cents (minimum 50 cents) for places connected by cable for a greater distance. This does not apply to the cable between Java and Madura. One-fifth of the ordinary inland rate is charged for press telegrams. The service is often delayed by these and the numerous government messages. A deferred telegram service is in operation at reduced rates and is very largely used.
charges are increased
by
5 cents a
places connected
by
cables of 46 miles or less,
Special tariffs are in force for the private railway telegraph

offices.
Wireless Telegraphy
There are four government wireless stations in the East
Indies at Situbondo (Java), Sabang (Sumatra),
Kupang
(Timor)
and Amboina
(Moluccas).
There
is
also a station at Welte-
424
COMMUNICATIONS
vreden, worked by the Naval Department, and private stations at Balik Papan and Tarakan (Borneo), belonging to the Royal
Dutch Petroleum Company, and used for private messages and for communicating with the ships of the Royal Packet Company. The Government can take over these private installations at any time, without compensation, in time of war. The stations at Amboina and Kupang, which were opened in 1914, will assist the Moluccan trade, since quick communication with Java will be possible to ascertain the market fluctuations, and they will also be of great use to the
Makassar business houses interested in the Moluccas trade. The Sabang station is of more use for navigation than for trading purposes. In 1913 it was in communication with 3,809 ships, and exchanged messages with 737 of them. The large majority of the messages dealt with by the stations were coming from or going to the other East Indian stations or those of the Straits Settlements and Malay States. Communication has been found much more difficult during the wet monsoon, i. e. from November to March, and is then almost impossible during the middle of the day. Messages are sent as far as possible between 7 and 8 a.m. and between 1.30 and 7 p.m., but since the war the stations have been directed to listen for ships' messages night and day. Messages are sent
free, at sender's
own
risk.
Normal
Station.
Normal
range, nautical miles.
Call signal.
wave-length, metres.
Amboina
Balikpapan
PKE
600
420
PKD PKA
PKC
. .
600 600 600 600
420
Kupang
Sabang
Situbondo
nPflirflikHiTi
Day: 400 Night: 800
Weltevreden
PKB
Telephones
270
is well developed, and follows network of railways, main roads, and telegraphs. Most of the larger towns have urban systems, which are connected by inter-urban lines, the chief of which run, one along the north coast (Batavia-Semarang-Surabaya), and the other more to the south (Anyer Lor-Batavia-Buiten-
The telephone system in Java
in general the
TELEPHONES
425
zorg - Padalarang - Jokyakarta - Surakarta - Jombang - SurabayaPasuruan-Probolinggo). Private telephones were formerly numerous, but by 1916 there were only eleven concessions still in force, consisting mostly of small and unimportant plants, and the telephones on the Semarang-Juwana and Madura steam tramways, which are used by the pubhc. Practically the
is thus in the hands of the Government, and the regulations and tariffs are uniform. Both the revenue and the number of telephones have increased largely in i-ecent years, and the system is now really an extension of the tele-
whole system in Java
graph system, since telegraphic messages are largely transmitted by telephone. In the Outer Possessions such telephone lines [as [exist are also mostly in the hands of the Government, though there are private systems in the Padang Highlands, in Makassar, and from Pontianak to Banjermasin, in Borneo. There are local installations in many of the provincial capitals of Sumatra, and a considerable length of line used for
military
and administrative purposes, and to a limited extent by the public but the inter-urban system is very little
;
In 1914 only certain places in the interior of Jambi, Palembang, Riouw, and Sumatra East Coast were coimected by telephone, the lines running from Tebing Tinggi (Palembang) to Sarolangan, Muara Tembesi, on the Siak, Muara Bungo, with a branch to Sungaipenuh also from Rengat (Riouw) to Pasir Pengarayan (Sumatra East Coast) via Taluk and Bangkinang. There are in addition short lines, connecting Singaraja and Den Pasar, Palembang and Sekayu, Padang Panjang and Bon, and Singkel and Trumon. In 1916 the following places possessed local or district telephone systems (they are in Java unless otherwise stated) Amboina (Amboina), Ampenan (Lombok), Bandung, Banggil, Banjar, Banjermasin (Borneo), Batavia, Benkulen (Sumatra), Bhtar, Blora, Bojonegoro, Bondowoso, Chepu, Chianjur, Chilachap, Den Pasar (Bali), Garut, Gorontalo (Celebes), Jambi (Sumatra), Jember, Jokyakarta, Jombang, Kediri, Kendal, Kertosono, Kraksaan, Krawang, Lumajang, Madiun, Magelang, Malang, Menado (Celebes), Mojokerto, Palembang (Sumatra), Pamekasan, Pandeglang, Pasuruan, Pontianak (Borneo), Probolinggo, Purwakarta, Rangkasbitong, Rembang, Salatiga, Semarang, Serang, Sidoarjo, Singaraja (Bali), Situbondo, Sukabumi,
developed.
;
:
426
OOMMUNICATIONS
Sumeiiep, Surabaya, iSujakarta, Tasikmalaya, Telok Betong (Sumatra). Many of these places have also dependent systems
in neighbouring towns,
connected with the central urban the telephone system at Jokyakarta includes dependent systems at Kalasan, Palbapang, Sentolo, Sleman,
system,
e. g.
and Wonosari.
Postal Arrangements
The mails
Possessions.
in the East Indies were carried in 1&16 over a
distance of 3,327 miles in Java,
and 6,549 miles
in the Outer
In Java they go mostly by rail, but there is a motor-mail service between Tanjong Priok and Batavia. Horses are used in parts of Batavia Residency, Cheribon Residency, and the Preanger Regencies, and for 198 miles they are carried on foot. In the Outer Possessions they are carried for a distance of 1,919 miles on foot, for 1,115 miles by boat,
1,455 miles
by motor, and the
rest of the
way by
rail, cart,
or
Over 781 miles there is a post once or more each day, over 4,706 miles from one to six times a week, and on horseback.
at longer intervals over the rest of the
distance.
All the
posts in Java and
Madura
are delivered at least six times
In Java, in addition to the post offices and sub-post the ambulante postal service on the railways, in which the guard of the train carries mails to and from those places which have no post office, and stamps are sold at the station. There are travelling post office vans between various places, and in 1914 letters took 36 hours to go from Batavia to Surabaya. In the Outer Possessions the mail is not always yet free from the danger of attack by natives or wild animals. DeHvery is made by natives, under European supervision. In 1914 a total number of 17,789,681 letters was sent by inland post, (5,252,800 being post free), 5,779,020 post cards, 19,888,609 newspapers and circulars, 290,641 samples, and 983,827 communications under other heads. Letter-postage is 10 cents for each 20 grammes (about 2d. for I oz.), in the East Indies or by the sea-route to Holland, and 7| cents (l|rf.) for each successive 20 grammes. A letter to Holland by the land route, or to other countries, in the Postal Union costs 12| cents {2^d.), and to non-union countries 37J cents (7W.). A reduced tariff is in force for soldiers. Newsa week.
offices (see table), there is
papers cost I cent for 25 grammes
printed matter, samples.
POSTAL ARRANGEMENTS
&c.,
1
427
cent for 50
grammes (under
-^d.
for If oz.), with a mini-
mum
for samples.
and 2^ cents (|rf.) Post cards cost 5 cents (Id.). Parcels in Java cost 30 cents (Qd.), 50 cents (lOd.), and 70 cents (Is. 2d.) for 1, Sand 5 kilogrammes (about 2 lb. 3 oz., 6 lb. 14 oz., and 11 lb.) from Java to the Outer Possessions, and in the latter between places not connected by rail, the charge is 60 cents (Is.) for 1 kilogramme, 100 cents (Is. 6d.) for 3 kilogrammes, and 1 guilder, 25 cents (2s. Id.) for 5 kilogrammes, the latter weight being the maximum. The following table gives numbers and particulars- of the the post, telegraph, and telephone offices in the East Indies messages are taken and sub-telegraph offices are those in which
of 5 cents (Id.) for printed matter,
;
sent
by telephone.
Description of
Offices.
5i
105
-S
^
05
GOVEKNMBNT
Post and telegraph offices Post offices where there are also
. . . .
50
military telephones
Other post
offices
Wireless stations
Sub-post offices where there arc Sub-telegraph offices
.... ....
:
S.
Celebes
2 18 57
14
6
Railway telegraph
Offices of S.
system
Offices of S. Celebes civil telephone
Other sub-post offices Sub-telegraph offices with no assistant post

office
Railway and tramway telegraphs with for warding offices Railway telegraph office with no postal
service Offices of S.
,
.
.
..... .....
.
offices
Celebes military telephone
system
37
45
1
....
.
237
30
Celebes military telephone system with no sub-post office Offices of S. Celebes civil telephone system with no sub-post office
offices of
Telephone
Inland Administration
offices
.
15
Total number of State
457
1G2
Private
Railway telegraph Telephone offices ^
offices'
.
54 36
.
176
14
Total number of
offices
547
428
COMMUNICATIONS
Fost Office Savings Bank. In 1914 a total of 621,14:9 was paid into the East Indian Post Office Savings Bank, and
710,959 was withdrawn, thus giving an adverse balance of 23,210, but the undertaking shows a credit balance of 605,747 during the period between 1898 (when it was started) and 1914.
In the
latter year there
were 104,328 European, 90,348 native,
and 9,104 foreign Oriental depositors. At the end of the year a large number of deppsitors (80,604) had a balance of under
10 guilders (16s. 8d.).
CHAPTER XIV
HISTORY
I.FROM
EARLY TIMES TO THE DUTCH RESTORATION,

^Political
1814-18
Hindus in JavaRise of Mohammedanism -Europeans in the archipelago Dutch and English East India Companies situation, end of teenth century^Dutch monopolistic policy The Dutch East India Company, to 1798 The Commission of 1803 Daendels' Governor- GeneralshipAdministrative reforms of Daendels British conquest of Java, 1811 British occupation Thomas Stamford RafflesNative princes under the British occupation regime outside Java British reform of administration in Java
six:
^Raffles'
Restoration of the Dutch colonies.
as Netherlands India has from the earliest times had its centre in Java, and it begins with the establishment of a Hindu civilization in that island. When the first Hindu colonists arrived cannot be definitely ascertained, but it is conjectured that commercial relations between India and Java existed at the beginning of the Christian era. From the fact that remains the splendid architectural remains for which the island is remarkable are more numerous in East and Central Java it may be assumed that it was in these regions that traders and political adventurers from India first gained a footing. It is true, however, that among the few remains in the west is the oldest stone, bearing the date 654. But either because of the hostility of the natives of the Sunda lands (as the districts in the west were originally called in contradistinction to the land of Java), or through the unhealthy conditions prevailing in the lowlands of Bantam and Jacatra, the first colonists were diverted to the
The
history of the region
Hindus in Java now known
The civilizing influence of the eastern half of the island. Hindus abolished many of the outward appearances of savagery, promoted social order, introduced a flourishing art and
industry, and established a political society of great power. The island kept in touch with the religious life of India, and
the remains attest the contemporaneous existence of both
430
HISTORY
Sivaism and Buddhism, although the former, probably, was the first to arrive. In one form or the other the Hindu religious ideas were eventually adopted by the natives practically throughout the island. The latter were first placed in the lowest caste of the Sudras, and became socially and politically sharply divided off from their Hindu conquerors. On the
broad basis of some form of agricultural organization, possibly the village community, there was imposed a feudal superstructure. The suzerain prince exercised direct sway over only
a small tract of territory, but, as far as he was able, he compelled This involved the attendance of his vassals at his Court. constant warfare and also the passing of political supremacy from one dynasty to another. The history of Java of this period, as far as it can be relied on, tends to follow the transition of the suzerainty from one important state to another, but this does not exclude the strong probability of the existence, contemporaneously with the suzerain state, of numerous other kingdoms of importance. Wars and the rise and fall of kingdoms did not prevent Java from becoming economically prosperous, and the Hindus are reputed to have improved the rice culture, to have introduced new cultures, and to have carried on the industries of spinning, weaving, and metal working, and a brisk shipping trade which took them as far as China and India. The Portuguese found the Javanese colony at Malacca so strong that it had a government and a political status of its own.
From
is
inscriptions, Chinese sources,
to be gathered that the first
place in the
first century of time onwards powerful kingdoms were formed chiefly in Central Java and the Solo valley. One kingdom only of note, Payayaran, was founded in Western Java. What is now the
and native chronicles it Hindu settlement in Java took the Christian era, and from that
Residency of Surabaya was the seat of the greatest of Hindu kingdoms, Majapahit, which with the assistance of Chinese The forces under Mongol generals was founded about 1295. rulers- of Majapahit extended their sway not only over all Java proper but also beyond the seas to the Malay states in Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula, and to Bali. The remains of the Majapahit capital, the royal residential quarter, the palaces, baths, and waterworks, give an impression of the great
size
and splendour
of the last of the great
Hindu Kingdoms
in
FROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
431
432
Java.
HISTORY
Intercourse with China seems to have been frequent,
in the fourteenth century colonies of Chinese merchants
and
existed in Grisee, Tuban, and Surabaya.
Rise of Mohammedanism
Although Islam did not become a about A. D. 1400 it probably made
political force in
its first
Java
until
appearance in the early as the ninth century. At that time Malay Archipelago as there were already in existence Arab colonies in Chinese ports, and a revolt which broke out in China in the latter part of the century had the effect of diverting Arab commerce, among other places, to Palembang. Here Islam made its first Javanese
converts.
There
century,
is
no evidence
of
any important development
of the
Mohammedan movement in Java until the end of the fourteenth

when
fell
the government of a
to Islam.
Majapahit
of
into the hands either of
number of vassal states Arab adventurers or

to
of of
Hindu converts
have been men enterprise and intelligence much superior to the Hindu-
The Arabs seem
Javanese, and besides possessing a greater capacity for administration, they obtained, through their religious fanaticism, the reputation of possessing supernatural powers. These qualities impressed the local rajahs into whose families the Arabs
married, and whose government in many cases they usurped. An early apostle of Islam was Raden Rachmat, of Arab descent, whose uncle by marriage was the reigning prince of Majapahit. One account states that Rachmat converted his
uncle,
who became
fief
granted the bear the Mohammedan

of
in secret a Mohammedan. Rachmat was Ampel and was the first Javanese ruler to
title of susuhunan. Another Arab, Mulana Ishak, came to Ampel, nowthe head-quarters of Mohammedanism in Java, and then proceeded to Balambangan where
local prince,
he effected a supposed miraculous cure of the daughter of the and eventually married her. Their son, Raden Paku, built a mosque at Giri and, at the same time, acquired a political influence so great that, after the death of Rachmat, he succeeded to the sovereignty of Ampel and Grisee. In this way he became the founder of the spiritual power of the priest-princes of Giri and acquired the status of pope of the
' '
Javanese Mohammedans.
son of Rachmat settled in
Rem-
FROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
433
434
HISTORY
bang, and his brother became Susuhunan of Drajat in Sidayu. The most important of the Mohammedan establishments was at Demak, where Raden Patah son of Aria Damar, regent of Palembang, obtained a tract of territory as a fief of Majapahit. He received the title of adipati or governor. On the death of Susuhunan Rachmat in 1467 there were eight Mohammedan chiefs in Java, including those of Giri, Bonang in Rembang, Drajat and Jati. This last-named chief is said to have converted the Sunda lands. The funeral of the Susuhunan of Ampel, it seems, was used as an opportunity of discussing the plans of a conspiracy to overthrow the suzerain state of Majapahit. There was not altogether a straight issue between Mohammedanism and Hinduism, since when war broke out in 1468 Husein, the Mohammedan brother of Raden Patah of Demak, appeared in the field as commander-in-chief of the army of Majapahit. At first the Mohammedan forces under Raden Patah were not successful, and once they were badly beaten, but the resourcefulness of this prince kept the combination together. After further preparations Majapahit fell
before the
Mohammedan army, and Husein was forced
to
come
This is supposed to have happened about 1478, and at any rate not later than 1488. It cannot be supposed that the Hindu djniasty of Majapahit was at this time totally exterminated. Hindu influence, having its centre in Bali, prevailed in the extreme east of Java for seyeral cento terms with the victors.
turies after this time.
In western Java the centre of

Cheribon, where the
Jati
Mohammedan power was at Mohammedan chief known as Gunung
had established himself. His son Hasan, who had married a Demak about 1526, conquered Jacatra and then moved on tQ Bantam, where he had little trouble in making
princess from
converts.
equally successful in Sumatra, where the Lampong acknowledged his sovereignty. He made a treaty with the Rajah of Indrapura by which the Benkulen River became the boundary between their territories. His missionary campaign seems to have been favoured by a widespread revival of Mohammedan enthusiasm throughout the archipelago, combined with a general revolt against the imperial yoke of
districts
He was
Majapahit. On his return from Sumatra, Hasan subjugated Payayaran.
FROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
435
Hinduism survived in these regions, but gradually diminished until its few remaining adherents practised their religion only with the consent of the Mohammedan Sultans of Bantam. For some time after the overthrow of Majapahit the princes
Demak were undisputed leaders of Mohammedan Java, but a division of their dominions led subsequently to war and the passing of the supremacy to the Sultans of Payang. Among their vassals were the Adipatis of Surabaya who seceded from their former overlords the princes of Madura. Towards the end of the sixteenth century the overlordship of Payang was in its turn destroyed by the rulers of the powerful vassal state of Mataram. Under Sultan Ageng of Mataram the resistance
of
of the turbulent Adipatis of
princes of Grisee at
and the
chiefs of Kediri
Surabaya and his allies the priestwas for the time being,
of
any rate, broken. The Sultan now directed his attention to the State
Bantam,
over which he claimed to be suzerain as the inheritor of the authority exercised over all Java by the princes of Demak. Bantam resisted this pretension and made counter claims to the overlordship of Preanger and Cheribon. For the purpose of furthering his schemes against Bantam Ageng approached the Dutch, and the subsequent history of the State is involved with Dutch activities (see below, p. 448), but it may be stated here that at his death in 1645, Sultan Ageng left the empire of Mataram at its highest point. Normally, internal dissensions would have eventually brought it to the fate which had befallen all previous empires in Java, but European influence, now beginning to make itself felt in native affairs, was destined to give a new direction to Javanese political life:
Europeans in the Archipelago

The Portuguese
The first European to penetrate into the East Indian Archipelago was the Venetian, Marco Polo, who in 1290 visited Sumatra. In 1323, an Italian monk, Odoric of Pordenone,
arrived in Java, and about a century later another Venetian, Nicolo Conti, made a short stay in the island. The Europeans,
however, who first recognized the economic possibilities of the region were the Portuguese, who through the Arabs had become acquainted with the spice trade. At the end of the fifteenth
Ee
436
HISTORY
century and the beginning of the sixteenth a series of expeditions under royal patronage made their way round the Cape of Good Hope, to the ports of India. In 1508 Alfonso d'Albuquerque dispatched to Sumatra an expedition under Sequeira, who also made a call at Malacca, the emporium of the East Indies. Among the concourse of Oriental traders gathered there were numerous Javanese, who formed two large self-governing colonies under the supreme authority of the local Malay Sultan. It was with their help that Albuquerque in 1510, with a fleet of nineteen ships, succeeded in making himself master of the town. This conquest caused much consternation among those nations which had hitherto divided among them the East Indian trade, and many attempts were made to expel the interlopers. The dispossessed Sultan and his allies from Bantam made the first essay, the Javanese from East Java made three attempts, and the Sultan of Achin in Sumatra no less than seven. The Portuguese, however, successfully resisted these attacks until the town was ultimately captured by the Dutch, in 1641. Meanwhile the Portuguese lost no time in gaining their second objective, the Moluccas, In the same year that Malacca was taken, Antonio d'Abreu reached Amboina and brought back a cargo of cloves. By 1521 the Portuguese had established themselves at Ternate, Tidore, and Banda. At the two first places they were well received, but were soon at enmity with the local rulers, one of whom, the Iving of Tidore, had his
capital destroyed.
The
first
governors of the Moluccas,
who
held their
office
subject to the authority of the Viceroy of Portuguese India,
were notorious for their high-handed proceedings, and for their cruel treatment of the native rulers. During the regime of Menezes, civil war broke out among the Portuguese themselves. The acts of one of the worst governors, D'Ataida (1530), resulted in the formation of a formidable league of Moluccan chiefs, who massacred many Europeans and by a stringent blockade almost reduced the garrison at Ternate. The advent of Antonio Galvan in 1536 somewhat relieved the situation, and after defeating the Moluccan alhes in battle, he adopted a conciliatory policy towards the natives. He also inaugurated a missionary movement which made several converts, and was revived later. However, the natives who were more deeply
interested in the control of the spice trade
the
Javanese,
FROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
437
Makassarese, and Bandanese made a formidable attempt in 1537 to destroy their European rivals, but were signally defeated in a naval engagement.
The beneficent rule of Galvan provided only a temporary relief and after his departure the old policy of ruthless repression was again adopted by the
for the natives of the Moluccas,
Portuguese governors. Intermittent warfare now ensued in Ternate and Tidore, and in 1581 the Portuguese were driven out of the former island.
The Spanish
After Magellan's passage round Cape Horn to the Far East, the Spanish had laid claim to the Moluccas under the Treaty of
Tordesillas (1494), and reinforcements soon arrived to enforce their pretensions. In 1528, however, they were bought out and
their sphere of activity
the Spice Islands.
was relegated to a region well east of 1580 Portugal was incorporated in Spain the Spaniards assumed control over operations in the Moluccas, which they directed from their settlements in the
When in
Philippines.
Several expeditions attempted to reduce the Moluccas, but without success until, in 1606, Ternate and Tidore were recaptured and their rulers deported.
The English
In 1579 Sir Francis Drake arrived at Ternate and Bantam, and in 1587 he was followed by Thomas Cavendish. The defeat
of the Spanish
Armada
inspired English sailors with greater
daring,
caster.
and a
fleet of
three vessels was fitted out under Lan-
In 1591 the one vessel surviving reached Sumatra and
among the natives by plundering Portuguese ships in the Straits of Malacca.

created an unfavourable impression
The Dutch
The nation which reaped the fullest benefit from the defeat Armada. was the Dutch. Before the incorporation of Portugal in Spain, they had acted as middlemen for the distribution in central European markets of the spice cargoes which the Portuguese brought to Lisbon. With the ascendancy of the Spanish in Portugal, this trade had been prohibited, and Dutch merchants were faced with ruin. The defeat of the Armada, however, opened up the direct route to the East,
of the
438
HISTORY
special
of the
knowledge of the cDmmercial East Indian trade soon made use of their opportunity. A company was formed by Amsterdam merchants, and in April 1595 a fleet of four vessels under Cornells Houtman set out, and after a call at Bantam and a cruise along the coast of Java, the expedition arrived back at Texel in August 1597. A second expedition which sailed in May 1598 made a more profitable voyage and estabhshed a connexion with the Moluccas. The success of these first ventures caused considerable excitementin Holland, and many companies were formed for the purpose of exploiting the trade
in the Indies.
and the Dutch with their possibilities and methods
Dutch and English East India Companies

In 1602 the States-General itself took up the matter and convened a meeting of the directors of the various enterprises, when it was decided to amalgamate them into one association to be known as the Dutch East India Company. From the very first, therefore, the Dutch Company bore a national character, and entered the struggle for the monopoly of the spice trade with all the prestige and resources of the State behind it. In contrast with the Dutch, the English East India Company was a private enterprise, relying oq its own comparatively small resources and conscious that it would receive little support from the State. Its expeditions were fewer in number, its fleets not so strong or well-equipped, and its merchants were
in every sense adventurers, picking
up a cargo and establishing a factory wherever opportunity ofEered. They were dependent for trade on the caprice of the native princes with whom they came in contact often they were compelled to shift the sites
;
of their factories or submit to extortionate exactions,
generally they could not hope for a stable
and and increasing

instructed
commerce.
The Company's
and
at the
authorities at
home
European same time to maintain their right to a free trade. Conditions being what they were it was found impossible to keep the peace either with the Europeans or the natives, and as the military strength of the Company was feeble,
their servants in the East to avoid friction with both
and
native,
its
trade suffered accordingly.
FROM EARLY TIMES TO

Political Sititation,
1818
439
End of Sixteenth Century
The political and general strategic situation which existed in the Indies at the time of the arrival of the English and Dutch is worthy of a brief description. The direct route into the archipelago from the western side was commanded by the Portuguese
in Malacca,
and the shipping of rival powers was constrained to keep to the west of Sumatra and make its entry through the Sunda Strait. This circumstance made the port of Bantam
important to the English and Dutch, and
it was there they This port possessed a further advantage in that it was ruled by a Sultan powerful enough to vindicate his authority in disputes between the rival European
made
their first head- quarters.
traders,
and in
particular to secure the English
and Dutch
against Portuguese aggression.
This was also true of the Sultan of Makassar in Celebes, who himself possessed a considerable interest in the spice trade. In the Spice Islands themselves the
political conditions
were different. Here the native chiefs were not so strong, and in the northern group the Portuguese had originally possessed themselves of much of the political power nominally exercised by the Sultan of Ternate over his dependencies in that region. In the southern groups the Portuguese had not made much headway, and there was offered a favourable field for the enterprise of rivals. What Portuguese infiuence still remained in the Moluccas was now exercised by the Spanish Governor of the Philippines. It is also necessary to remember that the East Indies was only a part of a wide area of commercial activity, embracing, in the west, continental India where the English, Dutch, and Portuguese all had settlements, and in the north China and Japan, with which countries the three European Powers had entered into commercial relations. The main objective of the English and Dutch was the Moluccas, and political conditions in that region were favourable to an attack on the Portuguese spice monopoly. The Portuguese policy of almost unrelieved ruthlessness had so embittered the Moluccan natives that everywhere there was a disposition to welcome their enemies. Especially was this so in the southern
group,, where the Portuguese had made little impression. As early as 1600, treaties for the 'supply of cloves and of mutual defence were concluded by the Diftch with the loc^l chief of
Amboina, and in the following year a Spanish
fleet
was met
off
440
HISTORY
Banda and defeated. A check was experienced in 1606 in Ternate and Tidore, but a treaty of the following year arranged for a Dutch protectorate in Ternate. As compensation for their services against the Spaniards and the Portuguese the Dutch
were to receive the entire clove product of the island. This treaty is also interesting as affording a glimpse of Dutch policy in the East. It was agreed that the Dutch should support the pretensions of the Sultan of Ternate to a suzerainty over various islands in both groups of the Moluccas and even territories in Celebes. This is typical of a general policy which in relations with native States aimed at the erection of a single stable authority with whom it would be possible to enter into contracts with some guarantee of their fulfilment. Thus in 1609 when the question arose of the price to be paid for cloves to the chief of Hitu in Amboina, it was agreed to refer the matter to the arbitration of their overlord the Sultan of Ternate.
The policy
of
'
divide
and
rule
',
so often ascribed to the

is
Dutch
only true of them when on the defensive. Faction or other insecmrity in native politics meant civil war and a change of government, with the consequent repudiation of contracts and a state of affairs in which it was impossible to |)ursue a prosperous trade. The early fighting in the Moluccas resulted in the Dutch gaining a firm foothold in Amboina and Banda, besides securing the ascendancy in the old Portuguese head-quarters at Ternate. Tidore continued in Spanish possession for some time. Meanwhile, in concert with the Sultan of Achin, the Dutch made various attacks on Malacca, and while they were unsuccessful in their main object they badly damaged a fleet sent in 1606 by the Portuguese Viceroy of India to the relief of the city. In 1608 an armistice between Portugal and the Netherlands was signed, and this arranged for a cessation of hostilities for twelve years. iThe English, meanwhile, were not neglecting the opportunity to some degree made for them by the Dutch. The traders of the two nations, when they were as yet weak in the Indies, tended to make common cause against the powerful commercial interest of Spain and Portugal. The peace concluded by King James with Spain in 1604, together with the disinclination of the English Cohipany to incur the charges of an organized warfare, practically made the English merchants
in their dealings with the natives,
FROM EARLY TIMES TO

spectators of the
1818
441
Dutch struggle with the Portuguese, and later with the Moluccan natives. In 1611 the exactions of the native Governor of Bantam had induced the Dutch to arrange for the establishment of new head-quarters at Jacatra, then ruled by a vassal of Bantam. 'By this time they had established many posts in the southern group of the Moluccas, at the chief of which, in the Amboina group, they possessed four factories and one fort.
Dutch Monopolistic Policy

The Dutch policy of monopoly became more manifest, and it was evident that it was directed as much against the English as the Portuguese. This policy bore heavily not only on European and Oriental trade rivals, but on the Moluccan natives themselves. These had been accustomed to secure many of the necessities of life from the Javanese, Makassarese, Chinese, and merchants of Gujarat, but under the monopolistic regime they had to accept what they could get from the Dutch. This condition of affairs provoked considerable discontent in Amboina and Banda. The Bandanese especially were by no means ready to submit without a struggle, and they were a constant menace to the Dutch garrison on Ban\ia Neira. In 1614 they revolted, but the rising was suppressed. Various attempts to defeat the Dutch monopoUstic policy, and to establish an independent post in the Banda Islands, were made by the English between the years 1614 and 1619, but without success. An attempt at co-operation at the new Dutch head-quarters at Jacatra and in the Moluccas only accentuated differences, and for all practical purposes broke down with the
massacre of Amboina (1623). This notorious incident followed upon a native revolt in Run and in Ceram, which had been ruthlessly suppressed by the Dutch. The English were accused, possibly with justification, of abetting the rebels, and in Dutch minds the suspicion arose that the English had allied with the native chiefs with a view of expelling the Dutch altogether. In Amboina the staff of the English Company was accused, in 1623, of conspiring with Japanese soldiers to seize the Dutch By means of torture a confession of guilt was extorted fort. from the prisoners, and, with one or two exceptions, the whole
staff
was condemned and executed.
Eventually the English were compelled to restrict their trade
442
to places like
HISTORY
Bantam, Makassar, Achin, and Jambi, where they enjoyed the protection of native princes. The Portuguese and others were driven to adopt a similar expedient, and by the middle of the seventeenth century the Dutch were left with a commercial .field clear of all European competition.
The Dutch East India Company, to

Political Activities
1798
During
this period the
Dutch were
also
in the politics of the native States of the archipelago.
becoming involved That the
Company had foreseen the possibility of activities in a political capacity can be gathered from their constitution, by which they were authorizedto build forts, recruit soldiers, and conclude treaties. At first their executive authority rested with the Admiral of the Fleet, but as early as 1609 a Governor-General, assisted by a Council for the Indies, was appointed to administer the affairs of the Company in the East. As communication with Holland was not at that time easy it can be seen that
enormous power would soon devolve on the local executive, whose functions under the masterful Koen tended to be concentrated in the hands of the Governor-General. It has already been noted that while the directors at Amsterdam desired a
peaceful policy towards the English their instructions, through
were ignored by the officials in the In the same way Koen, in opposition to a pohcy of peace towards native States, urged the necessity of securing and promoting the Company's interests by means of war. The explanation of the Company's political pohcy is almost invariably to be found in a consideration of their economic interests, and their political problems can thus be divided conveniently into two the first of which is that connected with the spice trade the second, that involved in the economic
stress of circumstances,
East.
exploitation of Java.
Relations with the Moluccas
:
Makassar, Ternate,
dhc.
The first problem, that of the spice trade, is concerned with the establishment of Dutch political ascendancy in the Spice Islands themselves. One aspect of this, the destruction of
European competition, has already been treated. It now remains to give an account of the Dutch relations with the
PROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
443
444:
HISTORY
of
Molucca islanders themselves and with the State
Makassar
in Celebes, whose influence inMoluccan politics was considerable.
The general dislike of the Spaniards and Portuguese ensured a favourable reception for the Dutch on their arrival in the Moluccas. Their first tactics were to ally themselves with the Sultan of Ternate, and their policy was to defend him against the Spaniards against whom he was in revolt, and enforce his
claim to suzerainty over various islands in the Moluccas. The object of this policy was to erect a single authority with whom
Company could contract for the whole of the spice crop. paper this was a comfortable arrangement, but in practice it entailed constant fighting and the renewal of treaties. Apart from the wavering loyalty of the Sultan himself there remained the difficulty of enforcing his authority throughout his widelythe
On
scattered empire.
the numerous treaties between the natives and the can be gathered that the Sultan exercised a feudal suzerainty over several islands in the northern groups of the
From
Dutch
it
Moluccas besides the rajahs and chiefs of the northern arm of Celebes, in the Sula group and in some parts of Halmaheira. In the south the Sultan's viceroy, or himekbha, administered territories which appear to have been conquests partly of Ternate and partly of the Dutch, who for convenience ceded them to the Sultan. These included Ceram, Amboina, Buru, and Ambelau, other smaller islands being added at intervals. The Bandanese at first maintained their independence, as did the Tidorese, with Spanish help, in the north. Two other islands in the same chain as Tidore and Ternate, Bachian and Machian, were also independent. This chain of islands seems to have been for many centuries the centre of political power in the Moluccas. They were also, under the Portuguese, the chief place for the export of spices.
The strong
political position of the
North Moluccan
States,
however, was an obstacle in the way of the Dutch plan of complete control of the spice trade. Local Sultans were liable to break their contracts and the native Government prevented any strict supervision of the spice cultivation. In consequence, Dutch commerce gravitated to the southern groups of Banda, Amboina, and Ceram. Over these regions the authority exercised by the kimelaha (viceroy) on behalf of the Sultan of Ternate, became only nominal, all the real power being in the
FROM EARLY TIMES TO

;
1818
445
hands of the Dutch the pretence of the Sultan's suzerainty was maintained only for the purpose of enlisting his help in case of rebellion. The seat of the Dutch Government was at Fort Victoria in Amboina, where a Lieutenant-Governor and a Council resided. The Governor's jurisdiction comprised the islands of Ceram, Buru, Ambelau, Keelang, Bena, Ceram Laut, and other small islands. His powers were at first chiefly commercial, but in 1637 we find him imposing export duties and issuing regulations concerning smuggling. In 1649 the Dutch Lieutenant-Governor was appointed viceroy of the Sultan of Ternate in place of the native kimelaha, and when the clove cultivation was restricted to the southern groups of the Moluccas
this official
became of still greater importance. Banda ^ten in number were in a different position. They owed no allegiance to Ternate, and entered into contracts with the Dutch as free agents. The seat of the Dutch Government was at Fort Nassau on Banda Neira. The Dutgh claimed that a treaty of 1609 had made them owners of the islands, but, to this the natives did not agree. There was a rebellion in 1614, and later the Dutch, in 1621, proposed to the English members of the Council of Defence a joint conquest of Banda. The English declined to co-operate, and the Dutch alone proceeded to crush in the most ruthless fashion the resistance of the Bandanese. Thereafter, the islands were ruled by a Dutch Governor. When the work of establishing their ascendancy in one form or another in all the spice-producing regions had been accomphshed, and the supply of cloves, nutmegs, and other spices exclusively to the Dutch had been ensured, it was decided to restrict cultivation with the object of keeping up the price in Europe. Amboina and the Uliasser Islands were to be devoted to clove cultivation, and nutmegs were to be grown in Banda.
The
islands of
This policy also involved the destruction of the spice trees in the northern Moluccas, and although it was intended that some measure of compensation should be granted the natives were
naturally opposed to a proposal which threatened their means of livelihood. In Ternate a revolt broke out, and in time the
Moluccas were affected. Behind the native movement lay the power of the Sultan of Makassar whose interests were equally imperilled. The authorities at Batavia recognized in the numerous local risings a widespread movement threaten-
whole
of the
446
HISTORY
ing the existence of the Company in the Spice Islands, and they dispatched every available man under De Vlaming van Ouds-
who was invested with the title of Superintendent Commissioner of the Three Eastern Regencies. This official not only destroyed the spice trees but cut off food supplies and deported whole populations, and, in spite >of the menace of a Makassarese fleet in 1654, accomplished the conquest of Tidore. A state of war between the Dutch and Makassar, only interrupted by indecisive treaties, continued until peace was negohoorn,
tiated in 1669.
The Bongay Contract
The final treaty embodied the arrangement arrived at in 1667 which is known as the Bongay Contract. The Sultan abandoned his political pretensions to the Moluccas and the islands to the east of Lombok. The seaborne trade of Makassar was restricted mainly to countries westward of Celebes and was only possible with Dutch permits. The import trade into Makassar became a monopoly in Dutch hands to the complete exclusion of all Europeans, Arabs from Java, Malays, Achinese, and Siamese. A Dutch fortress was to be established at Jupandan and Dutch money was made current in Makassar. This treaty was made the basis of the Dutch relationship with all the Makassarese vassals in Celebes and elsewhere, and it marks the complete success of the Dutch attempts to establish a monopoly of the spice trade. The history of subsequent relations between the Company and their possessions in the Moluccas can be briefly described. When they found the assistance of the Sultan of Ternate superfluous, the Dutch began to strip him of his possessions, which they took under their own direct government. In 1683 all contracts with Ternate were declared void, and the chiefs received their lands as fiefs to be held directly from the Dutch. The same policy was pursued with the vassals of Tidore and Makassar, whose homage hitherto rendered to the suzerain Sultans was now transferred to the Company.
Political Relations of the
Company
in Java
A condition which had always been essential to the successful exploitation of the Moluccas was the possession of a base adjacent to the entrances to the archipelago, and supply
depots in convenient situations on the route to the Spice
FROM EARLY TIMES TO

Islands.
1818
447
The considerations which impelled both English and up their head-quarters at Bantam have already been narrated, and both nations, like the Portuguese before them, had established supply depots at ports in East Java. The political relations with the native states of Bantam and Mataram which ensued as a consequence of these settlements, are specially important as the beginning of the Dutch relation-
Dutch
to set
ship with native Java.
Bantam, when the Dutch first arrived in 1596, was ruled by a governor, Mangku Bumi by name, and on the death of Mohammed (grandson of Hasan ed-Din), then absent on a campaign against Palembang, this governor became regent on behalf of the infant heir. The success of the first Dutch visit was marred by the intrigues of the Portuguese, but on their
return friendly relations with the governor were restored. In 1603 a lodge was built and the port became the rallying point
for
for a time civil
In 1608 Mangku Bumi was murdered, and war ensued between the party of the new regent, Manggala, and the Bantamese nobility. Among thb latter was the chief of Jacatra, and with him Verhoeff, in order to anticipate any unfriendly treatment from the new regent,
Dutch
ships.
entered into negotiations with regard to a settlement at Jacatra. When, as had been expected, Manggala began an oppressive policy towards the Europeans, an agreement was made in 1611 with the Bantamese vassal of Jacatra by which the Dutch were permitted to settle in this hitherto insignificant They did not abandon their post in Bantam, and for port. many years they were in doubt as to which of the two places should be made the head-quarters. The new settlement further enraged Manggala, who increased his exactions and was guilty of various outrages on Dutch sailors. There was a division of opinion on the subject of the complete abandonment of Bantam. Governor-General Raeal
favoured a conciliatory policy towards the Bantamese authorities, while his subordinate. Keen, urged removal to Jacatra and hostilities against both the English and Bantamese. Matters were brought to a head by the joint attack on the Dutch settlement at Jacatra by the local chief and the English, which, as has been seen, failed owing to the intervention of the Bantamese regent. The chief of Jacatra was driven from his
capital, which,
under the name of Batavia, became the
sole
448
HISTORY
property of the Dutch and the head-quarters of their East Indian commerce. Chinese colonists came from Bantam, and in 1620 a bailiff and five sheriffs were administering Dutch
laws.
necessary to turn to the settlements of the comcame in contact with the state of Mataram. Their first settlement on this region was at Grisee, established in 1602. Here in 1612 they fell foul of their competitors the Javanese traders who acted as intermediaries
It is
now
pany
to the westwards where it
for the Portuguese in obtaining spices
from Banda.
Complaint
was made to the Adipati of Surabaya. The latter governed all north-east Java as a vassal of Mataram, but at this time he was engaged in one of his many revolts against his overlord. In the fighting which ensued Grisee was destroyed (1613), and with it the Dutch factory. At the invitation of the Japara chiefs the Dutch made a new depot at their capital. Here both set up a factory to accumulate rice stocks for the supply of ships bound for the Moluccas. On the death of Sultan Krapiyak in 1614, the regent Ageng granted permission for the building of forts at Japara and Jaratan. It seemed that Ageng wished to treat them favourably, and he made promises of building materials and rice. Owing to pre-occupation with the wars against the rebellious Adipati of Surabaya, Ageng did not fulfil his promises, and even refused to see Dutch deputations. In 1618 the lodge at Japara was attacked, most of the garrison was massacred, and the leaders were sent as prisoners to Mataram. Koen retaliated by sending two expeditions to destroy Japara, and as this had no effect the Dutch allied themselves with the Adipati of Surabaya and assisted in the defence of Grisee. This action brought Sultan Ageng to terms, and his prisoners were released. He even went so far as to propose an alliance against Bantam, but as the Dutch were now secure in Batavia they had no wish to destroy an effective counterpoise to the great power of Mataram. In order to force the Dutch from their policy of neutrality Ageng withheld rice supplies and caused a serious shortage in Batavia. As the price of a renewal of the supply Ageng demanded Dutch This recognition of his supremacy, but this was refused. attitude, coupled with their policy in relation to Bantam, The Bantamese, fearing either finally caused a rupture.
FROM EARLY TIMER TO
1818
449
a hostile combination of Mataram and the Company or the seizure of Batavia by Ageng, made an attempt on the latter place themselves, but were unsuccessful.
Meanwhile the army of Mataram in 1629 moved in force against Batavia and fighting raged in the neighbourhood of the town- from August to February of the next year. By this
time Ageng's army was so wasted by disease and privation that it was withdrawn and diverted against Cheribon. These extensive operations alarmed the Prince of Bantam (the governor had resigned in 1624), who expected soon to feel the whole brunt of the Susuhunan's attack, and he made an alliance with the Dutch. In August 1630 Ageng returned to the attack, but again the ravages of disease compelled his
retirement, after suffering heavy losses. These two victories enhanced the prestige of the Company, and many of the inhabitants of the Batavian hinterland placed themselves under Dutch protection. Already, in 1620, the Company had declared
itself to
be the proprietor of the
slice of territory stretching
from sea to sea and enclosed by Cheribon in the east and Bantam
in the west.
A peace policy towards Mataram was now inaugurated, but Ageng's retention of Dutch prisoners impelled Governor General Brouwer to incite the princes of Bali to make war on Mataram. In this he was unsuccessful, and he was finally compelled to recognize Ageng as Supreme Lord of all Java. On Brouwer's recall friendly relations were established in 1636 with Bantam on the basis of the Dutch retention of the spice monopoly. When in 1638, as a result of the assumption on the part of the Bantamese prince of the title of Sultan, Ageng again attempted to inveigle the Dutch into a hostile combination against that state, he was again met with a refusal. So far, the Company's objective had been the monopoly of the spice trade, and to this end it had been compelled to engage in wars in the Moluccas, in Celebes, and in Java. The authorities at Batavia hoped that once their monopoly in spices was made secure and their head-quarters and supply depots in Java were immune from attack, their political commitments would cease. But the prospect of economic aggrandizement in other directions drew them on into activities which eventually involved their assumption of political sovereignty over the whole of Java. A hint as to the nature of this new
NBTHBBI/ANPS INDIA
J"
450
HISTORY
economic development has already been given. One of the first commodities shipped to Europe in the Company's vessels had been the pepper produced in Bantam and in the Lampong districts of Sumatra. This trade was shared by other European nationalities, such as English, Portuguese, French, and Danes, not to speak of a host of Oriental native merchants, and it can be seen that in their desire to exclude this competition the Dutch would be inevitably drawn into a policy of intervention in the politics of Bantam. In the same way the Company were dependent upon the goodwill of the Government of Mataram for the supplies of rice needed to victual the garrisons of the Moluccas, besides Batavia itself. These supplies were granted and withheld in so capricious a fashion, and through devastating wars were so much interfered with, that in order to avoid the danger of famine the Dutch were compelled to obtain
Mataram.
sooner or later some sort of control over the Government of In both these cases the Batavian authorities were
impressed by the possibilities of a more extensive cultivation which later they extended to crops like coffee, indigo, and others introduced from abroad towards the end of the seventeenth century. Culture on this scale involved control over the native population and also over the native political organizations, which in past years had been devoted to the exaction of produce from the cultivators for the benefit of the native rulers. So the Company, although earnestly desiring peaceful relations with the natives, were by their commercial rapacity drawn into diplomatic intrigues, extensive campaigns, and territorial aggrandizement. The political arena into which they entered hafe already been Briefiy, there were three independent states in described.
for export, a policy
Java when the Dutch first settled there. Bantam in the west, sway over a large area, was yet powerful enough not only to maintain its independence but to set up as rival to its greater neighbour, Mataram, with which it was always at enmity. The empire of Mataram under Sultan Ageng embraced all Java except Bantam in the west and the sparsely populated country of Balambangan in the east, which rendered an intermittent homage to the princes of Bali. It was characteristic of Bantam and in a greater degree of Mataram that their power had been acquired and continued to be maintained by a succession of wars either between the
while not exercising
FROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
451
overlord and his vassals or between different members of the reigning house. In the case of Mataram it has already been observed that the sovereign's control over the provinces ruled by the Adipati of Surabaya was always of the slightest kind,
and had The same
to be constantly re-established
is
true of the chief? in Madura,
by force of arms. who play a prominent
part in subsequent history. Such, briefly, is the political situation into which the Dutch trading company entered, possessed of military resources which, in 1620, consisted of 1,500 men, of whom 400 only were in Java. In the course of fifty years the army in Java increased to 1,000, while the total force in the East Indies amounted in the eighteenth century to 10,000 men. The force was always small compared with the enormous numbers of the native armies, but the reason of its success is to be found in the opportunities afforded to diplomacy. The constant dissensions among the native princes enabled the Dutch to ally themselves with one side or the other. Alone they were strong enough to act on the <iefensive, but allied with a native faction they were able to wage offensive operations on a large scale. For forty years after Sultan Ageng's unsuccessful attempt on Batavia the Dutch were at peace with Mataram. On the Sultan's death in 1645 the Company became the ally and mainstay of his successors, from whom they extracted valuable
commercial privileges, and extended their territories. As reward for assistance lent to Susuhunans, as the rulers of a Mataram were now entitled, against their rebellious subjects and the ambitious prince of Madura, the Dutch gained control of the harbours along the north coast of Java and pushed their eastern frontier to the River Pamunukan (1678). A few years later a pro-English Sultan of Bantam was deposed and Europeans expelled from his kingdom. Commercial privileges, including the right to all the pepper produce, were obtained by the Company from the new Sultan, who became a Dutch dependent (1685). In Madura also the Dutch became paramount, though they were less successful in Balambangan in East Java, a vassal state of BaU. Although the Company had made its influence felt throughout the whole length of Java, it was far from being able to exercise any close control even over a large part of the territory nominally subject to its political authority. It was not at this time,
Ff 2
452
HISTORY
of
its
commercial privileges, either work of government, and in that task was still left in the hands of native consequence regents. Its control over the independent states of Bantam and Mataram was limited to a garrison at the courts of the respective rulers, who, when the need of protection against their own subjects had disappeared, were ready enough to repudiate their obligations to the Company. Apart from the attitude of the ruler of Mataram, an important consideration was the temper of his many and powerful vassals who did not For in the least consider themselves bound by his policy. instance, the Madurese chiefs, the Adipati of Surabaya, and the chiefs in Kediri and Malang, besides the Balinese regents of Balambangan, who at all times had given trouble to Mataram, were not likely to be more indulgent towards a Susuhunan
beyond the enforcing
anxious or able to undertake the
who owed
trouble.
his throne to foreign interlopers.
The Susuhunan Amangu Rat
II himself
was the
first
to give
and gave shelter and honours to Surapati, an enemy of the Dutch, and much against their will the Company was compelled to divert the succession to a representative of another branch of the family, which in 1704 was proclaimed Susuhunan Paku Buvana. Cheribon and Preanger were added fo the Company's territory, and these regions were organized with a view to the production of crops of cotton, indigo, and pepper. The position of the new Susuhunan during the following half -century had to be maintained by Dutch arms against the Adipatis of Surabaya, the followers of Surapati, and rebellious nobles in Mataram. The Susuhunan himself on occasion, as during the remarkable rebellion of the Chinese (1740), secretly supported the enemies of his hated patrons.
of his contracts,
He evaded carrying out the terms
War
ing
of Java, 1745-58
For over a century the Dutch pursued the policy of bolsterup the reigning dynasty of Mataram with a view to establishing one authority with whichvthey could deal and upon which they could rely for the fulfilment of contracts. The proud nobles of Mataram resented the presence in Java of an alien race to which they reckoned themselves equal in courage if not in guile. They viewed with chagrin the pusUlanimity of the reigning house, which by the latest treaty in its amplified
FROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
453
form had granted away almost all the northern coast districts from one end of Java to the other. (Tegal and Pekalongan, the only coastal districts remaining to the Susuhunan^ had been, in 1746, granted to the Company for an annual payment.) Moreover, the centralization of the Susuhunan's power had also had the effect of crystallizing the different elements of local opposition, and the unexpected result of the Dutch policy was to forge a political instrument destined to be used against themselves. That this opposition was already formidable had been made abundantly clear by the widespread sympathy of the Javanese with the Chinese revolt in 1740. Several of the principal Javanese opponents of the Dutch established themselves in the province of Sukawati. Here they were subsequently joined by malcontents from the court of Surakarta, Mangku Bumi, the Susuhunan's younger brother, and Mas Sayed, both energetic and experienced warriors. The creation of a formidable political power so near to the capital of Mataram was a menace to the integrity of the empire, and the Dutch were strongly opposed to it. Shortly afterwards, in 1745, began the War of Java. In 1747 Mangku Bumi tried to come to terms with the Dutch, but as his main condition was that he should be proclaimed Pangeran Adipati or Crown Prince of Mataram his offer was refused. In 1748 the Susu-
Company, to whom he The Pangeran Adipati was now proclaimed as Susuhunan Paku Buvana III, while Mangku Bumi, who had hitherto only pretended to the rank of Sultan of Mataram, had himself invested with great pomp as Susuhunan Paku Buvana Senapati Mataram. At this time Mangku Bumi was in possession of all Mataram, and he and Mas Sayed were even ravaging the immediate environs of Surakarta. With the help of the Madurese the Company's troops drove them into the southern mountains, but in 1751 the rebels again took the field and met with some success. The pretensions of Mas Sayed so irritated his fatherin-law that a serious dissension arose, and Mangku Bumi negotiated a separate peace with the Dutch. The latter, who realized that they could never achieve any permanent success against the guerilla warfare waged by the rebels in a country full of sympathizers, had to accept the inevitable and come to terms. They agreed to recognize Mangku Bumi's sovereignty
hunan abdicated
in favour of the
bequeathed the right
of the disposal of his dominions.
454
as Sultan of
HISTORY
Mataram, but as they had been bequeathed the
disposal of the late Susuhunan's dominions they induced the
new ruler to accept his share as an hereditary fief held directly from the Company. His territory was in extent slightly greater than that left to the Susuhunan, whose lands were so disposed as to enclose it on nearly every side. It remained to subdue the recalcitrant Mas Sayed, who continued to defend himself with great skill, but in 1758 he was induced to render homage to the Susuhunan in return for a
considerable grant of land to be held as a
writers this settlement
is
fief.
By some Dutch policy, but it seems clear that their course of action was forced upon them. In the first place they had no special desire to assume political sovereignty in Java while their commercial needs were supplied by a subservient native dynasty whose authority it was always their policy to maintain. This policy was defeated by the rebellious nobles of Mataram, and the supreme authority of a docile Susuhunan was brought to an end and after expending much blood and treasure in the effort to preserve it, the Company was compelled to recognize a new and powerful regime against which they had no safeguard but a
described as a triumph of
nominal suzerainty. There is little doubt that the War of Java, which began in 1745 and dragged on to 1757, through the
and the expenditure on warlike operations, was a very unprofitable venture for the Company, and contributed as much as anything to their
destruction and neglect of agriculture
eventual bankruptcy. The second half of the eighteenth centmy was a time of comparative peace in Java. At the beginning of this period there was some trouble in Bantam, where the Dutch endeavoured to maintain their nominee in the face of popular hostility, but
were compelled to compromise, though not without first extending their territory eastward and gaining a more secure hold on the pepper monopoly. In the extreme east also Dutch troops had to move against the Balinese regents in Balambangan, who, it was said, were the allies of the English. In order to prevent the latter from gaining control of the Bali Strait the Dutch head- quarters were established at Banyuwangi (1774). In the principalities of Central Java Dutch power was maintained largely through the agency of Mangku Bumi, since 1755 Sultan Amangku Buvana of Jokyakarta, who
FROM EARLY TIMES TO

as
1818
455
helped especially to check the ambitious Mas.Sayed, now known Amangku Nagara. This latter prince, besides the Susuhunan and the rulers of Bantam, Gheribon, and Madura, later came under the influence of the Wahabi movement, and it was only with the assistance of the Jokya prince that mischief was prevented. In Gheribon the princes were (1778) reduced to two, and these acted as servants of the Gompany in furthering the cultures which in this region were particularly profitable.
The Company's Administration
The territories subject to the direct rule of the Company were divided into two spheres of government. There was the old territory, consisting of Batavia, the Jacatra highlands, Krawang, and part of Preanger. Secondly there were the territories comprised in the government of the North-east Goast and East Point. From 1748 the North-east Goast was subject to a
Governor whose head-quarters were at Semarang. He was conveniently situated to deal with the native princes of Surakarta and Jokyakarta, the Residents of which places acted under his
commands. In native eyes the Governor of the North-east Goast became of greater importance than the Governor-General himself. His rank was made to equal that of the Sultan and Susuhunan, and his income, obtained in part from private trade, was enormous. Semarang, Demak, Kendal, and Kaliwangu were under his personal control. Between Gheribon and Kendal were the coast residencies of Tegal and Pekalongan, divided from each other by an estate leased out to the Ghinese captain of Semarang. To the east of Deinak were Japara, Javana, Rembang, while the Company's territory further to the east was called East Point. This division consisted of the regencies of Sidayu, Lamongan, Grisee, Surabaya, Porong, Banggil, Pasuruan, Malang, Ngantang, Banger, and West and East Balambangan. These were under a Director who in turn was subject to the Governor of the North-east Goast. Pasuruan and Banyuwangi were of necessity under the officers commanding the garrisons of those districts.
Madura, which belonged to Surabaya, was divided up into the regencies of Madura, Sumenep, and Pamekasan. The native regents were given the old titles of adipati and tumunggung in order to impress the native population, and, although only Gompany officials, were succeeded by their sons.
456
HISTORY
In this way a trading Company had developed into a Government, but its motives were still those of a business concern. Instead of buying and selling in a market in which it tended to enjoy a monopoly in both respects, as in the early days, it now depended for its stock in trade upon what was a political revenue thinly disguised. This revenue was obtained in two
ways by contingents and forced deliveries The first was a contribution levied on all the native regents and paid by them in recognition of Dutch political supremacy the second was a purchase of goods at a low price which the native regents
'
'
'
'.
were compelled to supply. If, has been said by some critics that the ruin of the Company was due to its change of character from trader to governor. It is probably true that the Company did better as a trader than as a governor, but it is to be borne in mind that the same canker affected it in both capacities. It was compelled to put forth
the most strenuous efforts to secure its trade monopoly against Gompetitors, and this effort had to be maintained for the
purpose of establishing a political supremacy. Meanwhile, the ease with which the monopoly once secured was administered sapped individual enterprise and even individual honesty, and led to wastefulness on a scale which, together with the expenditure on the maintenance of the monopoly, could not but end in bankruptcy. One beneficent result indirectly achieved was the gradual establishment of peace in Java. The severity of the discipline inflicted on the natives, both high and low, by the Company's commercial methods, while it was humiliating, yet had the effect of introducing habits of industry and social
orderliness.
Failure of the
Company
to lose on its Indian department not only swallowed contemporary profits in Europe, but also the total retrospective profits. In 1730 the trade in Europe began to show loss, and from that time forward the Company's dividends were paid out of borrowed money.. The war with England in 1780 hastened its ruin, and in 1782 it issued its last dividend. In 1791 Commissioners left Holland for Netherlands India with
As
early as 1693 the
Company began
trade,
and the
losses in this
the object of introducing drastic reforms. They effected changes for the better at the Cape of Good Hope and in conti-
FROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
457
nental India, while in Java they prepared estimates which they imagined would be fulfilled under reformed administration. Whatever success they might have expected was prevented by the outbreak of war with England in 1795, and although Java was not captured it was subjected to an intermittent blockade in 1800. What trade was possible under these conditions fell into the hands of neutrals. The Commissioners returned to Europe in 1798 the Company was wound up, and the task of administering the Indian colonies fell into the hands of the Council of the Asiatic Possessions, which ruled them on behalf
;
of the State.
The Commission of
1803
The Peace of Amiens in 1802, which freed communications between Netherlands India and the mother country, since the departure of the House of Orange called the Batavian Republic, gave rise to much discussion as to the future government of the colonies. In 1803 a Commission issued a report. This Commission is noteworthy as having as one of its members Van Hogendorp, who advocated the exploitation of Java on the basis of a cultivation freed from all feudal obhgations and subject only
This plan involved the abandomnent of the |Wholefnative organization, both the feudal superstructure and the village institution underneath. It was therefore deemed by the majority of the Commissioners to be too revolutionary, and they declined to adopt it. In the plan ultimately agreed upon the native organization was retained for the purpose of providing the contingents which in the future were to be confined to the commodities of pepper and coffee. By this means it was hoped that the EiKopean government would remain in close touch with the native rulers without interfering except to suppress obvious abuses of the administration. It was a system of oversight rather than of government. The Commission were also of the opinion that a government would not succeed in a commercial venture where a trading company had already failed, so they divested the new political
to regular taxation.
' '
regime of some of
its
commercial functions, and private indi-
viduals, including those of friendly powers, were admitted to
a trade in those articles not included in the government monopoly. As all the staples were in the latter category the measure of free trade was not very great. Indeed, it may be said that
458
HISTOEY
the importance of the Commission's recommendations lay in the improvement of the administration rather than in any
reform of policy. No steps were taken to put these recommendations into effect until 1806, when a colonial charter on even more liberal lines than those recommended was drawn up, providing for almost complete freedom in trade and cultivation. However, itwas in this year that Louis Bonaparte became King of Holland, and there ensued several changes in the colonial department of the Dutch Government. The Council of the Asiatic Possessions was dissolved and a colonial ministry was substituted. Marshal Daendels was appointed Governor-General, and he arrived at Batavia in January 1808.
Daendels' Govebnok-Genbkalship
Daendels had been from the first a friend of the French Revolution and an enemy of the House of Orange. He owed his new appointment to his military services and partisanship for Bonaparte, and although armed with the recommendations of the Commission of 1803 his main purpose was military ^that of defending Java against a possible English attack. Such ideas of statecraft as he possessed were those of France, and he employed them to simplify the administrative chaos that he found in Java. Whatever merits his ideas may have possessed were destined to be obscured in the discontent aroused by the manner of their institution. Daendels conceived himself, probably rightly, as acting in a time of emergency, and his conduct is marked by the autocratic spirit of the soldier rather than the tact of a statesman. It was in connexion with one of his military objects that Daendels was led into his first political blunder. The Dutch fleet in the East had been destroyed piecemeal by the English. Daendels, however, seemed to expect a fleet from Europe, although this event, after the Nile and Trafalgar, was highly improbable. For the purpose of accommodating this expected fleet he undertook the erection of extensive fortifications iUj^Merah Bay in Bantam, and impressed into his service a thousand Bantamese labourers. | The general unhealthiness
of the conditions resulted in
an appalling number
of deaths,
and the Sultan
of
Bantam
petitioned to be excused from
supplying further labourers.
Daendels's reply took the form
PROM EARLY TIMES TO

of three
:
1818
459
;
demands, viz. the immediate supply of 1,000 natives the removal of the Bantamese Prime Minister, accused by Daendels of being responsible for the stopping of the supply and the removal of the Bantamese capital to Anjer. These three demands caused much irritation in Bantam, and the party of the Prime Minister seized the capital and murdered the Dutch Resident. Without hesitation Daendels marched
;
against
Bantam in force, deposed the Sultan, and executed the Prime Minister. Bantam was declared to be a Crown territory, and at this time, in 1809, part of it was added to Batavia. The Lampongs also fell under direct Dutch government, and the rest of Bantam was given to the ex-Sultan's heir, who, though in reality only an ordinary regent, still kept the style of Sultan Abu II. His administration was supervised by. a European ofl&cial and his revenue all went to the Batavian Government, while he himself, as a government official, received a salary. This arrangement did not ensure a permanent settlement. In 1810 a large body of rebel Bantamese established themselves in the extreme west of the territory and defied all Daendels's attempts to reduce them to submission. With his usual impetuosity Daendels now deposed the new Sultan and in his place established another prince, whose jurisdiction was confined to the uplands of Bantam. The lowlands of the north and west were made into the regencies of Bantam and Anjer. The new Sultan had his capital at Pandeglang, and enjoyed all his revenues except that from opium. Meanwhile a royal prince, Achmet by name, stUl maintained himself at the head of a large body of rebels. Daendels in desperation went so far as to try and propitiate this prince by an offer of territory, but as he was generally supposed to have been in league with the English authorities at Benkulen, and probably expected a more substantial reward, he refused the offer. Daendels found it was easier to conquer Bantam than to govern it, and it remained in an unsettled state throughout the period of his rule. In Cheribon, also, Daendels effected various political changes. These readjustments did not at once result in tranquillity, and
the last rebel chief maintained himself in defiance of the Government until a few months after the arrival of the British, when he was captured by their forces. In 1817 there was some
trouble with the senior Sultan,
dignity,
who
tried to reassert his former

his territory being
and was in consequence deposed,
460
HISTORY
divided between the other two.
Other territorial adjustments were also made at this time, and the political divisions of West Java became very much as they are to-day. In the time of the Company all negotiations with the native princes of Central Java had been in the hands of the Dutch Governor at Semarang. Daendels, with his French notions of a centralized government, did away to some extent with the power of this functionary. The Residents at Surakarta and Jokyakarta were made responsible directly to himself, and in 1808 he went in person to Semarang to receive the homage of the Sultan and the Susuhunan. He rather foolishly explained to the princes that, as feudalism had been universally abolished, their homage represented only the deference due from the weak to the strong, an explanation not calculated to appeal to minds enslaved by ancient forms and incapable of apprehending abstract ideas. He also made some unnecessary changes in ceremonial at the native Courts, which had hitherto been devised to flatter the vanity of native rulers while at the same time depriving them of all real power. Daendels's changes merely served to remind them of this fact. The state of affairs in the principalities was not all good. Nothing better illustrates the unsatisfactory nature of the settlement of 1755, by which the Dutch were forced to recognize two native sovereignties where there had previously been only one. The more important was of course that of Jokyakarta, whose first ruler had established himself by the sword and was surrounded by a nobility whose titles were held by a similar warrant. While he had maintained friendly relations with the Dutch, chiefly because he was left very much to himself, his successor, Amangkii Buvana II, encouraged no doubt by the external embarrassments of the Batavian Government, assumed towards the European overlords an attitude of aggressive independence if not of hostility. His subjects appear to have been
guilty of robberies committed in Dutch Residencies and also of inducing Dutch soldiers to desert. Towards the end of 1810 Daendels dispatched an ultimatum to the Sultan, and backed it up by a military demonstration at Semarang. This had the desired effect of inducing the Sultan to yield to the demands made by Daendels, which included restitution for damage
done by
his subjects in
apparently thought he had
Dutch Residencies. Daendels now an opportunity of thoroughly
FROM EAULY TIMES TO
1818
461
reducing both native princes to submission. So he followed up his demands by compelling the old Sultan to abdicate in favour of the heir who was his legitimate successor, and the State of Jokyakarta was charged with the expenses of the
Dutch expedition.
In 1811 Daendels moved to Surakarta, where he concluded with the Susuhunan an agreement by which the latter gave up the coast dues to which he was entitled by the contracts of 1743
and
1746. Certain Surakarta enclaves in Dutch territory were given up in exchange for the eastern districts of Malang and Ngantang. The Susuhunan agreed to maintain various public works in return for the payment of his debts by the Dutch. This agreement was followed by another concluded with the new Prince Regent of Jokyakarta, who also agreed to give up his coast dues. His debt to the Dutch was remitted and the parts of the North-East Coast Regencies belonging to him were exchanged for certain Dutch lands on the western boundary of his dominions. In not banishing the old Sultan after compelling him to abdicate Daendels made a serious mistake. The latter remained in his palace at Jokyakarta, where he was the real ruler of the State and a constant source of disaffection.
Administrative Reforms of Daendels

In the eighteenth century the power of the Governor-General had diminished, and when Daendels arrived in Java his weight in the CouncD. of India was only equal to that of an ordinary councillor. Hence he was often compelled to carry out a policy with which he disagreed. Daendels was not long in altering The Governor-General was empowered to this arrangement. direct the forces by sea and land, to override the opinion of the majority of the councillors, and at all times to rely upon his own judgement. He was provided with a deputy in the person of a Lieutenant Governor-General, who presided on his behalf in the Council and submitted to it only those proposals which the Governor-General deemed necessary. In the sphere of local government the old intermediate institutions, such as the Government of the North-East Coast and the territories under its jurisdiction, were split up into Prefectures, whose Prefects were directly responsible to the Government at Batavia. Although bearing the same titles these Prefects had functions which varied according to the locality, and they were paid
462
accordingly.
HISTORY
The Prefects at the native Courts were more diplomats than administrators. The one survival of the old separate institution was the official who was a sort of InspectorGeneral, whose duty it was to supervise the work of the Prefects on its purely mercantile side. One change in the right direction
was the payment
'
'
of official salaries to the Prefects
and an
'
abolition of their former sources of profit derived from
over-
weight and short payment '. This principle was extended to the native regents, who now became king's servants and received a salary. Instead of the former basis of contract the regents, as royal officials, received instructions. While they were subordinate to the Prefect they had the right of laying comThe old method of plaints before the Governor-General. raising revenue by means of 'contingents and 'forced deliveries was retained, but now it was hoped that all the product
' '
'
'
would find its way into the royal treasury. These reforms have been criticized adversely by a Dutch writer. Van de Venter, who charges Daendels with merely shifting the working of a bad system from the Company to the This surely was an improvement. The system of State. obtaining revenue by means of forced deliveries and contingents was undoubtedly oppressive, but hitherto the abuse had been lost to view in the ramifications of Ulicit private gain. Now that the State had gained control of the system the dimensions of the evil could be ascertained and the situation could be more readily manipulated. De Venter states, also, that no improvement was effected by issmng instructions to the regents instead of concluding a contract. But this new relationship gave the Government a legal right to demand from the regent a satisfactory performance of his office, and in case of
' ' ' '
necessity the right to dismiss him.
This step afterwards obtained the approval of Raffles, who nevertheless condemned the arrangement by which the regents were left the power of levying taxes. As they were subjected by the Government to increased demands of all kinds this power provided a loophole for oppression and private gain. For certain localities there were special forms of administration, such as the districts of ^Rembang, Lasem, and Tuban, formerly forming one Residency, but now made subject to the Government of a member of [the college for administering woods
and
forests.
Native chiefs were prohibited from letting out
PROM EARLY TIMES TO

villages to
1818
463
maxiinum
profit
Chinamen, who were in the habit of extorting the from their hoMings, without regard for the
welfare of the soil or its cultivators.
One very large administrative organization instituted by Daendels was that which controlled the cultivation of coffee. This culture was extended by Daendels to the whole of Java. The old service required of the natives on public works, such
as roadsj ditches, and dikes, was retained, while extraordinary services, as those required on military works, were remunerated.
The pawning of services to a creditor was prohibited. To Daendels's credit also was his reorganization of justice, which is described as being in a shocking condition, and there can be no doubt that he stirred up the administration and created an atmosphere of readiness for radical reforms. Some
own measures were themselves not merely provocative, but steps in the right direction, and that Raffles was able to make an immediate start on his policy of reform was in great measure due to the preliminary essays of his predecessor. However, several of his measures and the methods which he employed to carry them into effect are open to adverse criticism. While it is not fair, in view of the embarrassment of trade due to a state of war, to accuse him of not making his administration pay its way, he may be charged with embarking in enterprises involving unnecessary expenditure. In the state of trade as it was then, Daendels was probably ill-advised to extend the coffee culture and incur the expense of maintaining an elaborate
of his
It was stUl greater folly to frighten away the American buyers upon whom Java was dependent for a market for the enormous coffee produce. His restrictions aimed against smuggling had the, effect of almost annihilating the coasting The lavish expenditure devoted by Daendels to the trade. erection of various public works was hardly justifiable ia a time of stress, and the inevitable deficit in the public exchequer led
administration.
to the adoption of questionable financial expedients, besides
heavy taxation. Trust funds were commandeered, and there was an extensive issue of paper money. This was introduced into currency by means of selling the public lands round BataAn indication of the wealth of via and also in Probolinggo. the Chinese can be got from the fact that the Chinese captain at Surabaya made a purchase to the value of 1,000,000 dollars, payable in twenty half-yearly instalments. This particular
' '
464
issue
of
HISTORY
paper (the Probolinggo) was afterwards rated by The Government, according to Daendels's successor, Janssens, were eventually forced to use coin for certain payments to the natives, who were so unable to make use of the paper that coin was essential to their continuing to produce. Janssens further remarks that Daendels had exhausted all the resources of the country. However, the main criticism of Daendels is directed against his political policy. It manifested a criminal lack of political sagacity that the moral asset of the country, the loyalty of the Javanese,, should have been wantonly dissipated. The native princes were encouraged to look for help to the enemy who was threatening the Franco-Dutchrule. Even the European officials, whose loyalty to the Bonapartist regime in Holland might have been questioned from the first, were confirmed in their distrust by the high-handed procedure of Daendels. It was a country with exhausted material resources and deficient in political enthusiasm which Janssens, on the recall of Daendels in May 1811, was called upon to defend against the attack of a much more powerful enemy.
Raffles at half its face value.*
British Conqitest of Java, 1811
The Dutch army had been withdrawn from most of the posts and in 1811 there was a force of only 400 men distributed among the posts of Palembang, Timor, and Makassar. The forts in the Moluccas, in the northern diidsion of Celebes, and in the Amboina and Banda Islands had
in the outer islands,
during Daendels's rule all fallen into English hands. Janssens is stated by one authority to have had under his command a force of 17,000 men, but this is probably an over-estimate. The English force which, in August 1811, effected a landing without opposition at Chingchilling, about 12 miles from Batavia, numbered about 9,000 effective troops. After occupying Batavia they had their first serious skirmish with a Dutch force, which was dislodged from entrenchments at Weltevreden. Very shortly afterwards the maia Dutch position at Meester Cornells, which had been prepared by Daendels and heavily fortified, was taken by assault, and Janssens with a few survivors was driven eastwards, whither he was followed by a British force. In the centre of Java the troops of the native princes mustered for his support, but their assistance was only
FROM EARLY TIMES TO

half-hearted.
1818
465
The final capitulation of the island was signed on September 18, 1811 at Semarang, by Janssens and the British commander, Sir Samuel Auchmuty.
Beitish Occdtation
:
The intention
of the British homfe authorities
Thomas Stamford Raffles when they first
contemplated the conquest of Java was to effect only a temporary occupation of the island. Since 1795 it had been practically French territory, and the British Government had been commissioned by the exiled William V of Orange to occupy the Dutch colonies on his behalf. The actual expedition was a joint undertaking of the English East India Company and the British Government, and its original object was merely to stamp out French power in Java by destrojdng all the fortifications
and turning the island over to the natives. The consequences of such a proceeding would have been calamitous, as the Governor-General of Bengal, Lord Mirito, pointed out. Besides this laudable regard for European prestige in the East there were undoubtedly other reasons which induced Lord Miato to modify the plan contained in the origiaal instructions. He had been much impressed by the arguments of his brilliant subordinate, Thomas Stamford Raffles, Agent to the Bengal Government at Malacca. This ofificial had collected a great deal of information about political and economic conditions in Java, and he set forth the mutual benefits which would accrue to the natives and to the English East India Company from Java under British rule. Therefore, though the fate of Java must in the end have always depended on the military situation in Europe, both Lord Minto and Raffles, the latter especially, were not without hope that it would be retained as a British possession, and their scheme containing the outlines of a government for the island was intended as much to attach the natives
to British rule as to preserve order and establish general good government. Lord Minto appointed Raffles to be Lieutenant-Governor of Java under the Government of Bengal, and he was to be assisted by a Council on which were two prominent Dutch gentlemen, Cransen and Munttnge. The Lieutenant-Governor, however, retained much of the power which had been exercised by Daendels, though in a very different spirit. Of Raffles it may briefly be said that since the age of fourteen he had been in the
NETIIEBLAND3 INDIA
(J
466
HIRTORY
of the English East India Company, and though without influence he had by his general capacity attained at the age of thirty the high position of Agent of the Bengal Government with the Malay States. His general ability, coupled with an unusual knowledge of the language and customs of the Malay race, had recommended him to the notice of Lord Minto, and on the expedition to Java Raffles accompanied the GovernorGeneral as his secretary. On the conquest of the island he was at once entrusted with the task of carrying out the policy briefly outlined in Lord Minto 's proclamation. This proclamation was couched in very general terms, and was directed at assuring the natives and the Dutch of equitable treatment at the hands of the new rulers. For this purpose it sketched in a general way the principles of the justice to be administered. The subject of policy towards the independent native princes was not treated as this could only be evolved from experience.
employ
Native Pbinces under the British Occupation

There was, as might be expected, a general disposition on the part of these potentates to turn the situation arising out of the destruction of Dutch rule to their own advantage. The Sultan of Jokyakarta, now restored to his former power and much the more formidable of the two princes of Central Java, formulated three demands (1) that the dues of the North-East Coast ceded to the Dutch by the contracts of 1743 and 1746 should be restored (this deprivation had always rankled in the
:
that the burial-places of his (3) that members of the royal house banished by Daendels should be brought back. As the restoration of the burial-places involved a large part of the
;
minds
of the native princes)
(2)
ancestors should be given up
and
North-East Coast territories the combined demands represented nothing short of the restoration of the status quo of the early part of the eighteenth century. Raffles apparently gave these
requests his serious consideration. He was eager enough to grant the last, and the return of Nata Kasuma was the means of creating a pro-British party at the Court of Jokyakarta.
The other two

It could not be
requests, however, could not be met, although
Raffles seems to have considered the idea of paying anindemnity.
hoped that the Sultan, who during the years
of
the Company's decline had been aspiring to a greater indepen-
dence, would quietly acquiesce in the substitution of another
FROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
467
European sovereignty after he had been reUeved of the first. In spite of the protests of the Dutch Resident, still in office, he proceeded to assume the style of an independent monarch, to renew the ceremonial abolished by Daendels, and finally to cause the execution of the pro-European Danu Raja. In December 1811 Raffles himself arrived at Semarang, and thence journeyed first to Surakarta, where, as a result of negotiations with the Susuhunan, a treaty was drawn up in which the latter agreed to abandon his claim to the coast dues, and agreed to accept in return for the proceeds of the toll-gates and birds'-nest cliffs an aimual pa3rment of 120,000 dollars. Further, his jurisdiction was strictly limited to Javanese belonging to his own dominions, and he recognized British suzerainty. A similar agreement regarding revenue was made with the Sultan of Jokyakarta, whom Raffles now recognized in preference to the Prince Regent. But here Raffles interfered much more with the native government. It was arranged that for all practical purposes the British Resident should act as prime minister, while Nata Kasuma was established in a fief of the Sultan's dominions. Very soon after his return from the native courts Raffles 's attention was drawn to Palembang, where the Sultan, after a tardy recognition of British suzerainty, had massacred many of the Dutch settlers. In the middle of April 1812 a British force under Colonel Gillespie landed and drove the Sultan from his capital. His brother was installed in his place, and it was at this time that the islands of Banka and Billiton were ceded to Great Britain. The absence of the main British force on the Palembang expedition encouraged the Sultan of Jokyakarta to exhibit an attitude openly hostile to the new Government. He began a campaign against the party of the ex-Prince Regent, increased his army, refused to give up the toll-gate revenues, and entered into a conspiracy with the Susuhunan which had
European power in Java. In June 1812 Raffles, without waiting for the return of the main force from Palembang, set out with a force of 1,200 men. His plans were probably helped by the distractions caused at the Jokya Court by the parties of Nata Kasuma and the exPrince Regent. Nevertheless, the Sultan's kraton was held by about 11,000 men, and bands of Javanese harassed the communications of the British force. After a preliminary bombard
for its object the destruction of
Gg2
468
HISTORY
ment the kraton was taken by assault, and the nationalist movement was effectually crushed. The Sultan was banished to Penang, and the Prince Regent assumed the title of Sultan Amangku Buvana III. All the Jokyakarta forces were disbanded, and a British bodyguard installed in their place. Both the Sultan and the Susuhunan had to make large concessions of
territory to the extent, with little modification, previously Toll-gates, arranged by Daendels but never carried out. birds '-nest cliffs, and teak woods were given over to Bntish control, as was the monopoly of opium. The princes' jurisdiction was again defined, and only permitted with the proviso that penalties involving torture, mutilation, and combats with Nata Kasuma was confirmed in tigers should be abolished. the possession of his fief and was given the duty of providing cavalry for the British Government. Annual salaries were paid to both the principal monarchs. In 1814 the Sultan of Jokyakarta died, leaving a son aged 13 for whom Nata Kasuma was made Regent. This choice occasioned tl;e creation of an anti-European party headed by the disappointed Dipa Negara. The Susuhunan, who had escaped lightly, was later induced to countenance a plot to incite to mutiny the sepoy garrison at Surakarta. This was frustrated in time, and the brother of the Susuhunan was banished while his queen was admonished. Raffles's relations with the minor native princes were less He found it necessary to depose the presumptuous difficult. Achmet and recall an old Sultan to rule at Pandeglang in the uplands of Bantam. His interest in the revenue of the country induced him in March 1813 to take over the government, allowing the Sultan to retain his title and receive a large annual salary. This event practically abolished the last semblance of Bantam's independence. The princes of Madura had followed a purely opportunist policy, and after the conquest of Java they sided with the British. The Sultan of Bangkalang, known also as the Sultan of Madura, whose ancestor had acquired his rank and privileges through his services to the Dutch, died in 1815 and his son was recognized as Sultan Chakra Adiningrat II. He was confirmed in his position by the Dutch on their restoration, and retained his title until his death in 1874, when his
assumed the style of Panambahan. The other Madurese prince, the Panambahan of Sumenep, was on friendly
successor
FROM EAULY TIMES TO
1818
469
terms with Raffles, for whom he carried out researches into the native records of his locality. His eldest son, who succeeded
him, performed such excellent services in the Boni expedition and in the war against Dipa Negara, that in 1825 he received the title of Sultan. Raffles used the opportunity of a rising in Eastern Probolinggo, which was put down, to buy back the alienated lands in the three districts of Besuki, Panarukan, and Probolinggo. Cheribon was constantly subject to the depredations of a rebel chief named Bagus Rangen, who was held in so great respect by the common people that it was only with difficulty that his arrest was finally effected, and tranquillity
was restored. The effect of Raffles 's measures against the native princes was to abolish in a great measure their independence. Ever since the settlement after the war of Java the European authorities had acted only on the defensive and had refrained from serious interference in the native politics of Central Java. The aggressive policy of Jokyakarta, provoked to some extent by the high-handed measures of Daendels, had necessitated a more vigorous attitude, which now, for the time being at any rate, had resulted in the European power becoming paramount throughout all Java. The sanction of government was now a British force, and the functions of government, such as the collection of revenues and the administration of justice, had to a great degree fallen into British hands. The Residents at the native Courts exercised a veto on legislation, and controlled the succession to the throne. But it was premature for Raffles to assert that the apparent tranquillity thus established was certain to endure. Future events were to show that the native character, formed by centuries of despotic and capricious government and
of social unrest, besides all kinds of superstitious religious
was an incalculable factor, and as yet not reconciled an orderly society under a stable and equitable government. The mere control of a native dynasty did not solve the problem, as the Dutch were to find to their cost.
influences,
to
life
in
RaTFLES'S RilGIME OUTSIDE JaVA

Outside Java Raffles acted frankly as the agent of the English East India Company. In a report he sent to Lord Minto while he was gathering the information necessary for the expedition to Java, he advocated the establishment of
470
British influence
HISTORY
on the islands of Bah, Banka, Celebes, and Halmaheira, and in parts of Borneo. When once these posts had been Established he hoped that they would survive any international settlement which might possibly involve the retrocession to the French, or even to the Dutch, of Java and the Spice Islands. It has already been related how Raffles 's policy was achieved in the case of Banka. It cannot be said that he Mas as successful in other directions. The change of regime in 1811 had caused an outbreak on the part of the more warlike States in Celebes, and there were no signs of an early settlement. About the same time as the Rajah of Boni began hostilities two Bali princes invaded Banyuwangi in Eastern Java. This incursion was easily repelled by English forces from Surabaya, but it was decided to dispatch a punitive expedition, with the twofold object of reducing the refractory princes of Bali and then proceeding to Celebes to deal with the Rajah of Boni. In May 1814 a British force under NightingaU landed in Bali, and without much fighting the rebels were induced to sue for pardon. The expedition now proceeded to Celebes, where it inflicted a defeat on the Rajah of Boni, who, however, escaped and carried on a guerrUla warfare against British power until the date of the island's restoration to the Dutch. The object of establishing a strong English influence in Celebes was to restore the position which existed in the seventeenth century before the power of the Sultan of Makassar was broken by the Dutch, when English traders were enabled from this point of vantage to retain some share of the spice trade. The charge brought agamst Raffles 's policy towards the Moluccas to the effect that he enforced a strict monopoly can very well be beheved. Before the conquest of Java, Raffles had in his report to Lord Minto referred to the various outrages on British shipping committed by the pirates of Borneo with the connivance, if not the approval, of the Sultans of the West Coast. After an unsuccessful attempt in 1812 a further expedition in 1813 succeeded in infficting a severe defeat on the pirate chief of Sambas. On the death of the regular Sultan of that State the ex-pirate was installed as his successor. Whether this occurred as a result of compulsion or benevolent policy is not clear. In this connexion it is interesting to note that there was an independent attempt to establish a British settlement in Borneo, but this time on the eastern side, where an Englishman
FROM EARLY TIMES TO

named Hare formed
1818
471
a colony, which, however, did not flourish
and had to be abandoned. To the very last the English took an intermittent interest in Borneo, especially in those regions to which Dutch claims were at all doubtful.
British
Reform op Administration
:
in
Java
To return to Java it is important to notice the changes which Raffles introduced into those territories which were directly subject to European government. There was a redistribution of administrative divisions which involved an
increase in the
number
;
of prefectures,
now
called residencies.
Residency of Buitenzorg was made out of the southern environs of Batavia Krawang, which was made into a prefecture by Daendels, was added to the Batavian Regencies, from this time usually known as the Preanger Regencies. The Residency of Bantam was enlarged by the addition of what remained of the territory subject to the Sultan Kedu and Rembang were made into residencies, and the latter was made to include Tuban. Three new residencies were formed in East Java, Pasuruan, Probolinggo (including Besuki and Panarukan), and Banyuwangi. (In Daendels's time the first two had been sold to Chinamen and the third was under martial law.) The rest of Java's East Point, including Japan and Wirasaba, was added to the Residency of Surabaya, to which Bangkalang
;
A new
and Pamekasan in Madura also belonged. The representatives of the European Government at the two native. Courts of Jokyakarta and Surakarta were styled Residents, but their
functions were mainly diplomatic.
vVith the help of Dutch officials Raffles was able to supply with Residents the increased number of administrative divisions, but generally speaking the official personnel below the rank of Resident consisted of natives, the most important of which was the bopati, who was the administrative head of a division ', The burden of work falling on the European Residents would in the period of judicial in normal times have been oppressive andfiscal reforminaugurated by Raffles it became overwhelming. The comprehensive instructions issued by Raffles to his Residents gained the approval of the Dutch, who retained them. Throughout the regime of Raffles, however, the shortage of personnel and the insufficiency of funds for official salaries were
'
;
472
HISTORY
a great handicap to the work of ordinary administration, and an almost insurmountable difficulty in the way of reform. Of the reforms of Raffles those attempted in two departments of justice and revenue stand out most prominently. The reis admitted to have been one of the greatest benefits which accrued to Java as a result of the British rule. Raffles began by abolishing the separate jurisdiction which had existed for the special accommodation of the officials of the Dutch East India Company. Three Courts were set up at Batavia, Semarang, and Surabaya, each with a Resident, and three members possessing a civil and criminal jurisdiction over Europeans only. In civil suits the Dutch colonial law was retained, while in criminal cases English law was adopted. To relieve these courts from the burden of trivial suits a Court of Requests for the recovery of small debts
organization of the judicial administration
and a police jurisdiction, exercised by magistrates appointed by the Government, were established in each of the three towns.
In the sphere of provincial justice the old kmdraad, or country became the Resident's Court, presided over by the Resident assisted by the bopatis and native law officers. As a court of first instance it possessed extensive powers in native criminal cases besides a jurisdiction in the more important civil suits. For the latter the custom of the country was closely followed, but in criminal cases it was tempered by humanitarian principles. The Resident acted as justice of the peace in oEences involving Europeans. A Court of Circuit, which was presided over by judges from the European courts of the three big towns, made a tour through the residencies once in three
court,
months and sat upon cases remanded by the Resident's Court. With this last-named court the functions of the European officials ceased, although Raffles would have liked to extend their administration to the lower courts. As this was not possible, the work of dispensing justice was left to the native officials. The lower jurisdictions comprised the village, the division, and the district. The village headman settled petty disputes and enforced the regulations of the village police system. The divisional court imposed small fines and settled small civil suits, although unable to order imprisonment. The most important of the native courts was that of the district ', presided over by a bopati, who tried civil suits of a slightly more
'
'
'
important kind than those falling within the jurisdiction of the
FROM EARLY TIMES TO

divisional court.
court.-^
1818
473
He had no powers in criminal cases, and recourse from the divisional court was direct to the Resident's
It is not pretended that this system was in full working order before Raffles left Java, but it was set going, and it was along these lines that the future development of the judicial
system was made.
Any deficiencies in the working of the judicial system could be attributed largely to the lack of European officials, and the necessity of dependence on the native feudal organization. Raffles felt this even more when he came to institute a new system for the assessment and collection of taxes. The system in vogue in the eighteenth century which, with the very laudable improvement effected by Daendels on its administrative side, had continued to exist up to the conquest of the island, was in its nature oppressive, and in its administration corrupt as well. The local native governments and their public services were maintained by indiscriminate exactions in labour and produce imposed upon the peasant cultivators. The proprietors of the soil were, by virtue of feudal custom, enabled to make various levies. To all these demands were added the levies of the
European Government the pohtical tribute known as contingents ', and the forced deliveries ', which were commercial transactions only in name. In his plan to remedy this state of
'
'
adopted as the basic principle of his revenue theory that the State is the sole proprietor of the soil. On the basis of this assumption he abolished, at any rate theoretically, all other claims to ownership and their attendant privileges. The land rent, which was to take the place of the feudal imports and the old levies of the European Grovemment, was to consist of a fixed proportion of the produce.^ Raffles could not hope, even in theory, to do away with all feudal obligations at one stroke. He himself authorized the employment of forced labour in the teak forests, and forced deliveries were made of Preanger coffee. But apart from these legalized exceptions the old order of things in many localities proved too strong for the new system. Even the preliminary task of assessment was not begun on a sufficiently comprehenaffairs Raffles
' ' '
The Regent, however,
possessed powers in connexion with the administra
tive side of the police system.

^
member
This system of revenue had already been proposed by Dirk van Hogendorp, of the Commission of 1803.
174
sive scale,
HISTORY
and where it was begun it was not carried through, owing to the dearth of European officials. Nevertheless, the total revenue returns showed a steady increase, and an improvement on the returns during Daendels's administration. But with the increase in receipts there was a corresponding increase in the total expenses of administration, and during the three years of the working of the land rent by Raffles there was a deficit, which diminished each year, but in the last year amounted to a million and a half of rupees. The experiment is chiefly remarkable as a pioneer attempt to substitute taxation for feudal levies and tribute, and considering the short space of time at Raffles 's disposal and the various other handicaps to which he was subject the results represent a considerable
achievement.
Another improvement in the fiscal system was the abolition farming of import and export duties. Customhouses were set up at Batavia, Semarang, and Surabaya, and placed under the control of the local Resident. The duties imposed at this time had for one of their objects the preferential treatment of British shipping, and it was at this time that British cloth goods got a footing in the Javanese market and maintained themselves there in spite of prohibitory tariffs. With the system of internal tolls Raffles did little in the way of reform. The toll-gates were largely in the hands of Chinese farmers ', who managed on an average to extort about 50 per cent, of the produce on its way to market. Raffles intended to remedy this state of affairs, but did little. The bazaar tolls in particular in the last year of his administration brought in a record amount to the Government. A measure of Raffles's which received much criticism at the time was his expedient for redeeming the depreciated paper currency issued byDaendels. In order to gather this in he advertised his willingof the practice of
'
ness to accept
it
as
payment
for the transfer of allotments of
government lands. The criticism came from the conservative section headed by Major-General Gillespie, who shows himself to have been jealou.s of the measure of independence and power
enjoyed by a civilian in the capacity of Lieutenant-Governor of Java. His attitude was consistently one of alarm, real or pretended, at the radical nature of the changes introduced by Raffles and a professed regard for the instructions of the supreme Government. In the absence of any convincing argu-
FROM EARLY TIMES TO
1818
475
ment to the contrary, it must be agreed that Raffles's expedient was justified first by the urgency of the financial situation, and secondly by the success with which his measure relieved it.
Restoration
of
on?
the Dutch Colonies
Whatever hopes Rafififes still entertained about the retention Java by the British Government must have been dispelled by the publication of the Convention of August 1814 between Great Britain and Holland, by which the Dutch colonial pos-
He experienced a temporary revival of hope when the reappearance of Napoleon seemed to be about to effect a radical alteration in the international situation, but his eventual defeat dissipated all expectations that the Convention would not be carried out. The known opinions of RafHes on this subject may have been one reason for the decision of the British Government, dated May 5, 1815, to replace him by a more manageable official, John Pendall by name, whose main commission was to carry out the transference to the Dutch of Java and its dependencies. As far as Java itself was concerned there was, except in financial matters, little difficulty. The Dutch Commissioners arrived in 1816 and the British occupation came to an end in August 1818. But the British raised difficulties about various dependencies. Fendall was at first disposed to object to the Dutch re-occupation of Banjermasin in Borneo, which he contended had been definitely abandoned by Daendels. However, after much argument, the colony was given up. There was also trouble over Billiton, which had not been expressly mentioned in the Convention but which the Dutch regarded as included under the term Banka, meaning the island of Banka and its dependencies. Both islands, Banka and Billiton, had been ceded to the British by the Sultan of Palembang, and under the Convention only Banka had to be given up in exchange for Cochin in India. ,The British claim to Billitoij therefore seemed just enough, but in face of the determined attitude of the Dutch Commissioners the island was abandoned. It was apparent that the Dutch were anxious to establish secure claims to as
sessions as they existed in 1803 were restored.
interest in this region
whose had been by this time re-awakened, were just as determined to retain some foothold there. Raffles, from his station in Benkulen, watched the proceedings of the Dutch
of the archipelago as possible, while the British,
much
476
HISTORY
Commissioners with ill-concealed anxiety. He went so far as to encourage the Sultan of Palembang in the defence of his independence and sent an armed guard to his capital. Theê measures proved unavailing, but Raffles was not to be baulked in his determination to wreck the revival of the old Dutch poHcy of excluding rival European Powers from the archipelago, and also, as a result of their possession of the channels into the Eastern seas, from the China trade. The master-stroke of his
campaign was the occupation, in January 1819,

prince of Johor.
of the island
of Singapore, in virtue of a treaty concluded with the native
This aroused the anger of the Dutch, who
protested strongly, and the situation became so acute that negotiations began for the conclusion of another treaty. The
settlement made by this treaty and the problems subsequently arising out of it are dealt with in the section on diplomatic history (p. 523).
CHAPTER XV
HISTORY
II. FROM
Introduction
THE DUTCH RESTORATION TO THE PRESENT TIME

^Territorial
Java (The Java rebellion settlement^Native Culture systemGeneral financeIndian constitutionLaw) Sumatra (Achin) Borneo (SambasPontianakLandakSukadana, &c. BanjermaainKutei^The Kongsis) Celebes (GowaBoni^WajoLuwu Buton) The Moluccas and New Guinea Sunda Islands (Bali LombokSumbawa and SolorTimor Sumba)Diplomatic history (Great Britain Treaty of 1824, &o. Great Britain and Germany New Guinea Portugal Present situation.
jurisdictions
^Lesser
^Plores
:
in
Iotbodtjction
While
the centre of
is
Dutch
rule continued as of old in the
island of Java, the period from the time of its restoration to the
present day
of
remarkable for the extension and consolidation
in the outlying regions of the archipelago. To the Spice Islands and to one or two isolated posts in the other
Dutch power
groups the Dutch possessed undoubted rights, but their pretensions to the other territories comprised in the vast area of the archipelago were of so vague a nature as to be challenged in places lite Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, and Bali.-^ The Treaty of 1824, between Great Britain and Holland, went a considerable way towards defining the limits of the Dutch sphere in the archipelago, and during the nineteenth century they were almost constantly engaged in establishing their sovereignty within the area thus roughly delimited. This task they were able in some cases to accomplish by peaceful methods, but, generally speaking, the period was one of constant warfare with the natives in one or other quarter of the archipelago. They were able, however, to establish over a great proportion of the area the rule of a feudal suzerain whose surveillance of
^ The Dutch East India Company entered into treaties of alliance which, while they provided for the formal recognition of the sovereignty of the Company, were chiefly concerned with monopoly of trade and levies of
' '
produce.
478
HISTORY
the native governments was regulated

cases the lands
by treaty, and in some came gradually under direct European administration. There were, and continue to be, certain savage tribes inhabiting the interior of some of the islands which, while within the sphere of Dutch influence as it is understood in international treaties, yet maintain absolute independence.
In this
way
there grew
up an administration varying
in intensity in
different localities, the direct rule, first instituted
by Daendels
it
in the greater part of Java, the feudal suzerainty as
ejdsts in
Sumatra and elsewhere, and the mere exercise of influence as in the centre of New Guinea and in similar places. The events which led up to this condition of affairs are therefore
some parts
of
only capable of regional treatment.
Java
In 1816 the three Dutch Commissioners took over the governof Netherlands India, and began an investigation into the political and administrative arrangements as they had been They found themselves faced with an left by the British. exhausted treasury and a deficit bequeathed to them by the previous government. After receiving various reports from the Residents on the working of the landrente, they decided to retain it and later to effect improvements in its working. They were prepared to depend upon it for their main revenues and to regard commerce as a secondary consideration. Labour was to be freed from its old feudal obligations and to be voluntary, receiving a wage. The native Javanese had shown himself unable to deal directly with the Government, and it was now enacted that the village should constitute the taxable unit. This arrangement also meant a great saving in European officials, who were not too plentiful. A second change in the system was the abolition of any cut-and-dried scheme of assessment, such as had been planned by Raffles, and the substitution of the practice of bargaining with village headmen. Thirdly, the natives were allowed to pay their tax in money or kind, as they preferred. In the same liberal spirit that they had manifested in dealing with the landrente, the Commissioners leased the Preanger coffee plantations to the village communities, who, subject to certain regulations and the pajmient of rent, were allowed to cultivate the plant in their own way, and the same freedom was allowed them in the disposal of their produce.
ment
FROM
The Commissioners
quality of their
1818
TO PRESENT TIME
work
to
479
improve the number and They urged the Hague Government to discontinue the policy, which had obtained
set to
official
personnel.
with the
Company
in the eighteenth century, of sending out
an inferior type, and demanded some standard of education and character. They also discouraged the disparagement of native officials, and frankly accepted the situation which admitted natives to a large share of the work. In 1819 the regime of the Commissioners came to an end, and one of them, Baron Van der Capellen, became GovernorGeneral. During his rule from 1819 to 1826 there was a noticeable tendency to revert to the colonial policy of the Company. Profit became a consideration of immediate importance, and the oppression of the native began. An exclusive policy was adopted towards strangers, especially Europeans, who were
officials of
allowed to trade only when provided with permits, while only Dutch could possess land. In the territories of the native princes the leasing of the land to Europeans was forbidden. These measures were adopted possibly put of regard for the welfare of the nalîve cultivator but it is more probable that the Government had begun to be jealous of individual enterprise. This tendency of government policy became accentuated when the colony was saddled with the expense of quelling a widespread revolt in Java, which began in 1825.
The Java Rebellion
When the Dutch

tranquil.
were restored in 1816, Java was apparently
A regulation abolishing the practice of leasing estates

when
it
was welcomed by the was discovered that compensation would have to be paid to the lessees there was considerable dissatisfaction. In order to alleviate the situation the Dutch Residents
in the territories of the native princes
natives, but
in the native states arranged, in 1824, that the compensation
should be paid in coffee produce of the estates in question. But apart from individual cases of oppression the policy of interference in native politics, which had begun with Daendels, and the series of measures affecting the life of the native cultivator instituted by successive European administrations, created general discontent among natives unaccustomed to change. The circumstances were propitious for revolt, and the opportunity was seized' by Dipa Negara, the illegitimate
480
HISTORY
son of a former Sultan of Jokyakarta, who had aspired fco the temporary position of Sultan during the minority of the ruling
prince.
which followed lasted from 1825 to 1830 and Javanese who were not subject to the direct rule of the Dutch. Before it was finished the Dutch were employing 23,000 men, of whom 8,000 were Europeans. Casualties to the number of 15,000 were incurred, and the cost in money to the Dutch has been put at 20,000,000 guilders.
rebellion
The
affected
most
of the
Territorial Settlement
for a great diminution of the territories of the native princes. Only Sukawati, Pajang, Mataram, and Gunong Kidul were left to them. Sukawati and Pajang went to the Susuhunan, while the Sultan retained Mataram and Gunong Kidul. The provinces of Madiun and Kediri in the east and Bagelen and Banyumas in the west, were at this time brought under the direct rule of the Dutch. It was hard to convince the princes who had loyally supported the Batavian Government that this was an equitable proceeding, and it was deemed expedient in the case of Jokyakarta to pay an annual indemnification of 182,000 florins. The settlement bore with extreme hardness on the Susuhunan, who had from the first supported the Dutch cause, and as a consequence of his suspicious movements he was arrested and banished to Amboina. From 1830 onwards the native princes of Java ceased to be of any political impor-
The settlement following upon the war provided
tance.
Madura. Madura was by degrees brought under direct Dutch rule. The Sultan of Bangkalan from 1815 to 1847 ruled in an arbitrary and wasteful manner, and on his death his successor was given the inferior rank of Panambahan. In 1863, when the second Panambahan was appointed, the Dutch took from the native government the administration of taxes, and many injurious impositions, levied by the Chinese farmers on the trade and industry of the island, were abolished. The prince was compensated for the loss of this privilege, and his regency was divided up for administrative purposes into eight districts. In 1858 Pamekasan became an ordinary regency, and in 1885, through default of heirs, it was possible to bring the other two provinces of Madura Bangkalang and Sumenep under the
' '
FROM
direct
1818
TO L'RESENT TIME
481
government of Batavia. They now became regencies, and the exercise of power and the holding of lands by princes other than those who acted as government officials were
prohibited.
Bantam. In Bantam the abolition of the Sultan's rule had provoked unrest among the nobles who objected to the diminution of their own powers. At intervals from 1822 to 1850 there were serious outbreaks of which the last were the worst. In 1872 a priest from Mecca formed some sort of religious association the members of which in 1883 ravaged the whole province of Bantam, and were responsible for the destruction of fiftyone villages besides the partial ruin of many others. A contributory cause to the outbreak lay in the measures adopted by the Government to deal with a cattle plague. The unrest had spread to Central Java where there were religious outbreaks, and the rising was not put down until 1888 when troops were dispatched for the purpose from Batavia.
Native Jurisdictions
The power
tion, chiefly
of all the princes has suffered a constant diminuof the
owing to the spread
European
judicial juris-
diction.
The native
jurisdictions were restricted to those of
Surakarta, Jokyakarta, and that exercised
by
the Pangeran
Mangu Nagara and the Panambahan of Bangkalan. The subjects of Paku Alam were included in the Jokya Sultan's
jurisdiction. This latter did not extend to penal cases, which were tried by the Resident, as was the case with the native Here the important civil suits also jurisdiction on Madura. province of the European officials. In fell within the judicial all cases the powers of the native princes could only be exercised over their own subjects, and where one party in a case was an alien the law administered by the princes was not applicable, and resort had to be made to the European tribunal.
Culture System
The policy
of the
Dutch Government towards the Javanese

underwent a drastic change
in 1830.
under its direct authority
The liberal and trade of Java which had been inaugurated by Raffles ended with the departure of Governor-General Du Bus de Ghisignies.
NETHERLANDS INDIA
JJ
movement which aimed
at freeing the cultivation
482
HISTORY
For some time the Government at the Hague had been in and was alarmed at the prospect of being compelled to bear the additional burden of the maintenance of a struggling colony. Governor-General Van den Bosch, who began his rule in Java in 1830, instituted the economic policy known as the Culture System. This system was an attempt on the part of the Government to direct and stimulate production in Java with a view to supplying the demands in European markets, thereby ensuring a large profit to the State. Instead of depending for its revenues on the taxable capacity of the native, the Government intended to commandeer a proportion of his land and his labour time, both of which would be employed under ofificial direction. In practice this
straitened circumstances,
system, at the period of its widest application, affected only 5 per cent, of the whole agricultural area. But it achieved its immediate purpose in producing a large revenue surplus for the benefit of the mother country, and it is admitted by a severe critic that if it had been administered in the spirit proposed by its founder, it might have proved beneficial to the native Javanese. But the demands of the Home Government grew so heavy that the defects of the Javanese administration,
apparent under the best policy, were now accentuated. The resources of the Government tended to be concentrated on the
and here the officials lost their character as servants of the State and took on that of commercial agents.
culture areas,
Meanwhile, in the other
districts, there
was a lack of
vitality in
the administration, and the principle of taxation suffered accordingly. Another valuable principle was sacrificed to the
when the remuneration of the native regents land was revived, a practice bringing in its train the old feudal customs which had already been condemned. The paramount considerations of producing in accordance with the requirements of the State led not only to an encroachment upon the property and labour of the cultivator, but also to interference with the village custom governing land tenure. The disposal of lands and the distribution of labour necessary to carry out the government cultures had the effect, in some localities, of extinguishing individual private property and of substituting property held in common. The great evil of the system was that in the hands of rapacious officials, both European and native, it often absorbed so much of the land and
desire for profit
by grants
of
FROM
1818
TO PRESENT TIME
483
labour of the cultivator that he had little opportunity of providing himself with the means of subsistence. The reform of the culture system came eventually from Europe. In 1848 the Fundamental Law democratized the Dutch Legislature and gave it some measure of control over the ministry. In 1854 the Eegeerings RegUment, framed in accordance with the constitution of 1848, expressed itself generally on the objects of Dutch colonial government, and besides the obvious provisions connected with slavery, freedom of the press, and the education of the natives, contained several injunctions as to the working of the culture system. These were chiefly directed at safeguarding the interests of the natives, but did not as yet suggest the abolition of the system. The Agrarian Law of 1870, however, while permitting government cultures, safeguarded native rights, and encouraged the enterprises of individual Europeans. Many of the lesser cultures had already been given up, while others more important were allowed to linger on to survive as best they could against
individual enterprise.
General Finance
The Culture System constituted only a part, although a very important part, of the colonial fiscal system. In 1864 the Comptabiliteitswet provided that the budget of Netherlands India should in future be fixed by a law passed by the Dutch Government. This did not affect the arrangement by which the home authorities received the surplus revenue, and payments continued to be made until 1878, when as a result of the expenditure on the Achin War the contributions ceased. Although the possibility of such a contribution has not yet been lost sight of, its lapse seems to have had the effect of encouraging expenditure on public works, an item which has trebled in amount since 1870. In a lesser degree the same increase is to be observed in the expenditure on provincial administration and on the collection of revenue a sign that the Government is devoting more of the resources to the execution of the purely State functions of justice and taxation. For revenue the Government still depended on the two cultures of sugar and coffee. A law in 1870 provided for the gradual abandonment of sugar cultivation, and by 1890 the transition from government to individual control had been
Hh2
484
HISTORY
completely effected. In spite of proposals made from time to time to relinquish coffee cultivation the Government continued to retain the control of this industry, although in the last decade of the nineteenth century the extent of the culture has considerably diminished.
Some
progress has been
made towards
the substitution of
taxation for forced services, and although labour services, as part of the payment of officials, has almost entirely disappeared,
general and
communal
services are
still
exacted, subject to
numerous government regulations. The old landrente, originally imposed by Raffles, had persisted in these parts of Java not devoted to the government cultures, and, indeed, had been
sometimes levied in addition to the culture serAdces. In those parts where it had been the main service of revenue, it had survived in a very corrupt form through the absorption of the
Government
in
the cultures.
The
abolition of the latter
directed attention to the defects of the tax, and, in 1872, a law was passed, by which it was attempted to levy the tax on the
principle of different assessments for different qualities of land,
is
with a normal assessment of one -fifth of the produce. This law stated to have been of no effect in practice, and the old system of bargaining between the Government official and the village headman stUl persisted. Another tax of importance was the poll-tax imposed for the purpose of providing salaries of native officials, hitherto remunerated by the feudal services of
their tenants.
Indian Constitution
The Fundamental Law
of 1848,
by which the Dutch
Legisla-
ture gained a measure of control over colonial policy,
was the
prelude to the framing of the Indian Constitution of 1854. This Act served mainly to give legal effect to institutions that had
grown up under the Company,
as they had been reorganized under the administratioiis of Daendels and Raffles. It established the relationship between the Home Government and the Governor-General in India, between the Governor-General and his Council, between the executive and the judiciary, and between the European and native governments, with other important provisions besides. These relations, with certain important amendments, have persisted until the present time, and they are treated more fully in Chapter VIII on 'Government and Administration '.
PROM
The Reglement
1818
TO PRESENT TIME
Law
485
of 1854 also formulated the principles governing the law of Netherlands India, and a brief survey of the history of the development of law is of interest. The first code was 'promulgated in 1642 and was known under the title of Statutes of Rata via. This code applied to all the settlements of the Company. It was not until 1761 that the laws issued subsequently to 1642 were collected under the name of the New Statutes. This collection was never promulgated, but they and the Ratavian statutes had force of law. In the drafting of these enactments it had been the practice to consult Roman law and that of Holland, which itself ,is described as a hotch-potch. Daendels was responsible for these laws which
dan
'
prohibited sentences in native courts involving the Mohammepractice of amputation, and in 1809 a decree forbade afflictive punishments. These regulations were later confirmed by Raffles, who also introduced a kind of native jury, an innovation which has been subjected to much adverse
'
The Commissioners-General organized the High Court and contented themselves with the regulation of procedure in the civil and criminal jurisdiction, both European and native, making no serious alterations in the law itself. In the alterations they effected they were guided by the old Dutch practice, which they preferred to the reformed procedure introduced just previously into Holland. Although intended as only temporary measures they continued in effect until 1848. As early as 1830 there was a movement for the reform not only of the French system in Holland but also that in vogue in the Indies by 1846 there had been drawn up the general principles of legislation, the civil code, the commercial code, and the laws of bankruptcy, and during the two following years various acts regulated the civil and penal procedure of the High Court, and the Councils of Justice in Java and Madura, the functions of
criticism.
;
the police and the procedure, civil and penal, in the native courts. This and other legislation drafted at the same time was introduced in 1848 and became the basis of society in
Netherlands India.
Sumatra
reliable evidence,
Of the ancient history of Sumatra there is practically no but a number of poUtical societies were
486
HISTORY
formed by the Malay race in the region now known as the Malay Peninsula on the east coast, and in the centre of Sumatra. The earliest known influence to which these Idngdoms were subject was that of the Hindus, who are said to have maintained a regular connexion with their colonies in Java, and apparently managed to impart much of their civilization to the Malay societies on both sides of the Malacca Strait. It is probable, however, that Hindu ideas spread in Sumatra chiefly through immigration of Hindu-Javanese and the ever-extending sway of the empire of Majapahit. There were, however, other influences at work. There is record of a commercial intercourse with Arabia as early as the ninth century, and about this time political troubles in China diverted much of the Arab trade to other markets for eastern produce, among which was Palembang. Towards the end of the twelfth century Arab missionaries began to arrive, and in 1205 they achieved what was probably their first triumph in this region, the conversion of the Achinese. It was not long before Malay States on both sides of the Malacca Strait followed suit, and the spread of the new faith to Palembang was fraught with much consequence to the empire of Majapahit. The fall of Majapahit, which occurred towards the end of the fifteenth century, caused the break-up of the old empire and the assumption of independence by its Sumatran vassals, and the States thus formed were estimated to number twenty-nine. Under this new political order the difiEerence between political societies in the east and those in the west is noteworthy. The east coast bordered on the main thoroughfare of eastern civilization and in consequence became permeated with influences from India, China, and Arabia. Not least important among these was the genius for political organization, which resulted
in the formation of a
number
of powerful States with their
capitals at the
Strait.
mouths
of the rivers flowing into the
Malacca
This influence in some degree penetrated to the western side of the island, where the State of Menangkabau was established. It is not clear to what pitch of political organization or power the State of Menangkabau attained, but the effort eventually spent itself without having made any lasting impression on the email Malay communities of villages and village groups of western Sumatra. Another attempt to weld these
numerous
local organizations into a
compact
political
unity was
SUMATRA
487
made by the kingdom of Achin in northern Sumatra, but again the attempt broke down after a temporary success. Achinese influence, however, took a permanent hold of several communities in the north, but, generally speaking, the Malays of the west coast remained split up in societies which rarely attained to an organization greater than the village or group
of villages.
The difference between the two stages of political development of the peoples of these two regions is reflected in the Dutch administration of to-day. The western coast of Sumatra is susceptible only of direct administration by the Dutch,
while
many
of
the
States with
a well-developed political
still
consciousness on
the eastern side
retain
g,
measure of
self-government.
These independent kingdoms constituted the chief obstacle Dutch rule in Sumatra. But they wave successively brought under either direct rule or suzerainty. In 1825 the Palembang Sultanate was abolished and the Dutch next moved on to Jambi, where successive Sultans gave considerable trouble which has only abated in recent years. Both kingdoms are now subject to the direct rule of the Dutch. Less trouble was experienced with Siak Sri Indrapura, still farther to the north, by whom Dutch suzerainty was aclcnowledged in 1858. The original vassals of Siak Deli, Asahan, Kuala, Serdang, and Pelalawan, as a result of the rapid economic development of their territories, became of much more importance than the suzerain State, and subsequently made independent agreements with the Dutch Government. On the western side of Sumatra the Dutch had less difficulty. The empire of Menangkabau possessed spiritual prestige only, and during the holy war of the Padri sect, which began in 1807 and was finally stamped out by the, Dutch in 1837, the
to the extension of
' '
Malay kingdom disappeared. The Dutch had now to deal only with a vast number of village communities included in the regions of Benkulen,Padang, Padang Highlands, and Tapanuli. During the nineteenth century these were annexed piecemeal, and direct rule substituted. Dutch rule had by this time come in contact with the Batak peoples dwelling in the region round Lake Toba, and since the middle of the nineteenth century up to within recent years have taken successive Batak territories under their rule.
old
488
HISTORY
Achin
The most serious native opposition to the supremacy of the Dutch in Sumatra has centred in the northern territory of Acheh (Dutch Atjeh, better known in history as Achin). Chinese accounts refer to the existence of a Hindu Malay .Kingdom in the extreme north of Sumatra in the sixth century, and this region seems to have been an intermediate station for Hindu intercourse with Java. In and after the ninth century it became a port of call for Arab traders on their way to the East, and eventually in the fourteenth century it provided a
convenient field for Mohammedan missionary endeavour. The Portuguese policy of monopoly which they endeavoured to enforce on both sides of the Malacca Strait drove many Oriental traders to Achin, which rapidly became the wealthiest and most powerful kingdom of northern Sumatra, and extended its suzerainty considerably beyond its own frontiers in the island, and even over territory in the Malay peninsula. Its ascendency, however, was not of long duration, and in the seventeenth century the Dutch East India Company, after repeated bloclfades, extracted promises of a trade monopoly in Achin itself, half the tin product of Perak, and permission to build a store at Padang (1659). A force of 300 Dutch drove the Achinese from. Indrapura, over which they had extended their sway, and by means of the policy of seducing the States of the west coast from their allegiance, the power of Achin was soon confined once more to northern Sumatra. Throughout the eighteenth century Achin was rent by the rivalry of the Governors of the sagis, or inland provinces, with the Sultans, who had been restored in 1699, but under humiliating restrictions. Their chief influence was exercised at the capital on the coast, and they had the support of the Arab priests. Constant civil war and devastation brought the kingdom to a low condition, and it was the opinion of Raffles, when writing toLordMinto in 1810, that Achin would eventually split up into a number of pirate States. During the English regime the Sultan was friendly, being the son of a Penang merchant, and Raffles secured from him a treaty granting the monopoly of trade and arranging for a defensive alliance. The effect of this was to a great extent nullified by the expulsion of the English ally by the Governor of sagi Mukim XXII.
SUMATRA
489
The Treaty of 1824 between Holland and Great Britain, which arranged for the abandonment of Sumatra by the latter Power, included an appendix in which it was agreed by the Dutch that the independence of Achin should be respected. But the gradual expansion of Dutch power on the west coa^t of Sumatra was destined eventually to bring them into conflict with the nation whose integrity they had thus bound themselves
to respect.
1829 to occupy Tapanuli Barus was frustrated in 1831 an Achinese fleet assisted the Padris against Ayerbangis and Natal. Meanwhile, acts of piracy brought American and Dutch warships on punitive expedition against the Achinese of the west coast. The Rajah of Trumon had in 1 830 made a treaty with the Dutch Resident, but this was never confirmed. He was once a vassal of Achin, but was then regarded as independent. However, Van der Bosch apparently thought that this would be an infringement of the treaty of 1824 and fixed the limit of Dutch expansion at the Singkel River (1833). It was not until 1839 that Barus fell into Dutch hands, and in the following year a treaty was made with the Rajah of Trumon, in order to use his kingdom as a buffer state between Dutch West Coast possessions and Achin. Numerous acts of piracy were committed by the Achinese, both of the suzerain kingdom and its vassals. In 1856 the practice of sending warships was begun. This alarmed the Sultan, and he wrote to Singapore for advice which he received to the effect that he should enter into friendly relations with the Dutch. In 1857 General Van Swieten concluded a treaty with Sultan Ibrahim Mansur Shah, by which all previous disputes were to be forgotten, the Sultan was to suppress slavery and piracj^, and the Dutch were to be admitted to the trade of Achin on the same footing as the most favoured nation. Within a few years of the signing of the treaty ne w problems arose. It was not long before the Dutch had to make the usual complaints about piracy, but the chief trouble was connected with Dutch aggrandizement on the east coast, where, in 1858, Siak and its dependencies as far as the Tamiang River came
An attempt in
by the Achinese, and
under Dutch suzerainty. This new acquisition included terriwhich had once been tributary states of Achin, and over which the Achinese were renewing their influence. In 1863 an
tories
490
Achinese
fleet
HISTORY
flag at
bombarded Deli, Asahan, and Serdang, and fired Batu Bara. When asked for explanations, the Sultan said that Batu Bara (included in the recent annexations of the Dutch) had refused tribute and he was unaware of the presence of the Dutch flag. He also claimed the east coast
on the Dutch
as far as a point well south of Asahan.
Reprisals were instituted
by the Dutch in this region. The continual acts of piracy convinced the Dutch Government that it would have to take measures which would possibly
involve a diminution of Achinese independence.
For
this
purpose the necessary liberty to exercise a free hand in Sumatra was obtained from Great Britain in the Sumatra Treaty of 1871. The activity of the Dutch warships warned the Sultan of Achin of his impending danger, and he began to cast about for allies among the European Powers. He approached the Straits Government and demanded assistance under the terms of Raffles's treaty. He was told that this was not then valid, and he was advised to become friendly with the Dutch. He also intrigued with Turkey, France, Italy, and America, and the Consul of the last-mentioned country went so far as to draft a treaty. The Batavian authorities were now thoroughly alarmed at the prospect of foreign intervention in Sumatra, and in 1873 the Vice-President of the Council of India went to Achin as commissioner of the Government. He was followed immediately by an expeditionary force of 3,600 men. No satisfaction was obtained, and in April 1873, the troops landed east of
Oleh-leh.
The first expedition failed to achieve its immediate object which was to take the kraton at Kuta Raja. A blockade was then instituted pending the preparation of a further expedition, and efforts were made with the object of seducing the rajahs of the Achin dependencies from the cause of Great Achin. This succeeded in a few cases only. In December 1873 General van Swieten landed a strong force and captured the kraton, which he found abandoned (January 1874). The importance of the capture of the Icraton was over-estimated by the Dutch. The history of Achin showed that the Sultan only in a small measure represented the power of the people over which he ruled. Apart from a strong feeling of local independence, militant Mohammedanism preached by Arab ulamas was more common in Achin than in any other part of Netherlands India.
SUMATRA
491
The Dutch nevertheless hoped that the capture of the capital would make the natives amenable to peaceful persuasion, and consequently Van Swieten, who in January 1874 had become Governor of Achin, and those who came immediately after him, tried a waiting policy and were content with the possession of Kuta Raja. So far from inducing the Achinese to submit, this
policy encouraged the highland natives in the belief that the Dutch were afraid to attack them, and the opportunity was
used to foment a holy war. When this was realized it was resolved by the Dutch to cut off Great Achin from the sea, and to this end the conquest of certain island districts was deemed to be necessary. When this was accomplished conciliatory
methods were again tried. But hostilities by the Achinese under their leader Habib Abdurrahman induced General Van der Heyden to undertake the conquest of the whole Achin valley. Within three months, by September 1879 all opposition was at an end, and the native leaders had surrendered. For the ensuing twelve months there was complete tranquillity throughout Great Achin. In 1881 a civil governor was appointed peace tactics were actively pursued, and the army was condemned to inactivity. Again the ulartias and leaders of the Achinese guerilla bands took heart and made spasmodic attacks on the Dutch posts. The chief native leader was Teuku Uma, a famous adventurer. By 1883 the situation had become irripossible from the Dutch point of view, and a new policy was In 1883 it was decided to restore the Sultanate, considered. after a fruitless attempt the idea was abandoned. but In 1884 in a secret session of the States -General it was agreed that the best plan under the circumstances was to withdraw from the posts in the interior of Great Achin, and establish a fortified zone with Kuta Raja as the head- quarters. The new position was defended by a circle of military posts, which were connected with one another and with the head- quarters by railway and telephone. The policy was one of armed defence against an enemy whose attack was not to be provoked but awaited. The enemy meantime attained to some degree of organization under the leadership of Teungku Tiru, who had established himself in the sagi of Mukim XXII. A holy war was proclaimed, and raids of the guerilla bands were conducted
;
systematically, while
Teungku Tiru organized
a reserve force.
fortified zone,
These raiders even made their way inside the
492
HISTORY
where they destroyed telephone and railway communications. The whole of Achin and its dependencies as far south as Tamiang and Langkat were affected by the new movement. Tuanku Muhamat Da wot, being now of age, was crowned Sultan at the
mosque of Indrapuii. The only reply on the part of the Dutch, except for a few isolated sallies, was to complete the measures for the defence of the zone and to endeavour to open negotiations with the new sultan. The blockade which had been allowed to lapse was nominally tightened, but it is said that this system was not carried out thoroughly, and further, the Achinese were practically self-supporting, and not likely to be seriously affected by
a blockade.
The investigations of Dr. Snouck Hurgronje in 1891 and 1892 revealed the fact that a peaceable compromise with the extreme
Dutch
party was impossible and that they could only be reconciled to rule after a complete defeat. He was also of the opinion that the sultanate could be disregarded as of no political significanee. He advocated the promotion of agriculture, industry, and trade, coupled with a vigorous offensive against the extreme
party.
This policy was not at once adopted. The governor shrank from incurring the expense and responsibility of an offensive. Instead, Deykerhoff bribed some of the Achinese chieftains to carry out the work of suppressing guerrilla bands. The most successful was Teuku Uma, who, with a force of 2.50 men maintained at Dutch expense, cleared the sagi of Mukim XXVI, and in 1894 took the villages of Anak Gelong and Senenlop. Most of the garrisons of the inland posts were supplied by Teuku Uma. The latter had insinuated himself completely into the confidence of the governor and had received large supplies of ammunition, when he suddenly turned traitor. In order to prosecute the campaign against Teuku Uma, to whom support flowed from all parts of Achin, it was found necessarj'- to withdraw what
Dutch troops were being used to garrison outlying posts. The rebel chief was gradually driven from one position to another and a heavy blow was struck by the capture of Anak
head-quarters were established at Indrapuri, and Lhas Nga and Jot Manjang. The tactics of sending small patrols to destroy individual guerrilla bands was
Gelong.
New
local bases at
adopted with success.
From
the three centres above mentioned
SUMATRA
493
mobile columns operated in each locality for the purpose of keeping the regions clear of the enemy bands, and it was decided to link up the three positions with a steam-tramway. In order to maintain a stricter surveillance of a population which, while nominally agricultural, was accustomed to become suddenly militant when Teuku Uma appeared in the locality, the regulation that no native could bear arms without a pass was imposed throughout Achin. In January 1898 Teuku Uma was driven out of Achin and took refuge with Panglima Polem
in Pidir.
Pidir now became the centre of the opposition to the Dutch. In March 1898 Van Heutsz was made civil and military governor of Achin, and during the remainder of that year a vigorous
campaign was instituted against the enemy positions

a great
inflicted
in Pidir,
many
of the chiefs being captured.
Heavy
fines
were
on the States of the east coast and these were exacted in the form of levies on the pepper produce. During these operations there was a local religious upheaval under the fanatic Tapa who made his head- quarters at Idi. Teuku Uma was pursued to the west coast where, in February 1899, he was ambushed and slain. The death of Uma did not have the expected effect on the political situation in Great Achin, which owing to the refractoriness of Panglima Polem, the sagi chief of Mukim XXII, was still unsettled. By this time, however, the Dutch regulations
relating to registration, bearing arms, prohibition of dry rice
cultivation, living in the
mountain
villages,
and offences against
beginning to restrain the forces of disorder. Roads and bridges were built by the natives under the instructions of the Dutch, and telephonic communication was established with Pidir. In these districts the enemy was still in force under the leadership of Sultan Dawot, Panglima Polem, and other chiefs. In 1899 Dutch expeditions dispersed the main body and the remnants were pursued along the north coast, where their resistance was strengthened by another fanatical outbreak of the followers of Tapa. In spite of this the Dutch troops crossed the Pasei River and stamped out the local resistance. In the conquered regions fines were imposed and taxes levied to pay them. A road was constructed from the west coast to the east, where at the River Jambo Aje it joined up with the road which
public security, were
now
494
HISTORY
ran south to Kuala Simpang in Tamiang. Along this road Governor Van Heutsz in the autumn of 1899 rode in triumphal
progress, inflicting jBnes
for the
of the east coast as he proceeded.
and other punishments on the States The subjugation of what was
Dutch virgin soil considerably strengthened their moral, and depressed that of the enemy. A similar policy was adopted towards the chiefs of the west coast and many fines in the shape
of extra duties
chiefs
were inflicted. By 1900 nearly all the district had surrendered. During 1899 the basis of Dutch relationship with native rulers was restricted to a contract of three articles, the short declaration ', which diminished their
'
independence. The next focus of resistance was Samalanga, where the local The local chief chief and Sultan Da wot were in command. surrendered and was reinstated conditionally, while Sultan Dawot, in 1902, was driven into Gajo Land and eventually into Pidir. Early in 1903 the Sultan gave himself up at Kuta Raja, where he acknowledged the sovereignty of Holland. He was compelled to instruct the local chiefs to desist from further
opposition.
The
people,
effect of the Sulfate's surrender
was not
great,
and the
who had always respected the Sultan but seldom abeyed him, were much more susceptible to the influence of the ulamas.
In Pidir especially disorder was rife. In September 1903 Panglima Polem, chief of sagi XXII, surrendered, and this conduced to a better state of affairs in his province, to which he was restored as governor. Many of the north-coast chiefs followed his example, and the resistance of a few leaders who had fled to Gajo Land was broken by the expedition which pursued them there. The conditions on the west coast were not so satisfactory, but generally the situation was considered so favourable as to warrant a development of commercial and municipal enterprise in Kuta Raja. The effect of Japanese victories over the Russians was to give fresh life to the native opposition. Both the Sultan and the ulamas entered into secret negotiations with the Japanese with a view to securing an alliance and munitions of war. During 1905 and 1906 disorders broke out and were suppressed, and in 1907 a conspiracy was formed to restore Sultan Dawot. He and his supporters were arrested, their treason was proved, and they were banished to Batavia. Throughout this year there
SUMATRA
,
495
were several outbreaks in Achin

activity in the dependencies.
itself,
and increased enemy
In November 1907 Governor-General Van Heutsz visited Achin and instituted a conciliatory policy. Many of the fines were abolished and the restrictive regulations and military control were relaxed. In this year also systems of taxation and education were introduced. The religious party was to be annihilated while the native Government was to be diverted from the ignorant chiefs to their sons educated outside Achin. National education was instituted to neutralize the influence of Mohammedanism, and a Government Bank to assist agriculture. Many other improvements were effected in Great Achin, and these began to have an influence on the neighbouring States. But the dependencies were far from being pacified, and in Pasei especially, throughout 1908, attacks were made on the tramway and on government buildings. In June of that year H. Swart became Governor, and he succeeded in ingratiating himself with the natives and their chiefs by his respect for the native law and his lenient treatment of offenders. It was still necessary, however, to pursue and destroy ulamas and the leaders of guerrilla bands. By February 1912 most of the rebel leaders had been accounted for, and although attacks on government works and officials are liable to continue ^ the country is gradually assuming a permanently settled condition. It is still necessary, however, to maintain a garrison of about 5,000 men in Achin, and the expenses of government amount to five times the revenue.
BORNBO
In the following account of the history of Borneo mention is of the more important political organizations situated round the coasts and of pure Malay or Hindu- Javanese origin. They are those with which the Dutch have had a long and fairly regular intercourse as testified by successive contracts in the old form which in most cases are still in vogue. Other States, whose relationship with the Dutch short is of more recent date, are mostly bound by the new
made only
'
declaration
^
'.
The Kolonial
Verslag of 1915 reports various attacks
by armed bands.
496
HISTORY
Sambas
Early in the seventeenth century Sambas was ruled by a Malayan prince as the representative of the Sultan of Johor. With this prince the Company, in 1609, concluded a treaty by which it gained a monopoly of the diamond supply, and all other Europeans were denied access to Sambas. The nonfulfilment of the contract by the prince resulted in the closing of the factory in 1623, and although relations were not altogether broken off there was no important intercourse for a considerable time. After the death of the Malay prince, the Government fell into the hands of a prince from Brunei who had married a princess from Sukadana. The seat of government was removed to Labuk Madung and has since remained there. Towards the end of the eighteenth century the chief menace to the Sultan's power was the growing strength of the Chinese. These
a,t first
paid their taxes to the Sultan, but, as they grew
more powerful, withheld them. In 1770 they murdered the Dayak chiefs who had been set over them to govern on behalf of the Sultan. Under a later Sultan the Chinese not only refrained from paying taxes, but supported a rival claimant to
the throne in the person of the Sultan's younger brother. This faction became responsible for the organized piracy which had its centre in Sambas, and later, when the brothers had. been reconciled, the Sultan himself became involved. Pangeran Anom, the younger brother, grew to be such a formidable danger to commerce that the British, during RafHes's regime, fitted out an expedition which had the support of the Sultan of Pontianak. This expedition failed, but a subsequent attempt to destroy the pirate stronghold was successful. The Sultan was pardoned and allowed to continue in power, while Pangeran Anom succeeded in making his escape. On the Sultan's death in 1815 the British were content to
recognize Pangeran
Anom
as his successor.
When
the Dutch
were restored the new sultan sent an embassy to Batavia, and in 1818a Dutch resident and garrison were installed at Sambas, which was now ruled as a fief of the Netherlands Govermnent. New contracts were made in 1828, 1848, 1866, 1877, and 1879, the last of which was only revised in 1909. Apart from the Chinese rebellion (dealt with on p. 502) the Sambas Government has been constantly troubled by the
BORNEO
Dayaks Dayaks
in
of Seribas
497
of
and those of Sarawak. More recently, the Songkong on the borders of Sambas, Landak, and
of reprisals,
were guilty of head-hunting Their final subjugation was accomplished by forces from Landak and Sanggau (1899), and they now jdeld homage to the Sultan of Sambas.
Sanggau, in spite
Sambas
territory.
Pontianak
In 1772 Abdur Rahman, the Arab governor of Mampawa, founded a colony near where Pontianak now stands, and the new settlement soon developed into a flourishing trading town. In 1778 the Sultan of Bantam abandoned his claims upon the colony to the Company, which concluded a treaty with Abdur, now Sultan of Pontianak and Sanggau. Abdur Rahman's attempts to control Sanggau failed, as did all subsequent attempts. In Mampawa Abdur was more successful, and his descendants endeavoured to obtain an acknowledgement of the supremacy of Pontianak from the States of Landak, Tajan, and Matan, but never succeeded in exercising any influence there or even obtaining satisfactory recognition. After their restoration in 1818 the Dutch made separate treaties with Pontianak, Landak, and Matan, and when the claims of Pontianak to Tajan had been abandoned, a treaty was made with that place also. In the treaty made with Sultan Kasim of Pontianak the prince placed himself under the protection of the Dutch, and agreed to a joint government and control of the revenues. On his death his successor gave up most of, his taxes for a fixed salary. A treaty of 1 855 made the territory amenable to Dutch jurisdiction, and included it in their police system. During the reign of Sultan Yusuf (d. 1895) the, system of taxation and statute labour was reorganized. The contract with the Dutch Government was revised in 1911.
Landak
Once a dependency of Majapahit, Landak, under the name of Augrah-batur, was for some time independent after the fall of that power. It then came under the supremacy of Matan, and, later. Bantam. In 1778 the Sultan of Bantam transferred his rights to the Company, who started a post at Ngobang, abandoned in 1791. Inl818a small garrison was again placed
NETHERLANDS INDIA
J
J
498
there,
HISTORY
and
in 1822 the
Government acquired by contract the and diamond mines. These, however, were worked at a loss, and were soon given back to the prince. In 1829 the garrison was withdrawn. Subsequently, treaties were made in 1831, 1844, 1869, and 1883, in the last of which concessions were granted to the Dutch for mining and agricultural development. A further treaty was made in 1909.
right over the gold
Sukadana, with Matan and Simpang
The
the
original
kingdom
of
Sukadana
is
said to have been a

of Majapahit.
it is
In probable that its ruler recognized the supremacy of Mataram, but he himself obtained a temporary sovereignty over Sambas, and during his reign there was a considerable development of commerce in which the English largely participated. About 1700 the Dutch East India Company, which was jealous of the English prefirst half of
Hindu-Javanese colony founded by a prince

the seventeenth century
dominance
in
joint attack
Sukadana, seized an opportunity afforded by a by Landak and Bantam (the war had originated a quarrel between Landak and Sukadana over a famous
in
diamond) to destroy the English establishment at Sukadana. For a short time Sukadana and Landak became vassal provinces of Bantam, but in 1778 Bantamese pretensions to Sukadana were yielded up to the Company, and in 1786, at the instigation of the Sultan of Pontianak, a joint attack was made by the Dutch and himself on Sukadana. The town was found deserted, and was totally destroyed. The independent kingdom of Sukadana was now at an end, and its former princes now ruled over Matan, previously a dependency. The trade which hitherto had been attracted to Sukadana was now diverted to Pontianak, where the Company was able to control it. Attempts on the part of the Dutch to rebuild and repopulate Sukadana were of no avail. The deserted town served merely as a habitation for bandits and pirates, whom it was found
impossible to control. Meanwhile, in Matan affairs were falling into disorder, the country being divided into two factions one
headed by the Sultan and the other by his step-brother. Both princes, along with the chief of Simpang, took part in the piracies of which the chiefs of the west coast were guilty. In 1822 the Dutch made an effort to come to terms with Matan and Simpang, from whose princes they extracted a
BORNEO
499
promise to refrain from piracy. But as this was subsequently broken an armed expedition under a Siak prince proceeded from Sambas and opened negotiations with Matan. Both princes of Matan and Simpang gave up their kingdom, to receive them back from the Netherlands Government. The Government's rights to old Sukadana, originally received from Bantam, were now asserted, and the Karimata Islands also
became government
territory.
The
collection of taxes
by
the
Dutch, who were to pay compensation, and the suppression of piracy were arranged for in the treaty, which became the basis of Dutch relationship with the two native States. In 1827 a Dutch ship which had stranded on the Karimata Islands, still regarded by the Sultan of Matan as his property, was claimed by him, and when it was refused, he attacked the
and carried off the Dutch flag. The Siak prince. Rajah Akil, was sent with a punitive expedition to Matan, and after some hard fighting reached the capital, which he found deserted. The Sultan had fled inland. On his death, in 1829, a successor was appointed with the title of panambahan, the sultanate thus coming to an end. Rajah Akil had been made Sultan of old Sukadana with a capital renamed New Brussels. His new dominion included the direct rule over Karimata Islands and suzerainty over Matan and Simpang. Rajah Akil, however, proved an unsatisfactory rulfer, who quarrelled with native princes and his Dutch colleagues, and in 1831 he was temporarily recalled. A garrison was stationed in New Brussels and subsequently, in 1834, an agent and five police -superintendents were appointed. In Matan two princes successively refused to co-operate with Akil, and in 1837, after a period during which Matan was without a
local chief
they returned to their duties. A solution of the difficulty found by which Matan, and later Simpang, became indewas pendent of Sukadana. In 1849 Sultan Akil was succeeded by his son who received
ruler,
control of the Siak dynasty have behaved peaceably and have continued loyal servants of the Dutch, who have seldom been called upon
to interfere in their affairs.
the title of panambahan instead of Sultan. The Matan and Simpang since their liberation from the
princes of
by the 'short
1911.
declaration
',
Sukadana and Simpang are bound and Matan by a contract dated

ii2
500
HISTORY
Banjermasin
The kingdom of Banjermasin probably originated as a HinduJavanese colony, and in 1365 it is mentioned as a possession of Majapahit. In 1606 the Dutch made a commercial treaty with
Mohammedan Sultan, and pepper, gold-dust, and different kinds of wood were the commodities loaded in the Company's ships. This intercourse, owing to the hostile attitude of the natives, came to an end in 1669, and the English became predominant in the trade of the port. But they also, in 1707, were
the
attacked and massacred, and no European traded with the
some time. The Sultan was now ansdous to renew relations with the Company, and in 1733 the latter promised their protection in return for the monopoly of pepper with the exception of one junk voyaging once a year to China. The exception was so abused as to menace the monopoly, aivd in 1747 it was abolished by Van Imhoff, who two years later opened a store at Banjerplace for
'
masin.
it
In 1787 the Sultan, a usurper living in the new capital
of Martapura, ceded his
kingdom to the Company and received back from them as a fief. A certain small tract of territory became the sole property of the Dutch, but in 1809 the place was abandoned as unprofitable, by Daendel's orders. During the regime of Raffles, Hare was Resident at Banjermasin and his term of office is remarkable for an attempt made to plant
a colony of 5,000 natives. For some considerable time after their restoration the Dutch remained on good terms with Sultan Adam. In 1826 he ceded to them his possessions on the east coast, and the Batavian Government acquired the right of nominating heirs to the throne and the subordinate regents. An exercise of this prerogative plunged the kingdom in turmoil. For some years before the old Sultan Adam's death the Dutch intrigued to establish as his heir a prince who was generally unpopular. Their chief motive seems to have been the desire for the possession of certain coal mines. In 1857, when the Sultan died, the Dutch nominee was installed, and immediately the factions of other candidates began a revolt in which they had the support of the priests' party. In spite of the banishment of one claimant
the disturbances
the kingdom.
still
continued and
it
was determined to annex
BORNEO
501
The proclamation in 1860 of the annexation caused further outbreaks, and for five years the Dutch were at war against refractory chiefs. Even then the rebellion still smouldered in
the highlands, and in 1870 there was a further serious outbreak which was suppressed after the death of its leader. In 1883 a descendant of the Sultan dispossessed in 1787 attacked a Dutch post in Upper Dusim, and after being driven from their headquarters his followers continued to infest the hills, but without seriously disturbing the peace. Up to this time no attempt had been made by the Dutch to
penetrate into the district of Upper Dusun, it being tacitly agreed that the government inspectors should stop short of that place. In 1900, however, expeditions proceeded up the Rivers Barito,
lished with the local chiefs
Laung, Suku, and Babuat, and friendly relations were estaband inhabitants. The extension of Dutch influence was made at the expense of the native authorities of the coast, who made frequent protests of which no
notice
was taken. The famous mounted police were in 1905 sent to deal with the numerous acts of brigandage, and the death of the prince who had taken to the hills led to numerous surrenders. Many chiefs were banished and tranquillity was restored.
Kutei
iQthough visited by the Company's ships and having occaDutch through the medium of Banjermasin, the first direct negotiations with Kutei were instituted by Miiller in 1825. As he was assassinated at this time, the settlement was not made. Later, when the Dutch became anxious about English activities in this region (1843) an expedition was sent which obtained from the Sultan an acknowledgement of Dutch supremacy. An assistant-resident was instaêd in 1846, while agreements were made in 1850 and 1863, and later revised in 1902. The Sultan has behaved loyally and has rendered service in connexion with the Achin wars.
sionally entered into relationship with the
The Kongsis The word kongsi signifies the administration of common interests '. The Kongsis owe their existence largely to the patriarchal system of the Chinese, by which the head of the family alone possessed and administers the property of the
'
.
502
clan.
HISTORY
Before the arrival of the Dutch the Kongsi had become Sambas in West Borneo,
partly commercial in character, as in

necessity of protection against
where the gold mines were worked by these societies. The Dayak chiefs and Malay princes led to the formation of larger Kongsis composed of family units. These sometimes fought similar societies, and one Kongsi often absorbed another.
After the restoration of Dutch rule in 1816 many attempts were made to bring the Kongsis into subjection. In 1850 Pamangkat was attacked, and after some sharp fighting against the Fo-shun, a confederacy comprising the three Kongsis of Montrado, Lumar, and Buduk, the place was subdued. No lasting result was obtained in 1853 expeditions were sent against the disaffected regions, and in 1854 the Fo-shun confederacy was abolished. Revolts again broke out in Montrado and were only suppressed after some fighting. The conquered districts were made into the assistant-residency of Montrado. Throughout this crisis the Kongsi La-fong in Mandor, which included the Chinese between the Pontianak River, Lower Landak, the Sepatta, and the Mampawa River, maintained a strict neutrality. It eventually sided with the Dutch and rendered good service by delivering up fugitives from justice. In consequence, the society was allowed to continue under its
;
captain,
and
its
relationship to the
Government was
defined.
In 1884 on the death of the captain the Mandor Chinese were brought under direct control, but not without much rioting
and the murder of two officials. As recently as July 1914 there was some trouble ia Mampawa, where members of the Young Chinese party were concerned in
a revolt to which, it is said, the rebels expected the Chinese Republic to lend assistance.
Celebes The history of Celebes is concerned chiefly with the relations of the Dutch with the Buginese kingdoms round the Gulf of Boni and the Makassarese nation of Gowa in the south-western part
of the island. in the north,
There are other fairly well-organized societies but their history is bound up with that of Ternate. Of the native Torajas of Middle Celebes, little has been known until recently. Many of their tribes were nominally vassals of the Buginese State of Luwu.
CELEBES
Gowa
503
a State in South-west Celebes with its capital at friendship for Mataram, the Makassarese Sultan's aggressive policy in the Moluccas, and his protection of English, Portuguese, and other aliens, all provided a good reason for the hostility of the Dutch. In 1600 they gained a victory over Gowa and its Portuguese allies, and in 1667
Gowa was
Makassar.
Its
Speelman, with his Buginese auxiliaries, broke the power of the sultanate. By the Bongay Treaty which wâs then concluded the pretensions of Gowa to supremacy over the Celebes kingdoms, the Moluccas, and many islands in the Lesser Sunda group had to be abandoned. Certain tracts of the Sultan's territory were surrendered to the Company. In the eighteenth century the kingdom fell into decay and its
was maintained against the people of Boni, who had nowin turn become the most prominent State in Celebes, only by the support of the Dutch garrison at Makassar (1739). Similar aid was rendered to a Gowa prince against insurgents in 1776. Recently Gowa has ceased to be independent. Under the last prince relations with the Dutch became strained owing to
integrity
the harbouring of criminals in

ference on the part of the
Krang Allu, against a noble of Sawito. These troops were held up by the Dutch garrison at Makassar, and were only released on the payment of a fine. As a consequence of this act the five chiefs of the Ajatapparang confederation, incited thereto by its head chief, sent back the contracts made with the Netherlands Government. Relations with the Dutch administrative officials were broken off, and the regents of Bonthain and Binanu sided with Gowa against the Government. Troops were dispatched to Gowa and after some fighting the various chiefs of the confederation came in and surrendered.
The principal chief lost his life in the fighting. In 1911 Gowa was incorporated in Dutch territory, while the various Gowa enclaves were attached to the nearest Dutch administrative
centres.
other States. In 1905 to help the Gowa prince,
Gowa territory, and the interGowa Government with the affairs of Gowa sent a force to Jampuwa (Sawito)
Boni
Boni originally consisted of a number. of small States whose rulers were elected, and together formed
of
The kingdom
504
HISTORY
an
of
aristocratic council. This council in turn elected a president
of the confederated States,
which office became a perquisite one particular family. At the end of the sixteenth century they were in league with other Buginese States against the Sultan of Makassar, who, however, eventually compelled Boni to submit. In this state of dependence Boni remained until Speelman's victory in 1667, when all the vassals of Makassar were absolved from their allegiance. In 1672 Aru PalacCa the pro-Dutch prince of Sopeng was elected as chief of the Boni confederacy, and under him and his successors the kingdom became the most important in Celebes. In their early wars in Java the Dutch relied to a great extent on their Buginese allies, and it was natural that the latter should become arrogant enough to constitute a serious menace to European power in
Celebes.
RafHes found them a difficulty and although he inflicted a army he made little permanent impression on their attitude towards European government. The Dutch immediately on their restoration were compelled to send an expedition to compel them to subscribe to the Bongay Treaty. Again the European force gained a victory to little purpose, and the troops were compelled to re-embark before their object had been accomplished. It was not until 1848 that all the arrangements were completed for Boni's participation in a revised Bongay Treaty. This acquiescence on the part of Boni proved to be only temporary, and as a result of the provocative behaviour of a Boni princess, who ordered all her ships to carry the Dutch flag reversed, it was necessary in 1859 to send a second expedition. After a short and sharp struggle the capital was taken. By a treaty made in 1860 Boni ceased to be independent, and became a fief of the Netherlands Government, while part of its territory was included within the sphere of direct government. As each prince succeeded to the throne the treaty was either confirmed or modified. The last prince was La Pawowoni Kraeng Segeri, during
defeat on their
whose reign the Dutch had considerable trouble in Boni. Interference in the affairs of other States of South Celebes and refusal to yield up the import and export duties were the chief reasons for a military expedition in July 1905, which after a few days' fighting made an end of the resistance in Boni. The prince himself was eventually taken and banished. He was not
CELEBES
replaced,
505
and the Government devolved upon a council assisted by a European director. The council endeavoured to preserve the old basis of government by treaty, but on the ground that the council was not authorized to contract on behalf of the State, the Dutch declined to accept the old basis, and now
regard Boni as conquered territory to be governed as the conquerors deem expedient. In 1906 considerable? disorder was caused by marauding bands, whose operations assumed the dimensions of a rebellion. This was effectually suppressed and its leader banished.
Wajo
This State was a signatory of the Bongay Treaty, but failed In 1737 and 1738 Wajorese were in open revolt and a punitive expedition made no impression. It was not until 1888 that the kingdom ceased to be independent, but in that year a treaty was made by which it became Dutch territory. The condition of affairs, till recently at least, was unsettled. In 1899 the Wajorese 'were at war with Boni, by whom they were defeated and compelled to appeal to the Dutch for protection. In 1902 two factions arose wibhin the State itself. Six chiefs of the federation with help from Boni made war on an illegitimate son of Aru Matowa, the head of the federation. He was defeated. In 1905 the short declaration was applied to Wajo.
to observe its conditions.
'
'
Luwii
According to tradition the kingdom of Luwu was the most powerful State of Celebes from the tenth to the fourteenth century. It eventually became subject to Makassar, and when that State was subdued in 1667 Luwu became an independent signatory of the Bongay Treaty. Prom this time onwards it fell under the influence of Boni." It was not until after the Boni War, in 1861, that the Dutch succeeded in getting a treaty signed. In 1886 there was trouble over the refusal of the Luwu Government to pay a fine for murdering shipwrecked sailors. At the end of the century the state of the country was still unsatisfactory, and apparently it was considered unusual if Dutch ambassadors and explorers were not murdered by the natives. Nominally, however, the State has been governed since 1905
by
the
'
short declaration
'.
506
HISTORY
/
Menado
Menado was the site of several colonies formed by Spaniards on the northern coast, where they were followed by natives from the islands of Menado-Tuwa, Talisei, and Bangka. The Sultan of Ternate claimed some degree of sovereignty over these settlements, although the actual power was greater in the Gorontalo and Limboto regions farther to the west. The Dutch
first entered into relations with the natives of this region in response to their appeal for help against the Spaniards and the Sultan of Ternate. In 1657 the present capital and a fort were built, and soon afterwards an agreement made for an annual delivery of ironwood to the Company. In 1677 Sangi and Talauer Islands and later small kingdoms on the north coast were incorporated under the direct rule of the Governor of Ternate. Since that time the influence of the Dutch has gradually expanded originally Minahasa only was under direct government, but recently all the Gorontalo lands and
;
Sangi Islands were annexed, leaving only a few small kingdoms with self-government. Originally part of the Moluccas, Menado in 1864 was made an independent residency with all its district
chiefs in the
pay
of the
Government.
Buton
On the ground of conquest in 1580 Ternate established an early claim to Buton. This was later disputed with success by
In the seventeenth century, when the Makassarese were waging war against the Company's allies in the Moluccas, the conquest of Buton was first effected to provide a base of operations. -It was here that the Makassarese ships were destroyed by Speelman, who by the Bongay Treaty of 1667 compelled the Gowa Sultan to abandon his claims to the kingdom and pay compensation to its chief. Relations between Buton and the Company, with one break between 1752 and 1766, when the Butonese were suspected of complicity in the seizure of a Dutch ship, continued to be amicable. In 1824 Buton subscribed to the revised Bongay Treaty. About 1850 this was superseded by the system of separate contracts with the different localities, and in 1851 the Sultan of Buton was with difficulty induced to sign one of these. In 1863 the suzerainty of the Sultan of Ternate was abolished.
the Sultan of Gowa.
CELEBES
507
In 1886 a new Sultan refused to agree to the existing arrangement, and it was necessary to send three warships to bring him to terms. In 1897 and 1901 the same trouble reappeared on the
election of a
new ruler. The presentation of a new contract in 1906 was therefore backed up by a military demonstration with the desired effect. The trouble, however, was not yet at an end. In 1907 the Sultan and his nobles had to be reprimanded and fined. The registration of the natives roused so much opposition that it was found necessary to suppress disorders by force, and in 1908 further action had to be taken against disaffected persons in the district of Muna. In 1910 a number of chiefs convicted of conspiracy were banished. A Sultan appointed by the Government in the following year seems to be more peaceably disposed towards the Dutch. The kingdom is still self -governed by a Sultan who is elected by a council in which
the Dutch administrative
influence.
officials
are gaining an increased
The Moluccas and New Gthnea

In the middle group of the Moluccas on which the Dutch
relied exclusively for their spice cargoes, direct rule
was
esta-
blished at an early date, and had its centre in Amboina. Only in Ceram had the Dutch any difficulty in enforcing their authority. The extermination of the clove trees during the
Company's period was a source of discontent among the coast and it was not until the time of Van der Capellen that cultivation was allowed. During the nineteenth century free expeditions have been made from time to time against the peoples of the interior, and the last of these took place as recently as 1910. Since that year there has been no disturbance, and in 1914 the garrison which had been kept at Wahai since 1880 was found to be no longer necessary. In the northern group the three sultans of Temate, Tidore, and Bachian still make some pretence at self-government, but without any real power. The Sultan of Temate is regarded as the chief vassal by the Dutch, and his position keeps alive the old-standing jealousy of Tidore and Bachian. All three have
peoples,
short declaration '. a treaty dated 1660 between the Dutch and the three States of Temate, Tidore, and Bachian the Company was acknowlecjged to be 'lord of the Papuans or all their islands
'
recently subscribed to the
By
508
HISTORY
which are subject to the King of Tidore '. In this way the Dutch obtained a nominal sovereignty over the Tidorese fiefs on the islands of Waigiu, Salwatti, and Misol. On the island last named were two kingdoms, Waigama and Misol, possessing vague sovereignty over parts of the mainland of New Guinea, on the north-west coast and the south-west coast the suzerainty of Tidore was also acknowledged in the neighbourhood of McCluer Gulf. The first establishment of the Dutch was not set up until 1828, when Fort du Bus was built, and the extent of Dutch sovereignty was then defined, as it was later, in 1848. In 1898 the territory of Tidorese vassals was assigned to Ternate, and in 1911 West New Guinea became part of the residency of Amboina. In 1909 the chiefs subscribed to the
;
'
short declaration
'.
Lessee Sunda Islands

Bali
on Bali was in all probability introduced from India, but little is known of the history of the island until it became an independent political unit under refugee princes from Majapahit (about 1480). But towards the end of the seventeenth century the provinces into which the Balian empire was divided assumed an independent status under their respective governors, and in this way nine separate principalities came into being. They were Klungkimg (the original suzerain State), Karang Asem, Mengwi, Badung, Bangli, Tabanan, Gianjar, Buleleng, and Jembrana. Little trade was done by the Dutch with Bali until a post was established in Badung for contracting for slaves. Many of these were sent to Batavia and compelled to join the Dutch army. An official
influence
direct
Hindu
statement of 1778 gives the number of Balians sent to Batavia

as 13,000.
and the Dutch took the precaution of establishing military posts commanding the Bali Strait from the Java side. It was through the agency of the Bali rajahs that Rafiles was enabled to enter into communication with the native princes of Java. Raffles later became unpopular with the rajahs because of his prohibition of the slave trade, and in 1814 it was necessary to make a military demonstration in
to take
in Bali,
Towards the end an interest
of the eighteenth
century the English began
509
Buleleng, whose prince had endeavoured to re-establish his claim to Balambangan.
Soon after the restoration of Dutch power, Commissioner H. A. Van der Broeck was sent to Bali to renew old relations, but he found that Dutch prestige had suffered considerably. From 1826 to 1831 a Dutch official resided in Badung for the purpose of enlisting recruits for the Dutch army, then hard pressed in Java. The fear of English influence in 1839 impelled the Dutch to obtain from the Bali princes a recognition of their supremacy, which was, however, to give no rights of interference in the internal affairs of the Balinese. It was also agreed that
the rajahs should forego their ancient right of confiscating the cargoes of ships wrecked on their coasts.
In 1844 the tawan-karang, or shore right ', was applied by the Rajah of Buleleng to a ship flying the Dutch flag. He was disposed to grant the compensation demanded by the Dutch, but his anti-Dutch prime minister induced him to refuse, and to back his refusal by force of arms. His example was followed by the neighbouring State of Karang Asem, and in 1846 it was necessary to send an expedition which, after the capture of Singaraja, brought the two princes to terms. They both agreed to recognize Dutch suzerainty and to render homage at Batavia every three years, besides paying the expenses of the war and receiving a Dutch representative in
'
their territories.
The influence of the anti-Dutch prime minister of Buleleng was still paramount, and he not merely prevented the two rajahs of Buleleng and Karang Asem from fulfilling their promises, but inveigled the Dewa-Agong of Klungkung into his conspiracy against the Dutch Government. Several ships wrecked on the shores of Bali were looted, so in 1848 it was decided to send a further punitive expedition. This was directed against Buleleng only, and was a failure. Except for a fort on the coast the island was temporarily abandoned. In 1849 an expedition on a larger scale than before was prepared. Buleleng was first attacked and the rajah with his prime minister were driven to Karang Asem. In the operations against this latter place assistance was promised by the pro -Dutch prince of Bangli and the prince of Lombok, who had pretensions to territories in Karang Asem. The rebel rajah committed suicide and the Dutch troops crosse'd into Klungkung, where soon the Dutch
510
HISTORY
received the
commander
homage
of
Klungkung, Badung,
Tabanan, and Gianjar.
was
the
In place of the fugitive rajah of Buleleng the prince of BangH installed by the Dutch, and Karang Asem became a fief of
Lombok rajah of Mataram. The nominal supremacy of the Dewagong of Klungkung was abolished. All the Bali princes signed a new treaty recognizing Dutch supremacy, prohibiting
European settlements, piracy, slavery, and the exercise of shore right '. The Dutch still professed that they had no
'
intention of interfering in Balinese internal affairs.
Dutch
influence
made most headway in the two principalities
nearest Java, Buleleng and Jembrana. In 1854 the prince of Bangli had been so unsuccessful as ruler of Buleleng that he abdicated, and in his place the Dutch installed a native regent with the title of rajah, to be assisted by a controleur under the
Banyuwangi. In 1856 a similar arrangement was made in Jembrana, whose prince had abdicated. With the assistance of a Buleleng chief from Ban jar the exprinee of Jembrana attempted in 1857 to regain his former power, but the attempt was quelled, and he himself was banished. In^he following year his accomplice, Njoman Gempel of Banjar, made a similar attempt and was dealt with in the same way. A controleur was left to supervise the government of the native regent in Jembrana, but in 1861 an assistant-resident made his head-quarters at Buleleng. The Dutch Government in these two provinces assumed the right qi calling up the inhabitants for
assistant-resident of
powers in the realm and prohibited widow-burning. The possession of these rights did not prevent a good deal of extortion and tyranny on the part of the native regents, and in
military service.
It also exercised certain of justice, abolished torture,
1866, in response to native complaints, the regent of Jembrana,
was banished. In 1874 the regent dealt with. The district of Banjar
some.
rebels
of Buleleng
in particular
A banished chief returned thither in under his leadership were threatening Singaraja. A Dutch expedition drove the rebels from this place, but suffered
was similarly was trouble1864 and by 1868
a reverse at Banjar. On the arrival of reinforcements the country was subdued and the rebel chiefs punished. After the banishment of the regents of the two countries a temporary expedient was adopted. The Government now consisted of a committee of notables under the presidency of a European
LESSER SUNDA ISLAND.S

official,
511
and this state of affairs lasted until 1882, when the two provinces were brought under the direct Dutch rule of the Residqpcy of Bali and Lombok.
The ranks of rajah and patih (prime minister) were now and the district chiefs became officials appointed and salaried'by the Dutch Government. Singaraja in Buleleng became the head-quarters of the Provincial Government with two controleurs, and in Jembrana there was a controleur at
abolished,
Negara. Political disturbances of a serious kind now ceased. Meanwhile, the other States of Bali were engaged in constant
war which the arbitration of the Dutch could do little to The small State of Mengwi was subject to the attacks of its neighbours, and in 1891 it ceased to be independent and was divided among Badung, Tabanan, Klungkung, and Gianjar. The last State itself had a chequered career. In 1883 it was induced through fear of Bangli to become incorporated in Klungkung. However, as a consequence of a successful revolt, it regained its independence in 1893, but the menace of its neighbours, Bangli, Klungkung, and Badung, impelled it to seek Dutch protection in 1900. Karang Asem in 1894 had not supported its overlord, the rajah of Mataram in Lombok, in his war against the Dutch, and, as a reward, in 1895 the regent was given the title of Stadtholder by the Batavian Government. The Dutch rule in Gianjar and Karang Asem ensured immunity from the
civil
prevent.
attacks of their neighbours.
More difficulty was experienced with the other rajahs.

necessary to
of criminals whom he harboured. Generally, the rajahs placed every obstacle in the way of attempts by Dutch officials to improve the native administration. It was not until 1903 that the custom of widow-burning could be completely suppressed. In 1904 a schooner from Banjermasin was wrecked on the Badung coast, and its cargo was looted. The two rajahs of Badung refused compensation, and defied the Dutch Government. The rajahs of Tabanan and Bangli openly sided with
agong
make a naval demonstration Klungkung to give up some
to induce the
It was Dewa-
Badung, and the forces of Barigli made raids into Karang Asem and Gianjar, both Government territories. In 1906 an expedition was dispatched to Badung and in the hostilities which ensued the rajahs were slain. The rajah of Tabanan submitted.
512
HISTORY
but on hearing of the Government's intention to deport him he^ and his son committe.d suicide. Klungkung was forced to give up its enclaves in Gianjar, and ten desas taken froijj that territory by Bangli had to be restored. All firearms were given up. South Bali was placed under European control with an assistant-resident at Den Pasar and controleurs at Tabanan and Gianjar, the last also supervising Bangli and Klungkung. Karang Asem was the head-quarters of an assistant-resident. Except for a rebellion in Tabanan in 1906, Badung, Tabanan, and Gianjar have remained quiet. In 1908, shortly after the introduction of opium regulations, a local insurrection in Klungkung involved the Dewa-agong, and it was found necessary to reduce him by force. The Dewa-agong and his family
The remaining chiefs of high caste were interned in Lombok, In Karang Asem the nephews of the loyal Stadtholder were stirring up trouble, and a Dutch force was sent to compel their surrender. In Bangli the Government was revised, the rajah being made a Dutch official with the title of Stadtholder, and the oath was administered to the chiefs in both Bangli and Karang Asem In 1 9 1 1 Klungkung was formally brought iinder direct rule and in 1912 the successors of the Standtholder in Bangli and Gianjar were made regents. In 1914 mihtary garrisons were removed and their place was taken by an armed
deliberately sacrificed their lives in a hopeless attack.
.
police corps.
Lombok
An early reference
of
to Lombok (1640) indicates that the Sultan
Makassar regarded the island as part of his dominions. When the power of the Sultan was reduced by the Dutch in 1667-8, a Sumbawa chief seized the opportunity to impose his sovereignty on the people of Lombok. At this time (1674) the Company
concluded a contract with the
Lombok
regents,
It
who promised
to remain loyal to the prince of
was not long, however, before disorders broke out in Sumbawa itself and the States of that island were soon involved in civil war. The country became a prey to pirate adventurers from Makassar, who since the downfall of their political power had roVed about the archipelago plundering and destroying even in Java itself. Another power which profited from this state of anarchy was Bali. Balinese inhabitants of Lombok, assisted probably by
Sumbawa.
513
their fellow-countrymen from across the Strait, destroyed the important village of Salamparang (1692), and soon became a menace to Sumbawa. These events threatened to upset the arrangement established by the Bongay Contract', and the Company endeavoured unsuccessfully to get the signatories to take action against the Balinese. The latter succeeded in establishing four kingdoms on Lombok: Mataram, Karang
Asem, Pagasangen, and Pagutan. Although a nominal homage Karang Asem in Bali was acknowledged, the four kingdoms were practically independent and were constantly engaged in wars for supremacy. The struggle terminated in a sanguinary conflict in 1838 when Mataram emerged indubitable victors. In 1843, in a contract entered into by the Company and Mataram, the latter acknowledged the suzerainty of Karang Asem in Bali. However, in 1849, when the Company was at war with the Balinese States of Klungkung and Karang Asem, assistance was given by the prince of Mataram against his overlord, and as a reward he received Karang Asem in Bali as
to
a fief. This turn of fortune increased the presumption of the prince of Mataram, who regarded the treaty of 1843 as one of alliance with the Dutch and not as a recognition of their
suzerainty.
Friendly relations with Mataram continued until 1872, when Mataram in Karang Asem ceased to send the regular embassy to Bata^da. The same kingdom in 1891 interfered in the domestic politics of Bali, and Sasak troops were sent from the suzerain State in Lombok. Apart from the arrogant bearing of the prince of Mataram towards his overlords at Batavia, his internal administration, in which the Dutch had in 1843 promised not to interfere, began Generally speaking, society in to give cause for anxiety. Lombok consisted of a Hindu governing class, the Balinese, and a Mohammedan subject population, the Sasaks. From the beginning of Balinese domination, the Sasaks had been cruelly oppressed, and from time to time they made ineffectual attempts to throw off the Balinese yoke. Finally, they implored Dutch aid, and in 1894, very reluctantly, the Dutch sent all expedition which overthrew the native government. Lombok was now made a division of the Residency of Bali and
the vassal prince of
Lombok, under an
NETHEHLANDS INDIA
assistant-resident at
Ampenan, and was

In 1898
divided into two districts. East and West Lombok.

Jf ]j
514
HISTORY
a third district was made in central Lombok in order to allow of a stricter supervision of the Sasak district of Praja. The capitals of^the three districts were at Mataram, Praja, and Sisi. Karang Asem in Bali has now no connexion with Lombok. The native administration was organized under twelve district chiefs, with thirty-seven pengawas over the Balinese population. The Balinese proved docile enough the main difficulty was experienced in dealing with the Sasaks. As a consequence of the recent Sasak revolt against their Balinese oppressors, the latter had annexed Sasak lands on which the original proprietors were compelled, to give their services. After the victory of the Dutch no immediate settlement of this grievance was
;
made, and many cultivators refused to yield up the proportion of the harvest due to their new landlords. Sasaks who considered themselves wronged united in causing disturbances, and as lately as 1897 robber bands were still at large. With a view to remedying this state of affairs it was decided in 1897 to undertake a survey of West Lombok. As recently as August 1914 there was a small disturbance in Middle Lombok, where the rumour that the Japanese had conquered Holland, and that a Japanese warship was then lying off the east coast of the island, caused a revolt which was suppressed without difficulty.
Sumbawa
The history of Sumbawa has from early times been bound up with Gowa or Makassar in Celebes, and until recently the island with a dependency in West Plores was included in the administrative division of the Government of Celebes. The origiaal
States of Sumbawa Island were Bima, Dompo, Sanggar, Tambora, Papikat, and Sumbawa. Since the rebellion in Tambora in 1815 that State and Papikat have ceased to exist.
Sumbawa State. Of the early history of Sumbawa little is known except that it was once a dependency of Majapahit. Subsequently, in 1616 it was claimed as a vassal State of Gowa in Celebes. Having first refused to sign the Bongay Contract
it
was
later compelled to
do
so.
Among
the chiefs present at
the signing of the treaty was one
fromSaparang orSalampaiang,
now known as Lombok. This fact affords further evidence that Lombok was for a short period subject to the Rajah of Sumbawa. By 1740 the Balinese had completely broken the power of the Sumbawa ruler in Lombok.
515
Siimbawa was also involved in the civil wars between the other states of the island and in 1701 under the auspices of Dutch arbitration a treaty was arranged, by which all the kingdoms except Papikat were to be regarded as of equal status. In 1765 the Company concluded a separate agreement with
Sumbawa, which remained in force until 1858. By this treaty the Sultan engaged to deliver a certain quantity of sapan wood at a fixed price. Owing to the low selling price of the wood it was found necessary in 1875 to revise the original contracts. It was again revised in May 1905 in a treaty on the Celebes
(1904) model,
Bima.
The Dutch entered into relations with Bima as early
by which
it
enjoys a measure of self-government.
as 1605 and subsequently the Bimese assisted the Sultan of Makassar against the Company. From the Bongay Treaty it can be inferred that the Sultan had previously preferred claims to Bima which he was now called upon to renounce. Two years later commercial restrictions were imposed on the natives and an end made to the Makassarese influence. A spasmodic recrudescence of Makassarese power occurred in 1759 in Manggarai in West Flores, a dependency of Bima, but this was soon suppressed. A contract made in 1857 was revised in 1886 on the same plan as that of Sumbawa (1875). It recognized the supremacy of the Netherlands and arranged the succession to the throne. A controleur was placed at the capital to supervise the carrying out of the treaty and to advise in state affairs. In 1905 the contract, which still allows of self-government, was further revised on the Celebes (1904) model.
Sanggar.
Originally
subject
to
the
Sultan
of
Ternate,
Sanggar became a subject state of the Sultan of Makassar. ^Vhen the Bongay Contract of 1667 was concluded it became a In 1858 a new treaty was made with the fief of the Company. prince and his nobles, and in 1905 Sanggar's right of self-government was defined in a new contract on the Celebes (1904) model.
Dompo.
The
Bongay Contract
dissolved the allegiance of
and since that time it has been a party to the Treaty of 1765, which fixed its status, and subsequent treaties with the Dutch in 1858, 1886, and 1905.
to Makassar,
Dompo
Flores and Solor
From
early treaties
it
appears that Flores was originally
tributary to princes of Celebes, including Makassar, while chiefs
Kk2
516
of the Solor
HISTORY
group agreed, in 1618, to- recognize the suzerainty Temate. In 1667 when the power of the Celebes princes was broken the Makassarese and their neighbours were excluded from trade with the Flores region, and in 1683 the Sultan of Ternate was deprived of his dependencies in Solor, which now became Dutch territory. In the background was ever a shadowy claim of the Portuguese, which they asserted from time to time. They claimed in particular the Solor Islands and Larantuka in East Flores, but nothing to the west of that place. In 1757 there was some apprehension lest Larantuka should be ceded to the French by the Portuguese, and a Dutch agent was sent to Solor to acquire that island for the Company. In 1818, when differences arose between Holland and Portugal as to their respective possessions in Timor, a conference of commissioners drew up a list in which Larantuka,
of the Sultan of
among
other places, was given to Portugal. to have stationed an agent at Endeh Bay soon after the destruction of the power of the Celebes princes. In 1818 a Dutch official took up his residence at Endeh Bay with the object of suppressing piracy. No impression was made until 1838, when the place was bombarded and seven chiefs journeyed to Kupang to apologize for their piratical activities. A treaty was then made to which other Endeh chiefs also agreed. Dutch reprisals in Larantuka involved them in difficulties with Portugal, which came to a head in 1848 when a Dutch agent was sent to Lawajong in Solor to recruit labour. In view of the reiteration of Portuguese claims to Flores and Solor a treaty was concluded by which Larantuka, Sika, and Paga
The Dutch appear
in Flores,
and the islands of Solor and Adunara, were given up Although the treaty was not ratified until 1859 Dutch garrisons entered into occupation at Larantuka and Lawajong in 1851. The senior military officer became civil
to the Dutch.
was appointed at Larantuka, but the removal of the garrison considerably diminished his opportunities
official
governor of the Later a civil
new
division of the Solor Islands.
of making Dutch influence felt in native politics. The eastern end of Flores was the scene of constant feuds between the coast chiefs and the inland population, besides slave-raiding and piracy. Owing to ignorance of the native conditions Dutch interference on the rare occasions on which it was exercised was
517
not always attended by fortunate results. In a readjustment of territory in 1865 Sika was included in Larantuka, and this was a source of endless trouble. Otherwise, the ofificials did little but exhort or threaten the native rajahs, from whom they received promises, seldom kept. On the rare occasion of a military demonstration the natives were accustomed to retreat into the interior, and the only satisfaction exacted was the burning of empty Tcampongs. In 1864 an official was stationed at Endeh to keep a watch on the slave trade which was carried on between Endeh and Sumba. In 1871 the Sumba administration became responsible for Endeh and furnished their representative there with a vessel, which proved inadequate for the suppression of the slave trade. In Larantuka the increase in steamship traffic had much to do with the disappearance of slave-trading, and by 1890 there were few convictions. The Rajah of Larantuka was the source of much trouble with which the Dutch were powerless to deal. The boundary settlement of 1865 gave this potentate control of the people of Sika on the south coast, and they suffered
considerably in consequence.
When in
1879.the administrative
and the Solor Islands was created officials were stationed at Maumere and Trong. The appointment of the Maumere agent brought about an immediate improvement in -the condition of the Sika population. The Rajah was guilty of aggression in other directions, and as lately as 1902 he made a raid by sea on the north coast of Flores. He was also constantly at variance with the Rajah of Adunara, chiefly owing to the fact that each claimed territories beyond the dominions of the other. His zeal for Christianity led to a rebellion among his heathen subjects, and the Dutch found it necessary to interfere. But, generally, the Dutch Government was able to make little impression on the situation. The condition of affairs in Solor Island was equally unsatisfactory. The post at Lawagong was abandoned in favour of Trong, but in 1889 local disturbances compelled the Dutch
division comprising East Elores
beat a hasty retreat to Larantuka. Thereafter, it was decided that the agent should not interfere, but content himself with giving advice. In 1898 he withdrew to Larantuka. In central Flores the Dutch, in 1874, concluded a treaty with
official to
one of the principal
chiefs,
investigate the tin region
and were thereby encouraged to rumoured to be situated in the centre
518
of the island.
HISTORY
In 1887, 1888, and 1889 attempts were made to all failed as a consequence, it was said, of the influence exercised in that region by the Celebes rajahs. In 1890 two large military expeditions were compelled to withdraw owing to the hostility of the natives. The arrival of the Resident Heckler at Larantuka in 1902 marked the beginning of a new policy. The Rajah of Larantuka had set aside an agreement made in 1898 by which the Dutch secured the right to collect taxes. He further removed from the Government all rajahs with whom he disagreed, and broke oE relations with the Dutch representative. Heckler restored the old state of affairs, but the continued arrogance of the rajah necessitated in 1905 his arrest and banishment. In 1912 his son succeeded to the sovereignty. Armed intervention in Solor was found to be necessary, and in 1909 the subdivision consisting of the islands of Adunara, Solor, and Lomblen was included in the province of the Civil Governor of East Flores. In 1914 Adunara and Lomblen were made into an independent subdivision under an official at Wae Werang, with an assistant at Wae Komu, while the island of Solor was added to the subdivision of East Flores and Solor, under a Civil Governor at Larantuka. In, these regions the Dutch administration has now established its control. With Endeh as a base the Dutch began to explore the interior of Flores. After a few set-backs a body of mounted police explored the whole of the inland region in 1907, and seems to have terrorized the inhabitants. Civil government was eventually established, and a controleur was put in charge of the whole Flores division, inclusive of Solor. In 1910 South Flores
penetrate into the interior, but they
became a separate subdivision. *The Manggarai district of Flores, originally subject to the Sultan of Bima in Sumbawa, was included in the province of Timor, along with the remainder of the sultanate. Of Manggarai little is known, and the Dutch have only interfered to suppress one rising, which occurred in 1909. In 1915 it was made into two divisions with administrative officials at Reo and Ruteng, and its government is associated with that of the sultanate of Bima. Taxation and compulsory service continue to be causes of disorder in Flores, and the inhabitants are slow in adapting themselves to the new conditions. Except for Manggarai in the west, which is treated as. part of the sultanate of Bima, the

'
519
tion
States of Flores are subject to the terms of the short declaraunder which they are allowed some measure of self'
government.
Timor
The first Dutch landing on Timor was effected in 1613 after a Portuguese garrison had been driven from a fort on Solor. Permission was obtained from the Rajah of Kupang to found
a settlement in his capital. Of this privilege the Dutch availed themselves only for three years, but after a temporary absence they returned again in 1619, and have remained ever since. Their chief enemies were the black Portuguese of Ocussi. These are said to be the descendants of the followers of a Portuguese who married the daughter of the local rajah. With them were often allied the people of Ambenu and Amarassi. In 1749 these allies, along with the white Portuguese from Lifau, on the north side of the island, invested Kupang in overwhelming force (1749),' but the garrison was unexpectedly relieved, and the Portuguese almost annihilated. About twenty years later the Portuguese fell out with their allies of Ocussi, and in consequence transferred their capital to Dili in the eastern half of the
' ' ' '
island.
The Dutch supremacy
in the western half
was now un-
questioned, and in 1756 a treaty was made with fifteen native chiefs, which provided a basis for the exercise of the Company's
rights in that region.
After this, the interest of the Dutch in

' '
have flagged, and outrages by the black Portuguese of Ocussi went unpunished. In 1797 the Company's representa,tive successfully resisted an attempt on the part of
Timor seems
to
the English to take possession of the island in the name of the Prince of Orange. A further attempt in 1810 almost succeeded, but again the English were compelled to withdraw. After the capitulation of Java the Dutch flag on Timor was eventually
hauled down.
During the British rule in the archipelago, the Portuguese

availed themselves of the opportunity of seizing a Dutch district, Atapupu, but the Dutch resident appointed after the
Dutch restoration soon drove them out This led to interminable It was not until 1859 disputes and several frontier incidents
.
'.
that the first serious attempts at a settlement bore fruit in the treaty of that date. (For the history of these negotiations and
520
HISTORY
those which ensued, see the section on Diplomatic History,

p. 529.)
Meanwhile Dutch administration on Timor was extended along the coasts, but practically no progress was made in the interior. Private attempts to start tea and sugar plantations came to nothing. In 1898 and 1899 the consent of the local rajah was obtained for the beginning of mining operations. The relations of the States of Timor with the Dutch Government are governed by a special kind of treaty known as the Timor Declaration ', which is a combination of the concise short declaration providing for the acknowledgement of Dutch supremacy and obedience to Dutch commands, and the detailed contract of the old kind. This arrangement permits of a measure of native self-government.
'
'
'
Sumba
its export of sandalwood, and can be gathered that the island was a tributary State of the kingdom of Bima. In 1756 treaties were concluded with the chiefs of Sumba, who may by this time have become independent. Nominally, these treaties remained In 1758 the island was explored and a in force until 1845. report drawn up as to its economic possibilities. Sandalwood and slaves were said to be the chief commodities available, but the prospect of expensive military operations necessary for the subjection of the island discouraged the Company from following up its investigations. There are traces of a Dutch agency as late as 1775, but in this year it was apparently withdrawn. The contract of 1756 became a dead letter; it was found difficult to procure sandalwood from the natives, and impossible to obtain an acknowledgement of their allegiance to the Company. It was not until 1836 that the Batavian authorities through the agency of the Resident of Timor were made acquainted with conditions on Sumba. The island was said to be divided into thirty-three petty kingdoms, and in one of th?se, Manjih, there was an official who, it appeared, had been appointed at the beginning of the century by the Dutch agent at Timor to represent the Government. In 1855 a new treaty was made with some of the chiefs, but it soon fell into disuse. In 1860 it
Sumba was
early noted for

it
from a
register of 1663
was replaced by another. This last treaty was signed by the Rajahs
of
Taimanu,

Kadumbu, and
Manjili
;
521
during the following years other Lewa in 1874, gave their assent. In this year, however, an attempt was made on the part of two chiefs to drive out the controleurs who had been stationed since 1866 at Kabanisu. Owing to the hostile attitude of the natives they had to be withdrawn. Since 1879 the administrative fitaff has consisted of a controleur and two subordinate agents whose chief duty is to buy horses for the Government.
rajahs, including the chief of
Sumba was
the
the scene of constant disturbances, with which
Dutch found it difficult to deal. One of the chief instigators of disorder was an Arab, Abdul Rahman, who had been banished from Pontianak, and had gained great influence at the capital, Waingapu. His intrigues were not discovered until 1876, when he was banished from the island, and he died a year later in Timor. In 1876 Dutch intervention was also necessary to .punish the people of the kingdom of Batu Kapedu, who were guilty of piracies and other offences. Auxiliary troops from Savu were used to effect their subjection, and their chief eventually gave himself up. The Rajah of Lewa gave the most trouble. Assisted by bands of Endehnese from Flores this chief roved through the island on man-hunting expeditions.
Apart from attempts to stop the immigration
of
Endehnese, the
Dutch were powerless

1892,
to prevent the slave raids,
and tranquil
conditions were not restored until the death of the rajah in
proved only temporary. A report between the various States of the island, and in 1901 the Rajahs of Lewa and Rendeh conspired to attack and destroy the capital, Waingapu. Dutch troops were landed, and assisted by Endehnese auxiliaries they destroyed the head-quarters of the Rajah of Lewa, who was compelled to take refuge in the interior. Attempts to ameliorate
and then the
respite
of 1900 refers to the persistence of feuds
the condition of affairs

to
have made
little
impression.
by means of At
Christian missions are said

present, while
'
many
',
of the
tribes are subject to the terms of the
short declaration
about
fourteen are bound by no treaty obligations of any kind. In one of these latter districts, Lamboja, the natives in October 1914 came into conflict with the Dutch military forces.
Diplomatic History
The foreign
relations
of the
practically only three other
Dutch East Indies involve European nations, chiefly Great
522
HISTORY
Relaof internal
Britain and Portugal, and in a lesser degree, Germany.
governments are more a matter administration than of foreign policy.

tions with native
Great Britain [Treaty of 1824,
<fec.)
The relationship between the Dutch and English in the East goes back, as has been seen, to the beginning of the seventeenth century, but it is sufficient to consider it from 1824 when an
attempt was made to settle the difference outstanding the settlement at the end of the Napoleonic period. The conquest of Java had encouraged many Englishmen to hope for a revival of British commercial influence in the archipelago, and it was in the light of this desire that the two nations entered into the treaty of 1824. The main question at issue was, as it had been previously, economic, but as this almost always involved political considerations to which greater importance was subse-. quently attached, it will be convenient to consider the treaty from the two points of view economic and political. Economic Considerations. Down to the end of the eighteenth century the Dutch had avowedly aimed at a monopoly of the trade of the Dutch East Indies, but now, having received back their possessions as a gift from the alhes, in particular Great Britain, they could not hope to proclaim the continuance of the monopoly in face of Great Britain's desire to be admitted to the trade of this region. So the first four articles of the treaty
of 1824 contain the principle
and
details of a policy of reciprocal
advantage granted by one Power to the other in their respective possessions in the East. Each was to be admitted to the ports of the other on the footing of the most-favoured nation. So much is stated in the first article. The meaning of 'mostfavoured nation is made clear in the second article, where it was arranged that the traders and ships of one nation, when exporting or importing at the ports of the other, should not pay more than double the duty charged to the traders and ships of the nation to whom the port belonged and further, where no duty was charged to the latter the duty charged to the traders or ships of the other should not exceed 6 per cent. An exception to this arrangement was made in favour of the Dutch spice monopoly. The third article stipulated that treaties with independent native governments of the Eastern seas should not be made by one of the nations with a view to excluding the
' ;
DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
523
trade of the other, and that treaties made with native governments before 1824, and those that might be made in the future,
were to be communicated by the Power so contracting to the other. By the fourth article -orders were to be given to local authorities not to interfere with this freedom of trade, nor yet with the free communication between the ports of either nation and the ports of the native governments. It can be seen that these commercial arrangements were of great value to British merchants. Singapore was very favourably situated as a depot for the large volume of trade carried on by natives in small craft throughout the archipelago. Especially was it suitable for the collection of pepper, of which large quantities were exported from Sumatra. Again the British industries, particularly cotton manufactures, were well ahead of those in other European countries, and their products could be placed in the Eastern markets at a cost upon which even considerable duty could have little effect. The merchants of Singapore and Penang had also by this time secured some very favourable trading privileges from various independent native States, particularly in Sumatra. From the outset the Dutch aimed at acquiring for the infant industry of the mother-country the monopoly of trade which by the terms of the treaty was declared illegal. In respect of cotton and woollen manufactiires this was especially evident,
for just previous to the signing of the treaty these articles of
made subject to a duty of 25 per cent, coming from the westward of the Cape of Good Hope, and 35 per cent, when exported from ports to the eastward of that point, i. e. from such ports as Singapore and Penang, the local distributing centres of British manufactures for the markets of the archipelago. These regulations were in direct contravention of the treaty and they elicited protests from merchants both at home and in the Straits Settlements. In 1826 there was some show of modifying the objectionable
foreign manufacture were
in the case of goods
we find same duties and renewed remonstrances by the British Government. In 1831 a decree was issued in Netherlands India purporting to modify the duties, but its effect was merely to substitute a new preference in favour of Dutch shipping. The decree was shortly afterwards withdrawn, and although the Dutch Foreign Minister asserted
regulations in accordance with the treaty, but in 1830
further complaints against the
524
HISTORY
that Dutcli and British goods were at this time imported on the same footing, both being subject to 25 per cent, duty, in practice the duty was paid only by the British. Apparently, while the Dutch Government at the Hague imagined the treaty was being
complied with, the Batavian authorities maintained the old state of affairs. In 1835 the Duke of Wellington took up the
matter, and at this stage the Dutch attitude was that although
they were contravening the letter of the treaty, yet inasmuch as statistics showed the British to possess a fair share of the trade, the Dutch policy was in accord with its spirit. There were also quibbles as to the interpretation of the letter and it was even argued that the article relating to ships and subjects referred to anchorage dues and a poll tax. Later in the same year a strongly worded dispatch from Palmerston succeeded in exacting a promise, reluctantly given by the Dutch Government, that Dutch goods should in future bear a duty of 12^ per cent. This concession was made not as due to the terms of the treaty but in the interests of the amicable relationship between the
'
'
two countries. In June 1836 the new arrangement came into operation. Even yet, goods which came from the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope were still subject to the old tariil, and although
this disability theoretically affected the
including Holland, in practice
it
goods of all nations, bore mainly on the British,

of
and was directed against the trade
Penang and Singapore.
Moreover, the benefit of the new arrangement had to a great extent been nullified by the increase of the duty in June 1834 to 70 per cent., and in November of the same year by the regulation which limited the access of foreign trade in cottons and woollens to the Dutch Indian possessions, to the three ports of Batavia, Semarang, and Surabaya. By this means British trade to the Outer Possessions of Netherlands India was subjected to a possible prohibition and inevitably to expense and great inconvenience. Accordingly, Lord Palmerston again took up the tale of remonstrance, but not without first pointing out to complaining British merchants that while their own trade in Netherlands India was steadily increasing that of the Dutch exhibited a steady decrease he also took the precaution of making sure that the East India Company in Bengal on its side was carrjdng out the letter and the spirit of the treaty of 1824. The reply of the Hague Government explained the two
;
DIPLOMATIC
mSTORY
525
objectionable regulations as having been directed against the trade of Belgium, with whom Holland was then at war. It was further stated that both had been revoked in October
1839.
In 1837 what was described as the fundamental principle of the tariff policy of Netherlands India was embodied in an arrangement by which Netherlands products were protected by a tariff of 12 and 12|- per cent., as against 24 and 25 per cent,
imposed on foreign products.

accordance with the treaty.
Although the high duty constituted a serious disability to British trade it was in strict
Political Questions. Throughout the correspondence of this time there were references to Dutch encroachment on certain native States in Sumatra, and to the apprehension felt by British merchants at the prospect of a change in the political status of governments with whom the British Government had entered into commercial treaties, which accorded to British trade conditions far more favourable than those to which it was entitled under the treaty of 1824. This involved a consideration of these articles of the 1824 treaty which were of a political
character.
Articles
8, 9, 10, 11,
and 12
of the treaty stipulated for the
following territorial adjustments. The Dutch gave up their ports in British India, while the British abandoned Sumatra
and renounced any intention of making further settlements there, or even concluding treaties with native governments therein. The Dutch ceded Malacca and renounced intentions of settlement on the Malay Peninsula or concluding treaties with native governments therein. The Dutch were confirmed in the possession of Billiton and the British in that of Singapore, while the latter engaged to make no settlement on the islands south of Singapore. With these articles must also be borne in mind the convention of 1814, which reinstated the Dutch in their East Indian Possessions of 1803 and exchanged Cochin in India for Banka, acquired by the British during their government of Sumatra. In the notes exchanged by the plenipotentiaries, and appended to the treaty of 1824, it was agreed that the independence of the State of Achin in Sumatra should be respected by the Dutch (see p, 489). The problem which was destined to arise oub of the treaty was whether it could be considered to delimit (as asserted by the
626
HISTORY
Dutch) the spheres
of political influence of both Powers in the particular sense that, whereas the British were to be restricted
to the mainland, the
Dutch were
to develop freely in the archi-
pelago, or as merely setting
down
the political situation as
it
existed in 1824 and in no

specified in the treaty.
way indicating lines
of future develop-
ment, with the exception
of those negative instances expressly
This latter view was subsequently adopted by the British Government. This problem assumed concrete shape when the question of Borneo came up for conHowever, the special circumstances which sursideration. rounded the politics of Sumatra may well be considered first. Sumatra. The British had engaged to abandon Sumatra permanently. But they still maintained a very profitable commercial connexion with certain native States which they chose to regard as independent, and which, in virtue of their independence, had during the regime of RafHes granted valuable trading privileges, such as exemption from import and export duties, to British merchants. So the commercial communities of Singapore and Penang viewed with" alarm the gradual exten-
Dutch political power among the native States, first Palembang in 1 823, then Jambi in 1 834, in 1 840 the dependencies of Siak Sri Indrapura, and in 1858 even the last-named State From this latter State in 1818 Britain had secured by itself. treaty the right of importing on the footing of most-favoured nation, and such an arrangement was likely to expire in event of Siak becoming subject to the Dutch, who would be sure to
sion of
impose the comparatively disadvantageous arrangement under the terms of the treaty of 1824. Lord Palmerston therefore endeavoured to preserve the independence of Siak or at any rate the privileges granted to British merchants, and argued ingeniously that the Dutch action was an infringement of the article which forbade either Power imposing on a native State an arrangement which ended to the disadvantage of the trade of the other. Such an arrangement, he pointed out, had already been made with Jambi, whose export and import dues were already in Dutch hands. It was not until 1871 that the matter was finally Sumatra Treaty ', wherein Britain acknowsettled by the ledged Dutch sovereignty on Sumatra but obtained admission to the native trade on the same terms as the Dutch. This treaty withdrew British protection of a shadowy kind
'
DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
'
527
from the kingdom of Achin. The note of the British plenipotentiaries appended to the treaty of 1824 contained an expression of their solicitude for the continued independence of Achin, to which, in a second appendix, the Dutch plenipotentiaries accorded a vague assent. This reservation disappeared in 1871, but in spite of this, the Achinese endeavoured
unsuccessfully in 1873 to involve Britain in their quarrel mth the Netherlands Government. An Achinese vassal was more
successful in 1883, when, in order to enlist British sympathies against a Dutch blockade, the Rajah of Tenom kidnapped a British crew of the steamer Nisero, whom he offered to release only on condition that his ports were reopened to trade. He attained his object when, through British importunities, the
Dutch, in return for the sovereignty of Tenom, paid the rajah an indemnity and withdrew the blockading ships. Borneo. Although it was perhaps natural that the Dutch should adopt the view that the treaty of 1824 indicated the lines of future political development for Holland in the archipelago and Britain on the mainland, a close study of the treaty reveals the fact that the possibility of future British settlements
was implied therein. The sixth article, for instance, engages that settlements in the Eastern seas shall not
in the archipelago
agents without the previous authority of their in Europe, thereby implying that settlements could be made by both Powers. The particular clause of the treaty of 1824 on which the
be
made by
respective
Governments
was that in which the British agreed on islands to the south of Singapore. But this stipulation could not be held to apply to such islands as Celebes and Borneo. This was the view which was adopted by Lord Aberdeen in the correspondence between the two Powers which ensued on the cession of Sarawak in 1839 to Rajah Brooke. The attitude of the British Government was even more manifest, when in 1846 the Sultan of Brunei ceded to the British Government the island of Labuan, which became
Dutch based
to refrain
their position
settling
from
Crown colony. The controversy again
arose in 1879,
when
it
was proposed to grant a royal charter to the British North Borneo Company covering concessions which had been made by the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu to Baron van Overbeck and Mr. Dent, who in turn had made them over to the Company. Lords Salisbury and Granville reiterated the view of Lord
528
HISTORY
protests.^
of
Aberdeen and the charter was granted despite Dutch

In 1888 the territories of the
the Rajah of
Company
together with those
Sarawak and the Sultan of Brunei were taken under the protection of the British Government, which involved their foreign affairs devolving on the British Foreign Ofifice. In 1891 a convention was made between Great Britain and the Netherlands in which their respective territories in Borneo were
delimited.^
Great Britain and
Germany in New Guinea
The control established by the Company over Tidore was

considered as applying also to the vassals of that State in the western half of New Guinea. The principal fiefs, however, were
not on the mainland but on the islands of Waigiu, Salwatti, and Misol. To this ill-defined Dutch sovereignty the convention of August 1814 between Great Britain and Holland, which restored to the latter her colonies as they had existed in 1803, may be said to have accorded ratification. In 1828 the Batavian Government declared that north-west New Guinea, as a dependency of Tidore, was now considered part of the Dutch East Indian colonies, and this was confirmed in 1848, at which time, however, the frontier was stated to run almost straight from Cape Bonpland to the north coast. In November 1884, when Erskine proclaimed south-east New Guinea a British protectorate, the-meridian of 141 E. long,
was acknowledged as the

territory.
frontier
Later, in a treaty between Great
between British and Dutch Britain and
Germany (1885) and in the Schutzbrief given to the New Guinea Company by the Emperor William I, the same merifrontier
dian from the north to the south coast was accepted as the between Dutch territory and those of Great Britain
and Germany.
In July 1895 in a convention entered into by Great Britain and Holland the boundary between their respective territories was described. By this time it had altered slightly. From the intersection of the boundary between British territory and
German
it
follows the line of 141 E. until
it
intersects the
^ Spanish pretensions to the territories in Borneo of the Sultan of Sulu were given up in 1885.
^ The boundary between the territory of the and that of the Dutch adjoining was surveyed
British
in 1912
North Borneo Company by a joint commission.
DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
529
Fly River, which it then follows to the point where the river intersects the line 141 1' 47-9". This it follows southwards to the middle of the mouth of the Beusbach River on the south
coast. The navigation of the Ply River, except for the carriage of munitions of war, is free to the subjects of both contracting
Powers.
Portugal
The struggle between the Dutch and the Portuguese in the seventeenth century resulted in the gradual exclusion of the latter from the archipelago until the only foothold remaining to them was in Timor and the neighbouring islands. Their earher relations with the Dutch have been dealt with on p. 519. On their restoration by the Convention of August 1814 between England and Holland the Dutch, in 1818, officially reiterated their claim to the western half of Timor. But as yet no attempt had been made to delimit frontiers, and there occurred a series of frontier incidents involving native tribes, probably instigated thereto in some cases by the rival Eiu'opean authorities. To remedy this state of affairs the Dutch made an oiler to buy out Portuguese rights, but this was refused, and in 1851 the action of a Portuguese commissioner in connexion with an attempt to dehmit boundaries was repudiated by his Government. In 1859 (April 20) a treaty was signed in which the main boundary through the centre of the island and the subsidiary boundaries of the enclaves, claimed by both parties, were described, but without any previous survey having been made. It was not until 1893 that a convention was signed, in which it was agreed to carry out a survey of the main boundary and, if possible, to abolish enclaves. In 1898 a Boundary Commission consisting of three Dutch and three Portuguese was formed, and the plan of actiori agreed upon was that where there was a dispute about the track of the boundary both tracks should be surveyed and the decision left to the respective governments. The main boundary was first surveyed and then subsidiary boundaries of the enclaves. It was found necessary to make double surveys in several cases, and the task was further complicated by dissensions among native chiefs, who forcibly prevented the survey of territories in dispute between At Kupang in October 1899 the Portuguese themselves. commissioners proposed as a solution of the difficulty that the
'
'
NETHEELANDS INDIA
530
HISTORY
consist of
boundary should
following natural features, chiefly the
an approximately straight line Baikama River. This was rejected by the Dutch members, who had received instructions not to exchange certain territories. The latter now proposed the acceptance of the main boundary as surveyed and mapped, involving reciprocal concessions of territories previously in dispute. This arrangement did away with all enclaves except that of the Ocussi. The findings of the Commission were not at once accepted by the two governments, and
until the Ocussi question could be settled, the settlements arranged in connexion with other territories could not be ratified. In 1902 it was agreed at the Hague that when a survey had been completed of the eastern frontier of Ocussi it would be possible to accept the findings of the Commission, except that the Ocussi enclave was kept by Portugal. Meanwhile, a treaty was made in October 1904 recording the new boundaries as far as they had been arranged, but the ratification was postponed until such time as the Ocussi survey might be carried out. This proved no easy matter. In 1909 a mixed Commission was formed, but owing to a dispute about the meaning of an article of the Treaty of 1904 the work was stopped. The outbreak of frontier affrays in 1913 and further disagreements about the treaty induced recourse to arbitration. In June 1914 M. Lardy, a member of the Hague Court of Arbitration, and Swiss Plenipotentiary at Paris, decided in favour of the Dutch view of the track of the eastern frontier of the Ocussi enclave. It was now possible to carry out the Treaty of 1904. As various exchanges are recorded to have taken place in November 1916 it may be assumed that the treaty with the decision of the arbitrator is in process of being carried into
effect.
The differences between the Dutch and Portuguese on Timor extended to the islands of Solor, Plores, Adunara, Lomblen, Pantar, and Alor (Ombay). From the beginning of their relationship the Portuguese laid claim to certain parts of Flores, Adunara, and Solor. This claim was admitted by a Dutch commissioner in 1818. In the middle of the century the controversy was re-opened. A treaty was therefore negotiated by which the position of the islands was definitely settled, and this treaty was ratified in 1859. By this treaty Portugal definitely ceded the kingdoms of Larantuka, Sika, Paga, and their
DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
the kingdom of
531
dependencies in Plores, the kingdom of Woure in Adunara, and
Pamankaju in Solor, besides abandoning pretensions of a vague kind to all other States in the abovementioned islands and in the islands of Lomblen, Pantar, and Alor. The eighth article of the treaty confirmed Hollaad in entire possession of all islands north of Timor to wit, Flores, Adunara, Solor, Lomblen, Pantar, and Alor, with the small
islands belonging to the Solor archipelago.
The ninth
article
states that as compensation for the cession of the
above islands
Portugal was to be remitted certain debts owed to the Netherlands Government.

Present Situation
An
interesting expression of opinion
is
that of the State
Commission which, in 1913, issued a report on the defences of Netherlands India. Brief reference was made to the situation as it had developed during the previous thirty years Germany had become a colonial power with territory in New Guinea Japan had acquired Formosa, and America the Philippines, while Holland herself had considerably extended her sway in the Malay Archipelago. Further, Japan had become one of the great Powers, Australia was making vigorous progress, and, more recently, there had arisen the possibilities attaching to a republican China. Of importance also were the various combinations of Powers expressed in the Anglo-Japanese Conven; ;
tion of 1905, the Franco-Japanese Treaty of 1907, the Treaty

of 1909
between Japan and America, and the Russo-Japanese
Treaty. After expressing some anxiety as to the prospect of a European war it was agreed that the only policy for Holland in the Indies was that of strict neutrality secured by the favourable
treatment without partiality of all foreigners and foreign Although it was recognized that Netherlands India capital. could not withstand the attack of a great Power, the commissioners
recommended the strengthening
of the defences of
the colony to a point at which they would be able to deal with immediate dangers and constitute a formidable support to a
friendly
Power
interested in the maintenance of the status quo
in the East.
1917,
This policy has been advocated as recently as December 16, by the pacifist Dutch newspaper Nieuws van den Dag,
Ll2
532
HISTORY
which discusses the anxiety manifest in Dutch opinion since the beginning of the war, as to the safety of the Indies. The
danger
is
thought to come from Japan, and while some Dutch-
are said to accept the annexation of their colony as inevitable, others recommend the fullest naval and military
men
preparations.
of the colony
The view of the newspaper is that the defences would be able to stave off invasion by Japan until Holland should be able to secure a powerful ally. It regards, however, the aggrandisement of Japan in the German and Russian spheres in China as averting the danger, and offering an opportunity of initiating a policy of friendship with the
Japanese.
The publications named below are selected from among those used in the compilation of this volume as those which have been found most generally
useful.
Adriani and Kruijt.
De Baree-sprekende Toradjas van Midden Gdebes. Algemeen Overzicht van de Uitkomsten van het Wdvaart-onderzoek, gehouden op Java en Madoera in 1904-5. 1914. Algemeen Verslag van het Inlandsch Onderwijs in Nederlandsch Indie over 1914. The Hague. 1916. Angewandte Geographie, II. 1904 (general). Begrooting van Nederlandsch Indie voor het dienstjaar 1917. The Hague. Bijdragen tot de Tool-, Land-, en Volkenhunde van Nederlandsch-Indie, 66.
Blink, H.
ibid., 70. ; 1915 (Moluccas). Nederlandsch Oost- en West-Indie. 2 vols. Leiden, 1905. Block, P. T. History of the People of the Netherlands. 1900. Boulger, D. C. Life of Sir Stamford Baffles. 1897.
1912 (Achin)
British
and Foreign State Papers.

;
Foreign
Office.
1898 (Colonization and Adminis1902 (North Sumatra). Bulletin de la Societe de Geographic commerciale de Paris, XXXIII. 1912 (Population of Java). Burger, . Land und Leute auf den sud-ostlichen Molukhen, dem BismarckBulletin de la Societe d'Studes coloniales, V.
tration)
ibid.,
IX.
archipdunddenSalomo-Insdn. (Koloniale Abhandlungen.) Berlin, 1914. Cabaton, A. Java and the Dutch East Indies. 1911. Campbell', D. M. Java, Past and Present. 1915. ChaiUey-Bert, J. Java et ses habitants. Paris, 1900. China Sea Pilot. Vols. I, II, and IV. Golijn, H. Nederlands Indie. Amsterdam, 1912. Cool, W. With the Dutch in the East. 1897. Court Minutes of the East India Company. 1635-59. Crawfurd, J. Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands. 1856. Crawfurd, J. History of the Indian Archipdago. 1820. Danvers. The Portuguese in India. Day, C. The Dutch in Java. New York, 1904. Deutsche Geographische Blatter, XXXI. 1908 (Population of Sumatra).
De Venter, M. L. van. Daendds-Raffles. London, 1894. De Venter, M. L. van. Geschiedenisder NederlandersopJava. Haarlem,
Eastern Archipdago Pilot. Vols. II and III. Egerton, H. E. Sir S. Baffles (Builders of Greater Britain).
1886.
Vol. VIII.
1st edition.
Encyclopaedic van Nederlandsch Indie.

Leiden, 1907
;
Vols. I, II, III,
and IV.
Leiden, 1917. Factory Records of the East India Company. India Office.
Vol.
I.
2nd
edition.
Ll3
534
1894 (Engano) XLIII. 1914 (New Guinea). 1903 (Mas, Celebes) 86. 1 904 (Population of Sumatra) 1908 (Population of Sumatra) 95. 1909 (Population of Sumatra).
; ; ; ;
Geographical Journal, IV.

Globus, 83.
94.
Gomes, E. H. Sea-Dyahs of Borneo. 1907. Guillemard and Keen. Australasia. (Stanford's Compendium.), Haddon, A. C. Wanderings of People. Cambridge, 1911.
Hoevell, G.
W. W.
C. van.
Ambon, en meer
bepaaldelijk de Odiassers.
Dord-
recht, 1875.
Hose and Macdougall.
Pagan Tribes of Borneo.
1912.
Jaar-cijfers voor het Koningsrijh der Nederlanden Kolonien, 1914.
Hague, 1916.
1899-1905
Jahresbuch Frankfurter Vereinfiir Oeographie und (Sumatra) 70-76. 1906-12 (Sumatra).

;
Statistik, 64-69.
Jeekel, L. J. P. J.
Het Sumatra-tractaat.
Leiden, 1881.
Koloniaal Verslag.
The Hague,
1916.
Le
Clerq. Java. 1898. Lorentz, H. A. Eenige
Maanden onder
de Papoeas.
Leiden, 1905.
Maass, A. Maass, A.
Mentawei Insulaner. 1902. Quer durch Sumatra. Mackay, Col. K. Across Papua. 1909. Mackenzie Collection of Java Papers. India Office. MacMillan. A Journey to Java. 1915. MacMillan-Brown, J. The Dutch East. 1914. Marre, M. A. Histoire des Rois de Pasey. 1874. Marre, M. A. Histoire des Rois de Malaca. 1874. Marsden, William. History of Sumatra. 1811. Martin, K. Reisen in den Molukken, in Ambon, den Uliassem, Seran und Buru.
Leiden, 1894.
Medededingen van hd Bureau voor de Bestuurszahen der

bewerkt door het Encyclopaedisch Bureau.
Buitenbezittingen,
Merton, H.
Forschungsreise in den siid-ostlichen Molukken. 1910. Mitteilungen Oeografische Oesdlschaft Jena, 19-24. 1901-6 (Mentawei Island). Mitteilungen k. u. k. Oeografische Oesdlschaft Wien, L. 1907 (Sumatra).
Moskowski, M. Aufneuen Wegen durch Sumatra. 1909. Netherlands East Indian San Francisco Committee Pamphlets.
1914.
The Hague.
Nieuwenhuis, A.
W. Quer dwch
O. J.
Borneo.
Leiden, 1904.
Nieuwenkamp, W.
Bali en Lombok.
Edam,
1910.
Nyhels, G. De Expedition naar Bali in 1846-8, 1849, en 1868. Haarlem, 1897. Papers Relating to British Administration in Java. The Hague, 1883.
Raffles,
Lady
S.
Memoir of the
1830..
Life
and of the Pvhlic
Services of Sir
Thomas
Stamford
Raffles, T. S.
Raffles.
History of Java.
1817.
Rapport van de Siaatscommissie voor de Verdediging van Nederlandsch Indie.

1912.
Regeerings
1886.
Riedel, J. G. F.
Almanak voor Nederlandsch Indie. Batavia, 1913. De sluik- en kroesharige Rassen tusschen Sdebes
Seran en zijne Bewoners.
Leiden, 1907.
en Papua.
Sachse, F. J. P.
Sainsbury.
Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series.
Sarasin, P.
Sarasin,
535
&
F. Eeisen in Cdahes. Wiesbaden, 1905. Versuch einer Antkropologie der Insd Celebes.
Wiesbaden, 1906,
Snouck-Hurgronje, C.
The Achehnese.
1906.
Tijdschrift Indische Tool-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, 33.

Tijdschrift Koninlijh Nederlansch
et
1890.
Aardnjhshundig Oenootschap,
XXV.
1908
passim.
Verslag omtrent Handel, Nijverheid en Landbouw, van Nederlandsch Indie. Batavia, 1916.
Veth, P. J. Java, geografisch, ethnologisch, historisch. 1896-1907. Volz, W. Nord-Sumatra. 2 vols. 1910-12.
4 vols.
Haarlem,
Winckel, C. P. K. Essai stir les principes regissant V administration de la Justice aux Indes hollandaises. Samarang, 1881. Worsfold, W. B. A Visit to Java. 1893. Wright, A. Twentieth Century Impressions of Netherlands India. Batavia,
1909.
Zeitschrift der Gesellschaftfiir
Erdhunde zu
Berlin.
1909, p. 597 (Sumatra).

12.
Zeitschrift filr Kolonialpolitik, Kolonialrecht
und Kolonialmrtschaft,
1910
(Administration).
LIST OF
The most convenient Dutch maps
in Nederlands Indie, annual.
MAPS
named below. For van den Topographische Dienst
Odographie (Bulletin of the
'
for general use are
others, references will be found in Jaarsverslag
An
article in
La
10 seqq., L'CEuvre g6ographique des N6erlandais en Malaisie,' reviews topographical work in Netherlands India down to a recent date.
Gteographical Society of Paris), vol. xxxii, part
I, p.
Overzichthaart van Java en Madoera, 1
500,000, 1912.
1
An
excellent
map
In
showing elevations by layer colours. Overzichtkaa/rt van den Ost Indischen Archipd,
atlas form.
1,250,000, 1908 segq.
Overzichthaart of various islands (Borneo

1
:
and Sumatra,
2,000,000
Celebes,
1,250,000, &c., 1908-13).
van Nederlandsch Nieuw-Ouinea, 4 sheets, provisional issue, 1914 seqq. (The above are issued by Topographische Inrichting, Batavia.) E. C. Abendanon, Geologische en Oeographische Doorkruisingen van Midden Odebes. Atlas, with general map of island. Leiden, 1916.
Schetshaart
INDEX
Ambernoh R.
Aawan, 229 Abdul Rahman, 521 Abdur Rahman, 497
Abreu, Antonio Abu Mt., 58
d'
:
see
Mom-
beramo
Amboina
climate, 103 seq.
Army, 247, 251, 268 seg. Amhemia, 418 Aru Bay, 383, 393, 419 Aru Is., 66, 103 seq., 219,
369
436
communications, 377,
382, 384, 387, 397, 398, 400, 417, 423,
Aru Palacca, 504

Asahan, 350, 351, 487 Aspirant-controleurs, 257 Assembagus, 93, 97, 102
seq.
Acheh
see
Achin
Achin, 165, 252, 269, 340, 341, 343-346, 348, 352, 356, 415, 436, 440, 487
seg.
425
history, 436, 439, missions, 138
444
physical
geography,
Achinese, 165, 248, 350 Achin tramway, 394, 419,
64
population, 205, 206,
Assistant Residents, 256 Ataida, Governor D', 436 Atapupu, 77, 382, 417
493
214
residency, 369, 370 vegetation, 109
Atjeh
see
Achin
Sir S., 465 : see Lan-
Aohmet, 459
Auohmuty,
dak
Adam,
Sultan, 500 Adat, 155, 156, 263 Adi, 78 Adipati, 434, 455 Administration, 16,
Augrah-batur
Amboina,
Massacre of, 441 Amboinese, 248, 267 seg.

20,
Australia, trade, 311
245 seq. Adunara, 80, 231, 518, 530 Agave, 326 Ageng, Sultan, 435, 448 Agrarian conditions, 285 Agrarian Law of 1870, 320, 483
Agricultural
Ambon see Amboina Amburombo Mt., 81

:
Ampas, 313 Ampel, 432 Ampenan, 83,

Amuntai, 103
Ausus, 78 Awu Mt. see Abu Mt. Ayerbangis, 36, 381, 387 Ayer Madidi, 423
:
382, 422, 425, 400, 513

seq.
387,
B
Baba, 77 Babads, 152 Babar, 68, 223 Babat, 411
Baohian,
61, 209, 368, 370, 382, 444, 507
education,
:
288
Agriculture, 251, 303 seg.
see
also
under
specific
peopks
Agung
Mt., 84
Ai, 65, 216
Aiu Is., 77 Ajatapparang confederation, 503 AMI, Rajah, 499

Akits, 180
see Meiilaboh Ana-kala Mts., 81 Anambas Is., 50 Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Co., 379 Ani-ani, 303 Animals, 116 Anjer, 387, 422, 459 Anjer Kidul, 408
:
Amurang, Anabalu
54, 387, 423
Antang R., 41
Antassan, 44, 72 Antimony, 37 Anyer Lor, 424 AomasiMt., 81
Alang-alang, 109, 112

Alas, 415 Alas (people), 171
Apo Kayan, 416

d',
Alas Strait, 14 Albuquerque, Alfonso
Arabs, 19, 133, 163, 164, 248, 264, 333, 345, 366,
432, 486, 488 Arafura Sea, 12
Bada Kasar, 154 Baduj, 124, 161, 308 Badung, 508, 511 Bagan Si Api Api, 349 Bagelen, 480 .Bagus Rangen, 469 Bahaus, 189 Baikama R., 530 Bajah, 338 Bajo, 196 Bajowe, 382 Balai Panjang, 418
Balambangan,
454, 455
21,
451,
436
Alfurs, 124, 206, 224 Alor, 79, 109, 230, 370,
Areca
(Pinang)
palm,
Balapulang, 411 Bali,83, 103c?.,109,118,
531
279, 344
seg.,
227,237,252, 373,374,
115, 279, 318
Amahai, 103
382
Areng palm,
417, 434, 449, 470, 508,
Amangku Buvana II, 460 Amangku Buvana III,

468
Arfak, 69, 71 Argapura Mt., 22
512
Bali Pk. : see Agung Bali Strait, 14 Balige, 103 seq., 416 BaUk Papan, 47, 376, 383,
Amangu Rat
II,
452
Ambelau I, 63,211,444
Arguni B., 75 Arit, 303 Arjuna Mt., 22, 408
538
387, 396, 400, 417, 422, 423, 424 Bamboo, 112, 113, 278 Banda (town), 65, 217,
INDEX
Batang Hari R., 402, 414 Batang Kuantan K. see
:
Billiton Billiton
Company, 353
Indragiri R.
tramway, 421 Bima, 103 seq., 237, 514,

515, 518
387
Banda
445
Is.,
64, 216, 368,
369, 377, 417, 441, 444,
Batanta, 76, 227 Batavia, 86 seq., 149, 150, 246, 370-378, 381-383, 387-389, 399, 405, 408, 410, 411, 413, 422, 424,
425, 426, 447, 464 Batik industry, 283, 285,
Bima
B., 82, 398 Binanu, 503 Bintang, 42, 103 seq.
Banda Sea, 11, 89 Banda-Elat, 218 Banda-Eli, 218 Banda Neira, 65, 206, 216,
382, 445
338 Batjan Battaks
Bandayuda
R., 22
seq.,
Bandung, 102
149,
269,408,425 Banger, 455 Banggai Is., 59, 205 Banggil, 408, 425, 455 Bangkalang, 270, 468, 471, 480 Bangkinang, 423, 425 Bangko, 340, 343 Bangkalu, 205 Bangli, 508, 512 Bangun Burba, 418 Banjar, 408, 409, 425, 510 Banjamegara, 411 Banjarsari, 411 Banjermasin, 103 seq.,
189, 381, 383, 384, 396, 400, 422, 423, 475, 500 Banka, 40, 103 seq., 264, 344, 346, 348, 353, 377, 383, 417, 470, 475, 525 Banka Kotta R., 41
see Bachian see Bataks Batu Is., 40 Batu Bara, 383, 490 Batu Daka, 59 Batudaka L., 52
:
:
Birds, 120 Birds of Paradise, 75, 120 Birds' nests, edible, 120 Birsuen, 415, 419 Bisar highland, 48
BUmbing, 416 BlimUng, 333, 334

Blinyu, 421
Blitar,
425
Batukalas, 384 Batujajar, 269 Batur, 374 Batu Raja, 416, 420 Batur Mt., 84 Batu Russa R., 41
Blongas, 83 Blora, 425
Boano, 216
Bojonegoro, 425 Bolano Sawu, 52 Bon, 425 Bondowoso, 425
Bawean,
150, 157, 405
Bongay Treaty,
506, 514
446, 503-
Bedono, 410
Beina, 382 Bekasi, 411
301, 375, 381, 387, 392, 393, 399, 415, 418, 422 Belawan R., 392 Belgians, 127 Bellonese, 228 Bern Brem rapids, 46
Belawan, 36,
387, 425, 186, 352, 467,
Boni, 470, 503, 505 Boni Gulf, 366, 417 Bonthain, 252, 382, 503 Bonthain, Peak of see Batang Mt. Boompyes, 32 Bopati, 471 Borneo, British, 10, 13,
:
Bena, 445 Bena, 402

Bengalis, 164 Bengkalis, 103 seq., 164, 381, 387 Benkulen, 36, 38, 164, 252, 340, 341, 344, 346, 348, 352, 356, 381, 387, 415, 416, 423, 425, 487
42, 527 Borneo, Dutch
administration, 260
agriculture, 357
Banka Passage, 15, 58 Banka tramway, 421

Banks, 292
seq.
animals, 118 area, 10

climate, 85 seq. coast, 46
Bantam,
24, 148, 150, 987, 405, 435, 447 seq., 458, 468, 471, 481, 497
communications, 381, 383, 416, 423
Banteng, 337 Bantiks, 202
Banyak Is., 40 Banyumas, 151,

Banyuwangi,
405, 480 102 seq., 387, 408, 454, 455, 470, 471,510 Barisan, 270 Barisan Mts., 33 Baritoll.,45,403
Benoa, 84 Bentuni Gulf, 75 Benua, 180, 185 Berau R., 45 Beraur R., 71
European enterprise,
360
geology, 47
government, 252 harbours, 395

history, 470, 495, 527
justice,
Berauw
Mts., 43, 47 Beri-beri, 145 Besitan R., 393 Besitang, 419
264
Baruk, 279 Barus, 381, 387 Basa Kedaton, 153

Basilan Strait, 15 Batahai Strait, 82 Batake, 124, 125,
Besokor, 97, 411 Besuki, 99, 148, 151, 384, 387, 405, 409, 469, 471 Betel nut, 279, 344
Beusbach R.,
Biajus, 189
73,
529
missions, 138 physical features, 42 population, 187, 188 relative importance, 17, 18 shipping, 383-384 vegetation, 109 seq. Bosch, Van den, 482
Biak, 77
Billiton, 41, 103 seq., 186,
Bouw, 303
Boyolali, 410
138, 169, 171, 339, 348, 487

Is.,
Batam
42
51, 56
264, 346, 348, 352, 353, 377, 383, 417, 467, 475,
Brantas, 304
Brantas R., 22, 26, 316,

4U1
Batang Mt.,
525
INDEX
British, 127, 437 seg., 464,
539
ComptabiUkitsiixl,
245,
498, 522 Broeck, H. A.
Van
der,
Celebes Sea, 11 Central Moluccas, 382 Central Sumatra Road,
483 Confucianism, 139

.
508
Bromo
Mt., 24, 25
414 Ceram, 63, 103

507
Brouwer, Governor -General, 449 Brunei, 527 Buddhism, 430 Budget, 275
'Biiginese, 185, 200, 268, 364, 366, 371, 504 Buiteuzorg, 99, 102 seq., 288, 310, 313, 321, 334, 424, 471 Buka B., 79
211, 367-370, 417, 441, 444,

seq.,
65, 214, 445 Cereals, 280 Chalang, 381, 387 Charles Louis Mts., 69 Chairica betk, 281
Ceram Laut,
Constitution, 245, 484 Consular Services, 277 Conti, Nicolo, 435 Contingents, 456, 462, 473 Controleurs, 256 Convention of 1814, 475 Coolie Ordinance, 289
Coolies,
290
seq.
Chepu, 425
Cheribon,
102 seq., 149, 150, 304, 376, 377, 387,
401,405,408,409,411,
434, 435, 452, 455, 459,
Bukit Sunur, 354

Buleleng, 84, 422, 508
Buli, 382
373,
374,
469 Cherimaj Mt., 23
Cheruchup R., 41
Chestnut, 278 Chi for rivers so prefixed, see under specific names Chibatu, 408 Chikampek, 411, 413 Chikini, 411 Chikuraj Mt., 24 Chilaohap, 28, 95, 102 seq., 269, 377, 384, 387, 391,
:
Bulungan, 103 seq. Bulungan R., 45
Bungku, 381 Bungus, 414

Buuta, 381 Buru, 63, 210, 367, 368, 370,444 Burn Mt., 74 Butak Mt., 22 Buton, 59, 381, 506 Buton strait, 59
Copper, 37, 338 Copra, 326, 345, 352, 358, 364, 368, 371, 373 Cotton, 325, 344, 365, 371, 373, 452 Council of India, 247 CoTmcU of the Asiatic Possessions, 457, 458 Courts, 265 Credit, 293 seq. Culture system, 330, 482 Currency, 295 Customs duties, 272 Cyclops Mt., 70
Cyrus Harbour
B.
see
Buka
D
Daendels, Governor-General, 404, 458 Dai, 223 Damar, 67 Damar, 347, 359, 368 Dampier Strait, 76 Dampit, 411
399 Chilamaya,411,413 Chilegon, 420

Chinese, 19, 130, 142, 163, 164, 185, 228, 250, 264, 286, 289, 309, 313, 333, 345, 349, 374, 384, 432, 480, 496, 501
157, 248, 301, 347, 463,
C
Cables, 421
Cajeput oil, 368 Carmibalism, 225 CapeUen, Van der, 479 Carstensz Pk., 69 Cassava, 298, 312 Caste, 243 Cattle-breeding, 372 Cavendish, Thomas, 437
Celebes administration, 260 animals, 119 area, 10 climate, 85 seg.
coast, 54
Danau, 44
Dauu
ChiugcMUing, 464
Chipetir, 102seg.,335 Cholera, 144 Christianity, 137, 242 Cinchona, 115, 274, 281,
L., 83 Darwin, 15 Dawelor, 223 Dawera, 223
Dawot, Sultan, 492, 494 Dayaks, 124, 125, 188,

357, 497
336
Civic guard, 269
Defence, 267
Deli, 36, 350, 383, 487
Climate, 85 Cloud, 100
351, 377,
Ooves, 344, 436, 439, 445

Coal, 38, 62, 63, 300, 338, 354, 361 Cobalt, 37 Cocaine, 324
communications, 417, 423 economic products, 362
European
366
enterprise,
geology, 55
government, 252 harbours, 397 history, 439 seq., 470 justice, 264 physical features, 50 population, 187, 195
shipping, 381 vegetation, 109 seq.
Cochin, 525 Cocoa, 281, 322 Coco-nut, 278, 332, 346, 366, 370 see also Copra Coffee, 115, 274, 281, 299, 318, 342, 351, 364, 371, 463, 473, 374, 457,
:
Deli Railway, 418 Deli River, 392, 393 Deli Tuan, 418 Demak, 304, 334, 434, 435, 455 Dempo Mt., 34
Demta B., 227 Den Bril, 103 seq. Den Pasar, 425, 512
Departments, 249
Desa, 155, 158, 261 Desa Dayaks, 190
483
Diamonds, 360, 498

Digul R., 72 Diuaya, 410 Dingin Mt., 420
Commerce, 251, 297 Commission of 1803, 457,

473
540
Dipa Negara, 479
Directorates, 249
INDEX
Fly R., 73, 529 Fogs, 86, 99 Forced deliveries 462, 473
'
Direct Rule, 252
',
456,
Discovery Oostbank, 103

seq.
Diseases, 144
Dobbo
Dobo,
see
Dobo
seq.,
66,
103
369,
370, 382, 387
DolokSibayak^t., 34
Dompo, 237, 514 Donan R., 391 Dondo B., 55 Dondo Cape, 51
Donglcellan, 316
Forest products, 347, 359, 363, 368, 372 Forestry, 329-331 Fort de Kock, 164, 341, 416, 418, 423 Fort Nassau, 445 Fort van denCapellen, 416 Fort Victoria, 445 Fo-shun, 502 Freewill Is. see Mapia Fruit, 279, 333
:
Great Great Great Great Great Great
Banda
see
I.,
Bastard
Lontor 80
381
Karimata
I.,
Kei, 65, 217 Obi, 62
Sunda
Is. (defini-
nition), 9
Great Tawali, 62
Grisee, 149, 410, 448, 455
Orondwet, 245 Ground-nuts, 327, 347 Gum, 112 Gumbasa R., 52 Gundik, 409-411 Gungai tribe, 220
Dorei, 74 Drajat, 434 Drake, Sir Francis, 437
Fundamental Law
1848, 484
of
Gudin
see
Karas Kuni
Gunong, 171 Gunong Agung, 242
Du Bus
de Ghisignies, Governor-General,' 481
Gajo land, 168, 415 Gajo road, 415

Gajos, 168
Galelo, 207
Gunong Api (Banda),

'217
65,
Duk, 279 Dukun, 161

D'Urville Cape, 73
Gunong Api
das)
:
(Lesser Sun-
Dusun, 171,
5,01
Dysentery, 145
E
East Coast Residency, 415 Eastern State Railway, 406 seq. East India Company, Dutch, 438 seq. East India Company, English, 438, 465 East Point, 455, 471
Edam, 102
seq.
Education, 19, 139, 250
Egon
Mt., 81
Eilanden R., 72 Embaluk Dayaks, 190 Emigration, 149
Emmahaven,
35, 391,
418
Endeh, 80, 232, 382, 516 Engano, 39, 185 Erfpacht, 287, 360 Esang B., 59
\
Galuh, 405 Galvan, Antonio, 436 Gambir, 344, 359 Gamelang, 156 Gam Kenora, 60 Oaplek, 313 Garut, 425 Gautier Mts., 70 Gebang pabn, 279 Gebeh I., 227 Gedeh Mt., 24 Geelviuk B., 73, 226 Gemien I., 76 General Secretariat, 248 German Netherlands Company, 421 Germans, 19, 126, 268 Geser Kaimana, 382 Gianjar, 252, 508, 511 Gillespie, Major-General, 474
Gilolo
:
Sangeang Gunong Kidul, 480 Gunong Megaug, 416, 420

see
387 Gutta-percha, 335, 352

Sitoli, 381,
Gunong Gunong Gunong
Sahilan, 421 Sesan, 83
H
Habib Abdurrahman, 491
Half-castes, 128 Halimon Mts., 24 Halmaheira, 60, 110, 206, 227, 368-370, 382, 417, 444, 470 Handicrafts, native, 284 Harbour dues, 387 Hare (Resident), 471, 500
Harmonie, 411 Haruku, 64, 216, 367 Hatu, 236 Head-hunting, 225
Health, 144 Heckler (Resident), 518 Hemp, 326, 365 Heutsz, Van, 493, 494, 495 Heyden, General Van der, 491
see
Halmaheira
Etna
B., 75
:
Europeans, 126 Ewaf Is. see Kei Exports, 297, 317
Fakfak, 75, 382, 398 Fendall, John, 475 Fibres, 324 Finance, 250, 262, 270, 473, 478, 483 Fishes, 122
Fishing, 282, 349, 359, 366, 369, 371 Fl(*e3, 80, 103 seq., 109, 227, 231, 370, 371, 515,
Gin, 432 Gisser, 65 Glaga, 112 Gofasa, 77 Gold, 37, 62, 356, 360, 366, 498, 502 Golongan, 307 Gondanglegi, 411 Goram Is., 65, 214 Gorontalo, 51-53, 55, 103 seq., 387, 422, 425, 506 Gorontalese, 125, 203 Government, 245 Government shipping services, 383
Hindus,
134, 150, 154, 164, 238, 242, 429, 486, 488, 508
Hinga, 80 Hogendorp, Van, 457,473 Hookworm-disease, 145 Horses, 372

Hotels, 127
Houtman,
Cornells, 438
Huammai
Governor -General, 246,

461 Governors, proviijcial, 255
peninsula, 64 Humboldt B., 74, 227, 382
Humidity, 86, 95
Hurgronje, Snouck, 492 Husein, 434
530
Gowa, 365, 503, 506, 514
INDEX
Java
Ibrahim Mansur Shah, 489 Idenberg Mt., 69 Idi, 419
Ijen highlands, 22 Hi Boleng Mt., 80
(cont.)
:
541
Kali Susa B., 59 Kaliwangu, 455 Kamal, 411
population, 16, 124, 148 railways, 405 seq.

relative
Kambera
R., 81
importance,
Kambing, 13
mioi
52 Dimandiri Mt., 81 Dwaki, 68, 382 ImhofE, Van, 500

L.,
10, 16, 17 roads, 404 telephones, 424
Kampang Melaju, Kampar R., 402 Kampar Kiri, 415

Kampongs, 158
410
Imports, 299, 311, 375

Indigo, 323, 452 Indonesians, 124 Indragiri R., 340, 349, 402
Indramayn, 387 Indramayn West, 311 Indrapura, 487, 488

Indrapura, Peak of, 34 Industry, 251 {and see under specific peopks
and industries)
Inerie Mt., 81 Insects, 122
tramways, 410 seq. vegetation, 109 seq. Java Bank, 292 Java Head, 21 Javana, 455 Javanese,150,188, 248, 268 Java Pool, 376 Java Rebellion, 479 Java Sea, 89 Java, War of, 452 Jelutong, 347, 352, 359 Jember, 92, 425 Jembrana, 508
Kamrau
B., 75
Kanari tree, 65 Kandanghauer, 311 Kandari, 55, 381
Kangean
Is.,
32, 150
Kapok, 325, 328, 345, 365 Kapuas Mts., 42, 43
Kapuas
long
R., 45, 402, 403

:
Karakelang
see
Karke-
Karang, 57, 76 Karangan, 44
Jembrana Mts., 84 Jenemaja R., 53

Jering R., 41
Jilolo
:
Karang Asem, 242, 252,

374, 508, 511, 513
K,
219
Iron, 38, 361 Irrigation, 303 seq. Irrigation Brigade, 304
see
Halmaheira
Jobi, 77
Karas Kuni, 78 Karimata Is., 50, 195, 499 Karimonls., 41, 187, 349
Islam
Isli,
see
Mohamme-
danism
387 lyang highlands, 22
Jokyar-Brossot tramway, 409, 410 Jokyarkarta, 148, 149, 151, 254, 266, 286, 338, 408-410, 412, 425, 454, 460, 466, 469, 471, 480, 481
Karimou Java, 32
Karkelong, 58
Jacatra, 447 Jatirangu, 322 Jambi, 164, 252, 381, 387, 414, 415, 423, 425, 487 Jambi R., 34, 402
Jokya Tugu, 409 Jokya-Willem I tramway,

409, 412
Jombang, 411, 425 Jupandan, 446

Justice, 250,
263,
463,
Karo plateau, 415 Karolands, 350, 351 Kartopati, 420 Kasim, Sultan of Pontianak, 497 Kasiruta see Great Tawati Kasteel R., 72 Kawi Mts., 408 Kayans, 189 Kayeli B., 63, 210, 382
-.
Jampuwa, 503
Janssens, Governor-General,
472, 485
Kayoa, 61
410
Juwana,
23, 387,
Ke
Jb.
464
Kebola
see Kei B., 79

seq.
Japanese, 19, 132, 264, 494, 514 Japara, 23, 448, 455 Jappen see Jobi
:
K
Kaba Mt., 34 Kabaena, 59 Kdbaja, 210
Kaban
Jahe, 415
Kebumen, 102
Kediri, 102 seq., 149, 151, 313, 405, 411, 425, 480 Kedu, 23, 148, 151, 405,
Jati,
434
Jatinangor, 98
Java
administration, 260
agriculture, 303 seq.
Kabrara R., 71
animals, 118 area, 10

climate, 85 seq. coast, 27 geology, 30
Kabu Strait, 76 Kadipaten, 411 Kagok, 317

Kahayan
R., 45, 403
471 Kedungjati, 409, 412 Keelang, 445 Keeling, 378 KeiDula, 65 Kei Is., 65, 103 seq., 217, 369
Kaimana, 75
Kajoa, 208 Kalangs, 162 Kalasan, 42jS KaUanget, 384, 411 Kalibuntu, 411 Kali Mas R., 390 KaUpuchang, 384, 409 Kali Sampir R., 390 Kalisat, 102 seq.
^
Kema,54,397,422
Kendal, 425, 455 Kenijas, 189
government, 252 , harbours, 388 seq. history. 429-435, 446 seq., 478 justice, 264 physical geography,
21
Kepahiang Pass, 420

Kertosono, 408, 425 Ketoro R., 72 Kilwaru, 65 Kimelaha, 444 Kinyins, 189 Kisar, 382
542
Kissa,
(i7,
INDEX
68
Klabat Bay, 40 Klabat Mt., 51 Klandasan, 396

Klings, 164
Labobo, 205 Labour, 19, 129, 289 Labuan (Borneo), 527 Labuan (Java), 408
Labuanbilik, 381
Lesser Sunda Is. (cont.) physical geography,

-.
78
population, 227 shipping, 381; vegetation, 109
Letti, 68,
Klungklung, 508, 512, 513 Kobe, 378 Koen, Governor-General, 442, 447 Kokus, 382 Kolaka, 382 Kolonodale, 381 Kolowati B., 67 Komodo, 82 Konga B., 80
Kongsis, 501 Koningsplein, 411 Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatsohappij, 377, 380 Korinohi, 340, 343, 415 Koro R., 53 Koruwe Mt., 51 Kota Baru, 381, 387, 423
seq.
Labuan Deli, Labuan Haji,

Ladang
393, 415 83, 387
223
seq.,
Lho Seumawe, 103

381, 387
Labuan-Tring, 83 Labuka, 206, 209

culture, 330, 339,
Lho Sukon, 419

Lignite
:
see Coal
357 Lahat, 103 seq. Laibobar, 66 Laiwiu, 382 Lakahia B., 75 Lamboja, 521
Limboto L., 52 Lindu L., 52 Lingga Is., 42

Linta Strait, 81 Lisamatula, 62 Little GeelvinkB., 74 Little Kapuas R., 395
Little
Lamongan,
23,
455
Lampong B., 37 Lampongs dist.,
Kei
see
Nuhu Roa
38, 179, 252, 343, 346, 348, 350434, 450, 459 352, 415,
Livestock, 281, 337, 348
Liwa, 414
LiwungR.,26,388
Lobetobi Mt., 81 Lobetola Mt., 80 Local Government, 251, 261 Lomblen, 80, 518, 530
Kota Chane, 415 Kota Raja see Kuta

:
Lancaster, 437 Landak, 497, 498
LandakR., 395
Landraad, 266
Landrente. 249, 271, 478,
Raja
Krakatoa, 12, 33 Kraksaau, 411, 425 Krama, 153 Krama inggil, 154 Krampon, 92 Kranggan, 97, 102 seq. Krapiyak, 448
471 Krian, 410
484
Lombok, 83,
tenure, 286
Land
Krawang, 405, 409, 425,
Langapura, 381 Langkat, 350, 351, 355, 384, 419 Langra, 383 Langsa, 381, 387, 419 Languages, 135, 152 ; see
also
103, 227, 231, 238, 252, 373, 374, 417, 512, 514
:
Lombok Pk. seeRenjani Lombok Strait, 12, 14

Long Iram, 416 Lontar, 420 Lontar pahn, 279, 371 Lontor, 65, 216, 369 Lorentz R., 72
Lorok Road, 414 Luang-Sermata
:
under
specific
Krimon Java
see
Kari-
mon Java
Kris, 158, 160, 240
La Pawowoni Kraeng
504 Larantuka, 103 516 Lariang R., 53 Larona, 366 Lasem, 462 Lasolo R., 53 Law, 485 Lawu Mt., 22
geri,
Se-
see Ser-
Kroya, 409 Ecu, 381, 387, 414 Kuala, 487 Kuala Simpang, 419 Kualu, 418 Kubus, 180
seq., 231,
mata
Lubuk Alung, 418 Lubuk Bangkung, 414 Lubu Pakan, 418

Lubus, 180
Lubu
Kudus, 102 seq., 149, 157 Kulawi Valley, 363
Sikaping, 103 Limiajang, 425 Luwu, 54, 381, 505
seq.
Kumai R., 403 Kumpei I., 393, 394

Kupang,
79,
Layang
seq.,
R., 41
103
Lead, 37 Lebongs, 178

Lebongsulit, 423
M
Mace, 344 Machian, 444 Madiun, 149, 151, 405, 408, 425, 480 Madiun R., 26, 401
228, 382, 387, 417, 423,
424 Kupangs, 228
Leonard Darwin Mt., 70 Lepau, 40

Leprosy, 145 Lesser Sunda Is., 10 administration, 260 animals, 117 climate, 96 seq. economic products,
Kur
la.,
65
Kurau R., 41 Kwia, 259 Kuta Raja, 103

Kutei R. kau R.
seq., 164, 341, 419, 42?, 423, 491 Kutei, 381, 501
:
Madura, 10, 31, 150, 338, ^05,451,455,468,471, 480

Madurese, 150, 160, 268 Madya, 153 Maety Miarang, 103 seq. Magelang, 149, 410, 412, 425
see
Mahak55,
Kwandang
422
B.,
387,
370 government, 252 harbours, 398 history, 508 seq.
INDEX
Mahakkan
397,403
R.,
45,
543
Moluccas
:
396,
Masela, 223 Mas Sayed, 453
Mahameru
Mt., 22 Maitara, 61, 209 Maize, 312, 341, 364, 367,
Massu Mts., 81
Matabela Is., 65 Matan, 497, 498 Matana L., 52 Mataram, 435, 448 480, 498, 503, 513 Matur, 416
administration, 260 animals, 119 climate, 85 seq.
communications, 417
definition, 9
seq.,
370 Majapahit, 430, 432, 434, 486, 497, 500, 514 Makassar, 55, 103 seq., 196, 252, 301, 365, 376378, 381, 382, 384, 387, 397, 400, 422, 425, 439, 444, 446, 503-505, 512,
European
enterprise,
Maumere, McCluer
226 398
80, 371 Gulf, 74,
75,
369 government, 252 harbours, 397 history, 437 seq., 439 seq., 442, 470, 507
,
514 Makassar
Strait, 11, 12, 16
Makassarese, 200, 371 Makian, 61, 208 Malacca, 430, 525
164, 415, 418, 423 Meester Cornells, 149, 410, 464 413, Melano, 64 Melmel, 218
Medan,
Memboro
Menado,
Malacca Strait, 14, 37, 89 Malang, 23, 149, 151, 408,

411, 425, 455, 461 Malaria, 144 Malay (language), 135, 175 Malay Archipelago, definition, 9 ; physical geo-
R., 81 54, 55, 93, 103 seq., 138, 195, 196, 366, 389, 397, 400, 417, 422,
production, native 367 physical features, 60 population, 205 vegetation, 110 seq. Molucca Sea, 89 Momberamo R., 70, 71 Monopolies, 273 Monsoons, 85, 87
423, 425, 506
Menangkabau, 340, 486 Menangkabau Malays, 175 Mendawai R., 45, 403
Menes, 102 seq. Menezes, Governor, 436 Menggala, 164, 420, 423 Mengkoka B., 54, 57
Montrado, 502 Moors, 264 Morotai, 60, 207 Morti see Morotai Moti, 208
:
graphy, 11 Malays, 124, 188, 248, 268
Motor transport, 405, 415 Moyo, 82
Malays (Sumatran
174
Malili,
tribe),
382
Malili R., 366 Mampawa, 497, 502
Mandailing, 414
Mengwi, 508, 511 Mentawei Is., 39, 184 Menteng, 411 Merak, 420, 421 Merapi Mt. (Java), 22, 24,
409, 410
Muara Aman, 414, 416 MuaraBungo,343 414,425 Muara Dua, 420 Muara Duwa, 414 Muara Enim, 341, 355,
416, 419, 420
Mandas
Mts., 81 Mandioli, 62
Mandor, 502 Mang, 421 Manganese, 338 Manggala, 447 Manggarai, 232, 515, 518 Mangku, 243 Mangku Bumi, 447, 453
Merapi Mt. (Sumatra), 34 Merauke, 103 seq., 382,

387
MerbabuMt., 22,409
Meulaboh, 381, 387 Millet, 312
Muara Kalaban, 418, 421 Muara KUngi, 416 Muara Saba, 381 Muara Sipongi, 414 Muara Tebo, 414 Muara Tembesi, 423, 425 Mulana Ishak, 432
Miiller (Resident), 501 Miiller Mts., 43,48, 49 Muna, 59, 507
Mimika
Mangku Negara, Legion

of, 270 Mangola, 62 Mangrove, 110 Manipa, 216
R., 72 Minahasa, 51, 52, 58, 138, 195, 417, 506 Minahasese, 196, 202, 248 Mining, 251, 302, 349, 360, 366 see also under
:
103 seq., 186, 377, 381, 387, 400, 422 Muria Mt., 30
Muntok,
Manipa Strait, 15 Manokwaii, 74, 382

Manufacture, 283 Manuk R. 26, 314, 401 Manjruke Dayaks, 190 Maos, 408, 411 Mapia Is., 77 Mapij R., 72
minerals Minto, Lord, 465

specific
Muris B., 227 Musi R., 34, 394, 402

Is.
Misol, 77, 227, 508, 528
Misore
see
Schouten
159,
N
Nagrek, 269 Nangamesi: seeWaingapu Nangamesi Bay, 398 Nangka, 280 Narumonda, 415 Nassau Mts., 69 Nata Kasuma, 466
Natal, 36, 381,387,414
Missions, 138, 204, 229 Mist, 99
203,
Moa, 68
Mohammedanism,
Mare
I.,
61
Maros, 417 Martapura, 189, 500 Martapura R., 45, 396, 403 Mas R., 26 Masarete, 210
19, 136, 146, 151, 155, 141, 159, 168, 235, 238, 242, see also 432, 488, 490 ; under specific peoples
Mojokerto, 410, 411, 425 Mokko Mokko, 423 Molucca Passage, 89
Natuna Is., 50 Navy, 247, 251, 270

Negara, 103
seq.,
239, 511
Negara R.45
544
Negritos, 124, 224
INDEX
Ombira
:
see
Obi
Netherlands India Railway, 409 seq. New Guinea, Dutch: administration, 260 animals, 120 area, 10 climate, 90 seq. coast, 73
Oosterslokkan Canal, 304 Oosthaven, 420

L., 52 Opium, 250, 273 Orang Bajo, 187, 366 Orang Darat, 180, 185, 186 Orang Gunong, 180, 186 Orang Laut, 186 Orang Rajat, 187 Orang Sekah, 187 Orang Serani, 211 Orang Tambus, 187
Opa
Palu, 55, 97, 103 seq. Palu R., 53 Pamali Canal, 306 Pamekasan, 270, 425, 455, 471, 480 Panambahan, 468, '480,
499 Panarukan, 376, 387, 408,

469, 471 Pandeglang, 425, 459, 468 Pandeling, 237
European enterprise, 369

geology, 75 government, 252 harbours, 398 history, 528
Oriental aliens, 287
native production, 367 physical features, 68 population, 224 vegetation, 109 seq. New Guinea North Coast, 382 Newspapers, 142
Ot-Danom, 189 Outer Possessions

tion), 10
(defini-
Outposts
see
Outer Pos-
sessions
Ngada, 232 Ngantang, 455, 461 Ngara, 410 Ngobang, 497

Ngoleo, 153
Pabean, 387 Pachul, 303 Padalarang, 425 Padanda, 240 Padang, 90, 163, 301,342,
346, 354, 376-8, 380, 381, 384, 387, 391, 392, 399, 414, 415, 422, 423, 487, 488
Ngoko andap, 154

Nias, 40, 182, 348 Nila, 67
North R. see Lorentz Northern Moluccas, 382

:
North-west R., 72 Nuhu Roa, 65, 217 Nuhu Yut see Great Kei Nusa Barung, 22 Nusaheli Mt., 63
:
Padang (Saleier), 205 Padang Burnai, 416 Padang Guchi, 416 Padang Highlands, 414,
417, 425
Padangpanjang, 416, 418, 425 Padang Sidimpuan, 164,

416, 423
Nusa Kambangan, 391 Nusa Laut, 64, 216 Nusa Telle, 65

Nutmegs,
65, 344,
Pangeran Anom, 496 Pangerango, 93 Pangerango Mt., 24 Pangkalan Brandan, 383, 387, 394, 418, 419 Pangkalan Susu, 419 Panglima Polem, 493 Pan-Islamic movement, 19 Panjang, 395 . Panjis, 152 Pankal Pinang, 422 Pantar, 80, 230; 531 Pantei Timor B., 84 Panying I., 75 Pao, 365 Papikat, 514 Papua Is., 75 Papuans, 124, 224, 231 Parakan, 410 Paranaians, 130 Pare Pare B., 55 Pariaman, 418 Parigi, 409 Parit, 414 Pasaman-Teleman Mt., 34 Pasar Churub, 414 Pasuruan, 149, 151, 317,
337, 376, 384, 387, 401, 405, 411, 425, 455, 471 Pasireh, 259 Pasir Pengarayan, 425 Pata-Uma, 212, 217, 218,
Padang Suliki, 418 Pagar Alam, 416

Pagasangen, 513 Pageh Is., 40 Pageralam, 423 Pagutan, 513 Painon, 414
Paiton, 411
445
Oak, 278
Obi, 62, 209, 368 Ocussi, 519, 530 Odammon R., 72
220
Patani, 206 Pata-siwa, 212, 217, 218,
Odoric of Pordenone, 435 Oifak, 76 Officials, 126 Oil (mineral) see Petro:
leum
Oil (vegetable), Okka B., 80
Pajandaran, 384 Pajang, 480 Pakan Baru, 414, 415, 421 Paku Buvana, 452 Palbapang, 426 Palembang, 103 seq., 164,
252, 340, 341, 343, 345,
220
Paternoster Is., 83 Patgitan, 102 seq. Patih, 258 Pawnshops, 274 Payakombo, 418, 423 Payang, 435 Payayaran, 430, 434 Pearl-fisheries, 123 Pegun, 77
326-328
347,349, 352,355,381,
387, 394, 399, 414, 415, 416, 419, 420, 422, 423, 425, 432, 467, 476, 486,
Olau-Maangan, 189 Oleh-leh, 37,381,387,399 Olee Lheue see Oleh-leh

:
Pekalongau,
Omba
:
valley, 69
:
Ombai see Alor Ombai Passage, 79 Ombi see Obi

Ombilin, 38, 354, 392, 420
487 Palima, 382 Palopo, 55, 382
149, 161, 387, 405, 453, 455
Pamangkat, 387, 502

Paloweh, 80
Pelalawan, 487 Peleng, 205 Peling, 59 Pelingls. seeBanggails.

:
INDEX
Pemalang, 149
Pemali, 231
545
Rochussen beramo Rokka Mt.
li.
;
Pugar, 102
415,
seq.,
PuluBelawan
Siantar,
:
].,
Pematang
418 Penang, 376, 383 Pengajarau, 100 Pengalengan plateau, 336 Pengilingan lakes, 84 Penyabangan, 416 Pepper, 343, 358, 450, 452, 457, 500 Perhimpunan, 258 Perlak, 355 Petroleum, 37, 298, 337
355, 356, 361
Pulu Besar Bastard Pulu Laut, 50, 381, 417 Pulu Punjung, 414 Pulu Sembilang, 393, 394,
399, 401
411 392 see Great
see
Mom-
see Inorie
Roma, 67
Roman
Catholics, 142, 229, 235
137,
Rombebai
L., 71 Rotti, 79, 229, 370-372,
Pulu Tello, 40, 103 seq. Pungoh, 40

Purbalingga, 41
Purwakarta, 425 Pusuh Bukit Mt., 34 Putus Sibau, 103 seq.
382 Rouffaer R., 71 Rozengain, 65, 217 Ruang, 58

274, 281, 334, 335, 348, 350, 359, 360 Rubber, wild : see Jelutong Run, 65, 217, 382, 441
Rubber,
PhiUppine Is., 437, 439 Pidir, 493 Pidir R., 340 Piju B., 83 Pinang, see Areca Pintas, 44 Pintassan, 44 Piru, 382
Plague, 144 Plant products, 278 seq. Pocho Lika Mt., 81
Q
Quinine
:
see
CSnchona
R
Raden Paku, 432 Raden Patah, 434 Raden Rachmat, 432
Raeal, Governor-General, 447 Raffles, T. Stamford, 465
seq.,
Rusa Raja
Sabalaaa
ion
Is.
see
Paloweh
Is.
see Postil-
Sabang, 37,376,377,381,
383, 387, 392, 399, 401, 422, 424 Sabotai Mts., 60 Sagi, 259, 488 Sago, 112, 358, 367
504
Poggi Is. see Pageh Poh, Gulf of, 55 Poigar R., 52 Police, 266 Polo, Marco, 435 Polynesians, 224 Pontianak, 45, 103, 189,
:
Railways, 251, 417

Rainfall, 85, 95, 107
Rambipuji, 411 Ranau L., 414 Rangkasbitong 425
Saiaug, 77 Saibi, 381 Saigon, 378

St. David Is. see Mapia St. Nicholas Point, 21
:
Ratah Totok, 387 Rattan, 337, 359

Rattan
I.
:
381, 383, 387, 395, 425,
see
Komodo
Sakaha Subak, 241

Sakais, 180
497,498
Population, 124 seq. Porong, 411, 455
Raung
Mt., 22, 24 Regeerings Reglement, 483
Porong R., 26
Ports, 387 seq. Portuguese, 205, 435, 516,
Regents, 257 Rejangs, 179

Religions, 136, 250: see also under specific peoples Rembang, 151, 332, 337, 387, 405, 425, 434, 455, 462, 471
519,529 PoEoL.,52,56,363 Poso R., 53

Postilion Is., 83 Posts, 426
Potbakkers L Praga R., 23

Preanger,
see
Mare
Eengat, 425 Renjaui Mt., 83 Reo, 414

R., 81 Reptiles, 121 Residents, 255, 471 Retili R., 340
24, 148, 150, 313, 321, 334, 336, 405,
Reo
Salabangka, 381 Salahaji R., 393 Salatiga, 321, 425 Sajawati see Salwatti Salayar see Saleier Saleh B., 82 Saleier, 51, 60, 195, 205, 382 Salhutu Mt., 64 Salibabu, 59 Salt, 251, 274, 338 Salwatti, 76, 227, 508, 528 Samalanga, 494 Samarinda, 103 seq., 189,
: :
435,452,471
Prefects, 461 Press, the, 142, 247
381, 387, 396, 397, 400,
Revenue, 270
Rice, 307 seq., 339, 357, 362, 364, 367, 370, 373 Rinrin, 219 Riouw, 340, 341, 344, 348, 350, 387, 395
Priaman, 387 Prijaji Bank, 293

Prince Predeiick Henry I.,
423 Sambas, 189, 387, 470, 496, 498
Sambas R. 45 Sambu, 383, 401

,
78
Princess Marianne Strait,
Sampean, 304 Sampit, 387
78
Proboliuggo, 376, 387, 401, 411, 425, 469, 471 Protestants, 137, 229 Proto -Malays, 125 Provincial Secretaries, 256
Riouw-Lingga Archipelago, 41, 185, 383
SampitR.,45,403
Sandal-wood, 109
Ringgit Mt., 22
Sandalwood I.: seeSumba

Sangeang, 82 Sanggai, 365 Sanggar, 237, 514
River transport, 401 Roads and road transport, 251, 413
546
Sanggau, 497
Sangi, 58, 103, 108, 202, 204, 365, 506 Sangir seeSangi Saonak Is., 76 Saparua, 64, 206, 216, 382 Sarawak, 497, 528
:
INDEX
Siak R., 402, 414 Siau, 58, 202, 204 Sibela Mt., 62 Sibolga, .36, 164, 381, 387, 415, 416, 422, 423
Sibolga Highlands, 415
Spice
I
Is.
see
Moluccas
Spices, 281, 329, 365, 367,
437,439,445
!
staring B., 55 States-General, 245 Storms, 101

Siibak. 373 Sudra caste, 430 Sugar, 298, 31436?., 483
Sarolangan, 425 Sarong, 158 Sasaks, 227, 238, 514 Savu, 79, 229, 370-372, 382
Sibuko R., 46 Sidayu, 455 Sidenreng L., 52 Sidoarjo, 425 Sigli, 381, 387, 419 Sijunjung, 414
Silver, 37
Sugean, 83 Suk, 77
Saimh culture, Sawah Lunto,

421, 423
309, 340 417, 418,
Simalayang, 415
Simalur, 40, 181, 422 Simbimblingan, 50 Simpang, 498 Simulangan, 350, 351 Sinabang, 387 Singalang-Tandikat Mt.,
Sukabumi, 425 Sukadana, 381, 498 Sukawati, 480

Sulals.,62, 209, 368, 444 Sula Besi, 63, 209 see Sula Sulla Is. Sumari, 410
:
Sawito, 503 Schildpad Is., 59
Schildpaden Bay, 391 Schools, 139 Schouten Is., 76, 77, 226 Schwaner Mts., 43 Segara Anak see Danu
:
Sumatra
administration, 260
agriculture, 339
L.
Segoro
WediB.,28
Sekadau Dayaks, 190

Sekayu, 425
Selaru, 66 Seljar R., 72 Selong, 103 seq. Semarang, 149, 151, 337, 338, 376-378, 389, 390, 399, 405, 409, 412, 422, 424, 455, 460, 465 Semarang R., 389
317, 387, 408, 425,
34 Singapore, 14, 301, 375378, 380-383, 476, 523 Singaraja, 103 seq., 239, 398, 400, 425, 511 Singasari, 41 Singkawang, 387 Singkehs, 130 Singkel, 103 seq., 381, 383, 387, 422, 423, 425 Singkel R., 489 Singkep, 42, 352, 353 Sinjai, 382
Sipirok, 416
animals, 118
area, 10 climate, 85 seq. coast, 35
communications, 381, 383, 414, 417, 423
European
349
enterprise,
geology, 36
government, 252
harbours, 391 seq. history, 434, 485,
525, 526
justice,
Sirah Kuohong,97, 102 seq.
264
Sematang, 354 Sembilang I. Sembilang

:
see
Pulu
Sengon, 411
Senlani, L., 71 Sentolo, 426
Sepanjang, 410 Sequeira, 436 Serang, 425 Serang R., 409 Serayu R., 305, 401 Serdang, 350, 351, 487 Sereh, 316 Seribu Dolok, 90, 103 seq. Sermata, 68, 223 Serong, 382 Serua, 67 Serwaru, 382 Serwatti Is. see South:
281 Situbondo, 98, 422, 423, 424, 425 Sivaism, 430 Slamat Mt., 23, 24 Sleman, 426 Small-pox, 145 Snow, 69 Snow Mts., 69, 72 Soasia, 60
Sirih,
missions, 138 physical features, 32 population, 163 relative importance, 17, 18 vegetation, 109 seq. Sumatra East Coast, 163,
349-352, 383
Sumatras 89 Sumatra Treaty

'
' ,
(1871),
Sobunem
Solo,
Mt., 77
526
254
Sumatra West Coast, 163,

341-344, 346-349, 351, 3.^2, 356 Sumba, 103 seq., 109, 227, 235, 370-372, 517, 520
Solo R., 22, 26, 401 Solok, 418

232. 370, 516, 518, 530 Sopang B. 55
Solor, 80,
,
Sumbawa,
81,
109, 237,
western Is. SesajapR.,46

Setagen, 387, 401 Shipbuilding, 284 Shipping, 299, 376-401 Short declaration ', 253, 505, 507, 508, 519, 521 Siak, 252,' 349, 381, 489,
'
SorikBerapiMt., 34 South and East Borneo, 189 South-East New Guinea, 382 Southern Moluccas, 382 South-Western Is., 67, 222 Spanish, 437, 506, 528 Speelman, 506
370-372,512,514
Sumbawa
B., 82
'
Sumbawa-besar, 382 Sumedang, 269 Sumenep, 270, 426, 455, 468, 480 Sunda lands, 429, 434
Sunda
I I
Spermunde
58
archipelago,
499
Strait, 14 Sundanese, 150, 139, 268 Simgaipenuh, 423, 425 Sungei R., 41
INDEX
Surlgei
547
Tionfolka Is., 65 Tioro Strait, 59 Tiru, 65 Toala, 196, 204 Toba, 103 seq. Toba Highlands, 415 Toba L., 33, 171
Liman, 418
Surigei-Palembang, 381 Su-kgi, 66
Tapanuli Barus, 489 Tapatuan, 381, 387, 422

Tapioca, 3 13 Tapungs, 180
Surabaya, 28, 148, 149, ibl, 269, 337, 376-378, 381-384, 387, 390, 391,
3&9, 405, 408, 410, 422,
Tarakan, 424 Tarangan, 220 Taratah Buluh, 415
424-426, 435, 448, 455, 471 Surakarta, 102 seq., 149, 151, 266, 286, 408-410,
425, 426, 460, 461, 471,
TarumR.,26,401
Taruna, 58, 103 seq. Tarutung, 415, 416 Tasikmalaya, 426 Tatosl.,396 Tawan-Karang, 509 Taxes, 250, 271 Tayando Is., 65, 218 Tea, 115, 281, 320, 352 Teak, 109, 111, 113, 114, 274, 278, 329-332, 473 Tebang Mt., 43, 44 Tebing Tinggi, 415, 418, 425
Tegal, 149, 387, 411, 453,
Tobacco, 281, 322, 343 351, 371 Tobelo, 382 Togian Is. eeSchildpad
:
Is.
4^1 Surapati, 452

Suitiaki,
65
Susfihunan, 432 Swart, H., 495 Swjeten, General Van, 489
Tokalla Mts., 52 Tokea, 204 Tolage, 204 Toll Toli Cape, 54 Tolo, Gulf of, 55 Tomahu Mt., 63
Tomini,Gulfof,55,363
Taljanan, 508, 512 Tafelhuk, 84

Taifore, 209
Tomohon, 103 Tomori B., 55 Tomuna, 204
seq.
455
Tajkn, 497
Takengon, 415 TalUg Mt., 34 Talkng Anak Ayer, 414

Tala.uerls.,58,506 TaUut I., 365, 368 Taliabu, 62, 209 Taluk, 421, 425
Telangbawang R., 402 Telegraphs, 422 Telephones, 424 Tello see Pulu Telle
:
Tondae, 204 Tondano, 196, 202 Tondano L., 52 Tondano B., 53

Toraja, 196, 362, 363, 502
Tordesillas,
Telok Betong,
164, 381, 387, 394, 395, 399, 419, 420, 422, 423, 426
37,
Treaty
of
Tambelan
Is.,
50
Taifibora, 514
TaHboro
Mt., 82
Telok Nibung, 414 Telok Tabuhan, 394, 419 Tempe L., 51-53, 56, 364 Temperature, 85, 92, 106
(1494), 437 Toriola, 414 Torres Strait, 15 Tosari, 91, 99, 102 seq.
Toulour, 202
Toumbulu, 202
Tambu
B.,
55
:
Tenga
see
Is.
see
Pater-
Toumpakewa, 202
Touusea, 202 Towa see Tiru Tower Hill, 68 Towuti L., 52 Trade Organization, 301 Tramways, 251 Treaty of 1824, 489, 522 Trepang, 123 Triton B., 75 Trumon, 425 Tual, 103 seq., 382, 387 Tuan Tanah, 234 Tuban, 149, 462, 471 Tukang Besi Is., 59 Tumunggung, 455 Tuntang R., 409 Tyenrana R., 53
:
Tampat Tuam
Tapa-
tnan Tanabesar, 66 Taijah Batu, 414, 416 Taaahgrogot, 423 Taiia Laut Mts., 43 Taija Merah B., 74, 227 Tanara Malabar, 321 Tanduwi R., 401 Taqggapuri, 79 Taiigulandang, 58, 204 Tanjem Mt., 41
Taijjong Balai, 381, 418, 423 Tar jong Karang, 420 Tailjoug Pandan, 103 ?., 1^6, 387, 422 Tanjong Pinang, 103 seq.,
1^6,
noster Is. Tengger, 22, 151, 405 Tenggerese, 161
Tengkawang, 359 Tenimber Is., 66,221 Ternate, 60, 103 seq., 205207, 368, 369, 382, 387, 398, 436, 439, 440, 444, 446, 502, 506, 507, 516
Tetum, 229
Teuku Uma, 491, 492 Teungku Tiru, 491 Thousand Is., 32

Thunderstorms, 101 Thursday I., 378
Tidore, 60, 208, 436, 440, 444, 446, 507
Timbang Langkat, 418

Timber, 347 Timor, 13, 78, 103 seq., 109, 138, 227, 370-372, 417,519,529
'
395
Tanjong Priok, 28, 381, 3p8, 389, 426 Tanjong Raja, 420
U
Uba
valley
:
see
Omba
367
Ujung K, 27
VUbalangs, 259
tJliassers,
Tank
steamers, 383
Timor Declaration
520
',
253,
Tajan, 415, 423

TaSanuli, 252, 340, 341, 344, 346, 350, 352, 356,
64,
216,
414,415,487
Tajlanuli B., 35
Timorese, 267 Timor Sea, 79 Timor Laut, 66 Tin; 37, 352, 353
369, 445
Ulu Ajer Dayaks, 190
Una Una,
Ulu-Ngaju, 189 51, 59
548
Uru
Languru
B.
.
INDEX
Wahai, 206, 382, 507
West Coast State
Railway,
Triton B. Usu Bay, 366 Utakwa B., 72
Wai Apu
R., 63 Waidoba, 208'
Utumbuwe B., 72 Uwimmcrah B., 73
Van Rees
Vegetable
Mts., 70
oils,
326-328
Vegetables, 280, 342, 367, 371 Vegetation, 109 Verhoeff, 447
Vlaming van Oudshoorn,

446 Vogel I., 78 Volksraad, 248 Vrigmetselaars road, 411
Waigiu, 76, 227, 508, 528 Waikolo L., 63 Wai Lima country, 420 Waingapu, 81, 103 seq., 235, 382, 398, 521 Wajo, 505 Wakde, 382 WalannaeR.,51, 53, 56 Walckenaer B., 74 Wallace's Line, 12, 117 Wamar, 66 Wandammon B., 74
417 ., . Western State Railways, 406 seq. Westcrslokkan Canal, dlH West New Guinea, 382 Wetan, 223 Wetar, 68, 224
Wetta
see
Wetar
Whales, 123 Wilhelmina Pk., 69
Willem
I fortress, 410,41!
Willemslaan, 411 Willis Mts., 22 Windesi, 103 seq.
Waterways, Department
of,
Winds, 85, 87, 101,

423
101
398,
305
Mt., 64
Wireless telegraphy,
Wawani
Wayan/), 152, 156
Wonokromo, 338
Wonosari, 426 Wowoni, 59
W
Wadas, 411 Waduk, 304
Wae Komu, 518 Wae Werang, 518

Wages, 290 Wahabi, 455
Weber's Line, 13 Weda, 382 Wedono, 259 Web L, 37, 392 Weights and Measures, 297 Weleri,411 Weltevredcn, 147, 424,464 West Borneo, 189, 381
Wowoni
Strait,
59
WuluT, 382
Yamdena, 66, 222 Yowl Is. see Aiu

:
YuBuf, Sultan 497
120
130
PHILIff^lNE
^MINDAN'AO,
ISEANDS
H
I
NETHERLANDS INDIA
SCALE
50
III
i;
^ ^
Labuan^
(
^BRITISH'
:/
Ck:)
.s)
12,000,000
2D0 300
400i Miles
,y
\s\^
A*
o
100
'"III
50
100
CELEBES
Jb
100
i
20O
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300
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400
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500 Kilometres
I
^Tafauer .a
Wo Islands
InternAtional Boundaries
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140

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.

GOiENELL' IJNIVERSIT> LIBRARIES riilACA, N. Y. 1483

3 1924 062 748 995

Cornell University Library

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

Compiled by the Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence

PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.

Price 10s. net

His Majesty's Stationery Office

at the University Press, Oxford.

Introduction and General Survey

Physical Geography and Geology

The Inhabitants of Java

The Inhabitants of the Outer Possessions

Government and Administration

^Foreign consular services.

IX. General Economic Considerations. Summary of economic products (Plant products

X. Economic Products of Java

XI. Economic Products of the

I. Shipping and Ports

XIII. Communications. Posts, &c

From Early Times to the Dutch

ministrative reforms of Daendels

II. From the Dutch Restoration to the Present Time

Example of recent changes of Java

of coast-line, north coast

NOTE ON THE SPELLING OP PLACE-NAMES

INTEODUCTION AND GENERAL SURVEY

The Philippine The Moluccas.

Ceram and Buru

western Islands, or the Babar, Sermata, Letti, Damar, Roma,

and Wetar groups. i. New Guinea and adjacent

physical aspect, which

reflected in its biological

aspect also, the archipelago

submarine platform as Australia.

these indications, therefore,

Islands, excepting Celebes, are physically attached

to Asia, rising from its continental shelf

and that between them

rivers, this volcanic material is of

importance in the formation of the most

the highest the

must not be traced too

does not apply at

sion between the Oriental

Its faunal affinities are in great part

result of a subsidence continued over a longer period

Animals). Frontiers and Adjacent Territories

The Dutch possessions have land frontiers with the possessions

history relating to these divisions will be out-

bordered across intervening seas by

Lines of International Commitnication

portion of the archipelago

Islands faces British territory across

and those between the

Lesser Sunda Islands) are of

much less importance to communiitself.