What are the run levels in Linux: 1)Runlevels are used to specify different configurations of running services.

The chart below shows a basic outline of the standard init levels.

Init Leve l 0 1

Comments

Runlevel 0 is reserved for the "shutdown" phase. Entering init 0 from the shell prompt will shutdown the system and usually power off the machine. Runlevel 1 is usually for very basic commands. This is the equivalent to "safe mode" used by Windows. This level is usually only used to asses repairs or maintenance to the system. This is a single-user mode and does not allow other users to login to the machine. Runlevel 2 is used to start most of the machines services. However, it does not start the network file sharing service (SMB, NFS). This will allows multiple users to login to the machine. Runlevel 3 is commonly used by servers. This loads all services except the X windows system. This means the system will boot to the equivalent of DOS. No GUIs (KDE, Gnome) will start. This level allows multiple users to login to the machine. Runlevel 4 is usually a "custom" level. By default it will start a few more services than level 3. This level is usually only used under special circumstances. Runlevel 5 is everything! This will start any GUIs, extra services for printing, and 3rd party services. Full multi-users support also. This runlevel is generally used on by workstations. Runlevel 6 is reserved for "reboot" only. Be carefully when running this command. Once you have entered init 6, there is no stopping it!

4 5

What is Running and When?:There will be a time when you want to know what services are running, and the different runlevels they are specified in. You can use a simple command to display a list of all runlevels and services used by them. The text below shows the output of the chkconfig --list command.

where does the user information stored: User names and primary groups are stored in /etc/passwd. This file can be directly edited using the 'vi' editor, although this is not recommended. Format of the file is What is dns: DNS is a Domain Name Server. A domain is the name of a website, such as wiki.answers.com. Without a domain name server, you would need to know the IP address for the website. But with DNS, the name

of the website is matched up automatically to the IP address. sendmail configuration:

Mail server program reads the /etc/mail/sendmail.cf. To change the configuration on mail server, we should edit the /etc/mail/sendmail.mc file open /etc/mail/sendmail.mc for editing

show hidden line with : set nu option on vi command mode By default, the following line limits sendmail access to connect local host only [line no 116]

You can allow other computers to use your sendmail server by commenting out this line. In the sendmail.mc file , lines that begin with dnl, which stands for delete to new line, are considered comments. Some lines end with dnl, but lines ending in dnl are not comments comment this line with dnl keyword followed by # sign

save this file with :wq and exit. Now restart sendmail service and also set it on with chkconfig

Configure sendmail client side

Now generate new sendmail.cf file by using m4 command as shown here

Now restart sendmail service and also set it on with chkconfig

What is DHCP: DHCP stands for dynamic host configuration protocol. What it does is dynamically assign network settings from a server. In other words, instead of having to configure the parameters related to how your computer communicates with a network, it happens automatically. Assigning an IP address dynamically is the most basic piece but there is a lot more to DHCP. This includes the netmask, host name, domain name, gateway and name servers. In addition, DHCP can supply other information such as a time server. Many people are anti-DHCP, because they see it as a way that an ISP offers you an IP address that changes. This, of course, makes it difficult to advertise a server. On the other hand, DHCP can save you a lot of ongoing configuration work within your company or organization. Besides the ISP-provided DHCP servers, they commonly exist in inexpensive router boxes. Netgear, Linksys and other vendors offer these systems with multiple LAN ports, an 802.11b wireless interface or both. The Netgear RP114 is an example of a wired LAN, while the Linksys WAP11 is an 802.11b type. Many other product choices are available. When you use one, the router box becomes the system that the ISP knows about, and all of your real computers hide behind this box. Hide? Effectively, yes. What is visible to the public Internet is the router. The LAN has private IP addresses and uses network address translation (NAT) to handle connections from the internal systems to the Internet. Although this isn't really a firewall, NAT offers a basic level of protection.

what is active and passive ftp: Introduction: One of the most commonly seen questions when dealing with firewalls and other connectivity issues is the difference between active and passive FTP and how best to support either or both of them

Ftp is file transfer protocol that uses port 21 for command (control0 connection and 20 for data connection.

In

Active

ftp,

client

initiates

control

connection

and

server

initiates

data

connection

a) Client initiates a connection on the servers command port 21 from a random port in clients side(>1023)

b) c) After

Then that

Server server initiates a

responds connection

to with the

clients client from

control its data port

port 20

d) Then client sends acknowledgement to server

In a) b) c)

Passive Client Then Client itself

ftp, initiates

client a

initiates connection responds

both on the to

control servers

and

data command control by

connection port 21 port server

Server initiates a

clients to port specified

data

connection

the

d) Server sends acknowledgement and data to clients data port

Q:How to change the root password in linux A:It will work with most systems that use a root password. Of course if were talking about a lost boot password, youre out of luckthis wont help you recover that. What this method does is reboot your machine into what is called single user mode. Single user mode is also referred to as maintenance mode and is runlevel 1. Q:How to delete user from a group

When adding a user to a group, it can be done with:

However, I could not find a similar command (accepting a group and user as arguments) for removing the user from the group. The closest I could get is:
usermod -G all,existing,groups,except,for,group user

You can use gpasswd:

Q:how to see a file inode numbers

A:. An inode is a data structure on a Unix / Linux file system. An inode stores basic information about a regular file, directory, or other file system object. You can use following two commands to display an inode: [a] ls command : list directory contents [b] stat command : display file or file system status

EXAMPLE: $ ls -i /etc/passwd

Output:
752010 /etc/passwd

752010 is index number (inode) for /etc/passwd file.

Q: What is softlink and how to create a softlink to a file; A: To make links between files you need to use ln command. A symbolic link
(also known as a soft link or symlink) consists of a special type of file that serves as a reference to another file or directory. Unix/Linux like operating systems often uses symbolic links. ln -s {target-filename} {symbolic-filename}

Q: What is hardlink and how to create a hardlink to a file

A: Both Linux / UNIX allows the data of a file to have more than one name in
separate places in the same file system. Such a file with more than one name for the same data is called a hard-linked file ln -s {target-filename} {symbolic-filename