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GRAMMAR OF COLOURING
APPLIED TO

DEOOEATIVE PAINTING AND THE ARTS

BY GEOBGE FIELD
AUTHOR OF "CHROMATICS
5

OB,

TH

ANALOGY, HARMONY, AND PHILOSOPHY OP COLOURS "

REVISED, ENLARGED,

AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF THE

ORNAMENTAL PAINTER AND DESIGNER

WITH ADDITIONAL SECTIONS ON PAINTING IN SKPIA, WATER COLOURS AND OILS, AND THE HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THB VARIOUS STYLES OF ORNAMENT

BY ELLIS
AUTHOR

A.

DAVIDSON

"THK PRACTICAL o " BION 'WRITING," LINEAK

MANUAL OF HOUSE PAINTISO, GRAIXINO, MARBUNO, AND " DRAWING," PRACTICAL PKB8PKCTIVK," ETC., KTC.

WITH COLOURED DIA0RAJTS AND XUMBKOUS WOODCUTS

gmpression

LONDON

CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON

f,

STATIONERS'

HALL COURT, LUDGATB HILL

1916

[All Bights Jtetervtd]

PRINTED BT

WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLE8.

AUTHOE'S PEEFACE.
WISDOM is the presiding attribute of the Divine Architect, and KNOWLEDGE is the wisdom of man. "Knowledge," Lord Bacon has told us, "is power," which is another of
and the stupendous the prime attributes of the Divinity achievements of knowledge and power since the time of Bacon have made absolute the truth of an aphorism which has been repeated to satiety. But there is yet a third superlatively Divine attribute, of infinitely more importance to the progress and well-being of man than either knowledge or power, and that is GOODNESS or well-doing, and there remains only for human attainment the fact that true knowledge and power are coincident with goodnest to accomplish the original title of man to the resemblance of his Maker. It is this fact that renders goodness so essential to the acquirement of skill, for skill is nothing else than well-doing, which is again coincident with well-being, as goodness is with happiness ; and these are the essence and the end of
good workmanship, without which human knowledge and power are not merely in vain, but pernicious in every art

and

practice, and alike fatal to the workman and his work. Every good man and artist has therefore an interest in the

conjunction of these prime co-essentials of morals and art ; the first requisite condition for which is, that true knowledge must be made accessible ere power can be employed for
good. Meritorious therefore is the enterprise of those publishers who supply the world with genuine knowledge in cheap books ; and the industrious individual who expends his superfluous earnings in the purchase of knowledge will have made a step towards power, and put himself in the way of becoming a wiser, an abler, a better, and a happier man, while administering to the good of others.

To such ends may be

attributed the zeal

with which

IV

PREFACE.

eminent writers have lent their aid to th^se enterprises for disseminating knowledge and science, in humble emulation of whom we have in the following work attempted to communicate the elements of an art which dresses and decorates with beauty all the works of nature and man namely, the art of employing colours with taste and effect, herein applied
to
architectural
it

painting

and

decorative

art

in

which

will not be necessary to enter further into the attempt theory of light and colours than may be expedient to the

improvement of
their principles

language.

practice, and a correct understanding of or as an alphabet is essential to written Without extending inquiry therefore into the
;

details of literature, which often confound more by exuberance than they enlighten by genuine knowledge, we have advanced our elements under no other consideration than

their truth

and
is

practical utility.

the acquisition of the hand and eye under the Skill in execution guidance of a right understanding. belongs to practice, assisted by the precepts of experience. Taste and advancement in art are attributable to refinement of sense and understanding, through correct elements and principles, and these it is the chief office of literature and
Practice

By such means theory and practice concur in advancement, and elevate the aspirant in art. It has been our business to record briefly the best theory in our power, and such practical precepts and information as we have drawn from experience ; for such is the object and end of this attempt, by which we hope to communicate in
science to supply.

small compass much useful information applicable to ordinary and decorative painting, &c., whether employed for preservation or embellishment ; with a design also to advance the amateur or workman already acquainted with his tools, and to add such incidental particulars and suggestions as may be " If useful to the qualified artist. you will have sciences said the great Verulam in his "Advancement of grow," " Learning," you need not be so solicitous for the bodies ; all your care that the roots [Rudiments] may be taken apply up sound and entire;" and to these we have given our
principal attention, avoiding neither employing technical
all

complication and mystery, terms unnecessarily, nor the

cant appellations vulgarise art.

of labourers,

which

falsify

names and

PREFACE TO THE PRESENT

EDITION.
of Mr. George Field have been so long known to the public, and their excellence is so generally admitted, that they have become text-books, the authority of which has been universally quoted ; and it was with a certain amount " Grammar of diffidence that I undertook the revision of the

THE works

of Colouring."

My
from

earliest

and soundest lessons on colour were obtained

this book, and I have therefore touched it with an affectionate hand, guided by that feeling of veneration with

which a grateful student approaches the work of an excellent

master.
of practical teaching have shown the province of the book might be extended, in order that it might more directly touch the class of students who so much need its aid, and I have therefore amplified the work of the author so as to adapt it to the requirements of

More than twenty years

me where

the government examinations re-writing for this purpose such portions as seemed to want additional clearness in order to be well understood by those who have not previously had the benefit of a scientific education, and whose
technical instruction has unfortunately been too long neglected in this country. I have therefore introduced new diagrams of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colours, with their numerical equivalents, which will, I trust, render the subject more clear than it has hitherto been. I have next developed the hints on the modes of operation, and have given ample and practical
instructions as to the

methods of mixing colours, and the

manipulation generally adopted in Sepia, Water-colour, Tempera, Oil, and Fresco Painting, with information as to

VI

PREFACE.

the materials and implements used a section which will, I hope, be found practically useful to the student. A decorative artist, however, who merely paints a horder or a scroll because there happens to be a vacant space, without any reference to the appropriateness of his design, or only because he is ordered to do so, becomes a mere living machine, and I have therefore given a sketch of the history of Ornamental Art, showing the growth of the various styles, and giving illustrations of the leading characteristic features of each, in order that the student may be awakened to the necessity of adapting his decoration to the character of the building to be ornamented, and that he may be led to further study of the subject. The adaptation of the instruction given in this book to the
house-painter, grainer, marbler, and sign-writer, is given in a special volume, and I thus cordially dedicate my work to those who are seeking instruction, in the earnest hope that

they

may

be benefited thereby.

ELLIS

A.

DAVIDSON.

CONTENTS.

PART

I.

OF COLOUR GENERALLY.

CHAPTER

I.

MM
Colour, as an element of beauty, not utility,

how produced

CHAPTER
:

II.

The Three Orders of Colours Primary, Secondary, and

Tertiary the Secondary colours are compounded from the and the Tertiary from the Secondary . . , Primary,

How

CHAPTER
The

III.

contrasts and accordances of colours colours The scale of equivalents

The complementary
6

CHAPTER
Illustrations of colouring

IV.

Suggestions for studies The harof Blue with Orange, Red with Green, Yellow with Purple The harmony of succession and contrast ; of colour with neutrality The blue background to sculptures amongst the Greeks Application of principles necessary in addition to literary knowledge Colour no less a science than musical '

mony

sounds

Till

CONTENTS.

PART

II.

PRACTICAL COLOURING-.
CHAPTER
Material Colours
:

V.
FAOB
1

Colours distinguished as inherent and transient

CHAPTER
Qualities of

VI.

Pigments : 1, beauty of colour, including purity, brightness, and depth; 2, body; 3, transparency, or opacity; 5, keeping their place ; 6, drying well 4, working well In mixing colours, the artist should avoid 7, durability using a greater number of pigments than necessary The . improvements in the modern manufacture of colours .
; ;

14

CHAPTER
Of White and
its
:

VII.

Pigments The term colours as distinguished from pigments White and its qualities White lead London and Nottingham whites Flake white Blanc d'argent Roman white Sulphate of zinc Zinc white Tin white Pearl white Constant white White chalk Chinese white

16

CHAPTER
Tints
:

VIII.
Paris white

French grey Carnation Coquilicot Blush of flowers Primrose Isabella Lilac Lavender Straw-colour Peach-blossom Pea-green Tea-green Methods of combasis of all tints

White the

Silver grey

pounding Lavender tints, Yeilow tints

tints,

Grey

tints,

Brown

tints,

Green
24

CHAPTER
Of the Primary Colours
is
: ;

IX.
;

Yellow, nearest in relation to white

the ruling colour in citrine enters largely into buff, bay, tawny, tan, dun, drab, chestnut, roan, sorrel, hazel, auburn, isabella, fawn, feuille-morte in combination with
;

red produces orange, with blue constitutes green the the eye should be powers of colours upon the vision
;
;

refreshed
effects of

by

powerfully with

the clear light of day Yellow contrasts most black, excepting white ; the sensible
;

Patent yellow Naples Massicot Yellow ochre Roman ochre Brown yellow ochre Terra di Sienna Argillaceous, meaning of the term Iron yellow Yellow orpiment King's yellow Chinese Arsenic yellow Cadmium yellow yellow Gamboge Gall-stone Indian yellow Dutch pink, English aud Italian pinks Stil de Grain

Yellow

Chrome yellow

26

CONTENTS.

IX

CHAPTER

X.
PAQK

Red, the second and intermediate colour, standa between yellow and blue; most positive of all colours mixed with blue produces purple with yellow forms orange gives warmth to all colours is the principal colour in the tertiary russet enters into the composition of marrone, chocolate, puce, murrey, morello, mordore, pompadour, and more or less into browns, some greys, &c. Nature uses Red sparingly as compared with green Vermilion Chinese vermilion origin of the name Iodine scarlet Red lead Minium red ochre Indian red Persian red Light red Venetian red Dragon's Blood Lake Rubric, or Madder lakes Scarlet lake Lac lake Carmine Madder carmine Rose pink
;

39

CHAPTER XL
Blue, the third and last of the primary colours, bears the same relation to shade that yellow does to light; is the most retiring of all colours, excepting purple and black ; is the
coldest colour; with yellow forms green, and with red, purple characterizes the tertiary blue is the prime colour in neutral black, the semi-neutral greys, slate, and lead the colours, &c. is discordant in juxtaposition with green paucity of Blue pigments in comparison with the yellow and red ones "Ultramarine Factitious ultramarine Cobalt Smalt Royal blue Prussian blue Antwerp blue Indigo Blue verditer Saunders blue Bice
;
; ;

...
;

62

CHAPTER
The Secondary
:

XII.

Colours Orange ; how composed enters into composition of citrine; with purple forms russet; is an colour ; Orange is pre-eminently a warm colour ; advancing list of Orange pigments very deficient ; method of mixing Chrome orange Orange ochre Mars orange Burnt Sienna earth Orange lead Antimony orange Anotta .

63

CHAPTER Xni.
Of Green, the second
hue when
;

of the secondary colours most perfect in constituted in the proportion of three of yellow to
; ;

eight of blue ; it is the most effective of all compound colours the general garb of the vegetable creation whilst it is universally effective in contrasting other colours, it is the least useful in compounding them principal discord of
;

Green
greens
:

is

blue

its

less

powerful discord, yellow

Mixed

Chrome
green
visible

Varley's green, Hooker's green Terre-Verte green Cobalt green Copper green Verdigris

Green verditer
green

Emerald green
.

Scheele's green

Mineral green Mountain Prussian green Sap green In-

......

G8

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
Of

XIV.
;

MM

Purple, the third and last of the secondary colours composed of red and blue in proportions of five red, to eight blue ; the proportions in which it contrasts with other colours ; mixed with green produces olive mixed with orange forms russet ; is the coolest of the secondary colours, and nearest to black, or shade ; next to green is the most pleasing of the consonant colours ; when inclining to red is a regal or magisterial colour Mixed purples Gold purple, or Cassius's Purple Precipitate Bladder purple (Purple Rubiate, or Field's purple) Burnt carmine Purple lake Purple ochre
;

76

CHAPTER XV.
Of the Tertiary Colours
citrine

Citrine its composition and properties ; original Citrine-coloured pigments not numerous Mixed
: ;

Brown pink

Raw umber

.....

80

CHAPTER XVI.
Of Russet
;

its

russet,

composition and properties Mixed russet or Madder brown Prussiate of copper

Field's

Russet
84

ochre,

&c

CHAPTER
Of
Olive;
its

XVTI.
Mixed
olive

green

composition and properties Burnt verdigris

Olive

87

CHAPTER XVin.
Of Semi-neutral Colours May be divided into Brown, Marrone, and Grey The general qualities of brown Vandyke brown Manganese brown Cappagh brown or Euchrome Burnt umber Cassel earth Cologne earth Rubens' brown Brown ochre Bone brown Asphaltum Mummy Antwerp brown Bistre Sepia Madder brown Prussian brown
:

89

CHAPTER XIX.
Of Gray
; composition and qualities of Gray Mixed graysNeutral tint Ultramarine ashes Phosphate of Iron . .

9S

CHAPTER XX.
Of the Neutral
Black of the nature and applications of Black ; great number' of Black pigments Ivory black Frankfort black Blue black Spanish black Mineral black Manganese black Black ochre Black chalk Indian ink Black lead
:

102

CONTENTS.

XI

CHAPTER
Table
I.
:

XXI.

run
Of Pigments, the colours of which suffer different degrees of change by the action of light, oxygen, and pure air Table II. Of Pigments, the colours of which are little, or not at all, changed by light, oxygen, and pure air Table III. Of Pigments, the colours of which are subject to change by the action both of light and oxygen, &c. Table IV. Of Pigments which are not at all, or little, liable to change by the action of light, oxygen, and pure air, &c. Table V. : Of Pigments subject to change variously by the
: :
:

action of white lead and other preparations of that metal Table VI. : Of Pigments, the colours of which are subject to change by iron and other ferruginous substances Table VII. Of Pigments, the colours of which are more or less transparent, and are generally fit to be employed in
:

graining and finishing Table VIII.: Of Pigments, the colours of which are little or not at all affected by heat or Of Pigments which are little the action of fire Table IX. or not at all affected by lime, and in various degrees eligible
:

for fresco, distemper,

and crayon painting

.
. .

Table X.
. .

Of

Heraldic Colours

.110

CHAPTER
Table XI.

XXII.

: Of the Colours used in water-colour painting, assorted into various sized boxes, whether in cakes or moist in tubes or pans Table XII. Of the Powder Colours used in tempera painting Table XIII. : Of Colours used in oil-painting
:

Remarks

.....
PAET
OILS,

122

III.

ON VEHICLES,

AND VABNISHES.
XXIII.

CHAPTER
The
necessity for vehicles
;

their various classes

Water vehicles

Mucilages Gum Senegal, Gum Arabic, Ammonia, Tragacanth Size Milk of Lime Borax Mediums Dryers, the various kinds of, and how and when to use them .

127

CHAPTER XXIV.
On
Oils
oils
:

first
;

Distinguished into Fat, Drying, and Volatile the two are called fixed and expressed, and the latter essential the properties of each Linseed oil Pale Drying oil
:

Poppy
tine

oil

Megilp

Copaiba

Oil of lavender

Naphtha

Volatile oils Oil of turpen. . Spirit of wine

135

Xll

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE XXV.
not

On

Varnishes
nish

Resinous varnishes Mastic varnish Copal varWhite lac varnish Lac Cowdie General remarks
:

143

PART

IV.

THE MODES AND OPERATIONS OF PAINTING.

CHAPTER XXVI.
The
pencil as distinguished from
:

the brush

The

simplest

method that in which water alone is added to the colours with which a mucilage has been previously mixed The different qualities of drawing-papers and their sizes Drawing-boards ; the various kinds ; suggestions in relation to Method of stretching paper for water-colour painting Sketching-blocks Method of commencing to work with cake or moist water-colours To compound tints Method of mixing colour for a flat wash Large brushes preferable to small ones Instructions as to laying flat washes and painting in monochrome Systematic practice Method of graduating tints To colour and shade cylindrical and spherical surfaces Excellent lessons to be derived from a bunch of grapes, an orange, a group of apples, &c. Decorative artist advised to study and paint flowers from nature, and make careful studies from nature, adapting the forms subsequently to ornamental purposes General method of *
painting flowers

Figure-painting

161

CHAPTER XXVII.
Painting in Tempera, why so called The various media used by the Italians, &c. Scene-painting Tempera may be considered as opaque water-colour painting, the lights being added with body-colour instead of being caused by the white paper. In this, Tempera agrees with oil-painting, the difference being only in the vehicle Tempera a very important style to the decorative artist The same facilities for blending which exist in water-colour and oil-painting do not belongto Tempera How thecoloursare blended and graduated ; hatching ; stippling Painting in flat tints Set of copies of flowers in this style published under the auspices of *he Science and Art Department

GO

CONTENTS.

X1H

CHAPTER
Painting in Oil
oil-painting
artists of
:

XXVIII.
PAO

The various oils Megilp Varnishes used in The ease with -which the colours may now be

obtained compared with the difficulties under which the former days laboured The various brushes generally used in oil-painting, and others which may be obtained for special purposes how to select brushes for work the qualities of hog-hair brushes of sable loose hairs ; badger softeners described ; should be avoided as much as possible ; how to clean brushes ; " brush washers " Of canvas: plain the various sizes generally emcloth, Roman, and ticken Panels Academy ployed origin of the term "Kit-cat" boards Prepared mill-boards Oil sketching-paper Of the processes of painting in oil Dead colouring Glazing, the colours adapted for Scumbling contrasted with glazing
; ; ; ; ;

touching- -Dragging Impasting, its advantages and disadvantages The easel The palette; how new palettes should be prepared for use how to cl'-an palettes how colours from the palette may be preserved for future use .

Dry

164

CHAPTER XXIX.
Df Fresco-painting: The art naturally adapted for decorative painting Colours prepared with water and applied to the surface of wet plaster As to durability, the compo and cements now so generally used would afford a new and advantageous ground for painting in fresco Fresco, being executed in wet plaster, must be worked in portions The
cartoon, and how the outline is transferred to the plaster The colours used are principally mineral ones The preparation of the wall The rough casting The method of laying the "intonaco," or painting-ground How the different portions of plaster should be conveniently arranged for painting If the result is not satisfactory the portion must be cut away

173

CHAPTER XXX.
Uieful Receipts Cleaning and restoring Removing paint
:

Removing varnish.

176

XIV

CONTENTS.

PART

V.

THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE

VARIOUS STYLES OF ORNAMENT.

CHAPTER XXXI.
The
decorative artist should understand the systematic application of ornament ; should be acquainted with the styles of architecture, and the corresponding systems of ornamentation Ornament divided into symbolic and aesthetic ; characteristics of each Style in ornament Flat ornament compared with the relieved The three great periods of ornament : The ancient Egyptian, ancient, middle age, and modern. Byzantine, Assyrian, Grecian, Roman ; the middle age the modern the Renaissance, Saracenic, and Gothic
: :
;

MM

Cinquecento, and Louis Quatorze

.179

CHAPTER XXXII.
The elements
of Egyptian ornament have each a particular meaning, thus contrasting with modern styles, which aim only at effect; the simple symmetrical arrangement of Egyptian ornaments ; adaptation of natural elements, and conventional mode of treating them: the lotus or waterlily, the fret or labyrinth, the zigzag, the winged globe, the zigzag, the wave scroll gaudy diapers and gaiety of colour in the Egyptian style The Assyrian style; chief characteristics ; sculptured records of leading events ; humanheaded colossi The feeling of the ancients which gave the origin to sphinxes, and composite animals generally relievos of gods ; the sacred tree and open flower ; the chain
;

ornament

........
CHAPTER XXXTTT.
:

181

The Grecian

style
;

Ornamental features now adopted

for their

the sculpture in the pediments, the frieze, the metopes, the triglyphs ; the Parthenon frieze, lesson as to the adaptation of ornamentation to the position in which it ia to be placed, to be derived from it ; the zigzag, and wave scroll, and labyrinth ; the echinus, or egg and tongue, moulding; the anthemion or honeysuckle; the Doric, Corinthian, and Ionic ; the flatness of Greek curves The Roman style cannot be considered as an original one ; chief characteristic ; great magnificence ; the acanthus scroll fully developed; the Roman acanthus distinct from that used by the Greeks ; the Tuscan capital simply an altered form of the Doric . .

beauty only

187

CONTENTS.

Ir

CHAPTER XXXIV.
The Byzantine
the reason
rial Its origin and sentiment of symbolism ; the beautiful Classic forms were rejected ; why how scrolls and other pagan elements were gradually admitted The chief varieties of the Romanesque the ByzanThe polychromatic decorations tine, Lombard, and Norman of the Byzantine period the paintings ; the three kinds of mosaics: the glass mosaics, the glass tesselation, and the marble tesselation the methods of execution of each The Saracenic how originated, under the stringent conditions of the Mohammedan law ; its characteristics ; the late Mr. Owen Jones as an exponent of the style ; important lessons to be derived from the system ; the principles of design ; ornamental lines flowing out of, or radiating from, a parent stem, based on natural growth, as in vine-leaf or horsechestnut ornaments specially adapted to the surface to be covered, however irregular its form ; the scroll of this in Saracenic period contrasted with that of the ancients ornament the curves are tangential to each other . .191
style
: : :
:

CHAPTER XXXV.
The Gothic
the
it developed out of the Byzantine the style : divisions of the style the Norman, Transition, Early EngThe chief ornaments of lish, Decoi-ated, and Perpendicular
; :
:

How

Norman style the ornamental bands on the recessed edges of the walls, the chevron or zigzag, the billet, the the capitals The characteristics of the transichain, &c. tion the " roll and fillet" moulding The Early English : its lancet-headed windows several lights gathered under one dripstone; the tympanum pierced; the origin of tracery; " stiff-leaved " plate tracery; the capitals the foliage, the trefoil, the tooth ornament, wall- diapers, the crocket and finial The Decorated period the tracery, geometrical and flowing the capitals the foliage taken from nature the also the ball flower and oak, horse-chestnut, hazel, &c. square flower The Perpendicular style why so called ; the character of the tracery and foliage the flattened roofs and arches the panel tracery the fan tracery The Tudor, the Debased or After-Gothic
; :

198

CHAPTER XXXVI.
The
: The return to Classic elements ; different periods; the Trecento: its characteristic features The Quattrocento : its rendering of natural elements ; Lor,nzo Ghiberti, his bronze gates of the Baptistry,

general term Renaissance

the

at Florence the panels representing scriptural subjects, the reliefs on the architrave emblematic of the fulness of the Creation The Elizabethan style must be considered as
;

XVI

CONTENT'S.

an English rendering of the Renaissance its characteristics The Cinquecento the full development of 'the Renais:

sance

the perfection of
scroll,

its

ornamentation

Raffaelle, Julio
;

the animals, plants, vases, works of art strap and shield work wholly excluded ; the style has been considered the culmination of ornamental art The Louis Quatorze : its leading charftcteristics ; the high relief; the stucco work and gilding dependent on play of light and khade more than on colour The Louis Quinze: neglect of balancing of parts decline in ornamental art ; loss of sym. metry Tbo Debased style, called the Rococo

Romano, the Lombard!, Bramante, Michael Angelo

;

arabesque

2*

PAKT

I.

OF COLOUE GENEEALLY.
CHAPTER
I.

THE ELEMENTS OF COLOURS.

IF, in this utilitarian age,

use of

colour?" we
answer
:

antly, to

we are asked, " What is the are constrained, however reluct" Not any." True, it assists in disthough miliwould accomplish this
;

tinguishing forms, but a few hard lines

tating sadly against beauty purpose, whilst distance could, as far as art is concerned, be indicated by lines of various degrees of depth a
fact

which

is

proved by the exquisite

effects

thus ob-

tained in engravings. Nor do we find that even the colours of flowers serve

any real purpose beyond charming the eye and this same argument might be applied to sounds, for, if judged by the merely utilitarian standard, music must,
;

as far as practical purposes are concerned, be

useless.

pronounced

Yet persons over

whom
B

music and colour have no

influence are happily rarely

met

with.

Can we fancy

2
this

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

glorious garden of the world peopled with dumb colourless birds ; our fields deprived of their grateful verdure ; our hedges and our gardens robbed of their

and

infinite variety of

hues ?
as in the

In the colours which pervade creation music which so gratefully affects our senses
ful Creator has
feel that

our merci-

"

man

liveth not

superadded beauty to utility, and we by bread alone," but that the

so as to surround

works of the Almighty are designed

us with everything that shall make this work-day world one in which the higher faculties of the mind may be exercised, and in which the earth may yield to the

man who

cultivates

it,

not only the food for his

for

children, but the flowers to beautify their home. It is in this way that Decorative Art has arisen

history of the world has shown us that the moment the absolute necessities of shelter have been

the

supplied, the next effort has been to beautify.

In the

ruder conditions of man, however, this desire has been satisfied by the use of bright and positive colours it
;

has been reserved for the cultivated taste of civilisation

to define the relative proportions in which the colours should be used to each other, and the means by which

they
other.

may

be contrasted

or

harmonized with each

The elements

or natural powers

by which colours are

produced are the positive and negative principles of Light and Darkness, and these in painting are represented by white and black, which are thence elementary colours ; between the extremes of which exists an in-

gradation of shades or mixtures, which are called greys, affording a scale of neutral colours. As by the deflection of & point in space may be generated all the elementary and complex figures and forms
finite

of geometrical and constructive science, so from a like

THE ELEMENTS OF COLOURS.

deflection of a spot in place

3
all

may be generated
;

the ele-

mentary and compound hues and colours the science of which is called Chromatics. Thus a spot of any shade or colour on a ground or medium lighter or darker than itself, being viewed by
a Lensic Prism, will be deflected by the ordinary refraction of light and shade into an orb of three colours.

These three colours are the known Blue, Red, and Yellow, which as they are incapable of being produced by composition, and also of being resolved into other colours by analysis, are simple, original, and primary
elicited by the electrical excitement, or concurrence of the light and shade of the ground and
colours,

spot.

Accordingly,

if

the ground and spot be varied from

light to dark, or from black to white, the same process will afford the same three colours, differing only in the inversion of their arrangement, being the order of the

colours in the celestial

" " the of the poets triple bow

phenomenon of the rainbow in which the sun

supplies the central spot of light, which is deflected or refracted by the rain and atmosphere on the dark screen

of the sky. This evolution of colours from the positive and negative or polar principles of light and darkness is a simple fact of nature, however the colours may be produced by
electrical influence,

wherewith

it

accords that a due

reunion of the three colours, or their compounds, will discharge the colours excited and restore the colourless

and in like manner the negative spots and grounds colours may be composed by mixture of the or neutral
;

positive material colours, or

pigments of the painter.

the
first

And

thus

we have educed from nature

order

of colours in the sequence of their relation to black and white.

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

In these experimental evolutions of transient colours from light and darkness, a polar influence determines the blue colour, and its allies, towards black or darkness as the negative pole, and the yellow, followed by red and their allies, toward the positive pole of light, or And this is a constant law of chromatism, by white.

which

all

the relations of colours are determined, as well

in respect to vision and the requirements of taste and arrangement as to their physical properties and calorific

powers.

it coincides also with the electrical which colours are determined chemically by according to an undoubted universal law.

And

affinities

CHAPTER

II.

THE THREE ORDERS OF COLOURS.

COLOURS may be classed under three heads primary, secondary, and tertiary. Any two of the primaries mixed in the proportions
be spoken of presently produce a perfect secondary which harmonizes with the remaining primary. Thus Blue and Yellow form Green, which harmonizes with Red. Yellow and Red produce Orange, which harmonizes with Blue. Red and Blue form Purple,
to

colour,

which harmonizes with Yellow.

Finally, in like manner, by the alternate compounding or mixing of these secondary colours in pairs, is

produced a third order of colours, thence called tertiary colours : thus, if Green be mixed with Orange colour,

THE THREE ORDERS OF COLOURS.

;

they will form a Citrine, or citron-colour if Orange be mixed with Purple, they form Russet ; and if Purple and be mixed with Green, they form Olive colour these new denominations of colours, Citrine, Russet^
;

and Olive, constitute the third order of colours, each of which is variously compounded of the three original or
primary colours, as the second order is of two ; the primary order being single and uncompounded and lastly by duly mixing or compounding either of the three orders of colours, Black will be produced, termina;

ting the series in neutrality of colour. By the varied and due admixture of these colours

is

produced the infinity of hues, shades, and tints with which the works of nature are decorated, and which abound in the works of art and all those individual
;

which every season of fashion brings forth under new denominations, but which have been recolours
distinct,

garded by vulgar, uncultivated sense as individually without order or dependence, the arbitrary

inventions of fancy.

an indefinite and disproportionate mixture, howwhole together, will be produced only the hues usually called The browns dirty, or the anomalous colour Brown.

By

ever, of the three colours of either order, or of the

are nevertheless a valuable class of colours of predominantly warm hues ; whence we have Red and Yellow Browns, and browns all hues except Blue, which is especially a cold colour affording in like manner the

very useful but anomalous class of Greys, distinguished from the neutral Grey, being also the contrary and
contrast of

Brown.
may, however, be thus, by mixing Hues of colour are These hues being diluted with white form
colours themselves
:

The primary

materially altered by admixture them in varied proportions, all

produced.

6 or

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

by being toned with black give the
different

tints,

shades of colour.

Referring to the purity of colours, Mr. R. Redgrave " It is says necessary to remember that pigments, such as are used by the dyer or painter, are but repre:

and that they but very imperfectly the primaries. There is no Yellow pigment, represent for instance, of which it can be safely averred that it is free from any mixture either of Red or Blue ; no Red
sentatives of colours,

nor any Blue so mixture of Yellow or Red. any " If pigments could be obtained truly representing each primary, the laws of colour might be perfectly illustrated but since this is not possible, either as
that
is

untainted by Yellow or Blue

pure as to be without

respects purity of colour or power of mixing, explanations of the laws of harmony are beset with many
difficulties.

Even when pigments

are obtained which

nearly represent the respective primaries ; from various causes, such as differences of transparency or opacity,

chemical components, or other qualities, they do not perhaps mix to produce even an approach to a perfect

secondary colour."

CHAPTER

III.

CONTRASTS AND ACCORDANCES OF COLOURS.*

IT has been shown that colours are primarily elicited analytically from the positive and negative principles
* Painting among the Hindoos, the Egyptians, and still in our days jmongst the Chinese, imposes its regulations in the national worship and politic laws the least alteration in the drawing or colouring
;

CONTRASTS AND ACCORDANCES OF COLOURS.

or poles of light and shade, represented by White and Black, which are Neutral as colours, and that consequently by a due reunion or composition of the colours thus educed they are restored to the neutral state of
Black, White, or Grey. The production of the secondaries
will

by mixture of the be understood from the illustration primaries (Fig. 1), in which each primary is placed opposite to the secondary formed by the remaining two.
Such opposed colours, in adequate proportions, are called complementary, from the equivalence with which they neutralise each other ; their powers in which
respect

we have demonstrated

to be according to the

following Scale of Chromatic Equivalents. (Fig. 2.) In this Scale of Equivalents .the fundamental powers
of the primary colours in compensating and neutralising, contrasting and harmonizing, their opposed secondary
colours are approximately as three Yellow, five Red,

Blue; consequently the secondary Orange, of three Yellow and five Red, is the equivacomposed lent of Blue the power of which is eight they are accordingly equal powers in contrast, and compensating
eight
:

and

and as such are properly in equal proporharmonizing effect. (Fig. 3.) Again Green being composed of Blue the power of which is eight, and Yellow the power of which is three, is equivalent in contrast and mixture as eleven, to Red the power of which is five being nearly as two
in mixture,
tions for
;

to one.

(Fig. 4.)
finally

And
Red

the power of which

Purple composed of Blue as eight, and is five, is equivalent in mixture

or contrast as thirteen, to Yellow the

would incur a serious punishment.

power of which

is

Among the Egyptians, writes Synesius, the prophets did not allow metal-founders or statuaries to represent the gods, for fear that they should deviate from the rules. Baron F, Portal on Symbolic Colours.

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

And such proportions three, or nearly as four to one. of these opposed colours may be employed in forming
-agreeable and harmonious contrasts in colouring and decorative painting, either in pairs of contrasts, or several, or all together; and also for subduing each

other in mixture.

(Fig. 5.) tertiary colour Citrine harmonizes with the secondary colour Purple in the proportion of nineteen

The

Citrine to thirteen Purple.

The

tertiary colour Olive

harmonizes with the secondary Orange in the proportion of twenty-four Olive to eight Orange. The tertiary colour Russet harmonizes with the secondary Green in the proportion of twenty-one Russet to eleven Green. These proportions are illustrated in Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9.

And

further

it is

apparent that

all

compound hues

of these colours will partake of their compound numbers, and contrast each other according to a correspond-

ing compound equivalence. Thus an intermediate Redpurple will contrast a like opposite Green-yellow with the power of eighteen to fourteen, and so on without
limit all round the scale
;

and the

triple

compounds or

tertiary colours are subject to like regulation. There is no invariable necessity, nevertheless, that
this regulation of contrasts should be followed strictly according to their numbers in harmonizing colours,
effects

although they denote their principal and most powerful for every individual colour has its appropriate
;

expression, for which it may be employed predominately as a key ; thus affording an infinity of distinct har-

monies to

fertilise taste

delicate or sober

and invention, by brilliant and and sombre effects according to the

purpose of the Artist or Decorator.*

* After the five colours come the compound hues: rose, purple, hyacinth, violet, grey, tan, &c. These hues receive their significations from the colours which compose them. That which predominated

ILLUSTRATIONS OF COLOURING.

CHAPTER

IV.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF COLOURING.

and the demands of novelty and and beautifying with colours, have a boundless field of exertion and production in the application of the foregoing principles, wherein the genius and taste of the Colourist has scope as ample for delighting the eye as that of the Musician in the and to do justice by art of harmonizing sounds to these powers in either art would be a vast examples
exercise of taste,
fashion, in decoration,
;

THE

undertaking, if not a vain attempt. As the object of these pages is not merely to enable the student to learn by rote a list of the numerical
proportions of colours, but to assist him in the appreciation of the principles laid down, it is suggested that

he should work out the system inculcated in a series of diagrams, for which the following hints will supply
the data.
or contrasting of Blue with or of cold with warm colours, which are general Orange, equal powers or equivalents and as such are instanced
1.
;

The harmonizing

by the warm sunshine and azure sky. It is in the same relation that Blue is employed effectively
in nature

with Gold. 2. This study should be the accordance of Red with Green; the first of which is the extreme of colour, as the latter is the mean or middle colour, and they harmonize as one to two in power or equivalence, and
gives to the hue its general signification, and that which is subordinate, the modified. Thus purple, which is of a red azure, signifies the love of truth and hyacinth, which is of a blue purple, represents the truth of love. These two significations would seem to confound themselves at their source, but the applications will show the difference which exists between them. Baron J* Portal on Symbolic Colours.
;

10

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

are remarkable in the roseate blossom with the green

foliage throughout nature.
3. This arrangement should be the general accordance of Yellow with Purple, which are complementary nearly as one to four; the first as an advancing or light, the second as a retiring or shade colour; and

they are reciprocally employed by nature in giving effect to Purple and Yellow flowers. The above are but it would be easy, were it leading examples only
;

expedient, to multiply them to any amount. It is a matter of necessary knowledge to the Artist, and of useful information to the Decorator of taste, that

in nature the colours of shadows and shadings are always true contrasts to their lights, and affords a rule to har-

monious

art, the neglect of which is a common cause of failure, and dulness of effect. Hence it may merit attention that rooms, &c., lighted from a cold or

northern aspect would be of best effect when having their ornamental designs shaded with warm colours
;

and that, on the contrary, cool shadows are required in rooms of a southern and sunny aspect. The artist,
however,
light

who

is

acquainted with the true relations of

and

colours, will be at

no

loss in

adapting his

practice to the peculiarity of the case or situation. Not only are there the foregoing harmonies of Succession
is

and Contrast among

positive colours, there also

a like contrast of Colour with Neutrality, or of positive Hues with negative Shades. It is hence that
coloured backgrounds agreeably relieve sculptures, which are white or neutral and that Blue does so more effectively than other colours, because sculptures having their own relief, and being powerfully reflective of light, are best contrasted and advanced by that colour which is of nearest affinity with shade, and such is blue. We find accordingly that the Greeks relieved
;

ILLUSTRATIONS OF COLOURING.

11

the sculptures of their temples, &c., by Blue backgrounds, which at once harmonized with the sculpture

and the sky. So again, in contrasting Black

grounds,

objects with coloured

engravings, neutral drawings or designs, &c., the colour nearest in relation to light, being a warm Yellow, is for the above reason theorethese will tically and practically of best effect. be sufficient to suggest the proper practice in the con-

such as

And

duct of Colours and Neutrality in other cases. It is to be observed that the simple principles we have adduced as a guide to the ordinary employment
of colours are but the suggestive elements of a science as boundless as practical geometry, into the intricacy of which the decorator needs not enter, any more than
into the subtilities of the latter science
;

and the mind

speculations, or emulating the higher accomplishments of art, will find the inquiry extended in our " Chromatics ; or the Analogy, Har-

delighting

in

such

mony, and Philosophy of Colours," and other works. So much then in briefness for the theoretic relations of colours, the knowledge of which is to be regarded as essential to their free and appropriate application in painting and indispensable for elegance of design in all arts calling for an harmonious and original display of taste, for which some practical hints will appear in our subsequent notes on individual colours and pig;

" ments, further detailed also in our Chromatography." it is true, Fashion, governs Operatives and Decorators in their works and designs, but when these artists
are well instructed and masters in principles, they will guide and influence fashion by nature and good taste,

advancing art by purifying it from those barbarous and gaudy obtrusions on chaste design which ever
denote art in
its

infancy or decline.

As

to the aids of

12
literature, it

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

can do

little more for the artist and them with these principles and precepts, the application of which is an affair of their own skill and faculties, in which they have liberty of

artisan than present

action but not equality of powers, for these are divine gifts from nature, or the rewards of acquired skill and

industry. In the choice, admiration, and display of colours we find crude, natural, and uncultivated taste, as in children

and savages, delighting in, and employing, entire and primary colours, and harsh, unbroken, or whole notes in their music but as taste and sober judgment advance, sense becomes more conciliated by broken colours and half-tones, till, in the end, they refine into the more broken and enharmonic. The same laws still govern them in practice, and the contrasts of which we have given the first crude examples may still be as strictly employed with colours extremely subdued, and with the utmost refinement of broken tints and deli;

cacy of expression.

Thus colours are no

less

a science than musical

sounds, to which they are every way analogous ; and as the musician may be thoroughly acquainted with har-

monic

science,

and able

to detect all the errors of the

composer and performer of music without himself being so also it is with able either to compose or perform, the informed and critical colourist, whether decorative for the excellent works of both artist or man of taste
;

arts are the productions of science, conducting genius or natural taste, and a practised hand. To this end

our rules are offered as a compass to unrestrained fancy, that, without a guide, would run into tasteless extra-

vagance and absurdity.

PART

II.

PEACTICAL COLOURING.

CHAPTER

V.

MATERIAL COLOURS.

HAVING

exhibited the sensible principles, relations, and effects of colours sufficiently for general understanding

and use in a theoretic view,

that

it is expedient to practice advert to their material or physical briefly nature and habits; because upon these depend the

we

durability, fugacity,

and changes to which colouring substances and pigments are subject and their works exposed; while it supplies useful experience to the
painter and colourist in the practice of their arts. Colours we have distinguished into Inherent and Of the first kind are all material colours, Transient.

more properly

called

pigments and dyes

of the second

or transient kind are the colours of light and the eye, such as the rainbow, halos, prismic and ocular spectra,
all of which, as before shown, are formed by the concurrence of the elements of light and darkness, which

&c.

elements, in the language of the chemists, are oxygen and hydrogen, both of which enter inherently into the matter of solid pigments, and constitute the transient

14

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

and of day. Hence paintings, from light and air in many cases become dark, and in other cases, when exposed to light and air, they bleach and fade, or variously change colour according to their chemical constitutions, as will be further
light of our atmosphere
&c., excluded

noted of individual pigments. have employed the terms Oxygen and Hydrogen to denote the more properly Photogenic and Sciogenic elements of light and shade, not for their fitness, but because they have been adopted in an analogous ele-

We

signification in chemistry. It would, however, be beside our purpose here to discuss the elementary doctrine of the physical causes of light and colours,

mentary

having spoken thereof more at large in other works. We proceed, therefore, in the next place, to detail the powers, properties, and preparations of the materials

employed in the various practices of painting, among which pigments, or paints, are principal, reminding the student that the variety of lightness and darkness in
colours
th'e is

called Shade

the varieties of gradations in

mixtures of colours are called Hues, and the various mixtures of hues and colours with white and shades
are called Tints.

We

preface these and other distinc-

tions as necessary to the painter for the better understanding and compounding of his materials, with which
it

is

the object of this part of our work to

make him

acquainted.

CHAPTER

VI.

QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS.

THE

general qualities of good Pigments, technically called Colours, are : 1, beauty of colour, which includes

QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS.

15

purencss, brightness, and depth ; 2, body ; 3, transparency or opacity; 4, working well; 5, keeping their

place

6,

drying well
all

pigments possess Body, in opaque and white pigments, is the quality of efficiently covering and hiding ground, but in transparent pigments it signifies richness of colour, or tinting power working well depends much on suffi;

and 7, durability ; but few these qualities in equal perfection.

;

cient grinding, or fineness of quality ; keeping their places and drying well depend in a great degree on the
vehicle, or liquid, with

chiefly on the

oil

which they are tempered, and with which they are employed.

All substances are positively or negatively coloured,

whence the abundance of natural and artificial pigments and dyes with which the painter and colourist in every art are supplied, and the infinity of others that may be
As, however, it is durability that gives value to the beauty and other qualities of colours or pigments, and those of nature being for the most part

added to them.

adapted to temporary or transient purposes, few only are suited to the more lasting intentions of art, and hence a judicious selection is essential to the practice

and purposes of

artists.

And
ment

as the present inquiry is concerning the employof solid colours in painting, properly called Pig-

ments, it is our express business to form such selections from those in use as are best adapted to the various

requirements of painting in

oil or water-colours, in distemper, fresco, &c., and to denote their habits, mixture, and best modes of manipulation of each, and this

we purpose

in the order of the colours as delivered in

the preceding scales.

In mixing colours the painter should avoid using a greater number of pigments than necessary to afford the tints required, as such mixtures are usually fouler

16

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

than the colours used, and their drying and other

qualities are

commonly injured thereby. We by no means counsel the painter to lose his time in the

original pigments, the processes of manufacture having in recent years been carried to such perfection that any attempt to compete either in levigation or admixture with the colours sold at the

preparation of

first-rate

houses would be
to

also

more

futile. Old pigments are be depended on than new ones for drying,

standing, &c.

"We proceed

to speak of colours

and

pigments individually.

CHAPTER

VII.

OF WHITE AND ITS PIGMENTS.*

WHITE t
Is the basis of nearly all opaque painting designed for the laying and covering of grounds, whether they be
" * " Colours " and " are commonly confounded, but Pigments pigments, or, as they are popularly termed, paints, are those substances possessing colouring power in so eminent a degree that they are used on account of that property pigments are, so to speak, material colours. "Colours" have a generic signification, including the phenomena of colour, whether considered in the abstract or the
;

GULLICK AND TIMES, Painting Popularly Explained. t Of white colour. The Moors designate, by this emblem, purity, sincerity, innocence, indifference, simplicity, candour; applied to a
concrete.
it implies chastity ; to a young girl, virginity ; to a judge, Heraldry, borrowing this cataintegrity to a rich man, humility. logue, ordained that, in coats of arms, argent should denote whiteness, purity, hope, truth, and innocence. Ermine, which was at first all white, was the emblem of purity and of immaculate chastity and we hold, says Lamothe Le Vayer, the whiteness of our lily, of our scarfs, and royal pennant, a symbol of purity as well as of liberty. White represents immaculate chastity it was consecrated to the Virgin her altars are white, the ornaments of the officiating priest are white, and likewise, on her festival-day, the clergy are in white. Baron_F. Portal on Symbolic Colours.

woman,

OF WHITE

AND

ITS PIGMENTS.

I/

and should be
for the

of wood-work, metal, stone, plaster, or other substances, as pure and neutral in colour as possible
better

mixing and compounding with other

colours without changing their hues, while it renders them of lighter shades, and of the tints required ; it
also gives solid body to all colours. It is the most advancing of colours

that

is, it

forward and catches the eye before

assists in

all others,

comes and it

giving this quality to other pigments, with

which it may be mixed, by rendering their tints lighter Hence it appears to cause colours and more vivid. which are placed near it to recede, and it powerfully The contrasts dark colours, and black most so of all. term colour is however equivocal when attributed to the neutrals, White, Black, and Greys, yet the artist is bound to regard them as colours and in philosophic strictness they are such latently, compounded and compensated for a thing cannot but be that of which it is composed, and the neutrals are composed of and com;

prehend

all colours.
is

White

the nearest
is

among

colours in relation to

Yellow, and

in itself a pleasing and cheerful colour,

which takes every hue, tint, and shade, and harmonizes all other colours, and is the contrast of Black, added to which it gives solidity in mixture, and a small quantity of black added to white cools it, and preserves it from its tendency to turn yellow. White mixed with Black forms various Greys and Lead-colour so called.
with

From

the above qualities of white

it

is

of

more

extensive use in painting than any other colour, and it is hence of the first importance to the painter to have its pigments of the best These are abundant, quality.
of which

we shall here notice those only of practical importance to the painter and decorator. Notwithstanding white pigments are an exceedingly
o

18

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

class,

numerous
deratum.

an unexceptionable white

is still

a desi-

earths are destitute of body in oil and varnish, and metallic whites of the best body are not permanent in water ; yet when properly discriminated,

The white

we have eligible whites for most purposes, of which the following are the principal
:

WHITE LEAD,
Or
and other white oxides of lead, under the London and Nottingham whites, &c., Flake white, Crems or Cremnitz, Roman and Venetian whites, Blanc d'argent or Silver white, The heaviest Sulphate of lead, Antwerp white, &c. and whitest of these are the best, and in point of colour and body are superior to all other whites. They are all, when pure and properly applied in oil and varnish, safe and durable, and dry well without addition but excess of oil discolours them, and in water-painting they are changeable even to blackness. They have
ceruse,

various denominations of

also a destructive effect

upon all vegetable lakes, except madder lakes and madder carmines they are equally injurious to red and orange leads or minium,
the
;

king's and patent yellow, massicot, gamboge, orpiments, &c. : but ultramarine, red and orange vermilions, yellow and orange chromes, madder colours, sienna

and all the ochres, compound with In oil-painting these whites with little or no injury. white lead is essential in the ground, in dead colouring,
earth, Indian red,

in the formation of tints of all colours, and in scumbling, either alone or mixed with all other pigments.
It
is

also the best local white

when

neutralized with

black, but

in water-colour painting, distemper, crayon painting, or fresco, nor with any pigment having an inflammable basis, or liable to be

must not be employed

destroyed by

fire

for

with

all

such they occasion

OF WHITE AND ITS PIGMENTS.

19

change of colour, either by becoming dark themselves, or by fading the colours they are mixed with. Cleanliness in using these pigments is necessary for health for though not virulently poisonous, they are pernicious when taken into or imbibed by the pores or otherwise, as are all other pigments of which lead is
;

the basis.
lead,

A
;

fine natural

white oxide, or carbonate of

would be a valuable acquisition, if found in abundance and there occur in Cornwall specimens of
a very beautiful carbonate of lead, of spicular form, brittle, soft, and purely white, which should be collected for the artist's use.

The following

are the true characters of these whites

:

according to our particular experience

LONDON AND NOTTINGHAM WHITES.

The
best of these do not differ from each other in

any

essential particular,
localities.
is

nor from the white leads of other The latter, being prepared from flake white,

generally the greyer of the two.

leads are adulterated

The inferior white with whitening or sulphate of

them in body and brightness, dispose them to dry more slowly, to keep their places less firmly, and to discolour the oil with which they are applied. All the above are carbonates of lead, and liable to froth or bubble when used with aqueous, spirituous, or acid preparations. There are no better whites for architectural painting, and for
barytes and other earths, which injure
all the purposes of common oil-painting they are kept in the shops under the names of best and common white leads ready ground in oil, and require only to bo duly diluted with linseed oil and more or less turpen;

tine according to the work ; and also for mixing with other colours and producing tints.

20

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

KREMS, CREMS, OR KREMNITZ WHITE,

Is a white carbonate of lead, which derives its namca from Crems, or Krems, in Austria, or Kremnitz in

Hungary, and is called also Vienna white, being brought from Vienna in cakes of a cubical form. Though highly reputed, it has no superiority over the best English white leads, and varies like them according to the degrees of care or success with which it has been
prepared.

FLAKE WHITE
Is an English white lead in form of scales or plates, sometimes grey on the surface. It takes its name from

equal or sometimes superior to Krems an oxidized carbonate of lead, not essentially differing from the best of the above. Other white leads seldom equal it in body, and, when levigated, it
its

figure,

is

white, and

is

is

called body- white.

BLANC D'ARGENT,
Or
Silver white.

These are

false appellations of a

It is brought from Paris in the form of drops, is exquisitely white, but of less body than flake white, and consequently

white lead, called also

French white.

It has all the properties of the but, being liable to the same changes, is unfit for general use as a water-colour, though good

does not cover so well.

;

best white leads

in oil or varnish.

ROMAN WHITE
Is of the purest white colour, but differs from the former only in the warm flesh-colour of the external
surface of the large square masses in

which

it is

usually

prepared.

OF WHITE AND ITS PIGMENTS.

21

SULPHATE OF LEAD
Is an exceedingly white precipitate from any solution of lead by sulphuric acid, much resembling the blanc d'argent ; and has, when well prepared, quite neutral,

and, thoroughly edulcorated or washed, most of the properties of the best white leads, but is rather inferior
in

body and permanence.

The above
there are

are the principal whites of lead ; but many other whites used in painting, of which
:

the following are the most worthy of attention

ZINC WHITE
Is

an oxide of zinc, which has been more celebrated as

a pigment than used, being perfectly durable in water and oil, but wanting the body and brightness of fine

white leads in
white
is

oil

superior to it in colour,

while, in water, constant or barytic and equal in durability.

Nevertheless, zinc white is valuable, as far as its powers extend in painting, on account of its durability both in
oil

When

and water, and duly and

innocence with regard to health. skilfully prepared, the colour and

its

this pigment are sufficient to qualify it for a general use upon the palette, although the pure white of lead must merit a preference in oil.

body of

TIN WHITE
Resembles zinc white in many respects, but dries badly, and has even less body and colour in oil, though superior to it in water. It is the basis of the best white in enamel painting. There are various other metallic whites of great body and beauty, such are those of bismuth, antimony,
quicksilver,

and arsenic

but none of them are of any

22

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

value or reputation in painting, on account of their great disposition to change of colour, both by light and
foul air, in water

and in

oil.

PEARL WHITE.
There are the two pigments of this denomination one falsely so called, prepared from bismuth, which turns
:

black in sulphuretted hydrogen gas or any impure air, and is used as a cosmetic ; the other, prepared from the

waste of pearls and mother-of-pearl, which is exquisitely white, and of good body in water, but of little
it combines, however, with all : other colours without injuring the most delicate, and is itself perfectly permanent and innoxious.

force in oil or varnish

CONSTANT WHITE,
Permanent white, or Barytic white, barytes, and when well prepared and
is

free

a sulphate of from acid is

one of our best whites for water-painting, being of a superior body in water, but destitute of this quality
in
oil.

As it is of the mouth
;

a poisonous nature, it must be kept from in other respects and properties it resem-

bles the true pearl white. be employed with as little

Both

these pigments should

gum as possible, as it destroys their body, opacity, or whiteness ; and solution of gum ammoniac answers better than gum arabic, which is
commonly used
:

but the best

way

of preparing this

pigment, and other terrene whites, so as to preserve their opacity, is to grind them in simple water, and to add toward the end of the grinding sufficient only of
size,

them

or clear cold jelly of gum tragacanth to attach to the ground in painting. Barytic white is

seldom well purified from free acid, and, therefore, apt to act injuriously on other pigments.

OF WHITE AND ITS PIGMENTS.

23

WHITE CHALK
Is a well-known native carbonate of lime, used by the artist only as a crayon, or for tracing his designs ; for

which purpose

it

is

sawn

into lengths suited to the

porte-crayon. White crayons, and tracing-chalks, to be good, must work and cut free from grit. From this
material, whitening and lime are prepared, and are the basis of many common pigments and colours used in

distemper, paper-staining, &c. There are many terrene whites

under equivocal

names, among them are Morat or Modan white, Spanish white or Troys, or Troy white, Rouen white, Bougeval
white, Paris white, Blanc de Hoi, China white, Satin white, the latter of which is a sulphate of lime and alumine, which dries with a glossy surface, is said
to be prepared

alum, the
its

first

by mixing equal quantities of lime and slacked and the latter dissolved in water.

The common

thick part, which

oyster-shell contains also a soft white in is good in water ; and egg-shells

have been prepared for the same purpose ; white has likewise been obtained from an endless variety of
native earths.

From

whites
useful

we have
to

selected

this unlimited variety of terrene above such only as merit

;

the attention of the artist

the

the rest

may

be variously

paperstainer, plasterer, in distemper ; but the whole of them are destitute of body in oil, and, owing to their alkaline nature, are injurious to many colours in water, as they are to all

and painter

colours

which cannot be employed

in fresco.

CHINESE WHITE.
This exceedingly useful colour is a preparation of white oxide of zinc mixed with mucilage of gum tragacanth, gum arabic, and a small quantity of glycerine ; it is

24

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

generally used in water-colour painting, both in com-

pounding tints and in high lights it is sold in bottles and in compressible tubes the former are to be pre: ;

ferred,

though perhaps not so convenient in fitting into The colour washes well, sketching-cases as the latter. as now prepared, is a most valuable adjunct to the and,
list

of pigments. The use of body- white has in recent become a fashion in water-colour painting ; but years

the excessive use of this and other body-colours deteriorates much from the true character of water-colour
painting, in which as a rule the lights should be obtained from the paper itself, otherwise the picture must

be said to be executed in tempera. Besides this, the very best of whites are liable to discolour, and in that
case the effect becomes diametrically the opposite to that intended.

CHAPTER
TINTS.

VIII.

WHITE

is in every way important in painting, not only as a ground, but as the basis of all tints, as necessary in compounding the endless variety of pale

hues which taste and fashion require of the painter and

decorator,

which every season brings out under new denominations, to give way in turn to others and be forgotten. Thus white tinted with blue, &c., have afforded Paris white, &c., French greys, Silver greys, &c. ;
while
licot,

we have pink, carnation, coquithe blushes of flowers, &c. ; and yellow with white has afforded Primrose, Straw-colour, Isaamong
all

red tints

and

bella, &c.

To the

colours

compounded more or

less

OF TINTS.

25

with white, we are indebted for the innumerable tints of Lilac, Lavender, Peach-blossoms, Pea-green, Teagreen, &c.

In order

to afford

some instruction in compounding

a few useful tints -the following list is given. The student is advised to mix each of these tints in different
hues, giving in each experiment a predominance to one or other of the component colours. The method of

applying these colours will be given in another section. These tints are intended for water-colour painting, but

most of them

may be mixed for tempera or oil painting by the addition of white in varied proportions.
LAVENDER TINTS
which may be diluted
until they

give the palest French greys.

Lake and Indigo. Lake and Cobalt. Indian lied and Cobalt. Vermilion and Cobalt.

GREY TINTS

of a

brown hue--

Madder Brown and Cobalt, Madder Lake, Cobalt, and Yellow Ochre.
Indian

Red and Indigo. Red and Cobalt. Light

Gamboge, Lake, and Indigo. Burnt Sienna, Lake, and Indigo.

BRO\VN TINTS

Lake

Cobalt, and Yellow Ochre. Lake, Indigo, and Yellow Ochre. Raw Sienna, Madder Lake, and Cobalt,

Light Red and Indigo.

26

THE GRAMMAR OP COLOURING.

Vandyke Brown, Lake, and Indigo. Burnt Sienna, Gamboge, and Indigo. Vandyke Brown, Gamboge, and Indigo* Vandyke Brown and Lake. Burnt Sienna and Lake.

GREEN TINTS
Pink and Antwerp Blue. Pink and Lamp Black. Yellow Ochre and Indigo. Burnt Sienna and Indigo. Brown, Pink, and Indigo. Haw Umber and Indigo.
Italian Italian

YELLOW TINTS
Yellow Ochre and Lake. Yellow Ochre and Light Red. Yellow Ochre and Vandyke Brown-

CHAPTER

IX.

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS.

YELLOW.*

YELLOW

is

the

first

of the primary or simple colours,

nearest in relation to, and partaking most of the nature of, the neutral white, mixed with which it affords the
* This celestial light revealed to men, finds its natural symbol in the light which shines on earth ; the heat and the brightness of the sun designate the love cf God which animates the heart, and the wisdom which enlightens the intellect. These two attributes of God, manifest in the creation of the world and the regeneration of men,

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

YELLOW.

27

it is accordingly a faint hues called Straw-colour, &c. most advancing colour, of great power in reflecting Compounded with the primary red, it constilight. tutes the secondary orange, and its relatives, scarlet, &c., and other warm colours.
;

characterizes in like

it It is the ruling colour of the tertiary citrine ; manner the endless variety of the

into the

semi-neutral colours called brown, and enters largely complex colours denominated buff, bay, tawny,
hazel, auburn,

tan, dun, drab, chestnut, roan, sorrel,

Isabella, fawn, feuillemorte, &c.

Yellow is naturally associated with red in transient and prismatic colours, and they comport themselves with similar affinity and
glowing accordance in painting, as well in conjunction as composition. In combination with the primary line, yellow constitutes all the variety of the secondary
green,
olive.

and, subordinately, the tertiaries russet and It enters also in a very subdued degree into

cool, semi-neutral,

and broken colours, and assists in minor proportions with blue and red in the composition
of black.

As

a pigment, yellow

easily defiled,

ing it a strong light, while itself becomes less distinct as a colour and, on the contrary, it assists vision and be;

is a tender, delicate colour, In paintpure, by other colours. diminishes the power of the eye by its action in

when

comes more distinct as a colour in a neutral somewhat These powers of colours upon vision declining light.

To require the particular attention of the colourist. remedy the ill effect arising from the eyes having dwelt
appear inseparable in the signification of the sun, of gold, and yellow. Divine wisdom had white for a symhol, as divine love, red; golden yellow reunites these two significations and forms them into one but with the character of manilestation and revelation. This explains an ancient tradition current in emblazonry authors on the heraldic art pretend that the yellow colour is a mixture of red and white.
; ;

Baron F. Portal on Symbolic

Colours.

28

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

upon a

colour, they should be gradually passed to its opposite colour, and refreshed in the clear light of day.

In a warm
less

light, yellow
all

becomes totally

lost,

but

is

diminished than

distance.

The

other colours, except white, stronger tones of any colour subdue

by
its

fainter hues in the

same proportion as opposite colours

The contrasting colours of are a purple inclining to blue when the yellow yellow inclines to orange, and a purple inclining to red when the yellow inclines to green, in the mean proportions
and contrasts exalt them.
of thirteen purple to three of yellow, measured in surface or intensity ; and yellow being nearest to the neutral white in the natural scale of colours, it accords

with it in conjunction. Of all colours, except white, it contrasts black most powerfully.* The sensible effects of yellow are gay, gaudy,
glorious, full of lustre, enlivening,
its

and

irritating

and

impressions on the

mind partake

and acknowledge

also its

of these characters, discordances.

The

may

substitution of gold, &c., for yellow by the poets have arisen not less from the great value and

splendour of the metal, than from the paucity of fine yellows among those ancients who celebrated the Tyrian purple or red, and the no less famed Armenian blue
;

so in the beautiful illuminated

MSS.

of old,

and in

ancient paintings, which glowed with vermilion and ultramarine, the place of yellow was supplied by gilding, and in most cases the artist trusts to the gilding of his frame for some portion of the effect of this and in every case of decorating colour in his picture

many

with gildings similar allowance should be made. Yellow is a colour abundant throughout nature, and its class of pigments abounds in similar proportion.

We

have arranged them under the following heads, agree* Ruskin'a "Elements of Drawing," second edition, 1857, p.
7-

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

YELLOW.

29

ably to our plan, according to their definiteness and first the opaque, and then tho brilliancy of colour or finishing colours. It may be observed transparent,
;

of yellow pigments, that they

much

resemble whites in

and that yellow, a primary and, therefore, a simple colour, canbeing not be composed by any mixture of other colours.
their chemical relations in general,

CHBOME YELLOW
pigment of modern introduction into general use, and of which there are several varieties, mostly chromates
Is a

of lead, in which the latter metal more or less abounds. They are distinguished by the pureness, beauty, and brilliancy of their colours, which qualities are great

temptations to their use in the 'hands of the painter ; they are notwithstanding far from unexceptionable pigments ; yet they have a good body, and go cordially into tint with white, both in water and oil ; but used alone, or in tint, they after some time lose their

pure colour, and may even become black in impure air they nevertheless resist the sun's rays during a long time. Upon several colours they produce serious changes, ultimately destroying Prussian and Antwerp blues, when used therewith in the composition of
;

greens, &c.
pale,

Chromes may be medium, and deep.

in three degrees of depth

JAUNE MINERALS.
This pigment
is

also a

chromate of lead, prepared in

Paris, differing in no essential particular from the above, except in the paleness of its colour. The chrome yellows have also obtained other names from places or

persons from whence they have been brought, or by whom they have been prepared, such as Jaune de Cologne ; we pass over, however, such as have not been

30

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

The following pigment passes also generally received. under the name of Jaune Minerale :

PATENT YELLOW,
Turner's yellow, or Hontpcllicr yellow, is a submuriate or chloruret of lead, which metal is the basis of most opaque-yellow pigments ; it is a hard, ponderous,
substance, of a crystalline texture and bright yellow colour ; hardly inferior, when ground, to chromic yellow. It has an excellent body, and

sparkling

works well either in

little

oil

or water, but
;

is

soon injured
therefore,

both by the sun's light and impure air

used, except for the
ing.

it is,

commoner purposes

of paint-

NAPLES YELLOW
and antimony, under the name of Naples anciently prepared Oiallolini; it is supposed also to have been a native production of Vesuvius and other volcanoes, and is a
Is a

compound

of the oxides of lead

at

pigment of deservedly considerable reputation.

It is

not so vivid a colour as either of the above, but is Like variously of a pleasing light, warm, yellow tint.
the preceding yellows, it is opaque, and in this sense of good body, and covers well. It is not changed the light of the sun, and may be used safely in oil by or varnish under the same management as the whites
all
is

pigments also, it is liable even to blackness by damp and impure air change when used as a water-colour, or unprotected by oil or
;

of lead
to

but, like these latter

varnish.

Iron is also destructive of the colour of Naples yellow, on which account great care is requisite, in grinding and using it, not to touch it with the common steel
palette-knife, but to

compound

its tints

on the palette

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

YELLOW.

31

with a spatula of ivory or horn. For the same reason it may be liable to change in composition with the ochres, Prussian and Antwerp blues, and all other pig-

ments of which iron is an ingredient or principle. Oils, varnishes, and in some measure strong mucilages,
are preventive of chemical action, in the compounding of colours, by intervening and clothing the particles of pigments, and also preserve their colours and hence,
:

some instances, heterogeneous and injudicious tints and mixtures have stood well, but are not to be relied on in practice. Used pure, or with white lead, its affinity with which gives permanency to their tints, Naples yellow is a valuable and proved colour in oil, in which also it works and dries well. It may also be used in enamel painting, as it vitrifies without change, and in this state it was formerly employed under the name of Giallolini di fornace, and has been again introduced, under an erroneous conception
in

truth

that vitrification gives permanence to colours, when in it only increases the difficulty of levigation, and

injures their texture for working. Naples yellow docs not appear to have been generally employed by tho

early painters in oil. of various depths.

Antimony yellows

are prepared

MASSICOT,
a protoxide of lead, of a pale yellow Masticot, colour, exceedingly varying in tint, from the purest and most tender yellow or straw-colour to pale ashis

Or

colour or grey. It has in painting all the properties of the white lead, from which it is prepared by gentle calcination in an open furnace, but in tint with which,
nevertheless,
it

soon loses
it

its

colour and returns to

it is

white

if,

however,

be used pure or unmixed,

useful delicate colour,

permanent in oil under the

same

32

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

conditions as white lead, but ought not to be employed

in water, on account of its changing in colour even to blackness by the action of damp and impure air. It

appears to have been prepared with great care, and successfully employed, by the old masters, and is an

admirable dryer, being in

the same as litharge, which

its
is

chemical nature nearly also sometimes ground

and employed

in its stead.

YELLOW OCHRE,
Called also Mineral yellow, is a native pigment, found in most countries, and abundantly in our own. It
varies considerably in constitution

and

colour, in

which

latter particular it is found from a bright but not very vivid yellow to a brown yellow, called spruce ochre, and
is always of a warm cast. Its natural variety is much increased by artificial dressing and compounding. The best yellow ochres are not powerful, but as far as they

go are valuable pigments, particularly in fresco and distemper, being neither subject to change by ordinary light, nor much affected by impure air or the action of lime by time, however, and the direct rays of the sun they are somewhat darkened, and by burning are converted into light reds. They are among the most ancient of pigments, may all be produced artificially in endless variety as they exist in nature, and iron is
;

the principal colouring matter in them all. The following are the principal species, but they are often con-

founded

OXFORD OCHRE
pigment from the neighbourhood of Oxford, semi-opaque, of a warm yellow colour and soft argillaceous* texture, absorbent of water and oil, in both
Is a native
*
Argillaceous, of a clayey character.

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

YELLOW.

33

which

it

may

be used with safety according to the

general character of yellow ochres, of which it is one of the best. Similar ochres are found in the Isle of

Wight, in the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, and various

other places.

STONE OCHRE

Has been confounded with the

above, which

it

fre-

True quently resembles, as does also Roman ochre. stone ochres are found in balls or globular masses of various sizes in the solid body of stones, lying near the
surface of rocks

among
These

the quarries in Gloucestershire

balls are of

and elsewhere.
fracture.
to

texture, in general free from grit,

a smooth compact and of a powdery

colour, from yellow and grey, but do not differ in other brown, murrey, respects from the preceding, and may be safely used in oil or water in the several modes of painting, and for browns and dull reds in enamel. Varieties of ochrous colours are produced by burning and compounding with lighter, brighter, and darker colours, but often very injuriously, and adversely to the certainty of operation, effect, and durability.

They vary exceedingly .in

ROMAN OCHRE
Is rather deeper and more powerful in colour than the above, but in other respects differs not essentially from

a remark which applies equally to yellow ; ochres of other denominations. There are ochres of

them

every country.

BROWN OCHRE,
Spruce Ochre, or Ocre de Rue, is a dark-coloured yellow ochre, in no other respects differing from the preceding:
it is

much employed, and

This and
all

affords useful

and permanent

tints.

natural ochres require grinding

34

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

and washing over to separate them from extraneous substances, and they acquire depth and redness by burning. They form with Prussian blue a variety of greens, and are of use in mixture of other colours.

TERRA DI SIENNA, OR RAW SIENNA,

Is also a ferruginous* native pigment, and appears to be an iron ore, which may be considered as a crude

natural yellow lake, firm in substance, of a glossy fracIt is in many respects ture, and very absorbent.
of rather an impure yellow but has more body and transparency than the colour, a valuable pigment,

ochres

and being

little liable to

change by the action

of either light, time, or impure air, it may be safely used according to its powers, either in oil or water, and

modes of practice. By burning it becomes deeper, orange, and more transparent and drying. See Burnt Sienna Earth (page 66). It is a valuable colour
in all the
in graining.

IRON YELLOW,
Jaune de Fer, or Jaime de Mars, &c.,
ochre, prepared artificially, earth.
is a bright iron the nature of Sienna of

In its general qualities it resembles the ochres, the same eligibilities and exceptions, but is more with The colours of iron exist in endless transparent.
variety in nature, and are capable of the same variation by art, from sienna yellow, through orange and red, to
purple, brown, and black, among which are useful and valuable distinctions, which are brighter and purer

than native ochres. They were formerly introduced by the author, and have been lately received under the names of orange de mars, rouge de mars, brun de mars, names which have the merit at least of not misleading
*
Ferruginous

(Lat./em,

"iron"), impregnated with iron.

OF THE PKIMAKY COLOURS

YELLOW.

35

When carefully prepared, these pigthe judgment. ments dry well in proportion to their depth, and have the general habits of sienna earths and ochres
YELLOW ORPIMENT,
is a sulphuretted oxide of arsenic, of a beautiful, bright, and pure yellow colour, not extremely durable in water, and less so in oil: in tint

Or Yellow Arsenic,

soon destroyed. It is not subject impure air. This property is not, sufficient to redeem it with the artist, as it however, has a bad effect upon several valuable colours, such as

with white lead

it is

to discoloration in

Naples yellow

Red

lead,

and upon the Chromates, Masticot, and and most other oxides and metallic colours
; ;

but with colours dependent upon sulphur or other inflammables for their hues it may be employed with
danger, and was probably so employed by the old painters, with ultramarine in the composition of their
less

greens

and

is

well suited to the factitious or French

ultramarines.

Although

this
it

pigment

is

not so poi-

dangerous in its effect health. Yellow orpiment is of several tints, from upon bright cool yellow to warm orange, the first of which
is

sonous as white arsenic,

are most subject to change ; and various forms and denominations

it
:

has appeared under

these seem to have been used by several of the old masters, with especial care to avoid mixture and as they dry badly, and the oxides of lead used in rendering oils drying destroy
;

their colour, levigated glass was employed with them as a dryer, or perhaps they were sometimes used in simple varnish. They are found in a native state

under the name of sarnie or zarnich, varying in colour from warm yellow to green. But orpiment, in all its
varieties,

powerfully deprives other substances of their oxygen, and therefore is subject to change, and to be

36

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

changed by, every pigment whose colour depends on that element, and more especially all metallic colours ; if employed, they must therefore be so in a pure and unmixed state. See Orange Orpimmt (page 67).
KING'S YELLOW.

this

Yellow orpiment has been much celebrated under name, as it has also under the denomination of

CHINESE YELLOW,

Which

a very bright sulphuret of arsenic, brought from China.

is

AESENIC YELLOW,
Called also Mineral Yellow,
is

prepared from arsenic

fluxed with litharge, and reduced to powder. It is much like orpiment in colour, dries better, and, not
It

being affected by lead, is less liable to change in tint. must not be forgotten that it is poisonous, nor that
colours are destructive of every tint of colours

all arsenic

naixed with white lead.

CADMIUM YELLOW,
The new metal, cadmium, Sulphuret of Cadmium. with solution of sulphuretted affords, by precipitation hydrogen, a bright warm yellow pigment, which passes readily into tints with white lead, appears to endure light, and remains unchanged in impure air; but the metal from which it is prepared being hitherto scarce, it has been little employed as a pigment, and its habits
are, therefore, not ascertained.

GAMBOGE,

Or Gumboge,
India, and
is

is brought principally from Cambaja in the produce of several kinds of trees. Is

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

YELLOW.

37

a concrete vegetal substance, of a gum-resinous nature,

and beautiful yellow colour, bright and transparent, but not of great depth. When properly used, it is more durable than generally reputed both in water and
oil
;

and conduces, when mixed with other

colours, to

their stability and durability, by means of its gum and It is deepened in some degree by ammoniacal resin.

and impure

and somewhat weakened, but not easily by the action of light. Time effects less change on this colour than on other bright vegetal yellows but white lead and other metalline pigments injure, and terrene and alkaline substances redden it, It works remarkably well in water, with which it forms an opaque solution, without grinding or preparation, by means of its natural gum but is with difficulty used in oil, &c., in a dry state. In its natural state it however dries well, and lasts in glazing when deprived
air,

discoloured,

Glazed over other colours in water, its which protects them and under other colours its gum acts as a preparation which
of
its

gum.

resin acts as a varnish

admits varnishing.

It

is

injured by a less degree of

heat than other pigments.

GALL-STONE
Is an animal calculus formed in the gall-bladder, prinThis concretion varies a little in cipally of oxen.
colour, but is in general of a beautiful golden yellow, more powerful than gamboge, and is highly reputed as

a water-colour

nevertheless, its colour

is

soon changed

and destroyed by strong alteration by impure air.

light, though not subject to

means

It is rarely introduced in oil-painting, eligible therein.

and

is

by no

33

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

INDIAN YELLOW
Is a
Ptvree, but has not

pigment long employed in India under tlie name many years been introduced gene-

It is imported in the rally into painting in Europe. form, of balls, and is of a fetid odour. However pro-

duced, it appears to be an urio-phosphate of lime, of a beautiful pure yellow colour, and light powdery texture ; of greater body and depth than gamboge, but
inferior in these respects to gall-stone. Indian yellow resists the sun's rays with singular power in water-

painting ; yet in ordinary light and air, or even in a book or portfolio, the beauty of its colour is not lasting. It is not injured by foul air, and in oil is exceedingly fugitive, both alone and in tint.

YELLOW LAKE.
There are several pigments of this denomination varying in colour and appearance according to the
colouring substances used, and modes of preparation. They are usually in the form of drops, and their coloura
liable to

are in general bright yellow, very transparent, and not change in an impure atmosphere, qualities

which would render them very valuable pigments, were they not soon discoloured, and even destroyed, by the opposite influence of oxygen and light, both in water and oil in which latter vehicle, like other lakes in general, they are bad dryers, and do not stand the
;

action of white lead or metallic colours.

fore, it

If used, there-

should be as simple as possible.

AUEEOLIN.
This
is

a nitrate of Cobalt, and

colour.

is

a very pure and

permanent
yellow, and

It is as nearly as possible a pure is used in water or oil.

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

RED.

39

DUTCH PINK, ENGLISH AND ITALIAN

Are

PINKS,

sufficiently absurd names of yellow colours prepared by impregnating whitening, &c., with vegetal

yellow tinctures, in the manner of rose pink, from which

they borrow their name.

are bright yellow colours, extensively used in distemper and for paper-staining and other ordinary

They

but are little deserving attention in the purposes walks of art, being in every respect inferior even higher to the yellow lakes, except the best kinds of English
;

and Italian pinks, which are, in fact, yellow lakes, and richer in colour than the pigments generally called
yellow lake.

The pigment

called Stil, or Stil de Grain,

is

a similar

preparation, and a very fugitive yellow, the darker kind of which is called brown-pink.

CHAPTER
RED.

X.

UED

is

the second and intermediate of the primary

colours, standing between yellow and blue ; and in like intermediate relation also to white and black, or light

and shade.

Hence

it is

pre-eminent among colours, as

well as the most positive of all, forming with yellow the secondary orange and its near relatives, scarlet, &c. ;

and with

blue,

the secondary purple and

its

allies,

It gives some degree of warmth to all colours, but most to those which partake of yellow.

crimson, &c.
It
is

the archeus, or principal colour, in the tertiary

40

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

two other tertiaries,

russet; enters subordinately into the

citrine

; goes largely into the composition of the various hues and shades of the semi-neutral

and

olive

marrone, or chocolate, and

puce, murrey, and more or less morello, mordore, pompadour, &c. into browns, greys, and all broken colours. It is also
;

its relatives,

the second power in harmonizing and contrasting other

and in compounding black, and all neutrals, into which it enters in the proportion of five, to blue, eight, and yellow, three.
colours,

Red is a colour of double power in this respect also ; that in union or connection with yellow it becomes hot and advancing ; but mixed or combined with blue, it
becomes cool andretiring. It is, however, more congenial with yellow than with blue, and thence partakes more of the character of the former in its effects of warmth, of the influence of light and distance, and of action on the
eye,

by which the power of

vision

is

diminished upon

viewing this colour in a strong light ; while, on the other hand, red itself appears to deepen in colour rapidly in a declining light as night comes on, or in shade.

These qualities of red give it great importance, render it difficult of management, and require it to be kept in subordinate in painting hence it is rarely used general unbroken, or as the predominating colour, on which account it will always appear detached or insulated, unless it be repeated and subordinate in a composition. Accordingly, Nature uses red sparingly, and with as great reserve in the decoration of her works as she is profuse in lavishing green upon them which is of all colours the most soothing to the eye, and the true com; ;

pensating colour, or contrasting or harmonizing equivalent of red, in the proportional quantity of eleven to
five
is,

when

of red, according to surface or intensity ; and the red inclines to scarlet or orange, a blue-

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

green
;

RED.

41
is

and when

it

inclines to crimson or purple,

yellow-green.

Red

breaks and diffuses with white with

loveliness

and beauty

but

it is

discordant

when

peculiar stand-

ing with orange only, and requires to be joined or ac-

companied by their proper contrast, to resolve or harmonize their dissonance. In landscapes, &c., abounding with hues allied to
green, a red object, properly placed according to such hues in light, shade, or distance, conduces wonderfully to the life, beauty, harmony, and connection of the

colouring

and

this colouring is the chief element of

beauty in floreal nature, the prime contrast and ornament of the green garb of the vegetal kingdom.

Red being the most positive

of 'colours,

and having the

middle station of the primaries, while black and white are the negative powers or neutrals of colours, and the

red contrasts and harmonizes extremes of the scale, these neutrals and, as it is more nearly allied to white
;

or light than to black or shade, this harmony is most remarkable in the union or opposition of white and
red,

and

this contrast
is

most powerful in black and

red.

As

a colour, red

in itself pre-eminently beautiful,

powerful, cheering, splendid and ostentatious, and communicates these qualities to its two secondaries, and their sentiments to the mind.

Red, being a primary and simple colour, cannot be composed by mixture of other colours it is so much the instrument of beauty in nature and art in the colour of flesh, flowers, &c., that good pigments of this genus may of all colours be considered the most indispensable we have happily, therefore, many of this denomination, * of which the following are the principal
;
: :

* In China, red colour is consecrated to religion, and the mourning worn by children is hempen sackcloth of a bright red. Love always

42

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

VERMILION
Is a sulplmret of mercury, which, previous to its being It is an ancient pigment, is called cinnabar.

levigated,

the Kivvafiapi of the Greeks, and is both found in a The Chinese native state and produced artificially. possess a native cinnabar so pure as to require grinding

only to become very perfect vermilion, not at

differing

all

from that imported in large quantities from

China.

Chinese vermilion is of a cooler or more crimson tone than that generally manufactured from factitious cinnabar in England, Holland, and different parts of Europe. The artificial, which was anciently called minium, a term now confined to red lead, does not

from the natural in any quality essential to its it varies in tint from dark red to scarlet, and both sorts are perfectly durable and undiffer

value as a pigment

exceptionable pigments. It is true, nevertheless, that vermilions have obtained the double disrepute of fading
in a strong light

and of becoming black or dark by

;
:

time and impure air but colours, like characters, suffer contamination and disrepute from bad association it
has happened, accordingly, that vermilion which has been rendered lakey or crimson by mixture with lake or carmine has faded in the light, and that when it
it

has been toned to the scarlet hue by red or orange lead has afterwards become blackened in impure air, &c.,

both of which adulterations were formerly practised, and hence the ill-fame of vermilion both with authors

and

artists.

"We therefore
for

repeat, that neither light,

the symbol of infancy. had a red colour Cupid is a child ; celestial love is represented in Christian symbolism by infant angels. child was initiated into the great mysteries at Eleusis ; he performed a character in the last initiation, which was an emblem of death he was named the child of the sanctuary and the boys of the choir are Baron F. Portal. to this day clothed in red.

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

time, nor foul air effects sensible milions,

RED.

43

change in true verand that they may be used safely in either

water, oil, or fresco, being colours of great chemical permanence, unaffected by other pigments, and among the least soluble of chemical substances.

Good vermilion is a powerful vivid colour, of great when pure, it will be body, weight, and opacity entirely decomposed and dissipated by fire in a red heat,
;

and

is,

therefore, in respect to the above mixtures, easily

tested.

The name vermilion derived from vermiculm (vermis, worm) seems to have had its origin in very early days, and would appear to be the scarlet referred to in the Bible (Exod. xxviii. 5), where the colour rendered
a

" in the authorised version " scarlet

Hebrew called " Tolaath Shani," The term vermiculus, used by

is in the original shining icorm. the Moors, referred to

the insect they called Kermes, and hence it seems the name Kermesino or Cremesino which has in our time

become Crimson.
iodine has been improperly called vermilion, and, if it should be used to dress or give unnatural vividness to true vermilion, may

The following brilliant pigment from

again bring it into disrepute. When red or orange lead has been substituted for or used in adulterating
vermilion, muriatic acid applied to such pigments will turn them more or less white or grey but pure vermilions will not be affected by the acid, nor will they
:

which change the colour of By burning more or less, vermilion be brought to the colour of most of the red may

by pure or caustic

alkalis,

the reds of iodice.

ochres.

IODINE SCARLET
Is a

new pigment

of a most vivid

and beautiful

scarlet

colour, exceeding the brilliancy of vermilion.

It has

44

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

received several false appellations, but is truly an Iodide or Si-iodide of mercury, varying in degrees of intense
It has the body and opacity of vermilion, but should be used with an ivory palette-knife, as iron and most metals change it to colours varying from yellow to black. Strong light rather deepens and cools it, and

redness.

impure air soon utterly destroys its scarlet colour, and even metallizes it in substance. The charms of beauty and novelty have recommended it, particularly to amateurs and dazzling brilliancy might render it valuable for high and fiery effects of colour, if any mode of securing it from change should be devised at any rate
;

it

should be used pure or alone. By time alone these colours vanish in a thin wash or glaze without apparent
cause,

and they attack almost every metallic substance, and some of them even in a dry state. When used in water, gum ammoniac appears to secure it from change and it has been observed that, when gamboge is glazed over it, it preserves its hue with constancy.
;

RED LEAD,
Minium*
or Satunne red, is an ancient pigment, by some old writers confounded with cinnabar, and called

Sinoper or Synoper, is a deutoxide of lead, prepared by subjecting massicot to the heat of a furnace with an expanded surface and free accession of air. It is of a
scarlet colour and fine hue, warmer than common vermilion; bright, but not so vivid as the bi-iodide of mercury ; though it has the body and opacity of both

these pigments, and has been confounded, even in name, with vermilion, with which it was formerly customary
to
its

mix

it.
;

colour

When pure and alone, light does not afiect but white lead, or any oxide or preparation
vermilion used in early manuscripts was termed ia now, however, used to designate red lead only.

The

artificial

Minium.

The name

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

of that metal
as acids

RET>.

45

do

also

mixed with it, soon deprives it of colour, and impure air will blacken and ulti;

mately metallize it. On account of its extreme fugitiveness when mixed with white lead, it cannot be used in tints ; but employed, unmixed with other pigments, in simple varnisli or oil not rendered drying by any metallic oxide, it

may, under favourable circumstances, stand a long time; hence red lead has had a variable character for duraIt is in itself, however, an excellent dryer in bility. oil, and has in this view been employed with other pigments but, as regards colour, it cannot be mixed safely with any other pigments than the ochres, earths, and
;

blacks in general. Used alone, it answers, however, as a good red paint for common purposes.

RED OCHRE
Is a

name proper rather

to a class than to

an individual

pigment, and comprehends Indian

red, light red, Vene-

tian red, scarlet ochre, Indian ochre, redding, ruddle, bole, &c., besides other absurd appellations, such as English vermilion and Spanish brown, or majolica.

ochres are, for the most part, rather hues than definite colours, or more properly classed with the tertiary, semi-neutral, and broken colours ;

The red
tints

and

they are, nevertheless, often very valuable pigments for their tints in dead colouring, and for their permanence,
&c., in water,
oil, crayons, distempers, and fresco, and in a low tone of colouring have the value of primaries. The greater part of them are native pigments, found in

most countries, and very abundantly and fine in our own ; but some are productions of manufacture, and we have produced them in the variety of nature by art. The following are the most important of these pigments, most of which are available in enamel-painting
:

46

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

INDIAN BED,
According to its name, is brought from Bengal, and is a very rich iron ore, hematite, or peroxide of iron. It is an anomalous red, of a purple-russet hue, of a good
body, and valued when fine for the pureness and lakey tone of its tints. In a crude state it is a coarse powder,
full

of extremely hard and brilliant particles of a dark

is

appearance, sometimes magnetic, and

greatly im-

proved by grinding and washing over. Its chemical tendency is to deepen, nevertheless it is very permanent neither light, impure air, mixture with other pigments, time, nor fire, effecting in general any sensible
;

change in it and, being opaque, it covers well. This pigment varies considerably in its hues that which is most rosy being esteemed the best, and affording the purest tints: inferior red ochres have been formerly substituted for it, and have procured it a variable character, but it is now obtained abundantly, and may be had pure of respectable colourmen. Persian red is
; ;

another

name

for this pigment.

LIGHT EED
Is an ochre of a russet-orange hue, principally valued

The common light red is brown ochre burnt, but the principal yellow ochres afford this colour best ; and the brighter and better the yellow ochre is from which this pigment is prepared, the brighter will
for its tints.

and the better flesh tints will it afford with There are, however, native ochres brought from India and other countries which supply its place, some of which become darkened by time and impure air ;
this red be,

white.

but in other respects light red has the general good properties of other ochres, dries admirably, and is much

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

RED.

47
It affords

used both in figure and landscape painting.

also

an excellent crayon. Terra puzzoli and carnagione of the Italians differ from the above only in their hue, in which respect other denominations are produced by dressing and
compounding.

VENETIAN KED,
Or Scarkt
ochre.

True Venetian red

is

said to be a

native ochre, but the colours sold under this name are prepared artificially from sulphate of iron, or its re-

siduum

in the

manufacturing of

acids.

They

are all of

redder and deeper hues than light red, are very permanent, and have all the properties of good ochres.

Prussian red, English red, Ro.uge de Mars, arc other for the same pigment, and Spanish red is an ochre differing little from Venetian red.

names

DKAGON'S BLOOD
Is a resinous substance,

brought principally from the

East Indies.

warm, semi-transparent, rather dull, red colour, which is deepened by impure air, and darkened by light. There are two or three sorts, but
that in drops
is

It is of a

the best.

White

lead soon destroys

It
is

it,

and

it

dries

with extreme

difficulty in oil.

some-

times used to colour varnishes and lackers, being soluble in oils and alcohol ; but, notwithstanding it has been

recommended

tion of the artist.

as a pigment, it does not merit the attenIt was anciently called Cinnabar.

LAKE,

A name

lac or lacca of India, is the of a variety of transparent red and other cognomen coloured pigments of great beauty, prepared for the

derived from the

most part by precipitating coloured tinctures of dyeing

48

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

drugs upon alumine and other earths, &c. The lakea are hence a numerous class of pigments, both with respect to the variety of their appellations and the substances from which they are prepared. The colouring matter of common lake affords a very fugitive colour.
is

Brazil wood, which Superior red lakes aro

;

prepared from cochineal,

lac,

and kermes

but the best

of all are are those prepared from the root of the EuUa tinctoria, or madder plant. Of the various red lakes the

following are the principal All lakes ground in linseed

:

oil

or

become

livery, but ground

use.

stiff

are disposed to fatten, in poppy oil they

keep better for

EUBRIC, OE
shall

MADDER LAKES.

These pigments are of various colours, of which we speak at present of the red or rose colours only which have obtained, from their material, their hues, or
;

their inventor, the various

names of
called
;

rose rubiate, rose

madder, pink madder, and Field's lakes.

The pigments formerly

madder lakes were

but for

many years past these lakes have been prepared perfectly transparent, and literally as beautiful and pure in colour as
the rose ; qualities in which they are unrivalled by The rose colours the lakes and carmine of cochineal.

brick- reds of dull ochrous hues

of madder have justly been considered as supplying a desideratum, and as the most valuable acquisition of the palette in modern times, since perfectly permanent

and transparent reds and rose colours were previously

unknown

to the art of painting.

These pigments are of hues warm or cool, from pure pink to the deepest rose colour they afford the purest and truest carnation colours known form permanent and their transparency renders tints with white lead
;
;

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

RED.

49

them perfect glazing or finishing colours. They are not liable to change by the action of either light or impure air, or by mixture with other pigments but
;

edulcorated, they are, in common with all lakes, tardy driers in oil, the best remedy for which is the addition of a small portion of japanner's

when not thoroughly

they are too beautiful and require the general uses of the painter, the saddening addition of manganese brown, cappagh brown, or of
gold- size
:

or, as

for

burnt umber, as was the practice of the Venetian painters in the using of lake, adds to their powers and

improves their drying in

oils.

Though

little

known

in ordinary painting, they have

been established by experience on the palettes of our first masters during nearly half a century. Madder lake may be tested by liquid ammonia in which its colour is not soluble as those of other lakes and carmines
are.

SOAELET LAKE
Is prepared in form of drops from cochineal, and is of a beautiful transparent red colour and excellent body, working well both in water and oil, though, like other
lakes,
it

dries slowly.
it

destroys

Strong light discolours and both in water and oil and its tints with
;

white lead, and its combinations with other pigments, are not permanent yet when well prepared and judi;

ciously used in sufficient body, and kept from, strong light, it has been known to last many years ; but it

ought never to be employed in glazing, nor at all in performances that aim at high reputation and duraIt is commonly tinted with vermilion, which bility. has probably been mixed with lakes at all times to give them a scarlet hue, and add to their body Florentine
;

50
lake,

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

Hamburg

lake,

Chinese lake,

Roman and

Venetian

lakes, are

but varieties of the same pigment.

LAC LAKE,
Prepared from the
lac or lacca of India, is perhaps tho of lakes, and resembles the former first of the family from Cochineal in being the production of similar insects.

Its colour is rich, transparent,

and deep,

less brilliant

and more durable than that of cochineal, but inferior Used in both these respects to the colours of madder.
in body or strong glazing, as a shadow colour, it is of great power and much permanence but in thin glazing
;

it

changes and

flies,

as it does also in tint with white

lead.

great variety of lakes, equally beautiful as those of cochineal, have been prepared from this substance in a recent state in India and China, many of which

and found uniformly less durable in proportion as they were more beautiful. In the properties
tried,

we have

of drying, &c., they resemble other lakes. This appears to have been the lake which has stood
best in old pictures,

and was probably used by the

the trade of India

Venetians,
lake.

who had

when painting
called Indian

flourished at Yenice.

It is sometimes

CARMINE,

A name

originally given only to the fine feculences of tinctures of kermes and cochineal, denotes genethe rally at present any pigment which resembles them in

beauty, richness of colour, and fineness of texture: hence we hear of blue and other coloured carmines,

though the term is principally confined to the crimson and scarlet colours produced from cochineal, by the agency of tin. These carmines are the brightest and

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

RED.

51

most beautiful colours prepared from cochineal, of a powdery texture and velvety richness. They vary from a rose colour to a warm red ; work admirably and are in other respects, except the most essential the want of durability excellent pigments in water and oil: they have not, however, any permanence in tint with white lead, and in glazing are soon discoloured and destroyed by the action of light, but are little affected by impure air, and are in other respects
fine
;

like the lakes of cochineal

all the pigments prepared from which may be tested by their solubility in liquid ammonia, which purples lakes prepared from the woods, but does not dissolve their colours.
;

MADDER CARMINE,
Or
Field's carmine,
is,

as its

name

expresses, prepared

from madder.

from the rose lakes of madder in texture, and in the greater richness, principally depth, and transparency of its colour, which is of various These in other hues, from rose colour to crimson. resemble the rubric or madder lakes, and are respects
It differs

the only durable carmines for painting either in water or oil; for both which their texture qualifies them without previous grinding or preparation.

ROSE PINK
kind of lake, produced by dyeing chalk or with decoction of Brazil wood, &c. It is a whitening much used by paper-stainers, and in the compigment monest distemper painting, &c., but is too perishable
Is a coarse
to

merit the attention of the

artist.

52

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

CHAPTER XL
BLUE.
third and last of the primary or simple colours is which bears the same relation to shade that yellow does to light hence it is the most retiring and diffusive of all colours, except purple and black and all colours have the power of throwing it back in painting, in
blue,
;
;

THE

greater or less degree, in proportion to the intimacy of their relations to light ; first white, then yellow, orange,
red, &c.

Blue alone possesses entirely the quality technically called coldness in colouring, and it communicates this property variously to all other colours with which it
It is most powerful in a and appears to become neutral and pale strong light, in a declining light, owing to its ruling affinity with black or shade, and its power of absorbing light

happens

to

be compounded.

hence the eye of the artist is liable to be deceived when painting with blue in too low a light, or toward the
close of day, to the endangering of the harmony of his work.

warmth and

Blue mixed with yellow forms green, and mixed with red it forms purple ; it characterizes the tertiary olive, and is also the prime colour of the neutral black,
&c.,

and

also
;

of the semi-neutral greys,

slate,

lead

hence blue is changed in hue less than any colour by mixture with black, as it is also by discolours, &c.

tance.

It enters also subordinately into all other ter-

tiary and broken colours, and, as nearest in the scale to black, it breaks and contrasts powerfully and agree-

ably with white, as in watchet or pale blues, the sky, &c. It is less active than the other primaries in reflect-

ing light, and therefore sooner disappears by distance

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

It is

BLUE.

53

an ancient doctrine that the azure of the sky is a of light and darkness, and some have argued hence that blue is not a primary colour, but a compound of black and white but pure or neutral black and white compound in infinite shades, all of which are neutral also or grey. It is true that a mixture of black and white is of a cool hue, because black is not a

compound

primary colour, but a compound of the three primary colours in which blue predominates, and this predominance is rendered more sensible when black is diluted with white. Blue is discordant in juxtaposition with green, and in a less degree so with purple, both which are cool colours, and therefore blue requires its contrast, orange,
in equal proportion, either of service or intensity, to compensate or resolve its dissonances and correct its
coldness. Botanists remark that blue flowers are much more rare than those of the other primary colours and their compounds, and hence advise the florist to cultivate blue flowers more sedulously. Artists, too, have

sometimes acted upon this principle of the botanist in introducing blue flowers into pictures, preferring therein rareness and novelty to truth and harmony:
the artist has, however, more command of his materials than the botanist in resolving a discord ; Nature
nevertheless, left to herself, is not long in harmonizing the dissonances men put upon her. Florists may fur-

ther remark, that blue flowers are readily changed by cultivation into red and white, but never into yellow ;
that yellow flowers are as readily converted into red and white, but never into blue ; and that red flowers are

changeable into orange or purple, but never into blue or yellow the reasons of all which is apparent accordto our principles. Nature also regulates the varieing of flowers by the same law of colouring. gation
:

54

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

Of

all

colours, except

black, blue contrasts white

most powerfully. In all harmonious combinations of colours, whether of mixture or neighbourhood, blue is
the natural, ruling tone, universally agreeable to the eye when in due relation to the composition, and may

be more frequently repeated therein, pure or unbroken, than either of the other primaries. These are, however,
artificial rules

matters of taste, as in music, and subject to founded on the laws of chromatic comblue cannot be composed by mixture of other

bination.

As

colours, it is

an original and primary colour.

The pau-

city of blue pigments, in comparison with those of yellow and red, is amply compensated by their value

and perfection nor is the palette without novelty, nor of which the foldeficient in pigments of this colour all that are in any respect of importlowing comprise
; :

ance to the painter.*

ULTRAMARINE,

OR

prepared from the lapis lazuli, a precious It is stone found principally in Persia and Siberia. the most celebrated of all modern pigments, and, from
Azure,
is

its

name and

attributes, is probably the

same

as the

no

less celebrated

Armenian

blue,

or Cyanus, of the

ancients.
its reputation upon pretensions, being, when skilfully prepared, of slight the most ei quisitely beautiful blue, varying from the

Ultramarine has not obtained

* The Salisbury Breviary contains several miniatures, in -which appear biers covered -with a blue mortuary cloth. On some others, but more rarely, the pall is red finally, on one only is the pall red, and the dais which covers the catafalque blue. These two colours, one tver the other, indicate divine love raising the soul to immortality. The dais is the emblem of heaven violet, composed of red and blue, was likewise a mortuary colour. In the same MS. appears a coffin, with a violet pall. Baron F, Portal.
;

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

BLUE.

55

utmost depth of shadow to the highest brilliancy of

light

and

colour,

pure in
perfect,

its tints.

It

transparent in all its shades, and is of a true medial blue, when

partaking neither of purple, on the one hand, nor of green on the other ; it is neither subject to injury by damp and impure air, nor by the intensest
it

and it is so eminently permanent that remains perfectly unchanged in the oldest paintings and there can be little doubt that it is the same pigaction of light
; ;

ment which

still continues with all its original force and beauty, in the temples of Upper Egypt, after an

exposure of at least three thousand years. The ancient Egyptians had, however, other blues, of which we have already mentioned their counterfeit Armenian blue, and
several vitreous blues, with

which they decorated their

figures

and mummies.

Ultramarine dries well, works well in oil and fresco, and neither gives nor receives injury from other good
pigments. It has so much of the quality of light in it, is so and of the tint of air, purely a sky colour, and

hence so singularly adapted to the direct and reflex light of the sky, and to become the antagonist of sunthat it is indispensable to the landscape-painter ; shine,
is

and
tints

it is

and glazings, as

o pure, so true, and so unchangeable in its to be no less essential in imi-

tating the exquisite colouring of nature in flesh and

flowers.

To

this

may

be added, that

it

enters so admirably

into purples, blacks, greens, greys, and broken colours, that it has justly obtained the reputation of clearing or

carrying light and air into all colours both in mixture and glazing, and a sort of claim to universality throughout a picture.
It
is true,

entitled to the

nevertheless, that ultramarine is not always whole of this commendation, being, as a

56

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

precious material, subjected to adulteration ; and it has been dyed, damped, and oiled to enrich its appearance :

but these attempts of fraud may be easily detected, and the genuine may easily be distinguished from the spurious by dropping a few particles of the pigment into
lemon-juice or any other acid, which almost instantly destroys the colour of the true ultramarine totally, and without effervescence. Ultramarine has been used in
the arts from a very early period, and in the middle ages were made in regard to its use in

special stipulations

pictures ; and it was a punishable offence for painters to use colours of an inferior quality which, owing to

the expensiveness of ultramarine in particular, they

were likely to do.

Though unexceptionable
eolid painting

as
it

an

oil colour,

both in

and glazing,
;

does not

work

so well as

Borne other blues in water

texture, or

but when extremely fine in

when a

considerable portion of

gum, which

transparent, can be used with it to give it connection or adhesion while flowing, it becomes a pig-

renders

it

ment no
very
Its

less valuable in

little

gum

water painting than in oil ; can however be employed with it when

is

vivid azure

to

be preserved, as in illuminated

manuscripts and missals. Pure ultramarine varies in shade from light to dark, and in hue from pale warm azure to the deepest cold
blue
;

\:alled

the former of which, ultramarine ashes.

when impure

in colour,

is

FACTITIOUS ULTRAMARINE.
French and German Ultramarine, a variety of these, English, French, and German, have been before the

They are in general of public under various names. rich blue colours, darker and less azure than fine deep
ultramarine of the same depths, and answer to the same

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

BLUE.

57

acid test, but are variously affected by fire and other agents none of them, however, possess the merits of
:

genuine ultramarine.
colours, but the best

Fire generally darkens these

way

ultramarine from the natural

vescence of the former

of distinguishing factitious is by the violent effer-

They may

when dropped into nitrous acid. be regarded as a great improvement upon

the factitious blues of the palette, rivalling in depth, although not equalling in colour, the pure azure of

genuine ultramarine, for which in some uses they may be substituted, and are a valuable acquisition in decora-

where brilliancy is required. These manufactured colours become darker when mixed with oil, and when used with gum or size as a
tion

medium require great care in mixing, for if too much of the medium be used, the colour dries much darker
than the original powder, and, if too little, the blue is not fixed, but rubs off. These colours are largely used in printing, but as their hue is much injured by the
yellow tinge of the oil with which they are mixed to form printing ink, it is advisable in fine work, and where purity of colour is required, to print in varnish only, and to dust the powder-blue over the sheets. The work is printed on highly glazed paper, and the colour thus adheres to the varnish only, and

when dry the

superfluous blue

is

dusted

off.

COBALT BLUE
Is the

name now appropriated to the modern improved blue prepared with metallic cobalt, or its oxides, although it properly belongs to a class of pigments
including Saxon
blue,

Dutch ultramarine, Thenard's

blue,

Royal blue, Hungary Hue, Smalt, Zaffre or Enamel blue, and Dumont's blue. These differ principally in their

58

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

degrees of purity, and the nature of the earths with

which they are compounded.

the finest Cobalt blue, and may not imbe called a blue lake, the colour of which is properly brought up by fire, in the manner of enamel blues
first is
;

The

and

it

is,

when

well prepared, of a pure blue colour,

tending neither to green nor purple, and approaching in brilliancy to the finest ultramarine. It has not, the body, transparency, and depth, nor the however,
natural and modest hue, of the latter ; yet it is superior in beauty to all other blue pigments. Cobalt blue works better in water than ultramarine in general

does

and

is

hence an acquisition to those who have

not the management of the latter, and also on account of its cheapness. It resists the action of strong light and acids, but its beauty declines by time and impure
air.

It dries well in oil, does not injure or suffer injury from pigments in general, and may be used with a proper flux in enamel painting, and perhaps also in
fresco.

from

Various appellations have been given to this pigment its preparers and venders, and it has been called
blue,

Vienna

Paris

blue,

azure, and, very improperly,

ultramarine.

SMALT,
Sometimes called Azure, is an impure vitreous cobalt blue, prepared upon a base of silex, and much used by the laundress for neutralising the tawny or Isabella colour of linen, &c., under the name of Powder-blue.
It is in general of a coarse gritty texture, light blue It does not work so well as colour, and little body.

the preceding, but dries quickly, and resembles it in other respects ; it varies, however, exceedingly in its

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

qualities

BLUE.

59

and the

finer

sort,

called

which

is

employed in water-colour painting,

Dumont's blue, is remark-

ably rich and beautiful.

KOYAL BLUE
Is a deeper coloured and very beautiful smalt, and is also a vitreous pigment, principally used in painting

on

glass
;

and enamel, in which uses

oil its

nent

but in water and

it is very permasoon decays, as is beauty

no uncommon case with other it is not in other respects an

notwithstanding
its

pigments ; and eligible pigment, being, beautiful appearance, very inferior

vitrified

to other cobalt blues.

PRUSSIAN BLUE,
Otherwise called Berlin
blue,

Parisian blue, Prussiate of

Iron, or Cyanide of Iron, is rather a modern pigment, produced by the combination of the prussic or hydrocyanic acid, iron, and alumina. It is of a deep and

powerful blue colour, of vast body and considerable transparency, and forms tints of much beauty with white lead, though they are by no means equal in
purity and brilliancy to those of cobalt and ultramarine, nor have they the perfect durability of the
latter.

Notwithstanding Prussian blue lasts a long time under favourable circumstances, its tints fade by the action of strong light, and it is purpled or darkened by damp or impure air. It becomes greenish also sometimes by a development of the yellow oxide of iron, and it is therefore desirable to add to it a very small

quantity of crimson lake, which in a great degree counteracts this tendency. The colour of this pigment has also the singular property of fluctuating, or of

going and coming, under some changes of circum

60
stances

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

;

it owes to the action and which it acquires and relinquishes oxygen by alternately and time has a neutralising tendency upon It must be used carefully in mixing, as its colour. it is very powerful, and so much of the colour with which it is to be mixed is often required to produce the

which, property

reaction

is

desired tint, that a greater quantity is compounded than wanted at the time, and waste is thus caused. The most advisable plan, say in compounding green, is to

place the yellow first on the slab or palette, and to add the blue, little by little, until the exact tint is obtained.
It dries and glazes well in oil, but principal use is in painting deep blues
its
;

great and in which its

body secures

its

permanence, and
is

its

transparency gives

force to its depth.

It is also valuable in

compounding

deep purples with lake, and

a powerful neutraliser

and component of black, and adds considerably to its It is a pigment much used when mixed intensity.
with white lead in the common offices of painting, also in preparing blues for the laundress, in dyeing, and in compounding colours of various denominations. Limt

and Alkalis injure or destroy

this colour.

ANTWERP BLUE
Is a lighter-coloured and somewhat brighter Prussian blue, or ferro-prussiate of alumine, having more of the terrene basis, but all the other qualities of that pig-

ment, except
pigment.

its

depth.

Haarlem

blue

is

a similar

INDIGO,

Or Indian blue, is a pigment manufactured in the East and West Indies from several plants, but principally from the Anil or Indigofera. It is of various qualities, and has been long known, and of great use in dyeing.

OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS

BLUE.

61

In painting

it is not so bright as Prussian blue, but is extremely powerful and transparent hence it may be substituted for some of the uses of Prussian blue as the
;

latter

now

is for

indigo.

It

is

of great body, and glazes

oil.

and works well both in water and

Its relative

permanence as a dye has obtained it a false character of extreme durability in painting, a quality in which
it is

It

nevertheless very inferior even to Prussian blue. is injured by impure air, and, in glazing, some
;

tint with

specimens are firmer than others, but not durable in white lead they are all fugitive when used,
:

however, in considerable body in shadow, it is more permanent, but in all respects inferior to Prussian blue
in painting.
Intense blue
is

indigo refined by solution

precipitation, in which state it is equal in colour to this process indigo also becomes Antwerp blue.

and

By

more durable, and much more powerful, transparent, and deep. It washes and works admirably in water
:

in other respects
indigo.

it

has

the

common

have been assured by blues of indigo have the property of The pushing or detaching Indian ink from paper. same is supposed to belong to other blues but as this effect is chemical, it can hardly be an attribute of mere
tect, that these
;

We

properties of an eminent archi-

colour.

BLUE VERDITER
Is a blue oxide of copper, or precipitate of the nitrate by lime, and is of a beautiful light blue It is little affected by light ; but time, damp, colour.
air turn it green, and ultimately blacken changes which ensue even more rapidly in oil than water it is therefore by no means an eligible pigment

of copper

and impure
it,
;

in

and is principally confined to distemper painting and the uses of the paper-stainer, though it has been
oil,

62

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

many years in water-colour drawand in crayon paintings when preserved dry. It ings
found to stand well
has been improperly substituted for Bice.

SAUNDERS BLUE,

A corrupt name, from

the natural and the

mination probably of ultramarine

artificial
;

Cendres Blues, the original denoashes, is of two kinds,

the

artificial is

a verditer

prepared by lime or an alkali from nitrate or sulphate of copper ; the natural is a blue mineral found near
copper-mines, and
is

the same as Mountain

blue.

A very

beautiful substance of this kind, a carbonate of copper, both blue and green, is found in Cumberland. None of

these blues of copper are, however, durable : used in oil, they become green, and, as pigments, are precisely of the character of verditers. Schweinfurt blue is a similar

pigment.

C2ERULECM.
a preparation from cobalt it is of a much This cooler tone than any other permanent blue, and is It has a very dense body, useful as a water colour.
is
;

and therefore requires some skill in using. It is not adapted for mixing with oils, as the delicacy of its tone
is

thus injured.
BICE,

Blue, Bice, Iris, or Terre Blue, is sometimes confounded with the above copper blues ; but the true bice is said
to be prepared from the lapis Armenius of Germany and the Tyrol, and is a light bright hue. The true Armenian stone of the ancients was probably the lapis lazuli of later times, and the blue prepared therefrom Pale ultramarine may the same as our ultramarine.

substituted for

well supply the place of this pigment, but copper blues it are not to be depended on.

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS

ORANGE.

63

Ground smalts, blue verditer, and other pigments have passed under the name of bice ; which has, therefore, become a very equivocal pigment, and its name nearly obsolete nor is it at present to be found in the
:

shops, although

much commended by

old writers

on

the art.

CHAPTER

XII.

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS.

ORANGE.

ORANGE

is

the

first

of the secondary colours in relation

to light, being in all the variety of its hues

composed

or perfect orange is such a of red and yellow as will neutralise a perfect compound blue in equal quantity either of surface or intensity,
five of perWhen orange to three of perfect yellow. inclines to red, it takes the names of scarlet, poppy, In gold colour, &c., it leans towards coquilicot, &c. fect red

of yellow and red.

A true

and the proportions of such compound are

yellow.

It enters into combination with green in form-

ing the tertiary citrine, and with purple it constitutes the tertiary russet : it forms also a series of warm semineutral colours with black, and harmonizes in contact and variety of tints with white.

Orange
nature

is

it is effective
:

an advancing colour in painting in at a great distance, acting power:

fully on the eye diminishing its sensibility in proportion to the strength of the light in which it is viewed ;

and

it is

of the hue and partakes of the vividness of

64
sunshine, as

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

it

does also of

all

the powers of

its

com-

ponents, red and yellow.*

This secondary is pre-eminently a warm colour, being the equal contrast or antagonist in this respect, as it is

which the attribute of coolness hence it is discordant when standpeculiarly belongs ing alone with yellow or with red, unresolved by their
also in colour, to blue, to
:

proper contrasts.

In the well-known fruit of the Aurantium, called orange from its golden hue, from which fruit this colour borrows its well-adapted name, nature has associated two primary colours with two primary tastes which seem to be analogous a red and yellow compound colour, with a sweet and acid compound flavour. The poets confound orange with its ruling colour
;

yellow, and,

by a metonymy, use

in

its

place the terms

golden, gilding, &c., as gilding sometimes supplies the place of this colour in painting

The list of original orange pigments is so deficient, that in some treatises orange is not even named as a colour, most of them being called reds or yellows : and
orange being a colour compounded of red and yellow, the place of original orange pigments may be supplied by mixture of the two latter colours by glazing one
;

over the other

ing and nature of the work and the effect required.

stippling, or other modes of breakintermixing them in working, according to the

;

by

For reasons

before given, mixed pigments are inferior to the simple or homogeneous in colour, working, and other proper-

some pigments mix and combine more corthan others. In oil the compounding of colours dially
ties: yet
is

more
*

easily effected.

of St. Denis, identical with the Grecian Bacchus or Dionysios in sanctifying the soul. Its colour was the two colours producing orange were purple azured and gold eeparated in the Oriflamme, but reunited in its name. Baron F. Portal.
;

The Oriflamme was the banner

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS

ORANGE.

65

In mixing orange for water-colour painting, care must be taken that the colour is well stirred as each brushful is taken, in order that the two colours may
not separate.

This

is

particularly liable to be the

case where a mineral and a vegetable colour are thus temporarily combined, as, for instance, vermilion and gamboge the former of which, being very much heavier
;

than the

latter, sinks to

the slab consists as it

were of two

the bottom, and the colour on strata, the lower

pure vermilion and the upper simply gamboge. It is better to mix an orange in from two colours having similar bases, as in water colour, from gamboge and
lake, &c.
;

in every case, however, the tint

must be

constantly stirred.

CHROME ORANGE
is one of the most chromates of lead, and durable and least exceptionable not of iron, as it is commonly called, or Mars Scarlet another misnomer of this pigment, which is truly a

Is a beautiful orange pigment,

and

subchromate of lead.
well prepared, of a brighter colour than vermilion, but is inferior in durability and body to the latter pigment, being liable to the changes and affiniIt
is,

when

the chrome yellows in a somewhat less degree, but less liable to change than the orange oxide of lead.
ties of
is a French pigment, a species of chromic This name is also given similar to the above. orange, oxide of iron, and Chromate of Mercury\ which to orange

Laque Mineral

improperly classed as a red with vermilion; for though it is of a bright ochrous red colour in powder, it is, when ground, of a bright orange ochre colour,
is

and

affords,

Nevertheless

with white, very pure orange-coloured tints. it is a bad pigment, since light soon F

t>6

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

air reduces

it to

changes it to a deep russet colour, and foul extreme blackness.

ORANGE OCHRE,
Called also Spanish ochre, &c., is a

very bright yellow

acquires warmth, and depth. In colour it is moderately bright, forms good flesh tints with white, dries and works well both in water and oil, and is a very It may be used in durable and eligible pigment. enamel - painting, and has all the properties of its
it

ochre burnt, by which operation

colour, transparency,

original ochre in other respects.

MARS ORANGE
Is an
artificial iron ochre, similar to

the above, of which

we formerly prepared a variety brighter, richer, and more transparent than the above, and in other respects
of the same character
;

but requiring to be employed

cautiously with colours affected by iron, being more chemically active than native ochres, several of which

and their compounds become orange by burning.

BURNT SIENNA EARTH

Is, as its

name

and

is

of an orange russet

expresses, the Terra di Sienna burnt, What has been said colour.

of orange ochre

may

be repeated of burnt Sienna earth.

It is richer in colour, deeper, and more transparent, and works and dries better than raw Sienna earth ; but

in other respects has all the properties of

its

parent

colour, eligible wherever it may and valuable in graining. Light red and be useful, Venetian red, before treated of, are also to be considered and several as impure, but durable orange colours
is
;

and

permanent and

preparations of iron afford excellent colours of this class. Burnt Sienna is the best colour for shading gold. It

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS

ORANGE.

67
small

works well on

gold-leaf,

when mixed with a

quantity of prepared ox-gall.

ORANGE LEAD
Is an oxide of lead of a

more vivid and warmer colour

its

than red
essentially

lead,

but in other respects does not differ

qualification for

from that pigment in

the palette.

OEANGE ORPIMENT,
Or
it is

Realgar, improperly called also Red orpiment, since of a brilliant orange colour, inclining to yellow.
this

There are two kinds of

pigment

the one native,

the other factitious ; the first of which is the sandarac of the ancients, and is of rather a redder colour than
the factitious.

They

are the same in qualities as pig-

ments, and

differ

not otherwise than in colour from

Yellow orpiment, to which the old painters gave the

orange hue by Burnt orpiment.

heat,

and then called

it

Akhymy and

ANTIMONY ORANGE
Is a hydro-sulphuret of antimony of an orange colour, which is destroyed by the action of strong light. It is

a bad dryer in

no respect an

injurious to many colours, and in eligible pigment either in oil or water.

oil,

ANOTTA,
Annotto, Camera, Chica, Terra Orleana, Roucou, &c., are names of several vegetable substances of an orange red colour, brought from the West Indies ;
Arnotta,

they are soluble in water and spirits of wine, but very fugitive and changeable, and not fit for painting.

Anotta
cheese.

is

principally used in dyeing, and in colouring It is also an ingredient in some lackers.

68

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

CHAPTER

XIII.

OF GREEN.
GREEN, which occupies the middle station in the natural scale of colours and in relation to light and
the second of the secondary colours it is composed of the extreme primaries, yellow and blue, and is most perfect in hue when constituted in
shade,
is
:

the proportions of three of yellow to eight of blue of equal intensities; because such a green will perfectly

and contrast a perfect red in the proportions of eleven to Jive either of space or power, as adduced on our scale of Chromatic Equivalents. Of all compound colours, green is the most effective, distinct, and
neutralise
striking, affecting the

when

first

mind with surprise and delight, by the mixture of blue and yellow; produced

so dissimilar in its constituents does

it appear to the untutored eye. Green, mixed with orange, converts it into the one extreme tertiary, citrine; and, mixed with

purple,

hence

becomes the other extreme tertiary, olive: and accordances are more general, and it contrasts more agreeably with all colours, than any other individual colour. It has, accordingly, been adopted with perfect wisdom in nature as the general garb of the vegetable creation. It is, indeed, in every respect a central or middle colour, being the contrast and compensatory of the middle primary, red, on the one hand, and of the middle tertiary, russet, on the other and, unlike the other secondaries, all its hues, whether tending to blue or yellow, are of the same denomination. These attributes of green,* which render it so uniit

its relations

versally effective in contrasting of colours, cause

it

also

* In heraldry, sinople (the green of blazonry) also signified love, " " Archbishops," says Anselm, wear a hat of sinople joy, abundance.

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS

to

GREEN.

69

become the

least useful in

compounding them, and

the most apt to defile other colours in mixture ; nevertheless it forms valuable semi-neutrals of the olive class

with black, for of such subdued tones are the greens, by which the more vivid hues of nature are contrasted ;
accordingly, the various greens of foliage are always more or less semi-neutral in colour, declining into grey. As green is the most general colour of vegetable nature,

and principal in foliage, so red, its harmonizing colour, and compounds of red, are most general and principal in flowers. Purple flowers are commonly contrasted with centres or variegations of bright yellow, as blue flowers are with like relievings of orange; and there is a prevailing hue, or character, in the green colour of the foliage of almost every plant, by which it is harmonized with the colours of its flowers. The principal discord of green is blue; and when
to be resolved
it is

they approximate or accompany each other, they require by the apposition of warm colours ; and
in this

way

that the

warmth

of distance and the

horizon reconcile the azure of the sky with the greenness of the landscape. Its less powerful discord is
yellow, which requires to be similarly resolved by a In its tones green is purple red, or its principles.

warm, sedate or gay, either as it inclines to blue or to yellow ; yet it is in its general effects cool, calm, temperate, and refreshing and, having little power in reflecting light, is in a mean degree a retiring
cool or
;

and readily subdued by distance for the same it excites the retina less than most colours, and is cool and As a colour indivigrateful to the eye. is eminently beautiful and dually, green agreeable, but it is more so when contrasted with its comparticularly
colour,
;

reasons

with interlaced cords of green of sinople." Saron F. Portal.

silk.

....

Bishops likewise wear a hat

70

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

pensating colour, red, as it often is in nature, and even in the green leaves and the young shoots of plants and trees ; and they are the most generally attractive of all
colours in this respect. They are hence powerful and effective colours on the feelings and passions, and require, therefore, to be subdued or toned to prevent

excitement and to preserve the balance of harmony in

painting.

The number of pigments of any

colour

is

in general

proportioned to its importance ; hence the variety of greens is very great, though their classes are not very

numerous.

The following

are the principal

MIXED GKEENS.
Green being a compound of blue and yellow, pigments of these colours may be used to supply the place of green pigments, by compounding them in the
or otherwise blending
is

ways of working by mixing, glazing, hatching, them in the proportions of the hues and tints required. In compounding colours, it
several
;

desirable not only that they should agree chemically, but that they should also have, as much as may be, the same degree of durability and in these respects Prus;

sian or

Antwerp blue and gamboge form a

though not extremely durable, compound, similar

"Farley's green,

judicious, to

common

oil

Hooker's green, &c., used in water. In painting greens are formed by mixture of

the ordinary blue and yellow pigments with additions of white. But these are less durable than the original

green pigments prepared from copper, of which there But the yellow ochres with are a great variety.
Prussian blue afford more eligible pigments than the Cobalt brighter mixtures of chrome yellow afford.
greens,

chrome greens, and Prussian green are names for

similar mixtures.

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS

GREEN.

71

TERRE-VERTE.
True Terre-Verte
is

an ochre of a bluish green not

very bright, in substance moderately hard, and smooth in texture. It is variously a bluish or grey, coaly clay,

combined with yellow oxide of iron or yellow ochre. Although not a bright, it is a very durable pigment, being unaffected by strong light and impure air, and combining with other colours without injury. It has not much body, is semi-transparent, and dries well in but the There are varieties of this pigment oil. earths which have copper for their colouring green
;

matter are, although generally of brighter colours, inferior in their other qualities, and are not true terrevertes.

It has been called Green Bice, and the greens called Verona green, and Verdetto, or Holly green, are similar These greens are native pigments of a warmer colour.

found in the Mendip Hills, France, Italy, and the Island of Cyprus, and have been employed as pigments from
the earliest times.

CHROME GREENS,
Commonly
These are
so called, are
is

chrome yellow

compound pigments, of which the principal colouring substance.

Brunswick green, &c., and are com-

also called

pounds of chromate of lead with Prussian and other blue colours, constituting fine greens to the eye, suitable to some of the ordinary purposes of mechanic art,

but unfit for fine

art.

is, however, a true chrome green, or Native the colouring matter of which is the pure oxide green, of chrome, and, being free from lead, is durable both against the action of the sun's light and impure air.

There

It

is

of various degrees of transparency or opacity, and

72

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

of several hues more or less

warm

or cool, which are

all

rather fine than brilliant greens, and afford pure natural and durable tints. True Chrome greens neither give nor receive injury from other pigments, and are eligible
for either water or oil painting, in the latter of which They afford valuable colours they usually dry well. also in enamel painting.

To

this substance it is that

the emerald owes

its

green colour.

COBALT GREENS.
There are two pigments of this denomination the one a compound of cobalt blue and chromic yellow, which partakes of the qualities of those pigments, and may be formed by mixture, the other, an original pigment prepared immediately from cobalt, with addition of oxide of iron, or zinc, which is of a pure but not very powerful green colour, and durable both in water and oil, in the latter of which it dries well. Rinmann'* Its habits are nearly the same green is of this kind.
as those of cobalt blue.

COPPER GREEN
Is the appellation of a class rather than of an individual pigment, under which are comprehended Verdigris,
Verditer, Malachite, Mineral green, Green bice, Scheele's

or Vienna green, Hungary green, Brunswick green, Green lake, Mountain green, African green, French green, Saxon green, Persian green, Patent green, Marine green, Olympian Old authors mention others under the green, &c.
green, Schweinfurt

Emerald

green, true

names of individuals who prepare them, such

de Barildo, &c.

are

Yerde

The general characteristics of these greens are brightness of colour, well suited to the purposes of housepainting, but not in general adapted to the modesty of

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS

nature in fine
art.

GREEN.

73

They have considerable permanence,

air, which which they have also a They have a good body, and dry
:

except from the action of ultimately blacken them

damp and impure

to

tendency by time.

well in oil, but, like the whites of lead, are all deleterious substances. will particularise the principal

We

sorts.

VERDIGRIS,

Or Viride JEris, is of two kinds, common or impure^ and crystallized or Distilled Verdigris, or, more properly,
refined verdigris. They are both acetates of copper, of a bright colour inclining to blue. They are the least

permanent of the copper greens, soon fading as watercolours by the action of light, &c., and becoming first In white, and ultimately black, by 'damp and foul air. oil, verdigris is durable with respect to light and air, but moist and impure air changes its colour, and causes
it

to effloresce or rise to the surface

through the

oil.

It dries rapidly,

and might be

useful as a siccific with

other greens or very dark colours. Fresh ground in varnish it stands better ; but is not upon the whole a
safe or eligible pigment, either alone or compounded. Vinegar dissolves it, and the solution is used for tinting

maps, &c.
boiling, colour.

The

facilitates

addition of refined sugar, with gentle the solution and improves the

GREEN VERDITER
Is the same in substance as blue verditer, which is converted into green verditer by boiling. This pigment

has the

common

properties of the copper greens above

is

mentioned, and

sometimes called Green

bice.

EMERALD GREEN
Is the
is

of a copper green upon a terrene base. It the most vivid of this tribe of colours, being rather

name

74

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

opaque, and powerfully reflective of light, and appears to be the most durable pigment of its class. Its hue is not

common
It

works.
oil,

works well in water, but with

in nature, but well suited for brilliant difficulty in

dries badly therein. The only true emerald that of chrome, with which metal green is, however, nature gives the green colour to the emerald.

and

MINERAL GREEN
Is the commercial

name

of Green lakes, prepared from

the sulphate of copper. These vary in hue and shade, have all the properties before ascribed to copper greens,

common greens ; and, not being of colour by oxygen and light, stand change the weather well, and are excellent for the use of the
and
afford the best
liable to

house-painter, &c. : but are less eligible in the nicer works of fine art, having a tendency to darken by time

and

foul air.

MOUNTAIN GREEN
Is a native carbonate of copper, combined with a white earth, and often striated with veins of mountain blue,
to

which

it

does to blue verditer

bears the same relation that green verditer nor does it differ from these and ;

painter.

other copper greens in any property essential to the The Malachite, a beautiful copper ore, employed

by

sometimes called Mountain green, and confounded therewith, being similar It is also substances and of similar use as pigments. called Hungary green, being found in the mountains of
jewellers,
is

Green

bice is also

Kernhausen, as

it is

also in

Cumberland.

SCHEELE'S GREEN

compound oxide of copper and arsenic, or arsenite of copper, named after the justly celebrated chemist
Is a

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS

GREEN.

75

who
tint

discovered

warm,

It is variously of a beautiful, light, green colour, opaque, permanent in itself and in

it.

with white lead, but must be used cautiously with Naples yellow, by which it is soon destroyed. Schweinfurt green and Vienna green are also names of a fine
preparation of the same kind as the above. These pigments are less affected by damp and impure air than

the simple copper greens, and are therefore in these respects rather more eligible colours than the ordinary

copper greens.

PRUSSIAN GREEN.

The pigment

celebrated under this

name

is

an imper-

fect prussiate of iron, or Prussian blue, in which the yellow oxide of iron superabounds, or to which yellow

tincture of

French berries has been added, and is not in any respect superior as a pigment to the compounds better sort of of Prussian blue and yellow ochre.

Prussian green is formed by precipitating the prussiate of potash with nitrate of cobalt.

SAP GREEN,
a vegetable pigment prepared from the juice of the berries of the buckthorn, the green leaves of the woad, the blue flowers of the iris, &c. It is usually preserved in bladders, and is thence someVessie, is

Or Verde

times called Bladder green ; when good, it is of a dark colour and glossy fracture, extremely transparent, and of a fine natural green colour. Though much employed
as

a water-colour without gum, which it contains naturally, it is a very imperfect pigment, disposed to attract the moisture of the atmosphere, and to mildew ;
and, having
little

and

less in oil, it is

durability in water-colour painting, not eligible in the one, and is totally

useless in the other.

76

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

Similar pigments, prepared from coffee-berries, and Venetian and Emerald greens, are of a colder

called

colour, very fugitive,

and equally defective as pigments.

INVISIBLE GEEEN.

A good ordinary green

of this denomination, for ont-

of-door painting and fresco, may be prepared by mixture

of the yellow ochres with black in small quantities ; or by adding black to any of the ordinary green pigments.

See Olive Pigments.

CHAPTER XIV.
OF PURPLE.
PURPLE, the third and is composed of red and
secondary colours, the proportions of five of the former to eight of the latter, which constitute a perfect purple, or one of such a hue as will neutralise
blue, in

last of the

and best contrast a perfect yellow

in the proportions of It thirteen to three, either of surface or intensity.

forms, when mixed with its co-secondary colour, green, the tertiary colour, olive ; and, when mixed with the remaining secondary orange, it constitutes in like

manner the

tertiary colour, russet.

It is the coolest of

the three secondary colours, and the nearest also in relation to black or shade; in which respect, and in never being a warm colour, it resembles blue. In other

which is its ruling colour hence it most retiring colour, which reflects
;

respects also purple partakes of the properties of blue, is to the eye a

declines rapidly in

power

light little, and in proportion to the distance

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS

at
is

PURPLE.

77

which it is viewed, and also in a declining light. It the most retiring of positive colours. Next to green, purple is the most generally pleasing
;

of the consonant colours

and has been celebrated

as a

regal or imperial colour, as much perhaps from its rareness in a pure state, as from its individual beauty. When inclining to the rose, or red, this colour takes

the names of crimson, &c., as

lilac,

it

does those of

violet,

&c.,
;

when

it

inclines toward its other constituent,

blue

which

latter colour it serves to

mellow, or follows

well into shade.

contrast, or harmonizing colour of purple, is on the side of light and the primaries and it is yellow itself the harmonizing contrast of the tertiary citrine on the side of shade, and less perfectly so of the semineutral brown. Purple, when inclining towards redness, is a In its regal, magisterial, and pompous colour. effects on the mind it partakes principally, however, of
;

The

the powers of its archeus or ruling colour, blue. As the extreme primaries, blue and yellow,
either

when

compounded or opposed, afford the most pleasing consonance of the primary colours, so the extremes,
purple and orange, afford the most pleasing of the secondary consonances ; and this analogy extends also
the
to the extreme tertiary and semi-neutral colours, while mean or middle colours afford the most agreeable

Purple pigments are rare, and under a peculiar disadvantage as to apparent durability and beauty of colour, owing to the neutralising power of yellowness in the grounds upon which they
contrasts or harmonies.
lie

are laid, as well as to the general warm colour of light, and the yellow tendency of almost all vehicles and
varnishes,

by which

this colour is

subdued; for the

candle-light.

same reason

this colour disappears

by

78

THE GRAMMAR OF

COLOX7SING.

MIXED PURPLES.
Purple being a secondary colour, composed of blue

and

red, it follows of course that any blue and red pigments, which are not chemically at variance, may be used in producing mixed purple pigments of any required hue, either by compounding or grinding them together ready for use, or by combining them in the

various modes of operation in painting. In such comthe more perfect the original colours are, pounding,

the better in general will be the purple produced. In these ways, ultramarine and the rose colours of madder

and beautiful purples, which are in water and oil, in glazing or in equally permanent tint, whether under the influence of the oxygenous or
constitute excellent

the hydrogenous principles of light and impure air, by which colours are subject to change. The blue and red
of cobalt and madder afford also good purples. Some of the finest and most delicate purples in ancient paintings appear to have been similarly compounded of ultra-

marine and vermilion, which constitute tints equally permanent, but less transparent than the above. Facility
of use, and other advantages, are obtained at too great a sacrifice by the employment of perishable mixtures, such as are the carmines and lakes of cochineal with

and other blue colours ; but common purples may be composed of Prussian blue and vermilion with addiindigo
tions of white.

GOLD PURPLE,

Or

Cassius's

Purple Precipitate,

is

the

compound oxide

which is precipitated upon mixing the solutions of gold and tin. It is not a bright, but a rich and powerful
colour, of great durability, varying in degrees of transparency, and in hue from deep crimson to a murrey or

dark purple, and

is

principally used in miniature.

It

OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS

PURPLE.

79

may be employed
water and
but not
is

in enamel-painting, works well in an excellent though expensive pigment,

at present, as the

much used

madder purple

is

cheaper, and perfectly well supplies

its place.

MADDER PURPLE,
Purple Ruliate, or Field's Purple, is a very rich and deep carmine, prepared from madder. Though not a
brilliant purple, its richness, durability, transparency,

and superiority of colour have given it the preference to the purple of gold preceding, and to burnt carmine. It is a pigment of great body and intensity; it works well, dries and glazes well in oil, and is pure and permanent in its tints, neither giving nor sustaining injury from other colours.

BURNT CARMINE
Is, according to its

name, the carmine of cochineal

partially charred till it resembles in colour the purple of gold, for the uses of which in miniature and water-

painting

and has the same properties of which quality, like the carmine except durability ; it is made from, it is deficient, and therefore in this
it is

substituted,

its

durable important respect is an ineligible pigment. colour of this kind may, however, be obtained by burning madder carmine in a cup over a spirit lamp or
otherwise, stirring
required.
it till it

becomes of the hue or hues

PURPLE LAKE.
best purple lake so called is prepared from cochineal, and is of a rich and powerful colour, inclined to crimson. Its character as a pigment is that of the

The

cochineal lakes already described. It is fugitive both in glazing and tint but, used in considerable body, as in the shadows of draperies, &c., it will last under
;

80

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

Lac lake replace more

favourable circumstances a long time. sembles it in colour, and may supply

durably, although not perfectly so.

its

PUKPLE OCHKE,
of

Or Mineral Purple, is a dark ochre, native of the Forest Dean in Gloucestershire. It is of a murrey or chocoand forms cool
of a similar
It
is

late colour,

white.

colour than Indian red, among purples, but in all other respects it resembles It may be prepared artificially, and that pigment.

hue with and opacity, and darker body which has also been classed
tints of a purple

some natural red ochres burn to this colour, which has been employed under the denomination of Violet de Mars.

CHAPTER XV.
OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS.
CITRINE.

CITRINE

is

the

first

of the tertiary class of colours,

or ultimate compounds of the primary triad, yellow, red, and blue ; in which yellow is the predominating colour,

and blue the extreme subordinate for citrine being an immediate compound of the secondaries, orange and green, of both which yellow is a constituent, the latter
;

colour

is

of double occurrence therein, while the other

two primaries enter singly into the composition of its mean or middle hue comprehending eight citrine, five red, and six yellow, of equal intensities. blue, Hence citrine, according to its name, which is the name of a class of colours, and is used commonly for a

OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS.

81

dark yellow, partakes in a subdued degree of all the powers of its archeus, yellow and, in estimating its properties and effects in painting, it is to be regarded as participating of all the relations of yellow. By some
;

this colour is

improperly called brown, as almost

are.

all

broken colours
is

The harmonizing

contrast of citrine

a deep purple ; and it is the most advancing of the It tertiary colours, or nearest in its relation to light.
is

citrine begins to prevail in before the other tertiaries, as the green of landscape

and expressive of these In nature, poetic art.

variously of a tepid, tender, modest, cheering character, qualities alike in painting and

summer
towards

declines;
its

and

as

autumn advances

it

tends

orange hues, including the colours called aurora, chamoise, and others before enumerated under the head of Yellow.

To understand and relish the harmonious relations and expressive powers of the tertiary colours, requires a cultivation of perception and a refinement of taste for which study and practice are requisite. They are at once less definite and less generally evident, but more delightmore frequent in nature, but rarer in common art, ful, than the like relations of the secondaries and primaries and hence the painter and the poet afford us fewer illus;

trations of effects less

stood.

commonly appreciated

or under-

unless

Original citrine-coloured pigments are not numerous, we include several imperfect yellows, which
:

might not improperly be called citrines the following are, however, the pigments best entitled to this appellation
:

MIXED CITRINE.

What

has been before remarked of the mixed seconis

dary colours

more particularly applicable

to

the

82
tertiary, it

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

being more difficult to select three homogeneous substances, of equal powers as pigments, than
two,
that

may

unite and

Hence the mixed

work together cordially. tertiaries are still less perfect and

;

pure than the secondaries

and

as their hues are of

extensive use in painting, original pigments of these colours are proportionately estimable to the artist.
Nevertheless, there are two evident principles of combination, of which the artist may avail himself in pro-

ducing these colours in the various ways of working : the one being that of combining two original secondaries, e.g., green and orange in producing a citrine ; the other, the uniting the three primaries in such a

manner that

yellow predominates in the case of citrine, and blue and red be subordinate in the compound.

These colours are, however, in many cases produced with best and most permanent effect, not by the intimate combination of pigments but by intermingling them, in the manner of nature, on the canvas, so as to produce the effect at a proper distance of a uniform Such is the citrine colour of fruit and foliage ; colour.

on inspecting the individuals of which we distinctly trace the stipplings of orange and green, or yellow, red, and green. Similar beautiful consonances are observable in the russet hues of foliage in the autumn, in which purple and orange have broken or superseded the uniform green of leaves and also in the olive foliage of
:

the rose-tree, produced in the individual leaf by the Yet mixed citrines ramification of purple in green.

be compounded safely and simply by slight additions, to an original brown pigment, of that primary or

may

secondary tone which

is

requisite to give

it

the required

hue, and red and yellow ochres mixed form good com-

mon

paints of this colour.

OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS.

83

BROWN PINK
Is a vegetable lake precipitated from the decoction of French berries and dyeing woods, and is sometimes the

residuum of the dyer's vat. It is of a fine, rich transbut being in parent colour, rarely of a true brown of an orange broken by green, it falls into the general class of citrine colours, sometimes inclining to greenness,
;

and sometimes toward the warmth of orange. It works well both in water and oil, in the latter of which it is of great depth and transparency, but dries badly. Its tints with white lead are very fugitive, and in thin
glazing
it

does not stand.

Upon

the whole,

it is

more

beautiful than eligible.

UMBER,
called Haw Umber, is a natural ochre, abounding with oxide of manganese, said to have been first obtained from ancient Ombria, now Spoleto, in Italy it is found also in England, and in most parts of the

Commonly

but that which is brought from Cyprus, under It is of a of Turkish umber, is the best. brown-citrine colour, semi-opaque, has all the properties

world
the

name

of a good ochre, is perfectly durable both in water and oil, and one of the best drying colours we possess, and

mixed.

no other good pigment with which it may be (See Cappagh Broicn, some specimens of which are of a citrine hue.) Although not so much employed
injures
as formerly,

umber is perfectly eligible according to its colour and uses, in graining, &c. Several browns, and other ochrous earths, approach
also to the character of citrine
;

such are the Terre de

Cassel, Bistre, &c.

But

in the confusion of names,

infinity of tones and tints, and variations of individual pigments, it is impossible to attain an unexceptionable

or universally satisfactory arrangement.

84

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

CHAPTER

XVI.

OF RUSSET.
middle tertiary colour, Russet, like constituted ultimately of the three primaries, red, yellow, and blue ; but with this difference, that instead of yellow as in citrine, red is the predominating
second or
citrine, is

THE

nates

colour in russet, to which yellow and blue are subordifor orange and purple being the immediate con:

and red being a component part of each of those colours, it enters doubly into their compound in russet, while yellow and blue enter it only
stituents of russet,

singly ; the proportions of its middle hue being eight It blue, ten red, and three yellow, of equal intensities. follows that the russet takes the relations and powers

of a subdued red
latter

and many pigments and dyes of the denomination are in strictness of the class of russet in fact, nominal distinction of colours is colours
;
:

properly only relative ; the gradation from hue to hue, as from shade to shade, constituting an unlimited series, in which it is literally impossible to pronounce absolutely

where any shade or colour ends and another

neutralising, or contrasting colour a deep green ; when the russet inclines to is a grey, or subdued blue. These are often

begins.

The harmonizing,
of russet
is

orange,

it

beautifully opposed in nature, being medial accordances, or in equal relation to light, shade, and other colours,

and among the most agreeable to sense. Russet, we have said, partakes of the relations of red, but moderated in every respect, and qualified for greater breadth of display in the colouring of nature and art less so, perhaps, than its fellow-tertiaries in proportion
;

OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS

as
it

RUSSET.

85

individually more beautiful, the powers of being ever most effective when least obtrusive ; beauty and its presence in colour should be principally evident to the eye that seeks it. This colour is warm, comis

Common acceptaplacent, solid, frank, and soothing. tion substitutes the term brown for russet.
Of the tertiary colours, russet is the most important to the artist ; and there are many pigments under the
denominations of red purple, &c., which are of russet But there are few true russets, and one only hues.

which bears the name

of these are the following

MIXED RUSSET.
has been remarked in the preceding chapter the production of mixed citrine colours, is equally upon applicable in general to the mixed russets : we need
not, therefore, repeat it. By the immediate method of producing it materially from its secondaries, orange and purple ochres afford a compound russet pigment of

What

a good and durable colour. Chrome-orange and purplelake yield a similar but less permanent mixture.

Many

other less eligible duple and triple compounds

of russet are obvious upon principle, and it may be produced by adding red in due predominance to some

browns

thus red and brown ochre duly mixed afford a good ordinary russet paint.
;

FIELD'S RUSSET,

Or Madder Brown,
from the Rubia
rich, transparent,

is,

as its

name

indicates, prepared
is

tinctoria, or

madder- root. It

of a pure,

and deep russet colour, introduced by the author, and is of a true middle hue between orange and purple not subject to change by the action of light, impure air, time, or mixture of other pigments. It has supplied a great desideratum, and is indispensable
;

86

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

in water-colour painting, both as a local and auxiliary colour, in compounding and producing with yellow the

glowing hues of autumnal

foliage, &c.,

and with blue

the beautiful and endless variety of greys in skies, flesh, There are three kinds of this pigment, distin&c.
russet, or madder brown, guished by variety of hue orange russet, and dark russet, or intense madder brown ; which differ not essentially in their qualities as pig-

ments, but as

warm

or cool russets,

and are

all

good

glazing colours, thin washes of which afford pure fleshtints in water. The last dries best in oil, the others

but indifferently. ing of mahogany.

It

is

a valuable pigment in the grain-

Differs chemically from Prussian blue only in having copper instead of iron for its basis. It varies in colour

from russet
very

is transparent and deep, but being change in colour by the action of light and by other pigments, has been very little employed

to

brown,

liable to

by the

artist.

There are several other pigments which enter imperfectly into, or verge upon, the class of russet, which,

having obtained the names of other classes to which they are allied, will be found under other heads such are some of the ochres and Indian red. Burnt carmine and Cassius's precipitate are often of the russet hue, or convertible to it by due additions of yellow or orange as burnt Sienna earth and various browns are, by like
;

additions of lake or other reds.

RUSSET OCHEE.
Although there
is

no pigment of

this

name

in the

shops, many of the native ochres are of this denomination of colour, and may be employed accordingly ; and

OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS

OLIVE.

87

the red and yellow ochres of commerce ground together and burnt afford excellent russet colours in every mode
of painting.

CHAPTER

XVII.

OF OLIVE.
OLIVE
is

the third and last of the tertiary colours, and

It
is

nearest in relation to shade.

co-tertiaries, citrine
blue, red,

constituted, like its

and russet of the three primaries,

and
but

yellow, so subordinated, that blue prevails

it

therein

is

secondaries, purple

formed more immediately of the and green : and, since blue enters as

a component principle into each of these secondaries, it occurs twice in the latter mode of forming olive, while
red and yellow occur therein singly and subordinately. Blue is, therefore, in every instance, the archeus, or

predominating colour of olive ; its perfect or middle hue comprehending SIXTEEN of blue to FIVE of red, and

THREE of yellow

and it participates in a proportionate measure of the powers, properties, and relations of blue
; :

accordingly, the antagonist, or harmonizing contrast of olive, is a deep orange ; and, like blue also, it is a retiring colour, the most so of all the colours, being nearest

of

all

tinctions of colours.

in relation to black, and last of the regular disHence its importance in nature
:

and painting

is almost as great as that of black it divides the office of clothing and decorating the general face of nature with green and blue ; with both which,

as with black

and grey, it enters into innumerable compounds and accordances, changing its name, as either hue predominates, into green, grey, ashen, slate, &c.
:

88

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

thus the olive hues of foliage are called green, and the purple hues of clouds are called grey, &c., for language
general only, and inadequate to the infinite particularity of nature and colours.
is

compound colour both with the and mechanic, and as there is no natural pigment in use under this name, or of this colour, in commerce there are few olive pigments. Terre-vert, already mentioned, is sometimes of this class, and several of the copper greens acquire this hue by burning. The fololive is usually a
artist

As

lowing need only to be noticed

MIXED OLIVE

May

be compounded in several ways

directly,

by

uniting green and. purple, or by adding to Hue a smaller proportion of yellow and red, or by breaking much blue with little orange. Cool black pigments mixed with

yellow ochre afford good olives.

green in landscape,
painting.

and

invisible

These hues are called green in mechanic

OLIVE GREEN.
pigment sold under this name, principally as is an arbitrary compound, or mixed for its uses. green, eligible Any ordinary green mixed with black forms this colour for exterior painting in And an olive- green paint may be economically oil, &c. prepared by the mixing of yellow or brown ochre with black, which may be varied by additions of blue or
fine

The

a water-colour,

green.

BURNT VERDIGRIS
Is

what

its

name

expresses,

and

is

an

olive- coloured

oxide of copper deprived of acid. It dries remarkably well in oil, and is more durable and, in other respects, an improved and more eligible pigment than the
;

OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS.

89

Scheele's green affords by burning original verdigris. also a series of similar olive colours, which are as dur-

able as their original pigment, and most of the copper greens may be subjected to the same process with the

same results ; indeed, we have remarked in many instances that the action of fire anticipates the effects of long-continued time, and that many of the primary

and secondary colours may, by different degrees of burning, be converted into their analogous secondary and tertiary, or semi-neutral colours, that come usefully into
the graining of rosewood, &c.

CHAPTER

XVIII.

OP SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS.

BROWN.

As

from
but

colour, according to the regular scale descending white, properly ceases with the class of olive, the

neutral black would here naturally terminate the series ; as, in a practical view, every coloured pigment, of every class or tribe, combines with black as it exists in

pigments, a

new

series or scale of coloured

compounds

arises, having black for their basis, which, though they differ not theoretically from the preceding order inverted, are nevertheless practically imperfect or impure ;

which view, and as compounds of black, we have distinguished them by the term semi-neutral, and divided them into three classes, Brown, Marrone, and Grey.
in

Inferior as the semi-neutral are in point of colour, they comprehend, nevertheless, a great proportion of our

most permanent pigments; and

are,

with respect to

90
black,

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

i.e.,

what tints are with respect to white, so to call them, black tints, or shades. are,

they

of the semi-neutral, and the subject of the present chapter, is BROWN, which, in its widest acceptation, has been used to comprehend vulgarly every denofirst

The

mination of dark broken colour, and, in a more limited sense, is the rather indefinite appellation of a very
of warm or tawny hues. we have browns of every denomination of Accordingly thus we have yellow-brown, redcolours except blue

extensive class of colours

brown, orange-brown, purple-brown, &c., but it is remarkable that we have, in this sense, no blue-brown nor any other coloured-brown, in any but a forced sense, in which blue predominates ; such predominance
of a cold colour immediately carrying the compound Hence into the class of grey, ashen, or slate-colour. brown comprehends the hues called feuillemort, mort
d'ore, dun, hazel, auburn, &c.
;

several of
to

which we

have already enumerated as

colours.

allied

the tertiary

The term brown, therefore, properly denotes a warm, broken colour, of which yellow is a principal constituent hence brown is in some measure to shade what yellow is to light, and warm or ruddy browns follow
:

yellows naturally as shading or deepening colours. It is hence also that equal quantities of either of the three primaries, the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries,

produce variously a brown mixture, and not the neutral because no colour is essentially single, and black, &c. warmth belongs to two of the primaries, but coldness
;

to blue alone.

ness

by

contrast

Browns contribute to coolness and clearwhen opposed to pure colours hence

:

and the necessity of them from other colours, to which they give keeping
their vast importance in painting

foulness in mixture.

OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS.

91

The tendency

into brownness and

in the compounds of colours to run warmth is one of the general

natural properties of colours, which occasions them to deteriorate or dirt each other in mixture hence brown
:

is

synonymous with foul or defiled, in a sense opposed to fair and pure and it is hence, also, that brown, which is the nearest of the semi-neutrals in relation to
;

light, is to

be avoided in mixture with light colours.

This tendency will account also for the use of brown in harmonizing and toning, and for the great number

under

of natural and artificial pigments and colours we possess this denomination in fact, the failure to produce other colours chemically or by mixture is commonly
:

productive of a brown yet are fine transparent browns If red or blue be obviously very valuable colours.
;

added to brown predominantly, it falls into the other semi-neutral classes, marrone or grey. The wide acceptation of the term brown has occasioned

much

confusion in the

naming
;

of colours, since

broken colours in which red, &c., predominate, have been improperly called brown and a tendency to red or hotness in browns obtains for them the reproachful
appellation offoxiness. This term, brown, should therefore, be confined to the class of semi-neutral colours

compounded

of,

or of the hues

of,

either the

primary

yellow, the secondary orange, or the tertiary citrine, with

a Hack pigment; the general contrast or harmonizing colour of which will consequently be more or less purple
or grey; and with reference to black and white, or light and shade, it is of the semi-neutrals the nearest
in accordance with white

and

light.

a sober and sedate colour, grave and solemn but not dismal, and contributes to the expression of
is

Brown

strength, stability, and solidity, vigour, and warmth, and in minor degree to the serious, the sombre, and the sad.

92

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

The list of brown pigments is very long, and that of MIXED BROWNS literally endless, it being obvious that every warm colour mixed with black will afford a brown, and that equal portions of the primaries, secondaries, or tertiaries will do the same hence there can be no difficulty in producing them by mixture when required, which is seldom, as there are many browns which are good and permanent pigments among these are the
: ;

following

VANDYKE BROWN.
This pigment, hardly less celebrated than the great painter whose name it bears, is a species of peat or bog earth of a fine, deep, semi-transparent brown colour.

The pigment
is

so

much esteemed and used by Vandyke

;

said to have been brought from Cassel and this seems to be justified by a comparison of Cassel-carth

with the browns of his pictures.

The Vandyke browns

in use at present appear to be terrene pigments of a similar kind, purified by grinding and washing over :

they vary sometimes in hue and in degrees of drying in oil, which they in general do tardily, owing to their bituminous nature, but are good browns of powerful body, and are durable both in water and oil. The Campania brown of the old Italian painters was a similar
earth.

MANGANESE BROWN
brown
It
is

Is an oxide of manganese, of a fine, deep, semi- opaque of good body, which dries admirably well in oil.

deficient in transparency, but may be a useful colour for glazing or lowering the tone of white with-

out tinging it, and as a local colour in draperies, dead It is a perfectly durable colour both in colouring, &c.

water and

oil.

OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOUKS.

93

CAPPAGH BROWN,
Or EucJiromc, is a Native Manganese Broicn, found on the estate of Lord Audley, at Cappagh, near Cork. It
a bog- earth or peat, mixed or mineralized by manganese in various proportions. The specimens in which the peat earth most abounds are of light weight, friable those which contain more of texture, and dark colour
is
;

the metal are heavy and of a lighter colour. As pigments, the peaty Cappagh brown is the most
transparent, deep and rich in colour, and dries promptly in oil, during which its surface rivels where it lies

This may be regarded as a superior Vandyke brown and Asphaltum. The other and metallic sort is a less transparent, lighter, and warmer brown pigment, which dries rapidly and smoothly in a body or thick layer, and is a superior Umber. They do not keep their place while drying in
thick.
oil

by fixing the The two extreme

oil,

like the dryers of lead,

but run.

sorts should
;

and deep Cappagh browns colouring, and grounds, the latter for glazing and These pigments are equally applicable to graining. in water, oil, and varnish, working well in painting each of these vehicles. They have been introduced into commerce for civil and marine painting under the names of Euchrome and Mineral brown, and have been called Caledonian, but are more properly Hibernian, browns, and are fine colours and valuable acquisitions in all their uses, and especially so in the graining of
oak, &c.

be distinguished as light the first excellent for dead

BURNT UMBER
pigment called Umber, burnt, by which it becomes of a deeper and more russet hue. It contains manganese and iron, and is very drying in oil, in which
Is the fossil

94
it is

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

employed as a dryer. It may be substituted for Vandyke brown, is a perfectly durable and eligible pigment in water, oil, and fresco, and may be produced
artificially.

The

old Italians called itfalsalo.

CASSEL EARTH,
Or, corruptly, Castle earth. The true terre de Cassel is an ochrous pigment similar to the preceding, but of a

brown

colour,

more inclined
it

to the russet hue.

In

other respects

and Vandyke

does not differ essentially from Rubens browns.

COLOGNE EARTH,
Incorrectly called
Cullen's earth, is a native pigment,
last, and in no respect differing from Vandyke brown in its uses and properties as a colour. Similar earths abound in our own country.

darker than the two

They

are all bituminous ochres.

RUBENS' BROWN.

The pigment
ochrous

this appellation is

in use in the Netherlands under an earth of a lighter colour and more texture than the Vandyke brown of the
still
;

London shops
hue than the

warmer or more tawny and is a beautiful and pigment, durable brown, which works well both in water and oil, and much resembles the brown used by Teniers.
it is

also of a

latter

BROWN
See Yellow Ochre.
Prussian Brown

OCHRE.

may

Iron Brown, Brun de Mars, and be regarded as various kinds of

brown ochre, of which there is abundance in nature, and all imitable by art. See Spanish Brown, or Tivert and Red Ochre.

OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS.

95

BONE BROWN
by torrefying, or roastand ivory till by partially charring they ing, bone become of a brown colour throughout. They may be made to resemble the five first browns above by management in the burning; and though much esteemed by some artists, are not perfectly eligible and their lighter pigments, being bad dryers in oil
;

And

Ivory Brown

are produced

shades not durable either in

oil

or water

when exposed

to the action of strong light, or mixed in tint with white lead. The palest of these colours are also the

most opaque the deepest are more durable, and most so when approaching black.
:

ASPHALTUM,
Called also Bitumen, Mineral Pitch, Jews' Pitch, &c., is a resinous substance rendered brown by the action of

The substances employed in artificial. under this name are residua of the distillation painting of various resinous and bituminous matters in preparing their essential oils, and are all black and glossy, like common pitch, which differs from them only in having been less acted upon by fire, and in thence being
fire,

natural or

Asphaltum is principally used in oil-painting which purpose it is first dissolved in oil of turpenIts tine, by which it is fitted for glazing and shading. fine brown colour and perfect transparency are lures to its free use with many artists, notwithstanding the frequent destruction which awaits the work on which it is
softer.
;

for

much employed, owing

to its disposition to contract

and crack by changes of temperature and the atmosphere; but for which it would be a most beautiful, The solution of asphaldurable, and eligible pigment. tum in turpentine, united with drying oil, by heat, or

96
tlie
oil,

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

bitumen
torrefied

and ground in linseed or dryinga firmer texture, but becomes less transacquires parent, and dries with difficulty. If also common
asphaltum, as usually prepared with oil of turpentine, be used with some addition of Vandyke brown, umber,

Cappagh brown ground in drying-oil, it will acquire body and solidity which will render it much less disposed to crack, and give it the qualities of native
or

asphaltum ; nevertheless, asphaltum is to be regarded in practice rather as a dark varnish than as a solid pigment, and all the faults of a bad varnish are to be

guarded against in employing it. This pigment is now prepared in excessive abundance, as a product of the
distillation of coal at the

gas manufactories.

The

by when rubbed. In the fire it softened without flowing, and burnt with a lambent flame did not dissolve by
;

native bitumen, Asphaltum, brought from Persia Lieutenant Ford, had a powerful scent of garlic

heat in

ment

of turpentine, but ground easily as a pigin pale drying-oil, affording a fine, deep, transoil

parent brown colour, resembling that of the asphaltum of the shops dried firmly, nearly as soon as the dryingoil alone, and worked admirably both in water and oil.
;

Asphaltum may be used as a permanent brown in water, and the native kind is also superior to the artificial for this purpose, and would be useful from its transparent
richness in graining.

MUMMY,
Or Egyptian
brown,
is

also a

bituminous substance

combined with animal remains, brought from the catacombs of Egypt, where liquid bitumen was employed in which three thousand years ago in embalming
;

office it

has combined, by a slow chemical change, so many ages, with substances which give it a during

OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS.

97

more

but in this respect

and lasting texture than simple asphaltum : it varies exceedingly, even in the same subject. Its other properties and uses as a pigment are the same as those of asphaltum, for which it
solid
is

crack or

employed as a valuable substitute, being less liable to move on the canvas. This also may be used,
as a water-colour.

when ground,

ANTWERP BROWN
Is a preparation of asphaltum ground in strong dryingSee the oil, by which it becomes less liable to crack.

Ochrous bitumens, bituminous coal, and other bituminous substances, afford similar jet, browns. See also Cappagh Brown.

two

last articles.

BISTRE
Is a

brown pigment extracted by watery

solution from

the soot of wood-fires, whence it retains a strong pyroligneous scent. It is of a wax-like texture, and of a

citr:ne-brown colour, perfectly durable. It has been much used as a water-colour, particularly by the old

masters in tinting drawings and shading sketches, previously to Indian ink coming into general use for such
purposes. In oil it dries with the greatest difficulty. substance of this kind collects at the back of fire-

places in cottages where peat is the constant fuel burnt ; which, purified by solution and evaporation, affords a
fine bistre.

Scotch bistre

is

of this kind.

All kinds of

bistre attract moisture

from the atmosphere.

SEPIA,

This pigment is named which is called also the ink-fish, from its affording a dark liquid, which was used as an ink and pigment by the ancients. From
Seppia or Animal 2Ethiops.
after the Sepia, or cuttle-fish,

98

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

pigment sepia, which is brought princifrom the Adriatic, and may be obtained from the pally fish on our own coasts, is said to be extracted and it is
this liquid our
;

supposed that it enters into the composition of the Indian ink of the Chinese. Sepia is of a powerful

dusky brown colour, of a fine texture, works admirably in water, combines cordially with other pigments, and
very permanent. It is much used as a water-colour, and in making drawings in the manner of bistre and Indian ink but is not used in oil, in which it dries very reluctantly.
;

is

MADDER BROWN.
See Field's Russet (page 85).
83).

Brown Pink

(page

PRUSSIAN BROWN
Is a preparation of Prussian blue, from

which the blue has been expelled by fire, or excolouring principle tracted by an alkaline ley ; it is an orange-brown, of
the nature and properties of Sienna earth, and dries
well in
oil.

CHAPTER

XIX.

OF GRAY.

OF

third and
black.

the tribe of semi-neutral colours, GRAY is the last, being nearest in relation of colour to

In

its

common
;

acceptation,

and that in which

we here

gray denotes a class of cool cinereous whence we have blue graysj olive colours, faint of hue green grays, purple grays, and grays of all hues, grays,
use
it,

OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS
in

GRAY.

99

which blue predominates; but no yellow or red grays, the predominance of such hues carrying the compounds into the classes of brown and marrone, of which gray is the natural opposite. In this sense the semi-neutral GRAY is distinguished from the neutral GREY, which springs in an infinite series from the mixture of the neutral black and white : between grays and grey, however, there is no intermediate, since where colour ends in the one, neutrality commences in the hence the natural alliance of other, and vice versa ; the semi-neutral gray with black or shade an alliance which is strengthened by the latent predominance of blue in black, so that in the tints resulting from the mixture of black and white, so much of that hue is
;

developed as to give apparent colour to the tints. This affords the reason why the tints of black and dark pigments are colder than their originals, so much so as
in

some instances

to

answer the purposes of positive

colours.

The grays
trasts, of

the

warm

are the natural cold correlatives, or consemi-neutral browns; and they are
its allies
;

degradations of blue and

to

hence blue added

brown throws and hence grays

necessary in art
;

into or toward the class of grays, are equally abundant in nature and
it

and painting a widely

for the grays comprehend in nature diffused and beautiful play of re-

tiring colours in skies, distances, carnations, shadowings and reflections of pure light, &c.

and the

According to the foregoing relations, grays favour the effects and force of warm colours, which in their
turn also give value to grays, and by reconciling opposites give repose to the eye.

such misapplication of colouring, however true as looking at nature through a prism and painting its in decorations, is but to produce a fool's effects

10U

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

paradise, and to excite wonder and false admiration, in place of true effect, sentiment, and repose. As blue is the ruling power of all the colours which

enter into the composition of grays, the latter partake Grave sounds, of the relations and affections of blue. like grey colours, are deep and dull; and there is a
similarity of these terms in sound, signification, and sentiment, if even they are not of the same etymology : be this as it may, gray is almost as common with the
poet,

and in

its colloquial use, as it is

in nature and

painting.

grays, like the other semi-neutrals, are sober, modest colours, contributing to the expression of cool, gloom, and sadness, bordering in these respects

The

upon the powers of black, but aiding the livelier and more cheering expressions of other colours by connection and contrast.

MIXED GRAYS
of black and which yields neutral greys, and of black and white, blue, black and purple, black and olive, &c., which
yield the semi-neutral grays of clouds, &c., but these may be well imitated by the mixture of russet rubiate,

Are formed not only by the compounding

or

madder browns, with blues, which form transparentcompounds, which are much employed; grays are,

however, as above remarked, so easily produced, that the artist will in this respect vary and suit his practice
to his purpose.

The

lead colours of

common

painting

are formed

by adding black to white lead in

oil.

They

are very useful grounds and dead colourings for greens, &c.

NEUTRAL

TINT.

Several mixed pigments of the class of gray colours sold for Neutral tint, variously composed of sepia and

indigo or other blues, with madder or other lakes,

OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS

GRAY.

101

are designed for water-colour painting only, in which they are found extremely useful. And here it may be

proper to mention those other useful colours, sold under the name of tints, which belong to no particular

denomination of pigments

but being compounds, the

result of the experience of accredited masters in their peculiar modes of practice, serve to facilitate the progress

of their pupils. Such are Payne's grey, Harding 's and Macpherson's tints, usually sold ready prepared in cakes and boxes for miniature and water-painting. These are

composed of pigments which associate cordially nevertheless, the artist will in general prefer a dependence upon his own skill for the production of his tints in painting, both in water and oil.
;

ULTRAMARINE ASHES,
Or Mineral Gray,
are the recrement of Lapis lazuli

from which ultramarine has been extracted, varying in colour from dull gray to blue. Although not equal in beauty, and inferior in strength of colour, to ultramarine, they are extremely useful pigments, affording grays much more pure and tender than such as are

composed of black and white, or other

blues,

and better

suited to the pearly tints of flesh, foliage, the grays of skies, and the shadows of draperies, but are not neces-

sary to the ordinary painter, cheaper pigments.

who can form them

of

PHOSPHATE OF IRON
Is a native ochre, which classes in colour with the (\ eeper hues of ultramarine ashes, and is eligible for all
their uses.
ochre.

It has received

the appellation of

bluff

Slate clays

grays

and several native earths class with but the colours of the latter are not durable,

102
as they contain.

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

become brown by the oxidation of the iron they

PLUMBAGO.
See Black Lead, which forms grey tints of greater permanence and purity than the blacks in general use, and it is now employed for this purpose with approved satisfaction by experienced artists. For various grey tints, see page 25.

CHAPTER

XX.

OF THE NEUTRAL.

BLACK.

BLACK

is

the last and lowest in the series or scale of

colours descending the opposite extreme from white the maximum of colour. To be perfect it must be

neutral with respect to colours individually, and absolutely transparent, or destitute of reflective power in

regard to light ; its use in painting being to represent shade or depths, of which it is the element in a picture

and in

colours, as white is of light.

is no perfectly pure and transparent black black deteriorates all colours in deepening pigment, them, as it does warm colours by partially neutralising them, but it combines less injuriously with cold colours.

As

there

Though

it is it

added to

white more

the antagonist or contrast of white, yet in minute portion it in general renders neutral, solid, and local, with less of the

character of light. Impure black is brown, but black in its purity is a cold colour, and communicates this

OF THE NEUTKAL.

103

property to all light colours thus it blues white, greens yellow, purples red, and degrades blue and other colours hence the artist errs who regards black as of nearest affinity to hot and brown colours.
; ;

It

is
it

perty

the most retiring of all colours, which procommunicates to other colours in mixture. It

heightens the effect of warm as well as of light colours by a double contrast when opposed to them, and in like

manner subdues that of cold and deep colours but in mixture or glazing these effects are reversed, by reason of the predominance of cold colour in the constitution of black having, therefore, the double office of colour and of shade, black is perhaps the most important of all
;
:

colours to the artist, both as to its use and avoidance. Black is to be considered as a synthesis of the three

primary colours, the three secondaries, or the three

tertiaries, or of all these

together

and, consequently,
triad.

also of the three semi-neutrals,

and may accordingly be

composed of due proportions of either tribe or

;

All antagonist colours, or contrasts, also afford the neutral black by composition but in all the modes of

producing black by compounding colours, blue is to be regarded as its predominating colour, and yellow as subordinate to red, in the proportions, when their hues
are true, of eight blue, five red, and three yellow. It is owing to this predominance of blue in the constitution of black, that it contributes

by mixture

to the

pureness of hue in white colours, which in general incline to warmth, and it produces the cool effect of
blueness in glazing and tints, or however otherwise It accords with the principle here inculcated that, in glass-founding, the oxide of mangadiluted or dilated.
nese,

which
frit

and that of cobalt, added to brown or yellow to produce a velvety -black glass; and that the
affords the red hue,
affords the blue, are

which

104

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

dyer proceeds to dye black upon a deep blue basis of indigo, with the ruddy colour of madder and the yellow of quercitron, galls, sumach, &c. and experience coincides with principle in these practices, but if the principle be wanting the artist will often fail in his
;

performances. All colours are comprehended in the synthesis of black consequently the whole sedative power of colour
;

comprised in black. It is the same in the synthesis of white and, with like relative consequence, white comprehends all the stimulating powers of colour in
is
;

painting.

It

follows that a little black or white

is

equivalent to much colour, and hence their use as colours requires judgment and caution in painting ;

and white supply the place of and hence a true knowledge of the active [or colours, sedative power of every colour is of great importance

and

in engraving, black

to the engraver. By due attention to the synthesis of black it may be rendered a harmonizing medium to all colours, and it

gives brilliancy to
eye, as a

them

all

by

its
;

sedative effect

on the
repeat,

and

its

powers of contrast
it

nevertheless, we

pigment

must be introduced with caution in

painting when hue is of greater importance than shade; and black pigments produced by charring have a dis-

and predominate over other hues, and more delicate tints by their chemical bleaching power upon other colours, and their own disposition to turn brown or dusky. And for these reasons deep and transparent colours, which have darkness in
position to rise to subdue the
their constitution, are better adapted in general for

producing true natural and permanent effects. Black is to be regarded as a compound of

all

other

colours, and the best blacks and neutrals of the painter are those formed with colours of sufficient power and

QY THE NEUTRAL.

105

transparency upon the palette but most of the black pigments in use are produced by charring, and owe such are Ivory their colour to the carbon they contain Blue black, Frankfort and Bone blacks, Lamp black, The three first are most in use, and vary black, &c.
;
:

according to their modes of preparation or burning ; yet fine Frankfort black, though principally confined tc
the use of the engraver and printer, to the others.
is

often preferable

Native or mineral blacks are heavy and opaque, but

dry well. Black pigments are innumerable

however, the principal,
colours
:

all

the following are, of which are permanent

:

IVOEY BLACK

And Bone

Black are ivory and bone charred to blackThese pigments ness by strong heat in closed vessels. vary principally through want of care or skill in prewell made, they are fine neutral blacks, perfectly durable, and eligible both for oil and water-painting ; but when insufficiently burnt they are

paring them.

When

brown, and dry badly

and when too much burnt, they ; are cineritious, opaque, and faint in colour. Of the affords the best pigment ; but bone black is two, ivory

used for general purposes.

LAMP BLACK,
Or Lamblack, is a smoke black, being the soot of resinous woods, obtained in the manufacturing of tar and turIt is a pure carbonaceous substance, of a fine pentine.
texture, intensely black, and perfectly durable, which works well, but dries badly in oil. This pigment may

be prepared extemporaneously for water-painting by holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle, and adding gum- water to the colour the nearer the plate
:

106
is

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

held to the wick of the lamp, the more abundant and

;

warm will be the hue of the black obtained

distance
it

at a greater

will be

more

effectually charred and blacker.

This

is

a good substitute for Indian ink, the colouring

basis of

which appears

to
is

foglio of the Italians

The Nero di from the smoke of prepared

be lamp black.

burnt paper.

Is said to
tartar has

FEANKFOET BLACK be made of the lees of wine from which

the

been washed, by burning, in the manner of black. Similar blacks are prepared of vine twigs ivory and tendrils, which contain tartar ; also from peach stones, &c., whence almond black and peach black ; and the Indians employ for the same purpose the shell of the cocoa-nut : and inferior Frankfort black is merely the levigated charcoal of woods, of which the hardest, such as box and ebony, afford the best. Fine Frank-

though almost confined to copper -plate one of the best black pigments we possess, printing, being of a fine neutral colour, next in intensity to lamp black, and more powerful than that of ivory.
fort

black,

is

Strong light has the effect of deepening its colour ; yet the blacks employed in the printing of engravings have proved of very variable durability. It is probable that this black was used by some of the Flemish painters, and that the pureness of the grays formed therewith is
attributable to the property of charred substances to

although they have not the prevent discolourment of bleaching oils as they have of many other power
;

substances.

BLUE BLACK
Is also a well-burnt and levigated charcoal, of a cool, neutral colour, and not differing in other respects from the common Frankfort black above mentioned. Blue

OF THE NEUTRAL.

107

black was formerly much employed in painting, and, in common with all carbonaceous blacks, has, when

duly mixed with white, a preserving influence upon

that colour in two respects ; which it owes, chemically, to the bleaching power of carbon, and, chromatically, to the neutralising and contrasting power of black with

superior blue black may be prepared by calPrussian blue in a close crucible, in the manner cining of ivory black and it has the important property of drying well in oil innumerable black pigments may
white.
; ;

be produced in this

way by

charring.

SPANISH BLACK
Is a soft black, prepared by burning cork in the manner of Frankfort and ivory blacks ; and it differs not essentially from the former, except in being of a lighter and softer texture. It is subject to the variation of the

above charred blacks, and eligible for the same uses.

Paper

black,

the Nero di foglio of the Italians, often

prepared in the same way, much resembles Spanish black, as does also Prussian black prepared by roasting
Prussian blue,

MINERAL BLACK
Is a native impure oxide of carbon, of a soft texture, found in Devonshire and Wales. It is blacker than

plumbago, and free from its metallic lustre, is of st greyer and more opaque than ivory forms pure neutral tints, and being perfectly black, durable, and drying well in oil, it is valuable in deadcolouring on account of its solid body, as a preparation for black and deep colours before glazing. It would also be the most durable and best possible black for
neutral colour,
frescoes.

Russian black

is

of this class.

108

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

MANGANESE BLACK.
The common black oxide of manganese answers to the
character of the preceding pigment, and is the best of all blacks for drying in oil without addition, or pre-

paration of the

oil.

It is also a colour of

much body

and tinging power.

BLACK OCHHE
Is a variety of the mineral black above, combined with iron and alluvial clay. It is found in most countries,

and should be washed and exposed to the atmosphere it is used. Sea-coal, and innumerable black mineral substances, have been, and may be, employed as succedanea for the more perfect blacks, when the latter are not procurable, which rarely happens.
before

BLACK CHALK
Is an indurated black clay, of the texture of white chalk, and is naturally allied to the preceding article. Its principal use is for cutting into crayons, which are

employed in sketching and drawing. Fine specimens have been found near Bantry in Ireland, and in Wales, but the Italian has the best
reputation.
artificially,

which are deeper in colour and

is

Crayons for these uses are also prepared free from

also cut into crayons for the the charcoals of soft woods, such &a

grit.

Charcoal of wood

same purpose, and

Kine, poplar, &c., are fittest for this use.

INDIAN INK.

The pigment well known under

cipally brought
to us

this

name

is

prin*
in

from China in oblong cakes, of a

;

musky

scent,
it

ready prepared for painting in water

is so

which use

well known, and so generally em-

OF THE NEUTRAL.

109

ployed, as hardly to require naming. It varies, however, considerably in colour and quality, and is some
.

times, properly, called China ink.

Various accounts

are given by authors of the mode of preparing this pigment, the principal substance or colouring matter of which is a smoke black, having all the properties of our lamp black and the variety of its hues and tex;

ture seems wholly to depend

upon the degree of burning

and levigating

it

receives.

The pigment known by the

name Sepia is supposed to enter into the composition of the better sort. The colour of Indian Ink is improved by the addition of a small quantity of Indigo, and a still smaller portion of Lake, by which its tendency to turn brown is neutralised.

BLACK LEAD,
Plumbago, or Graphite, is a native carburet of iron or oxide of carbon, found in many countries, but nowhere

more abundantly, or so fine in quality, as at Borrodale in Cumberland, where there are mines of it, from which the best is obtained, and consumed in large quantity in the formation of crayons and the black-lead pencils of the shops, which are in universal use in writing, sketching, designing, and drawing; for which the facility with which it may be rubbed out by Indian rubber or caoutchouc, gutta percha, and the crumb of bread
admirably adapts it. Although not acknowledged as a pigment, its powers in this respect claim a place for it, at least among
water-colours ; in which way, levigated in gum- water in the ordinary manner, it may be used effectually with rapidity and freedom in the shading and finishing of

pencil-drawings, &c., and as a substitute therein for Indian ink. Even in oil it may be useful occasionally,
as
it

possesses

remarkably the property of covering.

110

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

tints, dries quickly, injures no and endures for ever. These qualities render it the most eligible black for adding to white in minute quantity to preserve the neutrality of

forms very pure grey

colour chemically,

its tint.

Although plumbago has usurped the name of Black Lead, there is another substance more properly entitled to this appellation, and which may also be safely employed in. the same manner, and with like effects as a
pigment.
This substance
is

the Sulphuret of Lead,

either prepared artificially, or as found native in the beautiful lead ore, or Galena, of Derbyshire.

CHAPTER XXI.
TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC.
there are circumstances under which some pigments very properly and safely be used, which under others might prove injurious or destructive to the work,

As

may

the following Lists or Tables are subjoined, in which

they are classed according to various general properties, These Tables are as guides to a judicious selection.
the results of direct experiments and observation, and are composed, without regard to the common reputation or variable character of pigments, according to the real merits of the various specimens tried.

As

influenced

the properties and effects of pigments are much by adventitious circumstances, and are some-

times varied or altogether changed by the grounds on which they are employed, by the vehicles in which they
are used,

by the

siccatives

and colours with which they

TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC.

Ill

arc mixed, and by the varnishes by which they are covered, these Tables are offered only as approximations to the true characters of pigments and as

general

guides to right practice

TABLE Of Pigments, the

;

I.

colours of

which

suffer different

degrees of change by the action of light, oxygen, and pure air but are little, or not at all, afiected by shade,
sulphuretted hydrogen, damp, and foul air
'

Yellow Lake

Indigo
Intense Blue

Dutch
English
Italian

Pink
[
)

Blue

... J

Antwerp Blue
Prussian Blue

Yellow

Yellow Orpiment King's Yellow Chinese Yellow

Orange
Green

<

Gamboge
Gallstone

Orange Orpiment Golden Sulphur of Antimony

Indian Yellow

...Sap
I

Green

Rose Pink Carmine

Purple Lake

Red

Common
...

}
/

Purple
Cochineal

<

Burnt Carmine Lac Lake

Florence \
Scarlet

""
T

alrpl.

Hambro'

( }

Brown

( I

Brown Pink Light Bone Brown,

&c.

REMARKS. None of the pigments in this Table are eminent for permanence. No white or black pigment whatever belongs to this class, nor does any tertiary, and a few only of the original semi-neutrals. Most of those included in the list fade or become lighter by time, and also, in general, less bright.

TABLE

II.

Pigments, the colours of which are

all,

little,

or not at
;

changed by

light,

oxygen, and pure

air

but are

ili

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

more or

less injured by the action of shade, sulphuretted hydrogen, damp, and impure air :
'

Common White Lead

Flake White
Blue...
<

White

-j

Crems White Roman White Venetian White Blanc d' Argent of Lead w Sulphate
'

Blue Verditer Sanders Blue Mountain Blue Royal Blue Smalt and other Cobalt Blues

Yellow

-I

Massicot Patent Yellow Jaune Minerale

f)

urange

J i

Orange Lead Orange Chrome Chromate of Mercury I Laque Minerale

Chrome Yellow Naples Yellow

C

Red

Red Lead Chrome Red

Dragon's Blood
Iodine Scarlet

Green

I I

Green Verditer Mountain Green Common Chrome Green Mineral Green Verdigris, and other I Copper Greens

Most of our best white pigments are comprehended in this Table, but no black, tertiary, or
REMARKS.
semi-neutral colour.

Many of these colours, when secured by oils, varnish, may be long protected from change. The pigments of this Table may be considered as more durable
&c.,

than those of the preceding they are nevertheless ineligible in a water- vehicle, and in fresco ; and most
;

of

them become darker by time alone

This
list is

in every

mode

of use.

the opposite of Table I,

TABLE IIL
by the action both of
pure
air
:

Pigments, the colours of which are subject fca light and oxygen, and the opposite powers of sulphuretted hydrogen, damp, and im-

Pearl or Bismuth White Antimony White

v YeUow
,.

Turbith Mineral Patent Yellow

TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC.

, TJ ia
' '

113

/ Iodine Scarlet
\
/

Sulphate of Antimony

Dragon's Blood

Orange

j (

Anotta Carucru
Verdigris

Blue

. .

<

Eoyal Blue Prussian Blue Antwerp Blue

Green
Eusset

.Prussiate of Copper

REMARKS.
fect

This Table comprehends our most imperpigments, and demonstrates how few absolutely

bad have obtained currency. Indeed several of them are valuable for some uses, and not liable to sudden or extreme change by the agencies to which they are here Yet the greater part of them are destroyed subjected.

by

time.

These pigments unite the bad properties of those in the two preceding Tables.

TABLE
Pigments not at
all,

IV.

or

little, liable

to

change by the

action of light, oxygen, and pure air ; nor by the opposite influences of shade, sulphuretted hydrogen; damp and impure air ; nor by the action of lead or

iron
Zinc White
Constant, or Barytic
m,,/ Blue

"

/
I

Ultramarine Blue Ochre

White

White Tin White The Pure Earths

Yellow Ochre Oxford Ochre Roman Ochre Sienna Earth Stone Ochre Brown Ochre
'

'

Orange

Orange Ochre Jaune de Mars Burnt Sienna Earth Burnt Roman Ochre
Light Red, &c.

Yellow

Chrome Greens
Terre-Verte Cobalt Green

Green

<

Vermilion
Rubiates, or

Madder
Purple

(
<

Lakes

Red

..

Madder Carmines Red Ochre Light Red Venetian Red Indian Red

Gold Purple Madder Purple Purple Ochre

Russet Rubiate, or

Russet

] (

Madder Brown
Intense Russet

114
'

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

Vandyke Brown
Bistre

Raw Umber
Brown
and
Semineutral

Burnt Umber Cassel Earth Cologne Earth Asphaltum

Black

(Ivory Black Lamp Black Frankfort Black Mineral Black Black Chalk Indian Ink
^ Graphite

Mummy,

&c.

Ultramarine Ashes Sepia

Manganese Brown
^Ca'ppagh

Brown

REMARKS. This Table comprehends all the best and most permanent pigments, and such as are eligible for water and oil painting. It demonstrates that the best pigments are also the most numerous, and browns the most abundant, and in these respects stands opposed to
the three Tables preceding.

TABLE

V.

Pigments subject to change variously by the action of white lead and other pigments, and preparations of
that metal :
'Massicot

Blue

....

Indigo

/'Orange Lead
I

n^o,

Yellow
^

Orange Orpiment Golden Sulphur of Antimony Anotta, or Roucou

Carucru, or Chica

Green
Purple
Citrine

...

Sap Green

{ Burnt Carmine
. .

Brown Pink

Cochineal

Eed

..

TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC.

115

Acetate or sugar of lead, litharge, and rendered drying by oxides of lead, are all in some measure destructive of these colours. Light, bright,

REMARKS.

oils

and tender colours are principally susceptible of change by the action of lead. The colours of this Table are very various in their modes of change, and thence do not harmonize well by
time
:

it follows, too,

that

when any

of these pigments

are employed, they should be used pure or unmixed ; and, by preference, in varnish: while their tints with

white lead ought to be altogether rejected.

TABLE

VI.

Pigments, the colours of which are subject to change by iron, its pigments, and other ferruginous
substances
I
:

Sulphate of Lead

\
/

Blanc

d' Argent

Blue

. .

Blue Verditer Mountain Blus Intense Blue

Yellow

King's Yellow Patent Yellow Naples Yellow Chinese Yellow

Iodine Scarlet

Orange
Green

Green Verditer

Red

..

<

Carmine
Scarlet

Lake

Russet ...Prussiate of Copper

REMARKS.

Several

other

delicate

pigments

are

slightly affected by iron and its preparations ; and with all such, as also with those of the preceding Table, and with all pigments not well freed from acids or salts, the

iron palette knife is to be avoided or used with caution, and one of ivory or horn substituted in its place. Nor can the pigments of this Table be in general safely

combined with the ochres. Strictly speaking, that degree of friction which abrades the palette knife in, rubbing of pigments therewith is injurious to every
bright colour.

116

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

TABLE

VII.

less transparent, and generally Pigments more or be employed as graining and finishing colours, fit to if not according to Tables I., II., and

disqualified

III.

'

f Sienna

Earth
Purple
,

Madder Purple
Burnt Carmine
Purple Lake

Gamboge
Indian Yellow

v j Yellow i
,,

Gallstone
Italian
)

Lac Lake

Pink [ Dutch J ^Yellow Lake

English
r

r...

Cltrme

Brown Pink
Citrine

Lake

T,

Russet

Madder Brown
Pru88iate of Coppcr

Madder Carmine Madder Lakes Lac Lake Carmine

Vandyke Brown
Cologne Earth Burnt Umber Bone Brown Asphaltum

Ited

Common \
. .

Florence
Scarlet
(

L
)

kog

Hambro'

Brown

Mummy
Bistre

Dragon's Blood Rose Pink

Ultramarines Cobalt Blue
Blae..

Brown Pink Antwerp Brown

Sepia Prussian

__

Brown

Smalt Royal Blue Prussian Blue Antwerp Blue Intense Blue

Indigo

Gray.

. .

.Ultramarine Ashea

Black

Madder Orange
Orange
Anotta Burnt Sienna Earth Jaune de Mars
'

Ivory Black Bone Black Lamp Black Frankfort Black Blue Black Black _ Spanish

Chrome Green Sap Green

Prussian Green Terre-Verte

Green
_

Verdigris

This Table comprehends most of the and their most powerful effects in oil-painting are attainable by employing them with

REMARKS.

best water-colours

TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC.

resinous varnishes.

117
this

Pigments not inserted in

may of course be considered of an opposite class, or opaque colours ; with which, nevertheless, transparent effects in painting are produced by the skill of
Table
the artist in breaking and mingling without mixing them, &c.

unite,

The great importance of transparent pigments is to and give tone and atmosphere generally, with

beauty and life, to solid or opaque colours of their own hues ; to convert primary into secondary, and secondary into tertiary colours with brilliancy ; to deepen and enrich dark colours and shadows, and to give force and tone to black itself.

TABLE

VIII.
little

Pigments, the colours of which are

affected

or not at all

by heat or
WTrite

fire

Barytic

White
Orange
I

Zinc White The (Tin Pure Earths

(

Orange Ochre Jaune de Mars Burnt Sienna Earth Burnt Roman Ochre
True Chrome Green Cobalt Green
Gold Purple Purple Ochre
Rubens' Brown

Yellow
j

Naples Yellow Patent Yellow Antimony Yellow

Green

I
(

Red
,

Red Ochre Light Red Venetian Red Indian Red

Royal Blue Smalt Dumont's Blue and
Cobalt Blues Ultramarine

Purple

Burnt Umber

Brown
all
_

Cassel Earth

Cologne Earth

Blue..

Antwerp Brown Manganese Brown

REMARKS.
available in

Many of the pigments of this Table are enamel painting, and most of them are

durable in the other modes.

118

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

TABLE
Pigments which are
lime, and in various
little

IX.

or not at all affected

by

degrees eligible for fresco, distemper,

:

and crayon painting

/
\ I

Barytic White Pearl White

Gypsum, and
Earths

all

pure

Green
Yellow Ochre Oxford Ochre Roman Ochre Sienna Earth Stone Ochre Brown Ochre Indian Yellow Patent Yellow Naples Yellow
_

-\

Green Verditer Mountain Green Chrome Green Mineral Green Emerald Green Verdigris and other Copper Greens
Terre-Verte Cobalt Green

V.

Yellow

Purple

Gold Purple Madder Purple Purple Ochre

Massicot

f Bone

Red

Red Lead Red Ochre 1 Light Red Venetian Red Indian Red } ^ Madder Reds
!
I

C Vermilion

Brown Vandyke Brown Rubens' Brown

Bistre

Brown
and
'

Raw Umber Burnt Umber

Cassel Earth

Semineutral

Cologne Earth

Antwerp Brown
Chestnut Brown
Asphaltuin

Ultramarine
Smalt, and all Cobalt Blues

Blue

Mummy
Ultramarine Ashes

{
(

Manganese Brown
f Ivory Black Lamp Black Frankfort Black \ Mineral Black Black Chalk Indian Ink L Graphite
I

C Orange Lead Orange Chrome Laque Minerale Orange Orange Ochre Jaune de Mars Burnt Sienna Earth t. Light Red, &c.
I

Black

-|

REMARKS. This Table shows the multitude of pigments from which the painters in fresco, scagliola, distemper, and crayons may select their colours in doing which, however, it will be necessary they should consult
;

the previous Tables respecting other qualities of pigments essential to their peculiar modes of painting, as

TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC.

these

119 world

modes are exciting renewed

interest in the

of art, tending to their extension in practice, particularly the latter of them.

TABLE

X.

HERALDIC COLOURS.
Gentle-

Emblazoned.

men.
Tincture

Nobles. Sovereign
Princes.
.2?

Jewels.

Planets.

-2

o
ft

o
CQ

"S,

c o

OJ

IT.

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

TABLE

X.

(continued).

Gentle-

Emblazoned.

men.
Tincture.

Nobles.

Sovereign
Princes.

Jewels.

Planets

a o
bo
ci

03

>

bo

a s o tS GO. 2
^

r<D

*P<

.a

oo
03 -H

fH

fl

O
CQ
fco 03

23

CQ

o
.

1 CQ

1 CQ

TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC.

121

Heraldry, the most arbitrary of the sciences, having no foundation whatever in nature, has nevertheless employed colours with more consistent

REMARKS.

than the more natural and legitimate arts, and being intimately connected with decorative painting in the emblazoning of arms and the illuminating of missals, books, deeds, and treaties and being also
classification
;

of occasional reference to higher art, a brief notice of heraldic colouring and its symbols may be considered
as a useful appendage to a work on painting. The Table may also serve, by the comparison of present colours, jewels, &c., to denote the colours themselves,

and identify their names according to natural resemblances, and as a guide to the constructing of signals,
&c.

The manner

of denoting colours

crossing of lines on escutcheons ployed by artists in sketching as

by the scoring and may be usefully emmemoranda for paint-

ing the accidental and local colours of objects.*

* The Cathedral of Chartres offers an example worthy the attention of archaeologists over the grand entrance door, under the rose window, to the right, a stained glass represents the Indian cosmogony, as it is On the window of Chartres, Vischnu, described in the Bhagavadam. draped in blue and red, reposes on a sea of milk, of a yellowish white ; above him is the red rainbow from the bosom of Vischnu issues the white lotus. The upper window represents Brahma with his quadruple face and the crown on his head. Brahma is nearly naked, his skin is bistre or dun ; he wears saltirewise a green mantle, which envelopes the lower part of his body ; he reposes on the lotus, and in each hand he holds a stem. The upper windows, separated by iron bars, represent corresponding subjects. Finally, on the last and most elevated, Jesus appears, clothed in a blue robe, and wearing a bistre-coloured mantle ; above his head descends the Holy Ghost, in the form of a dove. The lotus issuing from the bosom of Vischnu rises up to Jesus This window, much anterior Christ, where it appears in full blossom. to the period of the Renaissance, proves the communication of the Oriental myths at the epoch cf the crusades it unites the symbols of Christian with those of Indian initiation. Baron F. Portal.
: : ;

122

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

CHAPTER
TABLE
THESE may be purchased

XXII.
XI.

THE PRINCIPAL COLOURS USED IN WATEH-COLOTTR PADTTINO.

as moist colours in pans or

collapsible tubes, or in whole, half, or quarter cakes.

BLUES.
Prussian Blue

Azure Blue
Cobalt Intense Blue Blue Verditer

Indigo

Antwerp Blue French Ultramarine Permanent Blue

Smalt

Cseruleum

REDS.
Carmine
Vermilion

Pure Scarlet Scarlet Lake Crimson Lake Deep Rose Magenta

Light Eed Venetian Eed Indian Eed

Red Lead Madder Lake Pink Madder Eose Madder

YELLOWS.
King's Yellow

Gamboge
Naples Yellow Raw Sienna Yellow Lake Cadmium Yellow

Lemon Chrome
Middle Chrome Indian Yellow Yellow Ochre Orpiment

PUEPLES.
Purple

Mauve
Burnt Carmine
Violet Carmine

Purple Madder Dahlia Carmine

Purple Lake

ORANGES.
Orange Chrome Deep Orange Chrome Orange Orpiment Orange Vermilion Cadmium Orange Mars Orange

TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC.

123

GEEENS.
Prussian Green

Emerald Green

Hooker's Green (Nos. 1

&

2)

Sap Green
Verdigris

Olive Green Terre-Verte

Veronese Green

Green Oxide of Chromium

BROWNS.
Cologne Earth Burnt Umber

Burnt Sienna

Roman

Sepia

Brown Madder Brown Pink

Warm

Sepia Sepia

Raw Umber
Brown Ochre

Vandyke Brown

BLACKS.
Indian Ink (in Ivory Black
sticks)
I

Lamp Black Blue Black

WHITES.
Chinese White (in Bottles,
&c.)
I

Flake White Permanent White

GREYS.
Neutral Tint Ultramarine Ashes
I

Payne's Grey

this Table

REMARKS. As the whole of the colours named in would never be required by the same artist,

each having his especial taste both as to his style of art, and the materials he employs, we give here the contents of small, medium, and full boxes of colours

adapted for landscape or landscape and figure

LANDSCAPE,

CAKE BOX (OR THE SAME COLOURS IN TUBES OR PANS).

Indigo.

Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Light Red, Crimson Lake, Vandyke Brown,

LANDSCAPE AND' FIGURE,

Gamboge, Raw
Indigo.

COLOURS

Sienna, Light Red, Rose Madder, Vandyke Brown,

124

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

LANDSCAPE,
19

COLOURS.

G amboge,

Yellow Ochre, Lemon Yellow, Pale Cadmium, Deep Cadmium, Chinese Orange, Light Red, Vermilion, Orange Vermilion, Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Purple Lake, Sepia, Brown Pink,
Cobalt Indigo, Caeruleum, Payne's Grey, Terre-Verte.

LANDSCAPE AND FIGURE,

Raw
Sienna, Indian Yellow,

17

COLOURS.
Pink, Pale Cad-

Sienna, Scarlet Vermilion, Madder Lake, Indian Lake, Cologne Earth, Vandyke Brown, French Ultramarine, Ultramarine Ash, Indigo, Veronese Green.

Lemon Yellow, Italian mium, Deep Cadmium, Brown Ochre, Burnt

LANDSCAPE AND FIGURE,

29

COLOURS.

Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Lemon Yellow, Italian Pink, Indian Yellow, Middle Cadmium, Orange Cadmium, Light Red, Indian Red, Vermilion, Orange Vermilion, Carmine, Rose Madder, Madder Brown, Brown Ochre, Burnt Umber, Sepia, Cobalt, French Ultramarine, Indigo, Emerald Green, Lamp Black, Caeruleum, Ultramarine Ash, Smalt, Purple Madder, Olive
Green, Veronese Green.

TABLE XH.
LMI OP'POWDBB COLOTOS FOR PAINTING
Burnt Carmine Carmine Deep Rose Cadmium Yellow
Chinese White Flake White Zinc White Kremnitz White Crimson Lake
Scarlet

IX TEMPERA,

Mineral Grey

Pure Scarlet Purple Lake Pktina Yellow Rose Madder Carmine

Rubens' Madder Smalt Vermilion Violet Carmine Yellow Carmine or Gallstone Antwerp Blue

Lake

Ultramarine French Ultramarine Ultramarine Ash Green Oxide of Chromium Indian Lake Indian Yellow Intense Blue

Brown Pink Indian Red

Light Red Venetian Red Blue Black

Bone Brown
Cologne Earth

Lemon Yellow Madder Brown

Madder Lake Madder Purple
Malachite Green

Mars Orange Mara Yellow

Emerald Green Ivory Black Lamp Black Patent Yellow Roman Ochre

Vandyke Brown

TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC.

Indigo

Mummy
Italian

Chrome Yellow dium and deep

Naples Yellow Orpiment Raw Sienna Terre-Verte Yellow Ochre

(pale)

me-

Pink

Prussian Blue
Verdigris

Yellow Lake Burnt Sienna Burnt Umber

Gamboge

in

Lump Drop

Lake.

REMARKS. These colours are also used for illuminaand for herald painting. For the former, they are either mixed with gum- water, or may be obtained in powder with which gum in a dry condition has
tion

tion of water

requiring only the addialready been incorporated and the different technical colours used ;

in the latter

may

be obtained ready mixed in cups.

TABLE

XIII.

OIL COLOUE8 IN METALLIC COLLAPSIBLE TUBES.

REDS.
Indian Red Light Red Venetian Red Indian Lake
Scarlet

Lake

Burnt Brown Ochre Burnt Roman Ochre Magenta Paladium Red Paladium Scarle
Scarlet Vermilion Rose Madder

Vermilion

Madder Lake
Carmine, &c.

BLUES.
Antwerp Blue Permanent Blue
Indigo Cobalt Ultramarine Ash
Chinese Blue Prussian Blue

Caeruleum French Ultramarine

YELLOWS AND ORANGES.

Chrome, Pale Do., Middle
Do., Do.,

Deep Orange
Sienna

Ochre Pink King's Yellow

Italian Italian

Raw

Gamboge

Yellow Ochre Indian Yellow Platina Yellow Mars Orange Cadmium Yellow

Naples Yellow, 1, 2, Orpiment Patent Yellow Roman Ochre Mars Yellow Strontian Yellow Orange Vermilion Cadmium Orange

&

126

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

PURPLES.

Purple Lake Purple Madder

Violet Canning

GREENS.
Emerald Green
Olive Tint

Verdigris

[Mineral Green, NOB. Terre-Verte Malachite

1 ft 2

Oxide of Chromium

Veronese Green

BLACKS.
Ivory Black Blue Black

Lamp

Black

WHITES.
Flake White

New White
Silver

Permanent White
Zinc White

White

BROWNS.
Asphaltum Bone Brown
Indian

Brown Vandyke Brown Brown Ochre

Burnt Umber

Bitumen Cappagh Brown Manganese Verona Brown Brown Pink Cassel Earth

Mummy

Raw Umber
Rubens' Madder

Madder Brown
Burnt Sienna

Mineral Grey, &c., &c.

REMARKS.
;

These tubes

may

either be purchased

separately or in boxes fitted up for figure-landscape, &c. or in any way desired by the artist. The student
is

advised not to purchase a large stock at once, but to obtain just enough for his immediate wants, making additions from time to time according to necessity.

PART
ON VEHICLES,
OILS,

HI.

AND YAKNISHES.

CHAPTER

XXIII.
ETC.

ON VEHICLES,

SINCE colours and pigments are liable to material influence, and changes of effect, from the materials employed in painting for tempering, combining, distributing, and securing them on their grounds in the
various modes of the art, the powers and properties of oils, vehicles, and varnishes are of hardly less importfore,

ance than those of colours themselves they an essential branch of our subject.
;

are, there-

Vehicles,

which term

borrowed from pharmacy, are, indeed, the chief materials and indispensable means of among painting, and give name to its principal modes under
is

the

titles

and Fresco
respects.

of painting, in Water, Oil, Tarnish, Distemper we will consider them, therefore, in these
:

with

It is observable that the colours of pigments bear out effects differing according to the liquids with

which they are combined, and the substances those liquids hold in solution, which in some instances obscure or depress, and in others enliven or exalt, the colours ;

128
in the

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

first case by the tinge and opacity of the fluid, and in the latter, by its colourless transparency, and sometimes also much more so by a refractive power; as in varnishes made of pure resinous substances, which have a very evident and peculiarly exalting effect upon

colours, that continues

when they

are dry;

because

form a glossy transparent cement, while the media formed by expressed oils become horny, or semi-opaque. This principle applies also to aqueous and spirituous vehicles in water-painting, according to
resins

the nature of the substances they

may

hold in solution.

WATER VEHICLES.
The most natural
those of water,
oils,

or

fit

distribution of vehicles
;

is

into

and

varnishes

under which heads

we proceed
practice.

regard them, and the various substances as additions, according to the variety of employed
to

As
oils

colours

the action of AQUEOUS LIQUIDS and solvents upon is stronger and more immediate than that of

and varnishes, it is of great importance to the water-colour painter that he should attend to the pureness of his water, as in all hard and impure waters colours are disposed to separate and curdle, so that it
is often impossible a clear flowing wash, or gradation of colour, should be obtained with them.

As water is not sufficient to connect, bear out, and secure colours on their grounds in painting, owing to its entirely evaporating in drying, additions of permanently adhesive substances soluble therein are necessary, such as vegetable gums, mucilages, farinaceous
paste, sugar,

animal glues and size, glaire or white of serum of blood, milk, curd, whey, &c., and finally eggs,
mineral
solids,

such as quick-lime, alum, borax, &c.,

ON VEHICLES,

ETC.

129
:

and these variously mixed and compounded whence a variety of empirical methods of painting. Water, as a vehicle compared with oil, is of simple and easy use, drying readily, and being subject to little
alteration of colour or effect subsequently
;

for,

notwith-

standing

oils

and varnishes are

less

chemically active

upon colours than aqueous fluids, the vehicles of the oil-painter subject him to all the perplexities of their
colour, blooming, and cracking, with a variety of pigments, and to the contrariety of qualities, by which they are required to unite tenuity with strength, and to be fluid without

bad drying, change of

to habits varying

to provide for and reconcile all which has continually exercised the ingenuity of the oil-

flowing, &c.

painter.

MUCILAGES.

Gum, or some mucilaginous substance, is a necessary addition to water to give pigments their requisite cohesion,

and

to attach the colours to the

grounds on which

they are applied, as well as to give them the property of bearing out to the eye, according to the intention of
the artist; upon which, and upon the pigments used, depend the proportions of gum to be employed, gum

being a constituent of some pigments, while others are

of textures to require
it

tenacity, in speaking of individual pigments as a general rule, the proportion of gum, &c., employed with a however,
:

them proper

in considerable quantity to give qualities we have adverted to

colour should be sufficient to prevent its abrasion, but not so much as to occasion its scaling or cracking, both of which are easily determined by trial upon paper.

GUMS.

Of Gums, SENEGAL
to

is

dark colours, being of a brown hue

the strongest and best suited but the light;

130

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

coloured pieces may be employed for the more delicate pigments. All gums contain an acid, very unfavourable
to their preservation in a fluid state ; which acid requires, therefore, to be neutralised by the addition of

some alkaline substance, of which we have found the carbonate of ammonia, being volatile, to be the best a small portion of which being shaken into the dis;

solved
ness,

gum

will purify

it

by

precipitating all

its foul-

and preserve it a very long time for use, and very much improve the working of colours without occasion the gum will rarely require more than one for gall scruple of the powdered carbonate to an ounce of the gum dissolved by maceration in two or three ounces of Solution of borax will answer the same cold water.
:

purpose, but less eligibly. GUM ARABIC is in general clearer and whiter than

Senegal, and hence

is

and more
purified

delicate colours.

better adapted to the brighter It should be picked and

by

solution in cold water, straining,

and de-

canting; and should be used fresh, or preserved by addition of alcohol, or by ammonia in the manner
already described. AMMONIA, or Gum Ammoniac, is a gum-resin, soluble in spirit and in water, in the latter of which it forms a

milky
perties

fluid that dries transparent

it

has

many

proIt is

which render

it

useful in water-painting.

avoided by insects, is very tenacious, and affords a middle vehicle between oil and water, with some of the advantages of both. It contributes also, in the manner
of a varnish, to protect the more fugitive colours over which it may be glazed, or with which it may be

mixed, and OP
painting.

tiiis

account

it

is

eligible

in water,

GUM TRAGACANTH
in hot water,

is a strong colourless gum, soluble and of excellent use when colours are

ON VEHICLES,

ETC.

required to lie flat, or not bear out -with gloss, and also when a gelatinous texture of the vehicle is of use to

prevent the flowing of the colours ; starch as prepared by the laundress, water in which rice has been boiled,

used by the Chinese, and paste of wheaten flour, are available for the same purpose. Sugar and honey have also been employed, but as they attract flies and moisture are better avoided.

SIZE
Is prepared either by long boiling the shreds of parchment, &c., or from glue by soaking in cold water, and subsequently dissolving by heat. The quantity to be

used depends like that of gums on the quality of the pigments employed, and caution is more necessary than with the gums not to use it in excess on account of its disposition to contract in drying, and occasion the
colour to crack
fish-glue

and

scale

off.

The

and
;

isinglass are substituted for

lighter-coloured the nicer kinds

of painting
useful

employed by glovers,

albumen or white of egg, and also the yolk, is used in some cases ; oxgatt ia

when

works greasy.

the surface to be painted is polished, 01 Size is sometimes worked into oil

colours instead of mastic varnish to gelatinize and give

them
Is

crispness.

MILK OF LIME
commonly employed
size, as a white basis

and cement of

in distemper painting without colours, with or

without addition of drying oil, and, when dry, stands weather with considerable firmness. It is prepared by slacking lumps of white quicklime in water.

BORAX
Is a mild alkaline
salt, useful for neutralising the of gums, and as a substitute for animal gall in acidity

132

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING

It is attaching colours to polished or oily surfaces. also valuable as a medium for uniting varnishes and
oils

which
of

with water, in an intermediate mode of painting, after drying is insoluble in water and may be

washed.
oils.

In small quantity borax promotes the drying

MEDIA.

Many attempts have been made to unite the advanof water and oil tages of the two modes of painting
either

by successive

processes, or

by the use of a vehicle

of a compound or intermediate affinity to both of these fluids, and thence technically denominated a medium ;

a term otherwise properly applicable to every vehicle.

With regard to media, all the gelatinous substances before mentioned as additions to water vehicles may be
combined with linseed and other oils, and such compounds may be employed as vehicles, and will keep their place as delivered by the brush in painting. Indeed starch, as prepared by the laundress, has been lately recom-

mended

for this purpose. Nevertheless we regard these mixtures as both chemically and mechanically inferior to the combination of lac and borax, which is equally
diffusible in

water and in

oil,

and does not contract in

drying, or render the painting penetrable by moisture as farinaceous and mucilaginous substances do, nor, in

the end, dispose the work to crack. It has accordingly been proposed that artists should adopt the Indian process of painting, in which lac is rendered saponaceous and miscible in water by the medium of borax but against this process the foul colour and opacity of the vehicle have been heretofore justly objected. If, however, one part of borax be dissolved in twelve of toiling water, and the solution be added, in equal or
;

other

proportions,

to white lac varnish,

a perfectly

ON VEHICLES,

ETC.

133

transparent colourless liquid is formed, which diffuses freely in water, and may be used, with some difficulty, as a quick-drying vehicle for painting instead of oil,
and, when dry, is not acted on or removable by water add to this, that as this lac vehicle is as freely miscible with oil as it is with water, it supplies a true medium, or connecting link, between painting in water and oil, which may, in ingenious hands, unite the advantages
;

of both.

BEYERS,

With respect to DESICCATION OR DRYING, Siccatives. the well-known additions of the acetate or sugar of lead,
Or
litharge, and sulphate of zinc', called also improperly white copperas and ichite vitriol, either mechanically ground or in solution, for light colours ; and japanners' gold size, or oils boiled upon litharge for lakes, or in

some cases

verdigris

and manganese

for

dark colours,
it

may

be resorted to

when

the colours or vehicles are

:

not sufficiently good dryers alone but that an excess of dryer renders attention,
ceous, is inimical to drying,

requires

oils

sapona-

and injurious

to the per-

manent texture of the work.

Some

colours, however,

dry badly from not being sufficiently edulcorated or washed, and many are improved in drying by passing
through the
is less
fire,

dryer, ferable in use with

less injuriously
;

or by age. Sulphate of zinc, as a than acetate of lead, but is prepowerful

some
it is

colours,

upon which

it

acts

but

supposed, erroneously, to set

the colours running ; which is not positively the case, though it will not retain those disposed to it, because it wants the property the acetate of lead possesses, of

These gelatinizing the mixture of oil and varnish. two dryers should not be employed together, as frequently directed, since they counteract and decompose

134

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

each other by double election, forming two new substances, the acetate of zinc, which is an ill dryer, and
the sulphate of lead, which is insoluble and opaque. It is not always that ill drying is attributable to the
the states of the weather and atmopigments or oils; have great influence thereon. The oxygenating sphere power of the direct rays of the sun renders them peculiarly active in drying oils and colours, and was probably resorted to before dryers were added to oils, and the atmosphere is imbued with the active matter of light to which its drying property may be attributed. The ground may also advance or retard drying, because

some pigments, united either by mixing or glazing, are either promoted or obstructed in drying by their
conjunction: artificial heat also promotes drying. The various affinities of pigments occasion each to

have its more or less appropriate dryer ; and it would be a matter of useful experience if the habits of every pigment in this respect were ascertained ; siccatives of less power generally than the above, such as the acetate of copper, massicot, red lead, and the oxides of manganese, to which umber and the Cappagh browns owe their drying quality, and others, might come into use
in particular cases.
stances

Many

other accidental

circum-

drying. Dryers should be added to pigments only at the time of using them, because they exercise their drying property while

may

also affect

chemically combining with the oils employed, during which the latter become thick or fatten, and render
additional oil and dryer necessary when again used. Acetate of lead, dissolved in water, spirit, or turpentine,

may

be used as a dryer of oil paints with convenience and advantage in some cases. In the employment of dryers attention is necessary 1. Not to add them uselessly to pigments that dry

ON

OILS, ETC.

135

2. Not to employ them in excess, well in oil alone. 3. Not to add them to the which retards drying. colour till it is to be used. 4. Not to add several kinds of dryers to the same colour and 5. To use simple dryers in preference to nostrums recommended and vended for drying of paints. Impurity of the pigment sometimes retards drying, in which case it should be washed. Another attention should be, that one coat of paint
:

should be thoroughly dry before another

for if the

is

applied;

upper surface of paint dry before the surface beneath it, it will rival by the expansion and contraction of the under surface as the oil evaporates and
dries; overloading with paint will be attended by the same evil and if the upper surface be of varnish or
;

brittle, cracking of

the paint will ensue.

CHAPTER XXIV.
ON
OILS, ETC.

OILS are distinguished into Fat

Volatile
oils ;
oils,

oils,

Drying

oils,

and

expressed

are also called fixed and as the latter are essential oils. All oils
first

the two

become thickened by age, and more rapidly tact of air and combination with its oxygen
case if the oil be fat or unctuous
oil,

so
;

in

by conwhich
oil

such as olive

and

animal oils, separated from the

all

stearine, or tallow, is produced and elain, olain, or fluid oil ; if it be a

drying

oil, such,

as linseed

and painter's

oil,

caoutchouc

or gluten is, in like manner, produced ; and if it be a volatile or essential oil, such as that of turpentine, solid

136

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

:

resin is formed therein a third and acid substance ia formed in oils when they become rancid, called margaWax is produced rine, which is inimical to drying. by the action of oxygen on a compound fat and essential oil wax is therefore a substance between resin and stearine or tallow. All these substances may be regarded as oxides of elain, into which oils are wholly
;

by the action of time, air, an elementary state, suffer incipient combustion, develop hydrogen, and become in all which ultimately carbonized and darkened states oils are deteriorated for working freely and for painting with pureness and permanence, as the fat oils
convertible;

and, finally,

and

heat, they approach

are for burning in lamps. All oils are soluble or miscible in water

by the

of alkalis, absorbent earths, or other metallic oxides, and are therefore capable of chemical union with pigments; they are partially soluble also in alcohol,

medium

and absorb or take up by agitation small portions of

both alcohol and water, which they resign upon being
heated.

LINSEED

OIL.

Of the expressed or drying oils appropriate to painting " Honest Unseed" is by far the strongest, and that which
most tenaciously, and firmest under proper management which properties it owes to its being at once resinous, glutinous, and oleaginous. Having more of the quality of a resin than a fat oil, it never totally
dries best,
;

loses its transparency while liquid, in the manner of fat oils by cold, but preserves it during the most in-

tense frost in the

also, it

manner

of a resin ; and, like the resins

becomes ultimately fixed, hard, and solid, by combining with the oxygen of the atmosphere but it lies under the great disadvantage of acquiring, after drying, and by exclusion from light and pure air, a semi:

ON

OILS, ETC.

137

opaque and yellow -brown colour, which darkens by

age.

To

obviate this as

much

as possible,

ing with
as
as

oil alone, it is best to

when paintwork the colour as stiff

may be, so as may suffice;

to use as small a portion of the vehicle for it is a fact proved by direct and
little

repeated experiments, that

oil diffused

through

much colour is subject to little change upon the canvas, and that a thin coating of linseed oil is similarly preserved by light and the action of the atmosphere.
Linseed oil varies in quality according to the goodness of the seed from which it is expressed ; the best is
yellow, transparent, comparatively sweet scented, and has a flavour somewhat resembling that of the cucum-

ber: great consequence has been attributed to the colddrawing of this oil, but it is of little or no importance
in painting whether moderate heat be employed or not in expressing it. Several methods have been contrived
for bleaching and purifying this oil, so as to render it perfectly colourless and limpid ; but these give it mere

beauty to the eye in a liquid

cating any permanent

state,

without communiis

advantage, since there

:

not any

known
have

process for preventing the discolourment we spoken of as sequent to its drying and it is

perhaps better upon the whole that this and every vehicle should possess that colour at the time of using to which it subsequently tends, that the artist may de-

pend upon the continuance of

his tints,

and use his

vehicle accordingly, than that he should be betrayed by a meretricious and evanescent beauty in his vehicle
to use
it

too freely.

Linseed

oil

that has been long

boiled

in a water-bath, to preserve it from burning, acquires colour; and is, when diluted with oil of turpentine, less disposed to run than pure

upon litharge

linseed

oil,

and

affords one of the

most

eligible vehicles

of the oil-painter.

138

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

The most valuable qualities of linseed oil, as a vehicle, consist in its great strength and flexibility ; some have preferred it when bleached by exposure to sun and air;
others,

when new and fresh,

is
;

but that

painting char or much discolour

cold-drawn.

or that which is cold-drawn; the best which will temper most colour in and oil expressed with a heat which does not
it, is

equal in

all respects to

the

THE DRYING OF OILS

depend on the following conditions : the of oxygen which by an incipient combustion presence of the hydrogenous oils fixes them, whence whatever
Appears
to

contributes

oxygen

to oil dries

it,

as

it is

the case with

the perfect oxides of pure air, metals, including even pure earths and alkalis in due Hence, imperfect oxides, by abproportions, dry oils.
sunshine, &c.
all

Hence

stracting oxygen from oil, retard drying ; hydrogenous substances are hence ill dryers in oil, hence the best

dryers are those which contain oxygen in excess ; and such are litharge, sugar of lead, minium, massicot manganese, umbers, sulphate of zinc or white copperas, and
verdigris.

PALE DRYING
The
oil

OIL.

should be macerated, two or three days at least, upon about an eighth of its weight of litharge, in a warm place, occasionally shaking the mixture, or it after which it should be left to settle and clear heat by levigating the litharge be prepared without
;

may

in the

oil.

Acetate of lead

may

be substituted for

less heat, and its acid being litharge, being soluble with solution and bleaches the oil ; volatile escapes during

which coarse smalt may be added to clear it by subits brown sidence, increase its drying, and neutralise colour. This affords pale drying oil for light and bright
to

ON
colours,

OILS, ETC.

139

which may be preserved

for use in the above-

described apparatus.

BOILED

OIL.

of oil and litharge, gently and boiled in an open vessel till it thickens, becarefully comes strong drying oil for dark colours. Boiled oil

The above mixture

on fire purposely in the making of and Printing Ink, and also for painting and the preparation of JAPANNERS' GOLD SIZE. As dark and transparent colours are in general comparatively ill dryers, japanners' gold size is sometimes emThis ployed as a powerful means of drying them. material is very variously and fancifully prepared, often
is

sometimes

set

Printers' Varnish

with needless, if not pernicious, ingredients but may be simply, and to every useful purpose in painting,
;

Powder finely of asphaltum, prepared as follows: or red lead, and burnt umber, or manganese, litharge each one ounce stir them into a pint of linseed oil, and simmer the mixture over a gentle fire, or on a
;

sand-bath, till solution has taken place, scum ceases to rise, and the fluid thickens on cooling ; carefully guard-

ing

it

from taking

fire.

If the

oil

employed be

at all

acid or rancid, talc, powdered, or a small portion of chalk or magnesia, may be usefully added, and will assist the rising of the scum and the clearing of the
oil,

by

its

subsidence; and if
it

it

warm

place,

will clear itself: or it

be kept at rest in a may be strained

for use.

through cloth and diluted with turpentine

size for

Gold

gilding

is

commonly made

of boiled oil and fine

Oxford ochre.

POPPY OIL
Is

celebrated in some old books under the appellations of oil of pinks and oil of carnations, as erroneously

much

140

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

French
ceittet,

translated from the

for the

or

olivet,

a local

name

poppy

in districts where
olive.

its oil is

employed as a

substitute for that of the

It

is,

however, inferior

in strength, tenacity, and drying to linseed oil, although next to it in these respects; and though it is of a

paler colour, and slower in changing, it becomes ultimately not so yellow, but nearly as brown and dusky,
as linseed
it.

oil,

oil, and, therefore, is not to be preferred to Boiled as above, it is the Oglio Cotto, or the baked of the Italians.

NUT
;

OILS

Resemble poppy oil in painting, but with inferior and the fish oils of the seal and cod, though powers
sometimes used with dryers in the coarser painting, are inferior in qualities to them all, and little better than
tar similarly employed.

MEGILP,
jellied vehicles

Half a century ago, the which received the cant appellations of magilp and gumtion were the favourite nostrums of the initiated painter, and have maintained a prei'erence with many artists to this day. These compounds of one part or more of strong mastic varnish with two of linseed or other oils rendered drying as above and coagulable by the salts and oxides of lead, were, according to the
varnish,

Or English

&c.

preceding intentions, improvements upon the simple vehicle used on impenetrable grounds, by diluting

oil
it,

and giving

a gelatinous texture, which enables it, while flowing freely from the pencil, to keep its place in painting, glazing, graining, &c.
it

Composed

of not

sugar of lead,

GUMTION, more than an eighth of the acetate or with simple oil and strong varnish, which

ON
is

OILS, ETC.

141

subject to less change ultimately, particularly

when

the varnish abounds in the compound. In the using of sugar of lead, if the acid abound, which it does usually in the purer and more crystalline kinds, its power of

drying
lakes.

weakened, and it may have some injurious action upon colours, such as those of ultramarine and
is

In

this case a small addition of

some of the

pure oxides of lead, such as litharge, ground fine, will increase the drying property of the sugar of lead, and
similar composition correct its injurious tendency. rubbed with twice its quantity of of ground litharge

nut or linseed

oil,

and a sixth of bees'-wax and used

is

with mastic varnish,

called Italian varnish.

COPAIBA
Is a natural balsam of
liquid state, in which vehicle and a varnish
either use,
it is

West Indian

it
:

may

production in a be employed both as a

it

and preserving

being of tolerable strength in its naturally pale colour, but

painting.

entirely needless in

common

VOLATILE
Procured

OILS,

by

distillation

from turpentine and other

vegetable substances, are almost destitute of the strength of the expressed oils, having hardly more cementing

power in painting than water alone, and are principally useful as solvents, and media of resinous and other substances introduced into vehicles and varnishes. In drying they partly evaporate, and partly by combination with oxygen form resins and become fixed. They
are not, however, liable to change colour like expressed oils of a drying nature, and, owing to their extreme are useful diluents of the latter ; they have fluidness,
also a bleaching quality, whereby they in some degree correct the tendency of drying and expressed oils to

142

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

discolourment.

Of essential

oils,

the most volatile, and

;

nearest in this respect to alcohol, is the oil of sassafras but that most used in painting is the

OIL OF TURPENTINE.
improperly called spirit of turpenpreferable only on account of its being thinner and more free from resin. By the action of
rectified oil,
is
tine, &c.,

The

oxygen upon it, water is either generated or set free, and the oil becomes thickened, but is again rendered liquid by a boiling heat upon water, in which the oxygen and resin are separated from it. When coloured

by heat or otherwise, oil of turpentine may be bleached by agitating some lime powder in it, which The great use of this oil, will carry down the colour. under the cant name of turps, is to thin oil paints, and

in the larger use thereof to flatten white and other colours, and to remove superfluous colour in graining.
It however weakens paint in proportion as it prevents its bearing out, and when used entirely alone it will

not fix the paint.

OIL OF LAVENDER
Is of

two kinds, the

oil,

fine- scented

English

oil,

and the

cheaper foreign

more

volatile

and

called oil of spike these are rather more powerful solvents than the oil

of turpentine, which render them preferable in enamel painting, of which they are the proper vehicles ; they

have otherwise no advantage over the latter oil, unless they be fancied for their perfume. Ihe other essential
oils,

such as
;

oil
it

numerous

but

of rosemary, thyme; &c., are very has not appeared that they possess
?

any property that gives them superiority in painting over that of turpentine some of them have, however, more power in dissolving resins in the making of

ON VARNISHES,

ETC.

143

varnishes, as is the case also with naphtha or petroleum and the rectified oil of coal tar.

NAPHTHA

And the Coal Oil of our gas works are even more power, ful solvents than the vegetable essential oils; but on this
account, and the usual bad scent of the latter, they are the rectiless eligible for the painter's use as vehicles
:

fied coal oil

may, however, be deprived of

it

its

nauseous

smell

by agitating sulphuric acid, and subsequently washing the oil with a little powder or milk of lime.
SPIEIT OF WINE,

during several days with dilute

weaker and more dilute than essential Alcohol, or even than water, and is so volatile as to be of oils,

Or

is

use in vehicles only as a medium for combining oils as a powerful solvent in the formation with resins, &c.
of spirit varnishes, and in some degree as an innocent promoter of drying oils and colours. It affords also

powerful means of removing varnishes, &c.

CHAPTER XXV.
ON VARNISHES,
ETC.

THE

last operation of painting is varnishing, which completes the intention of the vehicle, by causing the design and colouring to bear out with their fullest freshness,

force,

ture,
it

and keeping supplies, as it were, natural moisand a transparent atmosphere to the whole, while forms a glazing which secures the work from injury
;

144

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

and decay. It is especially necessary for graining, and often in ornamental and fancy works of the art.
Varnishes are prepared from an immense variety of substances, of which the resins, improperly called gums, afford the best, and those principally used, and a A7 ast

number of preparations thereof

of

uselessly

compounded

ingredients and little to be depended on, are recorded in different works, wherein as usual the simplest are the best. Varnishes are best classed according to

many

their

solvents, as

water varnishes,

spirit

varnishes,

varnishes, but more to the substances from usually distinguished according which they are prepared.
essential oil varnishes,
oil

and

EESINOUS VARNISHES

Are

either spirit varnishes, volatile oil varnishes, fixed oil varnishes, natural balsams, or compounds of these ; their

usual solvents being either spirit of wine or alcohol, of turpentine, or linseed oil.
principal varnishes hitherto introduced preferred in painting are the following
:

oil

The

and to be

MASTIC VARNISH.
It
is

true that other soft resins are sometimes substi-

tuted for that of mastic, and that very elaborate compounds of them have been recommended and celebrated,

but none that possess any evident advantage over the simple solution of mastic in rectified oil of turpentine.

Some have used a varnish

resin

of Damas, or common white mixed with naphtha. Others have employed mastic

and sandarach dissolved in nut, poppy, or linseed oils, and this is evident from the difficulty of removing varnishes from very old pictures. Mastic varnish is easily prepared, by digesting in a bottle during a few
hours, in a

warm

place, one part of the

dry picked resin

ON VARNISHES,

ETC.

145

with three or four of the oil of turpentine. quantity of this cleared varnish sufficient to gelatinize or set up
either of the before-mentioned drying oils of linseed, constitutes the transparent megilp of the painter, &c.
If,

instead of drying oil, the simple pure linseed oil be used with about an eighth of acetate of sugar of lead
dissolved in water, or ground fine, the opaque mixture called gumtion.

we

obtain variously

COPAL VAENISH.

As

other soft resins are sometimes substituted for

so
inferior

mastic,

hard resins

are

sometimes

em-

ployed in the place of copal in the composition of varnishes celebrated as copal, varnishes. Copal is
of
difficult

solution

in

turpentine and

linseed

oils,

both of which enter into the composition of the ordi-

nary

copal varnishes,

which are employed by the

coach painter and herald painter, and afford the best varnishes used by the house painter and grainer.

Combined, however, with linseed

oil and oil of turpenvarnish affords a vehicle superior in texture, tine, copal strength, and durability to mastic and its megilp, though

in

its application it is a less attractive instrument, and As copal swells while of more difficult management.

dissolving, so its solutions and varnish contract, and consequently crack in drying, and thence linseed oil is
essential to prevent its cracking. The mixture of copal varnish and linseed oil is best effected by the medium

of oil of turpentine, and for this purpose heat is sometimes requisite strong copal varnish and oil of turpentine in equal portions with one-sixth of drying oil
:

mixed together, hot, afford a good painter's vehicle : and if about an eighth of pure bees' -wax be melted into
it,

it

will enable the vehicle to

keep

its

place in the

manner of magilp. Elemi, anime, and

resins of inferior

146

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

hardness are sometimes substituted for copal in prepar-

ing

its

varnish.

WHITE LAC VARNISH

varnish introduced by the author. It is prepared by dissolving in alcohol or spirit of wine the lac resin of India, deprived chemically of all colouring
Is a

new

matter, and purified from gluten, wax, and other extraneous substances with which it is naturally combined ;

without which process the varnish it affords is opaque and of the dark colours of the japans and lackers of the East,

but

when thus

purified, its varnish is brilliant, trans-

parent, very hard, and nearly colourless. This varnish, being a spirit varnish, requires a warm temperature,

which

is useful in all varnishing, and it dries rapidly. Its place is usually supplied by the light, hard varnish of the shops, in which softer resins are used with shell-

lac.

LAO
Is of three principal kinds, namely, Stick-lac, Seed-lac, and Shell-lac, of dark or light amber colours, of which

the last is the purest, and that of palest colour is the best for varnishes. They are all soluble in pure spirit
of wine.
fc

Various compositions of Lac with less than fourth of mastic or sandarach, all dissolved, without fire, in spirit of wine, afford the French polishes, which
are applied to cabinet work by a roll of woollen list or cloth wound tight, the face of which being dipped into

the varnish and covered with a fine linen rag, having a drop only of linseed oil on the centre, is used circularly as a rubber for the varnishing and polishing the plain surfaces of the work by an easy and effica

and mouldings which the rubber cannot reach requiring to be varnished with the
cious process, the carvings

brush.

The dipping

of the rubber, and supplying the

ON VARNISHES,
drop of
goes on,
oil, till

ETC.

147

are to be repeated alternately as the

work

the whole

is

completed.

COWDIE,

Or

Fossil Varnish.

A new resin which exudes naturally

New
Zealand and Australia

from the Cowdie Pine of

it

from which being has obtained the improper name of Fossil (him, dug, under which it has been imported, and being a fine,
into the soil at the foot of the trees,

transparent resin nearly of the hardness of copal, and of similar habits, may become a valuable substitute for

But

the hard varnishes in decorative painting and fine art. it has hitherto been rejected by manufacturers of

varnishes, first from the

want of

success in forming a

permanent

solution,

owing

to its precipitating

from the

solvents after being dissolved, and secondly from the danger of ebullition, inflammation, and explosion of

gas evolved during its solution. This latter defect arises from the water absorbed by the resin in its growth, or in the earth, which renders
it

opaque, but from which

it

may

be freed by grossly

powdering and drying, when the resin becomes transparent as glass, and may be melted and dissolved with the safety of other resins; and the first-named difficulty we have effectually remedied by the following simple formula, which yields a strong varnish that dries readily and with a fine surface Take of broken and dried Cowdie Resin one part,
:

melt

it

and
oil

stir

in the ordinary vessel, with the usual caution, well and gradually into it, over a fire sufficient

to boil without

burning it, four parts or more of hot of turpentine till the solution is completed, finally stir it well and keep it hot off the fire one hour to clear.
this will afford

In

way, strictly followed, the cowdie or fossil resin an excellent varnish applicable to the pur-

148

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

poses of the usual copal varnishes, and superior to that of mastic varnish for pictures in not cracking like copal, and being more permanent than mastic, and as
easily

and

safely

removed when
oil,

requisite
it

but

it

does

not magilp with drying

although

may be mixed

and employed therewith.

are are of opinion also that, from the abundance, cheapness, and excellence of this resin, it is especially applicable to the purposes of civil, military, and naval
architecture, in whatever

We

works a varnish may be

re-

quired or can be usefully employed, to which the

diffi-

culty and danger of permanent solution have been hitherto the obstacles with manufacturers of varnishes

accustomed to the old

&c.,

resins of elimi, copal, sandarach,

gums; but which objections improperly remedied by the preceding formula. It are entirely is, we presume, for the uses here suggested that the
called

American merchants have become great purchasers of

the cowdie resin.

GENERAL REMARKS.
the qualities of the varnishes of mastic, cowdie, copal, and lac, it will appear that the latter are successively harder and more perfect as

Upon comparing

varnishes, and in proportion to their perfection as varnishes is the difficulty of using them as vehicles; and as it is necessary that before varnishing with any

them the picture should be thoroughly dry, to prevent subsequent cracking, this is perhaps more essential for the latter than for the former. Notwithstanding this there is one highly important advantage which necessity,
of

Beems to attend early varnishing

namely, that of prethe colour of the vehicle used from changing, serving which it is observed to do when a permanent varnish is passed over colours and tints newly laid but this it
; ;

ON VAENISHES,

ETC.

149

does always at the hazard, and often at the expense, of cracking, and early varnishing with soft varnish dries
slowly and is more disposed to bloom. This saving grace of early varnishing appears to arise from the circumstance that, while linseed and
other oils are in progress of drying, they attract oxygen, by the power of which they entirely lose their colour ;
but, after
colour.

becoming dry, they progressively acquire It is at the mediate period between oils thus

and acquiring colour, which commences previously to the oil becoming perfectly dry, that varnish preserves the colour of the vehicle, probably by preventing its further drying and oxidation, which latter may in the end amount to that degree which constitutes combustion and produces colour indeed it is an established fact that oils attract oxygen so powerfully, as in many cases to have produced spontaneous combustions and destructive fires.
losing
:

It
cases,

is

that

eminently conducive to good varnishing, in all it should be performed in fair weather,

whatever varnish
of cold or

may be employed and

;

that a current

damp

air,

which

chills

and blooms them,

perplexities of var-

should be avoided.

To escape the
it

nishing, some have rejected

altogether, contenting

themselves with

a practice which, by oiling- out, one extreme, runs to its opposite, and subjects avoiding the work to ultimate irrecoverable dulness and obscurity.

processes for the varnishes now used have been detailed in the Transaction* generally But with of the Society of Arts, 8fc., vol. xlix. to the recipes for compounding varnishes, &c., regard

The manufacturing

superabounding in ancient and modern

treatises,

how-

ever flatteringly recommended, there are few eligible and yet fewer justifiable to art and good chemistry by

150

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

the simplicity upon which certainty of effect depends,

being in general quite of the class of the recipes and formulae of the old cookery-books and dispensatories. Presuming the decorator and painter to have acquainted himself with the principles of colours, &c., so as to apply them with taste and effect, as well as with a due knowledge of his materials, both of which are indispensable, there will yet remain to the complete

mastery of his art the various modes and operations of painting, &c., in which they are to be applied, but for which he must rely upon his acquirement of skill and These, therefore, we now proceed finally to practice. describe, with such observations and additions as may
appear expedient.

PAET

IV.

THE MODES AND OPERATIONS OF

PAINTING.

CHAPTER XXVI.
OP MATERIALS, AND THE METHOD OF USING THEM.

WE
in

must assume that our student has mastered the elementary principles, and has attained some power
practice of drawing ;* we shall therefore proceed with instructions as to working with tho brush, as distinct from that done with the pencil.

the

This latter term has been applied to small brushes, such as "camel-hair" and "sable" pencils, and is
generally used symbolically in relation to painting: thus Sir Joshua Reynolds says, " the pencil speaks the tongue of every land."
Still,

mean the implement with which wet

pencil.

in general terms, a brush is understood to colour is applied,

in opposition to the dry point, such as a crayon or lead

water alone

The simplest method of painting is that is used as a medium; and we

" Practical letter-writers, see the

in

which

therefore

and

* For a course of elementary drawing, adapted for painters, grainers,

Manual

for House-Painters, &c.'~

of this series.

152

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

this a starting-point, the

make

pigments having been

is

previously mixed with a mucilage. The paper on which water-colour painting

is

executed

of various degrees of roughness ; for it will of course be understood that it is necessary that there should be
;

some " tooth " or grain on the surface the very smooth being only adapted for a very minute drawing which is to be very highly finished. The following: are the sizes of the different drawing-papers, and iLese

may

be obtained either hot-pressed, plain, or, as it is " called, not," meaning not hot-pressed, or possessing a finely grained surface for water-colour painting
generally,

and rough

(in various degrees)

for large

and bold

pictures.

The following
papers and their

are the
sizes
:

names

of the various drawing-

Demy

..

mnr

UKUU

Medium
.

22

Royal Super Royal

.

Imperial

Elephant Columbier
Atlas

Double Elephant
Antiquarian
. .

Several of these papers

may

be had of an extra
the Imperial, either

thick quality.

The paper most generally used

full size or in halves,

is

21 X 15, or in quarters, 15 x 11 5. The student will no doubt be possessed of a drawingboard ; if not, he is advised to purchase one at a respectable shop, rather than to have one made, as, in the former case, he can select from a stock of boards which have been kept some time, and are therefore likely to be well seasoned, whilst, in the latter, he will run the risk of the newly made board warping

DRAWING-PAPERS AND DRAWING-BOARDS.

153

Drawing-boards are made in twisting, or cracking. 1. Clamped : in these, pieces are placed various ways.
across the ends,

and are attached by what

;

is

called the

plough-and-tongue joint adopted method, and is only open to the objection that, as the fibres of the end-pieces are in an opposite direction to those of the board
itself,

this

is

a very generally

the latter

is liable to

in one way, and the former in another, thus, after a while, the ends of the cross-pieces will be found This will to project beyond the edges of the board.

shrink

not, however, last long,

and when

it

has been once or

twice corrected by the plane being run along the edge, 2. The crossit will cause no farther inconvenience.

be put on by the method called mitrewhich it is cut slantingly at its ends, the board being correspondingly cut to receive it. This is not
piece

may

clamping, in

any shrinking take the cross-pieces would be forced out of their place, 3. mitres, and the board thus thrown out of square.

as a rule advantageous, as, should

very good board is made by placing rabbets across the back of the board; these should be fixed edgewise, and should be inserted into grooves, the sides of which
are cut so as

planed to

to slant inward, the rabbets being the grooves and the rabbets should be rather wider at one end than at the other, and they
fit
;

may

thus be tightened by a blow from a hammer. They should not be glued, but should be merely attached by one screw near the end of each. Thus,
whilst the board
is
is prevented warping or twisting, it allowed to expand or contract, and splitting or are thus particular in cracking is prevented.

We

boards in order to avoid the annoyance ensuing from twisting and warping during the progress of a picture, of which there is the more likelihood
relation to

from the frequent washes applied

to the drawing, the

154

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

board being thus subjected to constant alternations of

wet and dry.

The paper for water-colour painting should be attached to the board by the method called " stretching." This is done in the following manner. The paper is cut so as to be slightly smaller than the board,
a strip of about three-quarters of an inch being removed all round ; a border of about half an inch is then to be turned up on each
face
side.

The

sheet

is

next to be turned

downward, whilst the back is to be covered with The water, which must be allowed to soak well in. moisture should be equalised by means of a sponge, so that one part may not be more wetted than the other.

The paper is then to be turned the wetted side and paste is to be applied to the towards the board which are subsequently to be pressed upturned edges,
down, during which
stretched, the

operation

the paper

is

to

be

thumbs being placed against the edge of the board and the fingers on the edge of the paper
whilst drawing it outward. If whilst drying some of the blisters which naturally arise in the damp paper do not seem to decrease with
sufficient rapidity they should be pricked with a needle in several places, so as to allow the air to escape ; this will in most cases be found a sufficient remedy, but if not suc-

cessful the surface of the paper

all over, especially
fail also,

must be again moistened towards the edges and if this should the paper must be taken off the board and the
;

The edges should be operation repeated altogether. well rubbed down with the handle of a penknife or some similar article, and the paper should be placed to
dry in a horizontal position. Sketching-blocks are very convenient, as they serve the purpose of a drawing-board with a quantity of paper ready stretched upon it. They consist of a

WATER-COLOURS.

155

pieces of paper well pressed and fastened together at their edges, so as to form a compact mass or block, which is then glued down to a piece of very

number of

thick millboard.

As each drawing

is

finished it

may

he removed by inserting the penknife into a small aperture specially left open and running it round the
edges, by which means the sheet will become detached and another ready for the next work will be presented. The outline having been made, the colouring is to be

proceeded with, but at this stage it is necessary to warn the student that no amount of colour will ever
convert a bad drawing into a good painting, and that the further the work progresses the more will the effect
cult will alteration
fore,

of incorrect outline become visible, and the more diffibecome ; the sketch should, there-

be most carefully corrected before the process of is commenced. Moist colours are taken from the pans on the point of the wet brush, and either transferred directly to the paper, or placed on the slab or palette, so that a quanThis is by far the tity may be mixed with water. safer plan, where any portion of the drawing is to be The moist colours in tubes are used evenly covered. by pressing on the lower end of the tube, when the colour, which is of some consistency, will be forced from
painting

the aperture opened by unscrewing the lid. The little pyramid of colour thus deposited, is then to be mixed

with water, by means of a washed down by a brush.

palette-knife, or it

may

be

Colour of any degree of

depth may thus be obtained. Water-colours in cakes are the most old-fashioned form, but still retain their hold in the estimation of
perhaps the greater number of artists, as they are for many reasons the most convenient, although for large work the pans and tubes are better, as colour may be

150

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

mixed in

quantities from them with greater rapidity than from the cakes. In rubbing the colour, the cake should not be dipped into the water-glass, as in that way its edges become wetted more than necessary, and cause it to crack and chip. The water should be placed

on the
in
it,

slab by means of a brush, and the colour rubbed the cake being afterwards placed on one of the edges at right angles to that which has been rubbed
it

until

has dried,
it

when

it is

to be restored to its place

in the box.

When

is

colours, each of

required to compound a tint from two them should be rubbed separately on

the slab, a space being left between them on which they should be mixed with a brush ; by this means the

cakes are kept unsoiled by other tints. When a quantity of colour is required in order to cover any large surface, it should be mixed in a saucer, and having been allowed to stand for an hour or so,
the colour should be carefully poured off into another vessel, leaving any sediment or particles of colour

which may have broken

off in the original saucer,

and

the rest of the colour will be smooth and clear.

This cannot, however, be done with all colours for as vermilion, emerald green, &c., are so heavy, that nearly the whole of the colouring
;

some of them, such

matter sinks to the bottom, and the liquid poured off would be almost pure water. It is, therefore, necessary to stir such at every brushful taken but they are not adapted for flat washes. In order that the colour may flow easily, it should,
;

for washing, be thin ; and it must be pointed out that the safest plan which can be adopted by the student is to work in stages, keeping the picture rather too light

than the opposite until

finishing

it is

near completion,

when the
;

and

spirited touches can be put in

for

it 18

THE USE OF THE BRUSH.

easy by repetition to darken the work, but always cult and troublesome to lighten it if too dark.

157
diffi-

the colour has been laid on, it should not be it has dried should any spots then darker than others, they may be lightened by appear rubbing them with a moist brush, a piece of Indian-

When

touched until

rubber, or bread crumbs ; and any part which may be lighter than the rest may be covered with another

wash, or may be as it were darned, by stippling, that is, by small dots, or separate touches, done with a brush
containing only a very small quantity of colour. The student is urged never to employ a small brush

where a large one could be used.

Small brushes make

the work look streaky, and boldness of manipulation, so much to be desired, is only to be attained by the use of large ones. In using large brushes, however,
is necessary in order to preserve the outline but very fine points can be made to good brushes by drawing them along a piece of waste paper, and, when

great care

held upright, very small work can, when required, be done with them. In laying a flat wash, care should be taken that sufficient colour is prepared for the immediate purpose, as the necessary evenness of the tint will be injured if the progress of the work be interrupted. The brush should contain as much colour as it will hold without allowing it to run down, but the point should be preserved.

The work should be commenced

at the top,

the board being placed in a slightly inclined position. Before commencing to work in colours, it is advisable that the student should have
is

some practice in what called painting in monochrome, or one colour ; and for this purpose sepia is generally preferred, from the
ease with which
it

washes.

It is a good plan to

draw

several squares, triangles,

158

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

and oblongs, of different sizes, and to commence by laying a flat wash over each of the smaller figures, and
advancing to the larger ones, for increased practice; it will at once be understood that the difficulty of laying a flat wash increases with the size of the surface. When a certain amount of power in using the brush has thus been attained, figures having a greater number of angles, such as octagons, nonagons, &c., should be drawn and coloured, care being taken not to pass over the outline, but still to carry the colour into all the
for

angles, whilst spreading

doing

this,

it evenly over the surface. In the brush should be held as nearly upright

as possible.

The
pale bottom.
ner.

tints should

at the top,

This

is

next be graduated, commencing and becoming darker towards the accomplished in the following man-

Mix

many

the colour in three degrees of depth, in as Comdifferent compartments of the slab.

lightest,

mence with the

and when the work has

proceeded about one-third of the width of the surface to be covered, remove as much as possible of the colour

from the brush, either against the edge of one of the compartments of the slab or on a piece of waste paper, and with the brush in this condition carry on the

work a

little further, so

that there

may

not be a quan-

tity of colour at the edge of the strip which has been tinted. Next, take a little of the colour of the second

degree of strength, and with it pass over the edge of the strip just coloured whilst the latter is still wet ; the two tints will thus be easily blended, and the full brush will then be used to carry the work further ;
in the same

way the gradation from the second

is to

to the

be made. The next study should be derived from a cylindrical surface, such as a garden-roller, a barrel, a jug, &c. In
darkest tint

SUBJECTS FOR PRACTICE.

159

darker as

becomes gradually removes from the highest light but the darkest portion is relieved near the edge by a reflected
subjects

such as these the tone

it

light.

from
tion,

is urged to make several studies from which he will, by careful observalearn much more than he could from an infinite

The student

objects,

number of drawing-copies. The next subjects for

practice should be of the spherical character, commencing with objects such as a cup or basin, which are only partially globular, and

subsequently proceeding to complete spheres, such as a large ball, an orange, fruit, &c. ; in fact, a group consisting of three apples, placed next to each other, with

a fourth resting on them, forms an excellent study of form, and of light and shade, whilst a bunch of grapes, as was long ago asserted by Titian, is the best that
could be conceived.
certain amount of practice in the use of the brush having been thus obtained, and the student having acquired a mastery over the implement and the colour he employs, the same method of proceeding is to be

applied to the colours generally. As our instructions are intended to lead

more

to

decorative than landscape painting, we refrain from referring to the methods of obtaining the numerous and ever- vary ing effects visible in nature, but we still

urge that observation of these must tend to improve the eye for colour, and to elevate the taste.

The

decorative artist

is

advised to practise flowersince

flowers,

painting

in

water-colour,

rendered

naturally and conventionally, form such an important element in ornamental art. But we must again urge correctness in drawing, and careful study of the natural growth and botanical features of the plant, so that it may, in being adapted to an ornamental

160

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

its

purpose, retain

natural characteristics.

It

is thia

knowledge which enables the designer to conventionalise with such admirable effect, as we see in some of
it is this knowledge which a man rises from a mere drudge to the posiby and it is by these means that he tion of an artist the power of pleasing the eye and refining acquires the taste of those around him. Having for a short time painted flowers from copies,
;

the better class of decorations

the student

is

nature as his model, and to paint

flower or spray,

advised, as soon as possible, to take first from a single

and subsequently from groups. are to be laid on as washes, the petals and leaves being subsequently worked up by stippling; but this must not by any means be overdone, but should

The

first tints

be resorted to merely as a finishing process to give, however inadequately, an idea of the exquisite refine-

ment of the subject itself. The decorative artist should

also

make the human

;

figure an integral portion of his study nor should animal forms be neglected, entering as they do into so

many

branches of ornamentation.

CHAPTER XXVII.
PAINTING IN TEMPERA.
THIS mode of painting, which is undoubtedly the most ancient, and which, in trade purposes, is called Distemper painting, derives its name from the fact that the colours are " tempered," or mixed with some liquid
or

medium

to bind their separate particles to each other

and

to the surface to

which the paint

is to

be applied.

PAINTING IN TEMPERA.

161

The following
Explained"

is

quoted from "Painting popularly

:

and Timbs) "The Italian noun tempera admits of the widest application, and would include any medium, even oil ; but, in its restricted
(G-ullick

and proper acceptation,

it

means a vehicle in which the

yolk of egg, beaten sometimes with the white, is the chief ingredient, diluted as required with the milky This is juice expressed from the shoots of the fig-tree.
the painting strictly termed a novo by the Italians. Vinegar, probably, replaced the fig-tree juice among
the northern
artists, from the difficulty of obtaining the latter, and in modern use vinegar is substituted. " Haydon says vinegar should be used to prevent the
;

putrefaction of the yolk of egg but the early Italian painters preferred the egg- vehicle when it had been suffered to stand until it had become decomposed hence
:

the phrase a putrido. " The artist is often

offensive
tions.

compelled to have recourse to very

his

media

to

make known

most refined revelapainting the egg-

On walls, and for coarser work, such as on linen, warm size was occasionally used, but

vehicle, undiluted, was generally preferred for altarpieces on wood. For various purposes, and at different

periods, however, milk, beer, wine,

and media composed

of water and more or less glutinous ingredients, soluble at first in water, such as gums, &c., have also been used. Such are the media or vehicles described by the
chief Italian writers as used in the days of Cimabue, Giotto, and Fra Angelico, and by the early painters

before the invention and improvement of oil painting. Pliny also mentions milk and the egg- vehicle as em-

ployed for ancient wall-paintings. The finer egg pera, in dry climates, has been found to attain so a consistence as to withstand ordinary solvents. use of wine in diluting these glutinous vehicles
At

tem-

firm

The
was

162

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

for a

common
so

long period.

many humorous

stories are told

Buffalmaceo, of whom by Boccaccio and

Vasari,

whom

is related to have persuaded some nuns, for he painted, to supply him with their choicest

wines, ostensibly for the purpose of diluting the colours, but really to be imbibed by the thirsty painter himself. The northern artists were sometimes obliged to content

themselves with beer.

In the works of the northern

tempera painters there are, however, very marked differences observable in their impasti, or body colour. It
is certain, therefore,

of different degrees of consistency.

that these painters employed media In the distemper of

is

scene-painting the

medium

weak

size of glue (glue

dissolved), but plaster of Paris, sufficiently diluted, is worked with the colours. The carbonate of lime, or

whitening, is less active as a basis for colours than the pure lime of fresco, but it is entirely destructive of transparency. When the more viscid media were em-

ployed by the tempera painters the

their purer use of the colours

effect

must, with

some of which, morewere transparent have been very lustrous and over, powerful in comparison with modern scene-painters' " " and these qualities were heightened by distemper
;

the addition of a strong varnish. Still, however, tempera fell far short of oil painting in richness and
transparency." The carbonate of lime, or whitening, employed as a basis, is, however, less active than the pure lime of The vehicles of both modes are the same, and fresco.
their practice is often combined in the same work : water is their common vehicle ; and to give adhesion to the tints and colours in distemper painting, and

make them keep

their place, they are variously mixed with the size of glue (prepared commonly by dissolving about four ounces of glue in a gallon of water). Too

PAINTING IN TEMPERA.

163

much of the glue disposes the painting to crack and peel from the ground while, with too little, it is friable and deficient of strength. In some cases the glue may
;

be abated, or altogether dispensed with, by employing

plaster of Paris sufficiently diluted and worked into the colours ; by which they will acquire the consistency

and appearance of

oil paints,

without destroying

.'heir

limpidness, or allowing the colours to separate, while they will acquire a good surface, and keep their place in the dry with the strength of fresco and without
to which animal glue is diswhich milk, and other vehicles recommended in this mode, are also subject. Of more difficult introduction in these modes of painting is bees'-wax, although it has been employed successfully in each of them, and in the encaustic of the ancients, who finished their work therein by heating

being liable to mildew

posed,

and

to

the surface of the painting till the wax melted. Tempera may be considered as opaque water-colour painting, since water enters more or less into the composition of all the media employed. The fact, however, that the colours thus mixed (with body white) are opaque
constitutes the great difference ; and thus whilst, as a rule, the lights in water-colour painting are obtained

by leaving the white paper more or less exposed, and by washing transparent colours over it, allowing for
the effect resulting from the colour being rendered lighter by the white ground underneath, all these gradations are accomplished in tempera by means of colours with which white is mixed in various quantities, the

high lights being executed in pure white. In all these respects tempera agrees with oil painting, the respective
vehicles alone constituting the great distinction. This style is very important to the decorative painter,

and the student

is,

therefore, advised to practise

it.

It

164

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

facility in

must be borne in mind that the same

blend-

ing the colours does not exist in tempera as in watercolour painting, for if the colour were diluted with
water, in order to soften it off, the gelatinous quality of the medium would be exhausted, and the colour

would rub
pare as

of course, impossible to premany gradations as there are tints in nature, and such as are placed next to each other dry by far
off;
it
is,

too quickly to allow of their being blended together. The processes of "hatching" and "stippling" have, " " been is another word
therefore,
for " etching," and consists in working lines in different directions so as to give the appearance of relief required.

employed.

Hatching

Stippling is done in dots instead of lines. The methods are often seen combined, the dots being placed in the lozenge-like spaces left by the crossings of the lines.

The method
is

that

by which the

principally used in decorative painting effect is obtained by flat tints of

different gradations ; and practice will soon enable the artist to blend these very successfully in the ornamental

forms of which the design consists.

A beautiful set of flowers

is

tempera painting,

in flat tints, as studies for published under the auspices of the

Department of Science and Art, and may be obtained through Messrs. Chapman and Hall, Piccadilly.

CHAPTER

XXVIII.
OIL.

PAINTING IN

THE

various

oils,

megilps, varnishes, &c., used in paintIt

is

ing in oils

have already been described.

not,

however, necessary that the student should prepare

PAINTING IN OIL.

165

these for himself, as they may all be purchased at most reasonable prices. The information in the body of the

book is, however, given in order that the student may be acquainted with the composition of the different vehicles, and be able to inanutacture them should circumstances at any time require him to do so. The colours used in oil painting have been given in Table XIII. The method now adopted of supplying them in collapsible tubes is a great improvement on those of former years. In early days the artist had to grind up
his

own

colours in oil

by means of a muller,
;

or piece of

stone, on a marble slab perhaps he had to roast the raw sienna and umber to produce the burnt sienna and burnt umber, and to pound them in a mortar ; the paints were then kept in jars, or gallipots, from which they were taken with the palette-knife. At a more m odern period the colours, ready ground up in oils, were tied

up

in pieces of bladder, like so many small puddings, a label outside denoting the contained colour. These were then termed " bladder colours," as we now speak "When the bladders were to be of " tube colours."

used a hole was pricked, the bladder was squeezed, the contents curled out like a handsomely coloured worm ;
a tack or small nail was then placed in the aperture
to close
it

up.
oil

The brushes used in those made of hog-hair,

painting are principally

fitch and sable, and badger brushes are also employed. These brushes goats'-hair are made round and flat, and are mounted in tin. Flat

hog-hair tools are generally preferred to round ones, as they give that squareness in the outline which contributes so much to the boldness and crispness in the

work.
It is almost needless to explain that the brushes should not be cut at the ends, but that the natural

166

THE GRAMMAR OP COLOURING.

point of each hair should be carefully preserved. If any special form of brush is required, in order to

accomplish certain results, they may be purchased under the head of irregular-shaped tools, amongst which are the Short Hair Flat, the Long Hair Flat, the Landseer brush especially adapted for animal made of extra thin hair; the Short Hair painting, Round Extra Long Hair Round the Set Brush, in which the hair is gathered into several separate tufts, with spaces between them the Swallow-tail or Doublepointed brush the Straight Angular Edge, in which the hair of the brush, which is a flat one, slants to a point in the middle the Angular Brush, in which the hair slants from one side of the point to the other the Hollow Brush, &c. All these are, however, intended for special methods of manipulation the student is advised to work with
; ; ;
;

the usual forms, only availing himself of the above when he has obtained full mastery over the other, when he wishes to accomplish a particular effect. In
decorative
painting, however, scarcely likely to occur.
this

contingency

is

The
and

hog-hair brushes, although firm, should be soft elastic, returning to their straight shape imme-

It is a diately after being pressed against the hand. to soak new brushes for an hour or two in good plan

The ends subwater, thus causing the hair to swell. and as they are then immersed in oilsequently dry,
colour, the portion enclosed by the tin still retains, for some time, a certain amount of moisture ; and as this

away its place is taken by particles of paint thus preventing, in a great degree, the annoyance caused by loose hairs working out during painting. Sable brushes. The hair of these is, of course, softer
dries

than the hog, and thus they

may be brought

to a finer

PAINTING IN
point,

OIL.

167

which is
of "

still

very firm. Although they go by the

name

Eed

lowish cast.

Sable," the best hair is of a pale yelThe round sables are very useful in

working up and finishing details. Some are set in " " sable those pencils quills and go by the name of which bag near their insertion should be avoided. Badger tools are differently formed from the others they are so bound that the hairs, instead of combining to form a point, spread outward something after the
; ;

This brush enjoys the fashion of a shaving-brush. name of "softener" or "sweetener," and is pleasant

used to blend the freshly laid colours together by sweeping over them.
cannot too strongly warn the student against the too frequent use of the softener, as it is apt to produce a woolly, feeble, and (if we may use the term)
unbusiness-like appearance. little practice will enable him to blend his colours with the brushes he is
using, or at most a larger tool, and he will soon learn to use the softener as a duster only. When the tool has been much used a certain amount of badger

We

colour will adhere to the ends of the hairs, and thus will inflict a series of scratches over the colour it is intended
it should be done by gathering up the them tightly whilst rubbing them on a dry rag each time the brush has been used and it should also be occasionally washed with soap and water and well rinsed. The water which remains after the hair has been squeezed may be got rid of by striking the brush against the edge of the easel, or against the maul- stick, and it may then be placed

to soften

it is

therefore necessary that

frequently cleaned. hairs and holding

This

is

to dry.

All the brushes used in

fully cleansed
;

oil painting should be care, the hair should be dipped in raw lin-

168
seed
oil,

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

which should be rubbed in by pressing the

brush between the fingers, so that all the colour it conThis tains may be diluted and set free from the hairs. liquid colour should then be pinched out by drawing
the brush between the finger and thumb, and it should afterwards be thoroughly washed with soap and warm water until the frothy matter formed by rubbing the brush
in the

hand

is

perfectly colourless.

The brushes should

then be rinsed in clean water, which should be beaten

them in the manner already described. It is not a good plan to wipe them on a cloth, as the smallest possible piece of fibre adhering to the ends of the hair
out of

the only rag prove a very great annoyance which may be used for this purpose with perfect safety Some artists use is an old disused silk handkerchief.

may

turpentine instead of linseed-oil ; but turpentine is injurious to the brushes, as it renders the hair

harsh and

stiff; it should only be used when it is required to wash out a brush quickly during work, so that the hairs may not be soaked in it. Some painters

use a mixture of nut-oil and turpentine in the

instance,

first

and pure nut-oil afterwards, which latter they do not quite wipe out, and thus the brush is kept soft and moist for use the nut-oil being a very slow drier. When the brushes are to be used in the same colours the next day, they need not be cleaned at night, but may be dipped in nut-oil and laid in a tin slant " Brush washers " are small tin until wanted again. cans, in which a still smaller one, the bottom of which in the same way that is pierced with holes, is placed
a glue-pot is placed in the outer pan. This inner vessel does not reach to the bottom of the outer receptacle, and has a piece of wire placed across the top ; the liquid in which the brush is to be cleaned is poured in until it rises about half way in the inner vessel;

PAINTING IN
the brush

OIL.

169

is then washed in it and rubbed off against the liquid, containing the colour in suspension, drains through the pierced bottom of the vessel, and

the wire
sinks

by

its

own weight

whilst the liquid rises, The surface most generally used for painting upon is It is sold in rolls of various widths and quacanvas. " " " lities Koman," and ticken." The plain cloth," most general form, however, in which it is purchased
is

bottom of the outer can, and limpid, in the inner one. pure
to the

which

stretched on frames, with wedges at the angles by These are made in it may be tightened up.

certain sizes,

or landscapes.

and in proportions adapted for Thus we have, amongst the

portraits
rest,

the

Kit-Cat
the

size

named

after the club

the portraits of

members of which were painted by Sir Godfrey size, in order to fit the room in which this measures 36 X 28 the pictures were to be placed The following are some of the sizes used inches.
Kneller in this
:

Ft. In.

Ft.

In.

Head size Whole length

. .

2 7

by
10
2

Half length Bishop's half length Bishop's whole length

4 4 8

4 3
3

8 10

8 10 4 8 10

Many of the painters of old executed some of their finest works on panels of wood, and such, made of well-seasoned mahogany, are still often used besides which we have prepared millboards, which afford an excellent surface
:

for painting

the

Academy

boards,

made
;

of a thinner

millboard and well adapted for sketching

and

also pre-

pared oil-paper, which is exceedingly is very economical and portable. If

useful, whilst it
it

be desired to

preserve the sketch, it may be glued on to a strained canvas. The method of painting in oil may be described as consisting of four processes

Dead Colouring,

Glazing, Scumbling, and Imcasting.

170

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

is

Dead colouring
it is

the

first,

so called because the colours are laid

or preparatory, painting : on in a dead

or cold

manner

to form, as it

were the ground

for Ihe

subsequent processes

resembling in some degree the

work known amongst house-painters as "priming," the future effects being rather indicated and provided for than really attained. It is sometimes found convenient to divide the painting of a picture into certain stages, termed first, second, third, and fourth paintings, &c.

Glazing consists in spreading colour, much diluted, over the picture, or parts of it. The, colours which when mixed with the proper vehicles become transparent, are called " glazing
colours."

dows and
give force
"

to give

The purpose of glazing is to deepen shawarmth or coldness to their hues, to

appear too strong, and to to the picture. forms a distinct series of tints, without

subdue lights which

may

and richness

Glazing which it is impossible to represent transparent objects. By it, shadows are strengthened, and warmth or cold-

ness given to their hue; by it, also, lights that are unduly obtrusive are subdued, or additional colour and

tone given to those that are deficient in force and richness. The processes of glazing, we have observed, is generally effected by the application of diluted trans-

parent colour but occasionally semi-transparent colours are used when rendered sufficiently transparent, by the
;

admixture of a large proportion of vehicle. Such glazings are useful to modify parts of the picture, or produce particular effects, such as representations of
Glazing, when used " " produces that horny " uniform dulness of surface and " leathery discolora-

smoke, mist, dust, and the

or in

like.

injudiciously

excess,

tion so offensive to the eye, which,

till

recently,

was

PAINTING IN
the

OIL.

171

common

characteristic of the

modern Continental

Schools/'*

Scumbling resembles glazing, but the colours used are opaque ones. It is used to give distance to objects which appear too near, and to modify effects which are found to be too strong. The colour thus used, after a time sinks partially into that over which it is passed,
producing beautiful
touches or lights
this process
:

effects.

ging, consists in the addition of a

Dry-touching, or dragfew sharp or bold

great care should be taken so that not be overdone, so as to produce what is known as a " mealy " appearance. Impasting (Ital. impasto) consists in painting the

may

that is to highest lights solidly with opaque colours say, mixed more or less with white, and laid on thickly not only with the brush, but often with the palette-

Impasting gives texture and surface. In the " imforeground, and in parts not intended to retire, " should be bold ; but this loading of masses of pasto
knife.

colour upon the picture, so as to give actual relief to the high lights, making them project considerably from,

the surface, has its disadvantages for although the thus mechanically raised are strongly illuminated parts
;

light impinging on their prominences, these protuberances of paint will, of course, in certain lights, cast a shadow of their own. They also afford lodg-

by the

for dust, and, owing to the quantity of white in them, they are very liable to discolour and thus it often occurs that they form dark or dirty patches in the very places where high lights were intended.
;

ment

The
is

easel

a ladder-like frame on which the canvas

placed during painting, so made that the picture can be raised or lowered to suit the convenience of the artist is an important item in the furniture of the
*

"Painting Popularly Explained," Gullick and Timid.

172

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

implements mentioned

studio, and, besides the other

These are Palettes, are indispensable. gany, or of satin or other light woods

made

of

maho-

the latter are

to be preferred for mixing tints, the precise tones of which can be better seen on them than on the darker

ones. Palettes should be light in weight, and the oblong ones will be found more useful than those of the ellip-

they afford more space for colours. New should be prepared for use by rubbing raw palettes linseed-oil repeatedly over them until they will absorb
tical shape, as

no more, the

last coat

being allowed to dry in

the

palette will not then be stained colour.

by

the absorption of

palette should be carefully cleaned every day on leaving off work, and colour should not by any means

The

be allowed to harden upon it. "When all the colour has been scraped off with the palette-knife (carefully observing not to make scratches or indentations), the
be cleaned with a piece of silk rag dipped in nut-oil, the edges being also well attended to. have often observed students merely cleaning off the middle of the palette, whilst round the edges
surface should

We

there have been accumulations of hardened colour.

The
first

palette should be left each night as clean as when used. Should it be desired to save any colour

which may remain,

for next day's use, it should be scraped off the palette and placed in a little heap in a saucer, and covered with water, which, when poured off,
will leave the colour fresh

on a piece of

tinfoil,

and good, or it should be put which may be closely rolled up,

thus forming a temporary collapsible tube.

FRESCO.

173

CHAPTER XXIX.
FRESCO.

THE

art of painting in Fresco is naturally adapted to decorative painting, and the zealous attention of eminent artists of the day having been turned to the revival

of this grand and important mode of thereon are deemed desirable.

It is hardly necessary to
fresco painting is

art,

a few remarks

inform the reader that performed with pigments prepared in

water, and applied upon the surface of fresh-laid plaster of lime and sand, with which walls are covered ; and

mode of painting which is least removed from modelling or sculpture, it might not improperly be called plastic painting for which the best lime, perfectly burnt and kept long slacked in a wet state, is most essential. As lime in an active
as
it is

that

in practice

common cementing material of the ground and colours employed in fresco, it is obvious that such colours or pigments only can be used therein, as remain This need not, however, be a unchanged by lime.
state is the

universal

rule

for

painting in

fresco,

since

other

cementing materials as strong or stronger than lime may be employed, which have not the action of lime

upon

colours

such

is

calcined
;

gypsum, of which

which, being neutral sulplaster of Paris is a species of lime, exceedingly unchangeable, have little or phates

no chemical action upon

colours,

and would admit even

Prussian blue, vegetal lakes, and the most tender colours, to be employed thereon, so as greatly to extend
design;
the sphere of colouring in fresco, adapted to its various this basis merits also the attention of the
painter in crayons, scagliola, and distemper.

174

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

So far, too, as regards durability and strength of the ground, the compo and cements now so generally employed in architectural modellings would afford
;

new

and advantageous grounds for painting in fresco and as they resist damp and moisture, they would be well adapted, with colours properly chosen, to situations in which paintings executed in other modes of the art, or even in ordinary fresco, would not long
endure.

As
either

these materials, and others now in use, were unknown or unemployed by the ancient painters

in fresco, their practice was necessarily limited to the pigments enumerated in the preceding Table IX. ; but

every art demands such a variation in practice as adapts it to circumstances and the age in which it is

which it may degenerate, remain stationary, but cannot advance. Although differing exceedingly in their mechanical execution, the modes of fresco, distemper, and scagliola
exercised, without attention to
or, at best,

agree in their chemical relations so far, therefore, as respects colours and pigments, the foregoing remarks
;

apply to these

arts.
is

From

the fact that fresco

executed on the plaster

whilst in a wet condition, it becomes necessary that the portion of the work begun in the morning should be
finished before evening. Full-sized drawings are therefore prepared, and the portion which is to be painted in the day is transferred to the plaster, of

which just a sufficient quantity has been freshly laid on. This is done either by pricking through the lines and pouncing through the apertures with red or blue
dust, or by marking over the lines with a blunt point, so that a slightly indented mark is left on the plaster

underneath.

The

outline being thus

secured on the wall, the

FRESCO.
is

175

painting

proceeded with, and in this the artist must depend entirely on his experience and knowledge of the result his work will produce ; for the tints when
applied look faint and cold, and sink into the wet plaster, so that it is necessary to go over the work repeatedly before the required effect is attained.
first

The
ground
ployed.

colours used are principally mineral, and are in pure water, which is also the vehicle em-

The wall having been previously prepared and covered with plaster made of river sand and best old lime and mixed to about the usual slackness, the
intonaco or painting surface
is

to

be floated on.

This

must be prepared of the very best old lime, perfectly The mixture must be made about the free from grit. consistency of milk, and is then passed through the hair sieve into jars in which it is allowed to settle,

mixed with

poured off; the sediment is then sand well sifted, in the proThis plaster portion of one part lime to two of sand. is spread by means of wooden or glass implements; but iron trowels maj be used if they are perfectly free from rust, and care is taken not to press the iron
is

when the water

fine quartz

into the plaster.

The rough-cast ground

wetted, and the intonaco
coats, the last
is

is

now

to be floated

to be thoroughly on in two
first
;

with rather more sand than the

the thickness of the two should be about 3-16ths of

an inch. The whole is then to be gone over with a roll of wet linen, which will remove the marks of the trowel, and prevent the surface being too smooth.

When

the intonaco has acquired sufficient firmness,

which may be tested by pressing it with the finger, the first colouring may be applied. Where possible, the portion of plaster laid on for the day's work should be

176

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING,

to

made

end

at

some bold outline of the

picture, or at

the edges of some well-defined object. If the result of the work is not satisfactory, the artist is compelled to cut away the plaster and apply fresh ; the process of
fresco-painting thus becomes a slow

and

difficult one.

CHAPTER XXX.
USEFUL RECEIPTS.

CLEANING AND RESTORING.

OF

the importance of this minor function of the art

of painting a just estimate may be formed by considering that there is hardly a limit to the time which works

may be preserved by care and attention. These are subject to deterioration and disfigurement by the failure of their grounds, by simply by dirt,
in oil-painting

the obscuration and discolourment of vehicles and varnishes,

by the fading and changing of colours, by the cracking of the body and surface, by damp,
air,

mildew, and foul

and by mechanical
is

violence.

The

first

thing necessary to be done

to restore the

on canvas, by stretching or lining with new In cases of simple dirt, washing with a sponge or soft leather with soap and water, judiciously used, is sufficient. Varnishes are removed by friction or or by chemical and mechanical means united, solution,
ground,
if

canvas.

when the varnish

with
oil

is

combined, as commonly happens,

foulness.

and a variety of

TO REMOVE VARNISH

By

friction,

if it

be a

soft varnish,

such as that of

mastic, the simple rubbing of the finger- ends, with or

USEFUL RECEIPTS.

177

without water, may be found sufficient a portion of the resin attaches itself to the fingers, and by continued rubbing removes the varnish. If it be a hard
;

varnish, such as that of copal, which is to be removed, friction with sea or river sand, the particles of which

have a rotundity that prevents their scratching, will

accomplish the purpose.

The

solvents

commonly employed

for this purpose

are the several alkalies, alcohol, and essential oils, used simply or combined. Of the alkalies, the volatile in its

mildest state, or carbonate of ammonia,

is

the only one

which can be safely used in removing dirt, oil, and varnish from a picture, which it does powerfully; it must therefore be much diluted with water, according to the power required, and employed with judgment and caution, stopping its action on the painting at the proper time by the use of pure water and a sponge. Many other methods of cleaning have been recommended and employed, and in particular instances, for sufficient chemical reasons, with success; some of which we will recount, because, in art so uncertain, it
is

good

to

be rich in resources.

thick coat of wet fuller's earth

may be employed

with safety, and, after remaining on the paint a sufficient time to soften the extraneous surface, may be

removed by washing, and leave the picture pure and an architect of the author's acquaintance has succeeded in a similar way in restoring both paintings and gilding to their original beauty by coating them with wet clay. Ox-gall is even more efficacious than soap. In filling cracks and replacing portions of the ground, putty formed of white lead, whitening, varnish, and drying oil, tinted somewhat lighter than the local colours require, may be employed, as plaster of Paris may also in some cases and, in restoring colours
;

178

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

accidently removed, it should be done with a vehicle of simple varnish, because of the change of tint which

takes place after drying in

oil.

BEHOVING PAINT,
Burning, &c. In those cases in which it is requisite to remove painting entirely from its ground, it is usual to resort to mechanical scraping, &c., or to the very dangerous operation of setting fire to the painted surface immediately after washing it over with oil of
turpentine, called turps, for burning off the paint from old disfigured work ; an operation that may be safely

and more easily accomplished by laying on a thick wash or plaster of fresh-slacked quicklime mixed with soda, which may be washed off with water the following day, carrying with it the paint, grease, and other foulness, so that when clear and dry, the painting may be renewed as on fresh work. Clear-colling is sometimes
resorted to over old painting, for the purpose of repainting, in which case the surface exposed to the sun's

rays or alterations of temperature

blistered

is

liable to

become

and

scale oft

PART

V.

THE CHAEACTEEISTIC FEATUEES OF THE VAEIOUS STYLES OF OENAMENT.

CHAPTEE XXXT.
OF OKNAMENT GENERALLY. " DECOKATIVE painter" does not mean just one who can paint decoration, but it should imply that the person so termed understands what kind of ornaments should be applied as a system so as to carry out the

admirable rule that construction should be decorated, but that decoration should not be constructed. Further,

he must bear in mind that in

all

decoration the

leading idea of the designer should be fitness ; for, ever beautiful an ornament may be in itself,

howthat

sadly deteriorated when it is out of place. Again, the decorative artist should make himself acquainted with the styles and orders of architecture,

beauty

is

may agree with them. What say of a dramatic writer who introduces into a play, the period of which is supposed to be that of William the Conqueror, characters, or even costumes,
so that his decoration

should

we

ti

see

belonging to the reign of Charles the First ? and yet we uneducated men painting Gothic ornaments on

180

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

buildings which are Greek in character, and making other blunders of a similar nature such as render;

which was intended to be in relief, or placing a border on a curved surface when the whole beauty of the form consists in its geometrical and rectilineal character.
ing an ornament in the
flat

Ornament may,
into the symbolic

in the first place, be broadly divided

;

and aesthetic or, such as address our understanding, and those which appeal to our feelings. We may term those styles symbolic* in which the ordinary elements have been chosen for the sake of their
significations as symbols of something not necessarily implied, and irrespective of their effect as works of art or arrangements of forms and colours. Those that

ciples of

are composed of elements derived solely from prinsymmetry of form and harmony of colour,

and exclusively for their effect on our perception of the beautiful, without any further extraneous or ulterior
aim,

may be

termed

aesthetic.

Style in ornament is analogous to hand in writing. As every individual has some peculiarity in his mode of writing, as every man has his individual habit of
lias

chough t and mode of expression, so every age or nation been distinguished in its ornamental system, and
certain individuality of taste, either original or

by a

borrowed.

There are two provinces of ornament the flat and In the relieved we have the contrast of and shade in the flat we have the contrast of light in both a variety of effect for the pure light and dark
the relieved.
;
:

Much of the effect gratification of the sense of vision. common to both ; but in the flat a play of line is the main feature, whilst in the relieved a play of masses,
is

acted upon

by

light, so as to
*

produce shadows, which

Wornum's

Analysis.

THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN

STYLES.

S81

materially add to the beauty of form, whilst colour

may

be an auxiliary to both, but

in the
flat,

it

acts with greater

power

as

it is

entirely dependent

on

light.

Although the varieties of ornamental systems are very numerous, they may be classed under three great
ancient, middle-age, and modern. periods To the ancient belong Egyptian, Assyrian, Grecian,

Roman

the middle-age period comprehends the whilst in the Byzantine, Saracenic, and Gothic modern are classed the Renaissance, the Cinquecento, and the Louis Quatorze.
; ;

CHAPTER XXXII.
THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN
STYLES.

THE elements of Egyptian ornament have, as a rule, a particular meaning, being seldom, if ever, chosen for the sake of beauty of effect. The style is, therefore, very
simple and limited in
its arrangements in comparison which mere symbolism was superseded by the pure principles of art the artist aiming at effect rather than meaning.

with later

styles, in

JL

Fig. 10.

" we cannot but admire Yet," says Mr. Wornum, the ingenuity with which the Egyptian decorator, by a
'

mere symmetrical arrangement,

has

converted even

182

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

the incomprehensible hieroglyphics into pleasing and

tasteful

ornaments." arrangement, however,

is

A simple symmetrical
lines, or
is,

the

limit of his artistic scheming, and generally in the shape of a simple progression, whether in horizontal

repeated on the principle of the diaper; that

row upon row, horizontally or diagonally, as seen in the Tombs of the Kings at Thebes. The Winged Globe (Fig. 10) is the most important of Egyptian ornaments it is supposed to have been an invocation to the good spirit, Agathodemon, and was used in architecture, costume, and every kind of manu;

factured fabric.

In one class of ornament Egypt is eminent, independent of its skilful application of art to manufactures it is remarkable in its complete adaptation of its own
:

natural

peculiar to itself; in

productions in the development of a style its conventional treatment of the

natural types of the locality, as, for instance, the Papyrus-plant (Figs. 11 and 12), and the lotus or
water-lily of the Nile, the element of so many varieties of ornament.
F'
"12

but

natural

e Egyptian details are not mere crude imitations of nature, selected by symbolism, and objects,

fashioned by symmetry into ornamental decoration. So that we have here one great class, and the earliest
systematic efforts in design in the world's history. Many of the details of the Egyptians are still popular ornaments handed down to our own times, such as the

key border, &c. Next we have the Zigzag which was used as a type of the waters of the Nile, and is still preserved as the
>ymbol of Aquarius, the water-bearer, in the Zodiac.

fret or

THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN

This has been

STYLES.

183

a favourite ornament in all periods, and shall again meet with it as the zigzag in the Norman, and as the dog-tooth in the early English styles.

we

Equal in importance to the zigzag is the Wave scroll, it typified the waves of the rising Nile, from (Fig. 13)
;

Fig. 13.

which Egypt derived so many benefits. It subsequently became a favourite ornament in Greece, where it no doubt suggested the idea of the scroll proper, in which the wave is alternated on each side of a serpentine line. Next we have the lotus or water-lily of the Nile, and the papyrus-plant, both treated as were indeed in a strictly convenall the Egyptian ornaments the tional manner, as already shown in Figs. 11, 12
;

former typified the fruitfulness produced by the inundations of the Nile, and was used not only as a flat, or even relief, ornament, but as a leading decoration

on the Egyptian columns, around which it is frequently given as a frieze or broad band. Many of the columns are themselves founded upon its form, or rather upon the form of a bundle of the stalks banded together, with flowers on the capitals. The Fret, or labyrinth, was the type of the Labyrinth of Lake Mceris, with its twelve palaces and three thousand chambers representing, in their turn, the twelve signs of the Zodiac, and the three thousand
;

184
years
of

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

transmigration the soul was supposed to illustrate in the next chapter this ornaas adopted by the Greeks.

undergo.

We

ment

Gaudy diapers and general gaiety of colour are likewise characteristic of Egyptian taste, but the colours are generally limited to red, blue, yellow, and

green,

though the Egyptians were acquainted with

all

nearly

other colours.

style of ornament may be said to have been contemporaneous with the Egyptian. Its chief

The Assyrian

characteristics are sculptured records of leading events,

and the humanheaded colossi with

bodies of either bulls

or

lions.

The As-

syrian buildings were erected on terraces

composed of sun-dried faced with bricks,

sculptured
slabs

of

stone, with wooden columns and super-

structure,
Fig. 14.

which

of
as

decayed time progressed; this accounts for the circumstance that we have but little data as to the cornices and
internal ornamentation, whilst we have large portions of the external sculptures, pavements, &c.

course

The Sphinx,
Assyrian bulls

or composite animal, with which the

(Fig. 14) must be classed, were also whole avenues of them, important objects in Egypt with obelisks, led to the temples and we interspersed
;

meet with the sphinx in Greece, and a similar It must, howanimal, called the chimera, in Rome. be noted that the Egyptian sphinx (Fig. 15) is ever,
also

THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN

STYLES.

185

always male and without wings, whilst the Grecian sphinx is female, with wings. It may be that the the Assyrians, at least ancients thought that the

they selected to guard them should possess a combination of attributes which should render them in
deities

way fitted for the position ascribed to them. Thus, for strength, they gave their idol the body of a bull ; for wisdom, the head of a man ; whilst, in order to give
every
omnipresence, they added wings. Truly, in the words of Holy Writ, " they had mouths, but spoke not they had eyes, but saw not they had ears, but heard not
;
; ;

they had noses, but smelled not handled not they had " feet, but walked not
; ;

they had hands, but

and have not all that made them become like unto them? For the
nation has passed away,
the palaces have crumbled to the dust, and
these supposedly wise,
Fig. 16.

and omniwatchmen have been buried for more than two present thousand years. Armies have passed over them without dreaming of their very existence, corn has waved its and only in our own day golden head over them have these records of the distant past been brought to light and lodged in the museums of Europe. In addition to the sculptured histories, we find reliefs of several gods, and a peculiarly formed tree, called the
powerful,
;

sacred tree.

rian ornamentation.
as a sacred

This emblem occurs continually in AssyIt is supposed to have some

life,

reference to the tree of

so universally recognised

and mysterious symbol in the religious of th/3 East. Mr. Fergusson has conjectured systems

186
that
it

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

" be identified with the " grove so frementioned in the Bible. It consists of an upquently right central stem, with branches extending to a kind

may

by other branches proceeding in an upform and bending into an arch above, flowers being right These flowers seem to be the placed at intervals. flower" (Fig. 16) mentioned in the description "open of Solomon's temple, and to form the prototype of the " Greek honeysuckle, whilst the " chain (Fig. 17) was also used, and seems to have been the original guilloche
of border formed

Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

which afterwards became such a leading ornament in There are proofs that the ornaments were strongly coloured, and that much gilding was used. Grandeur of proportion, simplicity of parts, and costliness of material, were the characteristics of the Egyptian style and this love of gorgeousness prevailed in all Asiatic art, in which we find gold, silver, ivory, In the Hindoo art jewels, and colours profusely used. we find the fantastic element prevailing, and though the same jewelled richness is observed as in the Egyptian, the simplicity and grandeur axe wanting.
Greece.
;

THE GRECIAN STYLE.

187

CHAPTER

XXXIII.

THE GRECIAN STYLE.

HITHERTO
all

the ornaments have been symbolic or

descriptive;

but
this

forms introduced for their

alone
;

when we come to Greece we find own sake, for their beauty

must be considered as a decided step in made rapid strides, and advanced with it, the pediments of sculpture having the temples were filled with beautiful groups, and the frieze on the cella of the Parthenon was sculptured with a procession consisting of horses and men, which
advance.

and

Architecture had

Fig. 18.

grouping and execution has never been surpassed. It was placed in an elevated position in the cloister or covered walk around the building; and as the spectator was thus debarred from stepping backward to
for

view it from a distance, the sculpture was executed in low relief, whilst full effect was still given to the roundness of the figures which effect would have been lost from the closeness of the spectator had the work been executed in high relief, for when looking from below, the projecting parts would have

188

THE GRAMMAR OF

COLOURIN(5.

hidden the others.

British

Portions of this frieze are in the

casts,

Museum, and

coloured to suit the various

theories as to the extent to

colour to sculptures,

may

which the ancients applied be seen in the Crystal Palace

(Greek Court). The pediments (or triangular spaces ahove the columns at each end, corresponding with the gable-ends of a cottage) were filled with magnificent

most gracefully with the form of the space they were

sculptures, the positions of the figures corresponding to

Fig. 19.

occupy.

The

frieze outside

was

filled

with metopes or

groups of figures and triglyphs, which were supposed to represent the ends of joists resting on the architraves. These were divided into three compartments

by grooves or water-channels, and underneath are pendants, supposed to represent drops of water. The first ornaments which we find in the Greek
vases are thoso with

acquainted

the
fret

Zigzag, the

Labyrinth or

which Egypt has already made us "Wave scroll, and the The most characteristic (Fig. 18).

THE GRECIAN

STYLE.

18U

ornaments of the period, however, are the Echinus, or horse-chestnut, popularly called the egg and tongue,

and the Anthemion or honeysuckle (Fig. 19), or Palmette, both of which it in some degree resembles it is generally alternated with thelily, or some analogous form. The capital forms in the three Greek orders (the Doric, Corinthian, and Ionic) the distinctive architec;

The Doric capital consists of a circular cushion, called the Echinus, from its being invariably decorated in colour with that ornament, and the
tural ornament.
flat

In the is frequently called the echinus order. Greek forms the curves are flat, being portions of This is no doubt ellipses and parabolas, not of circles.
order

owing to the practice of polychromatic decoration which was universally adopted; and it has already been remarked that high relief, as producing shadows,
antagonistic to the effect of colour. In the second, or, as it is called, the Alexandrian, period, the ornamental forms were elaborated and the
is

simple scroll added to them this, in its original development, consisted, as already stated, of a succession of spirals reversed alternately, and the practice of
:

carving, instead of painting, the ornaments began; horns or volutes were added to the capital, a border of the Anthemion was often placed under them, and thus

the Ionic capital was formed. In the Corinthian capital the volutes are further the body is a graceful bell, clothed with developed the acanthus leaf. The ordinary scroll and acanthus were only in a slight degree developed in Greece, but became leading features in the Roman system of orna-

mentation.

ROMAN.

The Roman system of ornamentation cannot be considered in any way original, since the only new

190

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

is that of the shell, which in became such an important feature in cerThe Romans, however, entain styles of ornament. decorated, and developed the Greek elements, larged, which they embellished and amplified until the original refinement was lost in gorgeousness. The Greek origin is no doubt attributable to the fact that most of the

form which appears

later periods

artists

employed were Greeks.

chief characteristic of the Roman style, then, is great magnificence, the Acanthus being largely em-

The

Fig. 20.

ployed. The Composite order now appeared, made up of the echinus, the volute, and the acanthus and the
;

and acanthus, which had both been so sparingly used in Greece, now became leading features, almost
scroll

every ornamental form, indeed, being enriched with the acanthus.

The Roman acanthus

Grecian;

is, however, distinct from the the Greeks used the Acanthus spinosa, or

narrow prickly acanthus, whilst the Romans adopted the Acanthus moZZis, or soft acanthus, known to us as
the

Brank Ursine.

But they mostly,

for capitals, used

BYZANTINE.

191

conventional clusters of olive-leaves, in order to obtain

the strong effects required on the pillars of their lofty temples; this modification does not, however, seem
to
is

have been adopted in any other situation. Fig. 20 a sketch from a well-known example of a Roman
with the acanthus.
is

scroll decorated

The Tuscan

capital

the Doric, in which the echinus an astragal, or quarter round

simply an Italian rendering of is exchanged for a

narrow half-round

moulding, taking the place of the annulets or zones underneath the Doric capital.

The Romans, as well as the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks, used monsters and composite animals,
such
as

the

triton,

the

griffin,

the chimera,

&c.,

which may be seen on the sculptures of the period,

CHAPTER XXXIV.
BYZANTINE.

WHEN Constantino, the first Christian emperor of Rome,

removed the
seat of empire

to Constantinople, pre-

viously called Byzantium (about A.D. 330), he took with him the arts of the former empire which were then
in a most debased condition

and applied them to the and decoration of the new city. Thence enlargement arose that combination of Roman, Greek, and Oriental traditions which distinguish the Byzantine style
(Fig. 21).

" The in his Analysis says peculiar views of the Early Christians in matters of art had,

Mr.

Wornum

before the establishment of Christianity

by the

State,

192

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

no material influence in society, though the pagan found many vigorous opponents long before the time of Constantine. During the first and second centuries Christian arts were limited to symbols, and were then never applied as decoration, but as All Christian deexhortations to faith and piety.
idolatries

coration rests

upon

this foundation

the same spirit

of symbolism prevailing throughout, until the return to

Fig. 21.

the heathen principle of beauty (to the aesthetic) in the period of the Renaissance." The early Christian designers, most of them no doubt

connected with the Church, seem rather to have avoided than sought beauty in these peculiar forms, from

same feeling by which the Egyptians were animated. The lily (fleur-de-lis), the emblem of the Virgin and of purity, is as common as the lotus
precisely the

BYZANTINE.

193

was in Egypt, though having a very different meanof the Greek ing, and a peculiarly angular rendering acanthus was also used. The reason why the beautiful forms of Greece were none other than that they rejected seems to have been
were pagan in their origin. Paganism, however, consisted solely in forms, not in the colours adopted ; still, as paganism itself expired, the scroll and other orna-

ments were admitted, the foliage being rendered in the peculiarly formal manner already described. The chief varieties of the Romanesque are the
Byzantine, the Lombard, and the Norman. Both the Lombard and the Norman may be considered in their main features as mere modifications of the Romanesque; certainly few examples of the Romanesque out of Italy

were not derived directly or indirectly from ConstanThe Norman has by most writers been considered as the first of the Gothic styles, and as such,
tinople.

we

shall class it here.

Besides

the

sculptured

Christians, their decorative effects

ornaments of the early were produced by

polychromatic ornamentation, executed by means of

painting and by mosaics.

The earliest paintings after the time of Constantino are to be found in the catacombs of Rome and Naples.
The general
the
characteristics of such paintings are, that

strongly defined by a very fine, brown line, dark and broad the figures are by firm, no means well drawn and the colours and shadows are not very forcible, although they are somewhat
outlines are
; ;

heavy. Byzantine mosaiciwork* three heads

may

be classed under

* For

much

excellent account

information concerning which by Mr. J. B. Waring.

we

are indebted to the

194
1.

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

Glass mosaic, called Opus

walls and vaults.

Musivum used
;

for both

2.

Glass tesselation, called generally Opus Grecanicum, conventional ; generally inlaid in church furniture.

8.

Marble tesselation, called indifferently Grecanicum and Alexandrinum, conventional formed into
;

pavements. In the first division of mosaics we observe as a

it was employed only to represent and reproduce the forms of existing objects, such as figures, architectural features, and conventional foliage, which

peculiarity that

were generally relieved with some slight indications of shading upon a gold ground, the whole being bedded on the cement covering the walls and vaults of the basilicas and churches.
this

of glass employed in the formation of of very irregular shapes and sizes, of all colours and tones of colour, and the ground that

The pieces work are

almost invariably prevails is gold. The manner of execution is always large and coarse; yet, notwithstanding this, the effect of gorgeous, luxurious, and
at the

same time solemn decoration

is

unattainable by

any other means as yet employed in structural ornamentation.

The second
tesselation, or

variety of Christian mosaic, the glass Opus Grecanicum, consisted in the inser-

tion into grooves, cut in white marble to the depth of about half an inch, of small cubes of variously coloured and gilded " smalto," as the Italians called, and still
call,

the material of which mosaic is composed, and in the arrangement of these simple forms in such geometrical combinations as to compose the most elaborate

patterns.

These differ from all that were produced by the former system in the essential particular of being purely

SARACENIC,

195

conventional in style.

customary

to

These ornamental bands it was combine with large slabs of the most

serpentine, porphyry, pavonazzetto, precious materials and other valuable marbles, and apply them to the decoration of the churches and basilicas.

third system of mediseval mosaic, the Opus Alexandrinum, which formed the ordinary church-paving

The

from the time of Constantine down to the thirteenth century, and has in our own day been most successfully imitated in encaustic tile pavements, may be described generally as tesselated marble- work, that is, an arrange-

ment

of small cubes, usually of

porphyry or serpentine,

reddish-purple and

green coloured, composing geometrical patterns in grooves cut in the white marble The contrast beslabs which formed the pavement.

tween these two colours produces a monotonous but always harmonious effect.

SARACENIC.

The Mohammedan law forbidding the introduction of the forms of either animals or plants, a peculiar system of ornamentation was developed, consisting
of scroll-work interlaced with a sort of conventional

form approximatin g to the

inscriptions.

lily,

mixed with ornamental

Closely filled diapers, gorgeously coloured and gilded, form the leading characteristics; the reliefs on thee wall-diapers were coloured blue on the back-

ground, red on the edges of the

the surface.

reliefs,

and gold on

The late Mr. Owen Jones must be accepted as the modern exponent of this style, and his prreat work on the Alhambra should be carefully studied by every
decorative artist, since from
it

may be

gleaned lessons

of the most important character as to the correct distribution of form and space, and the principles of

196

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

ornamentation.
of the

The following remarks are based on Mr. Jones's description of his reproduction of portions
Alhambra in the Crystal Palace. In surface decoration of the Moors,
:

all

lines flow

out of a parent stem tant, can be traced to

every ornament, however disits branch and root they have

;

the happy art of so adapting the ornament to the surface

de-

corated,
that the orna-

ment appears
as often to

have suggeneral

gested

the
to

form as

suggested by it. find the foliage flowing out of a parent stem (Fig. 22),

have been In all cases

we

and we are never offended

as in

modern

practice by the random introduction of an ornament just dotted down without a reason for its existence. How-

ever irregular the space the Moors had

to
it
fill,

they always commenced by divid-

into equal areas, and round these trunk ing lines, they filled in the detail, but invariably

returned to the parent stem. They appear in this to have worked by a process analogous to that of nature, as we see in the vine-leaf; they also followed the principle of radiation,
as in the horse-chesnut, &c. (Fig. 23). "We see in these examples how beautifully all these lines radiate from the

parent stem
tremities
;

how each

leaf diminishes towards the ex-

is in proportion to the leaf. Orientals carry out this principle with marvellous perfection; so did the Greeks in their honeysuckle

and how each area

The

SARACENIC.

197

ornament. It may here be remarked that the Greek ornamental forms appear to follow the principle of the cactus tribe, where one leaf grows out of the other. This is generally the case with the Greek ornament the
;

acanthus leaf-scrolls are a series of leaves growing out of each other in a continuous line, whilst the Arabian

ornaments always grow out of a continuous stem. Another important principle in ornamentation was
carried out

by the Moors namely, that

;

all

junctions of

Fig. 23.

Fig. 24.

curved lines with curved, or of curved with straight This (Fig. 24), should be tangential to each other.

law

found everywhere in nature, and the Oriental practice is in accordance with it. Many of the ornaments are on the principle which we observe in a
is

feather and in the articulations of every leaf; and to this is due that additional charm found in all perfect ornamentation which we call graceful. shall find

We

these laws of equal

distribution,

radiation from

parent stem, continuity of line, and tangential curvation, ever present in natural leaves.

J.98

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

CHAPTER XXXV.
GOTHIC.
great middle-age period has been variously divided we adopt tlie simplest classification. The Saxon style, of which but few examples remain in
:

THIS

this country, contained but few ornamental features; and although the first ecclesiastical style was Romanits origin, it is characterized by the small windows with semicircular heads, the lights divided by a baluster instead of a mullion, and semicircular arch-

esque in

ing generally. The Gothic grew out of the Byzantine, and flourished chiefly on the Rhine, in the north of France, and in

England. If we consider the Norman as the first Gothic (of which it certainly was the forerunner or
starting-point),

the

style
;

commenced
it

with the

Norman

invasion

in England was developed in the

and was perfected in the fourteenth cen in the fifteenth century it rapidly declined, and tury became extinct in this country in the sixteenth centhirteenth,
;

and has, in recent years, been revived with an amount of vigour which is so characteristic of the age
tury
;

we live in. The peculiarly Norman

style,

such as

is

best

known

in this country, was originally developed in Sicily ; it contains, of course, many Saracenic features, of which

the pointed arch (introduced in the second or transition period) and the zigzag are the most prominent ;

Norman, though originally a simple Romanesque eventually adopted in the twelfth century the style, pointed arch of the Mohammedans.
for the

The
follows

periods of
:

Gothic

may

be briefly stated as
I.).

The Round Norman,

or zigzag style (William

GOTHIC.

199

The Pointed Norman,

first

or Transition

(Henry

II.

or

Plantagenet).
III. or second

The Early English Gothic (Henry

Plantagenet).

The Decorated Gothic (The Edwards,

Plantagenet
trian),
style).

the third

or Lancasending in the Debased Perpendicular or Tudor (Henry VIII.), which scarcely deserves to be separately

The Perpendicular Gothic (Henry VII.

classed.
Fig. 25.

Fig. 26.

The Norman.

The

are the great solidity of

circular arches, and its

chief characteristics of this style its columns or piers, its semi-

numerous ornamental borders

or bands, miscalled mouldings. The fact is, that the walls were of
ness,

immense thick-

and

at the soffits

of arches this thickness was

gradually diminished by being recessed, in order to remove the disagreeable appearance of the very wide intrados of the arch on the perpendicular faces of tb'3
;

200

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

;

parts so recessed the ornamental bands were carved the edges of the projections were in later periods cut away, or chamfered, and were subsequently worked into

and thus we have the origin of mouldings.* Amongst these ornamental bands we have the Chevron or zigzag (Fig. 25), the Double cone
hollows and
rolls,

(Fig. 26), the Beak's head, the Billet, the Chain, the
Star,

and an infinity of others; the chevron is, however, the most general, being found in every Norman
is

building.
capital,

The capital, called generally the cushion for the most part a mere block from which
;

the lower angles are chamfered away in some examples the lower part was fluted and otherwise ornamented.

from the Norman to the Early the pointed arch, together with English, mouldings and other features altogether Norman. The most important form, however, introduced in the transition period was the "roll and fillet," a moulding which
Transition
find

In the

we

continued to hold a leading place in the combinations of the succeeding styles. It may be described as a narrow
flat upon the face of the common In the earlier examples it is mostly cylindrical but it is often set square upon the round member found with the joining edges rounded off, so that the

band or

fillet set

roll.

fillet

merges gradually into the roll. The windows form very characEarly English.
features

teristic

in the

Gothic

style,

but

it

is

not

possible here to enter deeply into that interesting

will therefore only briefly mention that, subject. in the period under consideration, the windows are for the most part long and narrow, with acutely pointed heads. These were often gathered together in

We

two, three,
* For
rally, see

five,

or seven lights under one dripstone.

mouldings, and of the Gothic style gene by Ellis A. Davidson.

full description of

" Gothic Stonework,"

GOTHIC.

201

It will be easily understood that when two windows of the lancet form were gathered under a dripstone rising to a point, a blank space, known as the tympanum, was formed. In process of time this was pierced with in the form of a circle, ellipse, trefoil, another
light,

This feature was subsequently elaborated, and " It was the origin has been termed plate tracery." formed the leading of the magnificent tracery which
&c.
characteristic of the

next period.

The

capitals

of

Fig. 27

this period are bell-shaped,

and are
;

often, especially

in the smaller examples, quite plain and richer specimens as, in Fig.

but in the larger 27 from Stone

Church, Kent

the bell is covered with a peculiar renof the trefoil-leaf, springing from the neck and dering rising in a direct manner until it bends over in clusters
;

this has

been called the

stiff- leaved

foliage

the method

of thus rendering the trefoil evinces a desire to aim at the representation of natural forms, which was so well

202

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

accomplished in the Decorated, and which declined in

the Perpendicular period.

The most

characteristic

the Dog-tooth or " tooth" ornament (Fig. It bears, however, no relation to a tooth, but is 28). merely a solid rendering of the zigzag, and consists of a series of pyramids
lish period is

ornament of the Early Eng-

on their bases next to each other, and sometimes pierced with the trefoil ornament. It
placed
is

also

frequently ren-

dered as a flower with four petals bent backwards.

A beautiful method of ornamenting flat surfaces, which had originated with the Normans, was prevalent at this and subsequent periods this was the manner of covering walls or portions of them with
;

r
Fig. 29. Fig. 30.

what has been

called "diapering."*

The diaper con-

sisted of a small flower, or geometrical pattern, carved in low relief, the design being repeated in separate

The origin of this term has been much discussed. It is supposed be taken from a kind of cloth worked in small square patterns, and which was then as now much used under the name of Dyaper, originally d'Ypres, the chief manufactory being at Ypres, in Belgium.
U>

GOTHIC.

203

squares or other figures.

Abbey,

is

an

illustration of

Fig. 29, from Westminster one of these.

The
quent

crocket and finial were also ornamental features

of this and the subseperiods.

The

crocket consisted, in the first place, merely of

the pastoral crook, but soon became an orna-

ment formed

of the tre-

foil. Fig. 30 is one of the earliest, and is taken

from Lincoln Cathedral.

The
at

finial consists

of a

bunch of crockets placed

the

apex
the

of

the
Fig. 31.

spires.

In

Decorated

period we have two very distinguishing features. First, that the tracery was developed into the most beautiful
patterns ; and that the leading ornamentation on natural forms. The tracery is of two kinds the geometrical and the flowing.
:

is

based

In the former, the pattern

trefoils, quatrefoils,
foils,

consists en-

tirely of geometrical combinations, as

cinquefoils, hexa&c., based on triangles, squares, pentagons, hexagons, &c. In the flow-

ing tracery these figures, though still employed as the bases, are not completed in themselves, so as to stand out individually, but merge into each other
:

Fig. 32.

thus pro-

ducing the most graceful forms, which have been called " flame-like" compartments. In the Decorated period the capitals are either bell-

204

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

it

shaped or octagonal, the foliage being wreathed around instead of rising perpendicularly from the neck, as

in the Early English.

The

leaves of the oak, maple,

vine, ivy, strawberry, hazel, ferns, &c., are all so beautifully rendered as to give evidence of their having

been taken directly from nature. The oak seems to have been an especial favourite. Fig. 31, which illusand this trates these remarks, is from York Cathedral system was also carried out in the crockets and finials. One of the latter, from Cherrington, is shown in Fig. 32.
;

Fig. 33.

Kg.

34.

The Ball

flower (Fig. 33) and Square flower (Fig. 34) were the most prevailing ornaments of the period.

The Perpendicular style, when fully developed, characterized by the exuberance and redundancy of
ornaments.

is

its

In the
it.

latter portion of the period it be-

came

so excessive, that the

term "Florid "has been

has, however, been adopted in consequence of the peculiar arrangement of the tracery in the window heads, which form a

applied to

The term Perpendicular

The beautiful very marked characteristic of the style. flowing contour and curved lines of the tracery whict so adorned the windows of the Decorated period, were
superseded by mullions running perpendicularly from bottom to top, with transoms crossing horizontally; the roofs also were lowered, and the arch was flattened, until at last, in the Tudor period, it was drawn from four centres and, in the Debased period, it was flattened altogether.
;

The

capitals

were either circular or octagonal, the

GOTHIC.
bell portion

205

foliage of a harsh either the freedom

being mostly plain, but often covered with and conventional character, without

and boldness of the Early English

or the natural grace of

the

Decorated period. Fig. 35, taken from the west doorway of Beverley Church, Yorkshire, will illustrate these re-

marks.

The leading
in

features

the the

ornamentation
Perpendicular
panel tra-

of

period are

206

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

" fan tracery." The Tudor flower, the Portcullis and Hose, both badges of the Tudors, -were also constantly used as ornaments and the Angel bracket is very
;

frequent, especially in the reign of Henry VII., angels being placed at intervals in the string courses.

The gradual decline of the Gothic style is very evident in the later churches of this period, especially
in those

begun in the tenth century. It will be easily understood that the Reformation formed a bar to the revival of this style and the introduction at the same
;

period of the Renaissance style, whilst the elements of the Gothic, though much degraded, were still in existence, led to the mixture of features,

and that incon-

gruity of style, which followed, and which has been called the Debased Gothic, in which every real principle of beauty was lost.

In Italy the Gothic was

classical
;

at once superseded by the but in other countries it waned into what

its

has been termed the "After- Gothic," which in

turn

gradually merged into the revived Classic, which will presently be described.

Within recent years a revival of Gothic has taken place in this country, and buildings have been, and are being, erected which will bear comparison with those
of the Middle Ages.

have architects, too, who in their scientific principles of construction, and in their enthusiasm, have not been surpassed at any period.
Let us hope our artisans will avail themselves of the
opportunities
skill to

We

held out to them for acquiring the worthily carry out the works, and that our designers and decorators will make themselves ac-

now

quainted with the principles of the architecture of different periods, so that they may understand the application,

and enter into the

spirit,

of the system of ornamentation

to be adopted in accordance with the style.

RENAISSANCE.

207

CHAPTER XXXVL
THE RENAISSANCE.
THIS
style

was the revival and combination of the most

beautiful elements of Classic art.

The return

to these

was due to the gradually growing influence of the

Saracenic, not as an absolute style, but as affording new elements of beauty, especially in its varied and intricate
interlacings, which were so prominent for a while as to constitute the chief characteristic of a new style.

Fig. 36.

Bronze from Door of

St.

Maclou, Rouen, 1542 ("Wornum).

The first modern art

step of the transition from middle age

is

to

(about 1300) as the Trecento, the great features of which are its intricate tracery or interlacings and delicate scroll-

known from

its

mean time

work of conventional

foliage

the style being a com-

bination of the Byzantine and Saracenic, the symbolism of both being excluded. The foliage and floriage,

however, are not exclusively conventional, and it comprises a fair rendering of the classical orders with the restoration of the round arch*

In the Quattrocento, the next period of

* For

this

style,

much of the above information the writer is indebted to Sir. Wornum's admirable lectures (1848, 1849, and 1850). Digests of these lectures are now published under the auspices of the Department of
Science and Art, and the reader is urged to supplement the sketch here given by further study from that work

208

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

we have a far more decided revival. The bronze gates of the Baptistry of San Giovanni, by Lorenzo Ghiberti (1425-52), exhibit one feature of this period in perfecthe prominence of simple natural imitations, tion which DOW almost entirely superseded the conventional Nature no longer representations of previous times. mere suggestions, but afforded directly exact supplied models for imitation, whether fruit or flowers, birds or other animals, all disposed with a view to the picturesque or ornamental.
still

The

selection of the details

have some typical significance, but this had might no influence on the manner of their execution, which was as purely imitative as their arrangement was ornamental.

Thus, in the grand border surrounding the

gates of Ghiberti, the flowers and fruit are grouped in the most luxurious manner, whilst birds and squirrels seem enjoying themselves according to their natural habits, the whole being evidently emblematic of the fulness of the Creation yet, although some of
;

the forms

the egg-plant, the pomegranates, the pears, and the lilies stand out in full relief, they are so dis-

posed that their shadows do not hide the objects by which they are surrounded, but merely serve as it were to gather them into one harmonious whole.
It appears that in the year 1401 the civic trades of Florence were formed into guilds, called " Arti," reprecalled " Consoli." These sented
patriotic by deputies resolved to open a competition for a bronze gate, to be erected at the Baptistry, that should surpass the

men

old one by Andrea Pisano. artists of Italy entered the

Seven of the greatest but the prize was awarded by the competitors themselves to Lorenzo Ghiberti, who was only at the time twenty-two years of
lists,

age.

and

at the completion, so great

This great work occupied him twenty- three years was the admiration
;

RENAISSANCE.

209

it excited, that the consuls of the guild of merchants commissioned him to execute another corresponding

door, of which, according to his own account, they placed the plan and execution in his own hands. " to " They gave him full permission," says Vasari, the work as he should think best, and to proceed with

do whatever might most effectually secure that this third door should be the richest, most highly adorned, most beautiful, and most perfect that he could possibly He received more contrive or that could be imagined. than 13,000 florins for his labour, and gained great fame and honour." Casts of these gates are in the Art Schools of the Department of Science and Art, and may also be seen complete in the Renaissance Court of the Crystal Palace, in the hand-book to which, by Sir M. D. Wyatt and J. B. Waring, Esq., they are fully described.

The

border, already described, surrounds the gates,

which are divided into ten panels, representing Scripture subjects

1. The Creation, up Eve from Paradise.

to the expulsion of

Adam

and

2. 3.
4.
5.
6.

Cain and Abel.

The Flood.
Passages in the history of Abraham. The history of Esau.

The

history of Joseph.
Sinai.

7.

Moses on Mount

8.
9.

The passage

of the Israelites across the Jordan, battle between the Hebrews and the Philis-

tines.

10. The meeting of the Queen of Sheba and Solomon. " The love of " with nature," says Mr. "Waring,

210
the
first

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

Renaissance artists became a passion, and basis of their style. It is this which gives wonderful charm to the works of that illus-

was the
such a
trious

Ghiberti, Donatello, and Lucca della who, imbued with the true spirit of the antique, and an unusual sense of the beautiful, ennobled all, even the commonest subjects, which came from their hands. We are the more desirous that this should be well understood, since it is a fact too often lost sight of; and the 'Renaissance' implies not the
triad

Robbia,

revival of antique art only, but the return to that great school which nature keeps ever open to us." "The artist held his place modestly, working for the

ductions

sake of art and the love of truth, whilst in his prohe sought, not to astonish by his skill or
science, but to infuse into others that love of nature

and the antique which inspired himself." Our own Elizabethan must be considered
elaboration

as

an

of the

from the

Low

Renaissance, probably introduced Countries, the only difference being that

the Elizabethan exhibits a very striking preponderance of strap and shield-work ; but this was a gradual
result

and what we now term Elizabethan was not thoroughly developed until the time of James I., when
;

The pure Elizabethan

the pierced shields even outbalanced the strap work. is much nearer allied to the con-

tinental styles of the true classical ornaments, but rude in detail, occasionally scroll and arabesque work, and

the tracery or strap- work holding a much more prominent place than the pierced and scrolled shields. Such are the varieties of the Revival distinct from the Cinquecento, or perfect form. design containing all the elements of this period is properly called Renaissance.

If
it

it contains only the tracery and foliage of the period, would be more properly called Trecento. If it con-

CTNQUECENTO.

21 1

tarns, besides these elaborate natural imitations, festoons,

and occasional symmetrical arabesques, it of the Quattrocento, the Italian Renaissance of tho fifteenth century ; and if it displays a decided prominence of strap-work and shield-work, it is Eliza"
scroll-work,
is

bethan.

The Cinquecento is the full development of the modern styles, and was the most prominent style of the sixteenth century it is the real goal of the Re;

Fig. 37.

Chimney-piece, Louvre, by Germain Pilou (Wornum).

niissance,

to

which

all

the efforts of the fifteenth

described

century tended.

The

styles

we have

all

tended to the

ultimate perfection attained in that sideration, which was only achieved

Italy

now under
by

con-

the artists of

the glorious monuments of the ancients were excavated at the close of the fifteenth century and, with these examples before them, Raffaelle, Julio
;

when

Romano, the Lombardi, Bramante, and Michael- Angelo

succeeded
in

developing the style until

of the Cinquecento

it
it

surpassed

in its beauty the very originals

from which

The leading elements

sprang. may be con-

212
sidered to be
its

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

the arabesque scroll (Fig. 37), combining elements every other feature of classical art, with animals and plants rendered naturally or conin
ventionally, the sole guiding idea being beauty of form ; the beautiful variations of ancient standard

forms, as the anthemion, the guilloche, the fret, the acanthus scroll, &c. ; absolute works of art introduced
into the

arabesques,
all

as

struments of

kinds

vases, implements, and instrap and shield work being,

however, wholly excluded, as not authorised by ancient practice the admirable play of colour in the arabesques
;

and scrolls the three secondary and purple, are the leading ones

colours, orange, green,

thus affording a con-

trast to the early periods of ornamentation, in

which

we have
ferred.

already shown the primary colours were pre-

" The " Cinquecento," says Mr. "Wornum, may be considered the culminating style in ornamental art, as
presenting the most perfect forms and pleasing varieties, nature and art vieing with each other in their efforts

and gratify the eye. It appeals only to the sense of beauty. All its efforts are made to attain the most attractive effects, without any intent to lead the
to attract

mind

to an ulterior end, as and other symbolic styles.

is

The Cinquecento forms

;

the case in the Byzantine are

supposed to be symbols of beauty alone and it is a remarkable concession to the ancients that the moderns
to attain this result

works; and consummate

it

were compelled to recur to their only now, in contemplation of this style, that the term Renaissance becomes
is

quite intelligible.

The Renaissance,

or re-birth, of
;

ornament is accomplished in the Cinquecento still the term is not altogether ill appropriated to the earlier styles, because these were really the stepping-stones to
the Cinquecento, and, as already explained, in

them

LOUIS QUATORZE.
also the
aesthetic

213

The

principles,

was substituted for the symbolic. therefore, were identical, though, from
:

the imperfect apprehension, elements strange to the it was a classical period were generally admitted
revival of principle, though not of element." The great characteristic of the Louis Quatorze style (1643-1715) is its gilt stucco work, which almost
entirely superseded decorated painting; the ornamental features being rendered in very high relief, depending

Fig. 38.

Carved Wood, Notre Dame, Paris (Wornum).

more on the play of light and shade than in the colouring in fact, the favourite ornament, the anthemion, under a treatment which rejected flat surfaces and
;

necessitated

hollows

and

projections,

became

the

hollow

shell,

which

is

perhaps the most leading ornaFig. 38, does not

its

ment of thin style. The Louis Quinze (1715-74),

differ

much

from the Louis Quatorze in

from a certain manner

elements, but yet, of treatment, must be considered

214

THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING.

as distinct in a discrimination of styles. It differs in that the merely characteristic elements of the this,

Louis Quatorze became paramount in Louis Quinze

its details,

all

from the Cinquecoming cento or Renaissance, came immediately from the French schemes of the preceding reign, and the divergence from the original types thus became wider. The infinite and fantastic play of light and shade
instead of
direct

being the great idea of the Louis Quatorze period of

ornamentation, exact symmetry in the parts was no longer essential, and accordingly we find, for the first
time,

symmetry systematically avoided. This feature was gradually increased in the Louis Quinze style, and

ultimately led to the debased system of ornamentation be called) known as the (if system it can properly
Rococo, in which balance of separate parts, or symmetry of the whole, was entirely set aside.

INDEX.
Plant, in the Gre190 Accordance of Colours, 6 Alphabet of Colours, 4 Analogy of Colours, 10 cian and Roman Styles, ACANTHUS

Beauty, 8
Bice, Blue, 62

Green, 71

Bismuth

(Pearl), Bistre, 97

White,

'-'3

An gel

Bracket (Perpendicular Gothic), 206 Anomalous Colours, 5

Anotta, 67

Bitumen (Asphaltum), 96 Black Colour, 7

Black, 102 Blue, 106 Bone, 105 Chalk, 108
Frankfort, 106 Ivory, 105 Lamp, 105

Anthemion or Honeysuckle Greek Ornament), 188 Antimony, Orange, 67

White, 31
Yellow,

(in

2830

Antwerp Brown, 97
Blue, 60

Lead (Plumbago), 109

Manganese, 108
Mineral, 107 Mixed, 103
di Foglio, 107 Ochre, 108 Peach, 106 Pigments, 105 Spanish, 107 Vine, 106 Bladder Green, 75 Blanc d' Argent, 20 Blood, Dragon's, 47 Blooming of Varnishes, 149 Blue, Antwerp, 60

Arabesque Scrolls (in Cinqnecento Ornament), 212

Arabic,

Gum,

130

Nero

Arrangement of Colours, 4
Arsenic, Yellow, 36 Ashes, Ultramarine, 56 Asphaltum (Bitumen), 95 Assyrian Style, Chain or Guilloche, 186 Human-headed Colossi, 184

Open Flower, 186

Ornament, 184
Aureolin, 38

Azure, 54

T>ADGER Tools,

Armenian, 54 Azure, 54
167
Bice, 62

Ball Flower (Decorated Go-

thic;,

204

Baptistry at Florence (Ghiberti'a

Gates), 209 Barytic White, 22

Black, 106 Caeruleum, 62 Cobalt, 57 Colour, 3, 52

Dumont's, 67

216
Blue,

INDEX.

Enamel

(Zaffre),

67

PADMIUM Yellow, 36 \J Canvas for

Corinthian, 189 Decorated, 203 Doric, 189 Early English, 201 Ionic, 189

Oil-painting, 169

Factitious, 56

Haarlem, 60 Hungary, 67
Indigo, 60 Intense, 61

Various Sizes of, 169 Capitals, Composite, 190

Mountain, 62 Ochre (Phosphate of Iron),

101

Norman, 200
Perpendicular, 205 Tuscan, 191 Cappagh Brown, 93 Carmine, 50 Burnt, 79 Durable, 51

Pigments, 54 Prussian, 60 Eoyal, 59 Saunders, 62 Saxon, 57 Schweinfurt, 62

Smalt, 58 Thenard's, 57 Ultramarine, 64 Verditer, 61 Vienna, 58 Body, 16 Bnrax, 131 Bougeval White, 23 Broken Colours, 91 Brown, 6, 89 Antwerp, 97 Bone, 95 Cappagh, 93

Madder, 51 Carnations, Oil of, 139 Carucru, 67 Cassel Earth, 94 Cassius's Precipitate, 86
Cendres Blue, 62 Chain Ornament
Style), 186
(in

the Assyrian

Egyptian (Mummy), 96 Euchrome, 93

Ivory, 95

Madder, 98 Manganese, 92 Ochre, 33, 94

Pigments, 92 Pink, 83 Prussian, 98 Rubens, 94 Spanish, 46 Tints, 25 Vandyke, 92 Brunswick Green, 72 Brush, Use of, 157 Brushes used in Oil Painting, 166 To clean, 168 Burnt Carmine, 79 Roman Ochre, 33 Sienna Earth, 66 Umber, 93 Verdigris, 88

Chalk, Black, 108 White, 23 Characteristic Features of the various Styles of Ornament, 17'J Chica, 67 Chilling of Varnishes, 150 Chinese Vermilion, 42 Yellow, 36 Chromate of Mercury, 65 Chromatic Equivalents, 7 Chromatics denned, 3 Chrome Green, 71 Orange, 65 Yellow, 29

Cinnabar, 42 Cinquecento Style of Ornament, 211 Citrine Colour, 5, 80 Mixed, 81 Pigments, 83

Cleaning

Umber, 83 and restoring Paint-

ings, 175

Cobalt, Blue, 57

Green, 72 Cochineal Lakes, 48 Cologne Earth, 94

Colour, Hues of, 5 Influence of, 2 Relation of, 4

Byzantine Style of Ornament, 191 Mosaics, 194 Varieties of, 193

INDEX.
Colour,

217

Shades of, 6 Suggestions for

Studies of
of,

Conventional rendering of Natural Elements in Egyptian Ornament, 182

Copaiba, 141 Copal Varnish, 145 Copper Greens, 72 Cowdie, or Fossil Varnish, 147 Cracking, 135, 149 Crayon Colours, 118 Crems, or Krems, White, 20 Cyanide of Iron, 59

9 Colouring, Illustrations Practical, 13

Harmony

of,

Colourists, 9

Colour Pigments, Qualities

Colours, Complementary, 7 Contrasts of, 6 Definitive Seals of, 7 Discordant, 12

of,

16

Elements of, 1 Evolved from

Shade, 2 Expression
of, 1 1

T\AMAS Varnish,
and
JL/

144
(in Oil-paint-

Light

Dead Colouring

ing), 169

Debased Gothic, 206

Decorated Gothic, Capitals, 203 Foliage, 204 Ornaments, 204 Tracery, 203
Definitive Scale of Colours, 7 Discordant Colours, 12 Distemper Colours, 124 Painting, 160 Doctrine of Light and Colours, 3

How

Harmony

generated, 2 of, 4 Heraldic, 123 Inherent and Transient, 13

Measured, 7
Material, 13 Neutral, 7

Of Flowers, 1 Polar Elements

Powers
of,

of,

Primary, 3, 26 Secondary, 4
Semi-neutral, 90, 98 Studies in Harmony of, 9 Tables of Fresco, 118 Tables of Heraldic, 119 Tables of Oil, 125 Tables of Qualities,1.! 11 117 Tables of Tempera, 124 Tables of Water, 123, 124 Tertiary, 2, 4 Three Orders of, 4 Colours and Pigments, Difference between the Terms, 16

Dog-tooth Ornament (Early English Gothic), 202 Doric Capital, 189 Diapers in Egyptian Ornament,
184

In Gothic Ornament, 202 Dragon's Blood, 47

Dryers, 133, 138 Drying Oils, 138

Drawing-board, 153

Drawing Papers,
Sizes
of,

Qualities and

152

To

stretch, 164

Dumont's Blue, 57
Durability of Colours, 15 Dutch Pink, 39

Complementary Colours,

Composition of Colours, 3 Compound Pigments, 15 Black, 103 Brown, 91

Citrine, 81

EARTH, Cologne,

Cassel, 94

94

Sienna, 32, 65

Early English (Gothic), 200

Capitals, 201

Green, 70 Grey, 100 Olive, 88 Orange, 65 Purple, 78 Russet, 85 Constant White, 22 Contrasts of Colours, 6

Crockets, 202 Diapers, 202

Finials, 203

Foliage, 201 Plate Tracery, 201

Windows, 200
Easel, 171

218

INDEX.
Gothic Style, General Features of, 198 Norman, 199 Perpendicular, 204 Transition, 200 Graduating Tints in Water. colours, 159 Graphite, 109

Echinus, or Horse Chestnut (in Greek Ornament), 189 Egg-shell White, 23 Egyptian Brown (Mummy), 96 Sphinx, 185 Style of Ornament, 181 Elements of Colours, 1 Elizabethan Style of Ornament, 210 Emerald Green, 73

Enamel Blue

(Zaffi-e),

67

Colours, 117

English Pink, 39 Red, 42 Equivalents, Scale

of, 7 Essential Oils, 134, 141

Gray, Anomalous Tint, 5 Mixed, 100 Neutral Colour, 7, 99 Pigments, 101 Grecian Style of Ornament, 187 Green, Bice, 71 Brunswick, 72

Chrome, 71
Cobalt, 72 Copper, 72 Emerald, 73 French, 72 Hooker's, 70 Invisible, 76
Italian, 71

Euchrome, 93
Expressed Oil, 135 Expression of Colours, 8 Eye, Effects of Colours on the, 3

TRADING
JD

of Colours, 14

Fish Oils, 140 Flake White, 20 Flat Tints, Flowers in, 164 Washes, 157 Florentine Lake, 49 Flower Painting in Water-colours, 160 Natural (Decorated Foliage, Gothic), 202
(Early English Gothic), 201 Frankfort Black, 106 French Green, 72 Gray, 24 Fresco Painting, Processes of, 173 Fundamental Scale of Colours, 2 110 Gall Stone, 37 Gamboge, 36 Ghiberti, Gates of, Baptistry at Florence, 208 Glass Mosaics (Byzantine), 194 Tesselation (Byzantine), 194 Glazing in Oil-painting, 170 Golden Sulphur of Antimony, 67 Gold Purple, 78 Size, Japanner's, 139 Gothic Style, Debased, 206 Decorated, 2C3 Early English, 200
Stiff

GALENA,
VI

Malachite, 74 Marine, 72 Mineral, 71 Mixed, 70 Mountain, 74 Olive, 88 Olympian, 72 Patent, 72 Persian, 72 Relations of, 4, 68, 69 Pigments, 70 Prussian, To Rinmanri'a, 72 Sap, 75 Saxon, 72 Scheele's, 74 Schweinfurt's, To Terre-verte, 71 Varley's, 70 Venetian, 76 Verdigris, 73 Verditer, 72, 73 Verona, 71 Tints, 26 Grey Tints, 25

Grinding Pigments, 14

Gum

Ammonia, 130

Arabic, 130 Senegal, 129

Tragacanth, 130

Gumtion, 140

INDEX.

219
Varnish, 146
in Egyptian Ornament, or Fret, 182 In Greek Ornament, 187

TTAARLEM
ri

Blue, 60

Hamburg Lake, 50 Harmony of Colours, 4

Suggestions for Studies in, 9 Hatching, 164 Heat, Effects of, on Colours, 117 Heraldic Colours, &c., Table of,
120

LAC Labyrinth,

Hog-hair Brushes, 166 Hooker's Green, 70 Hue, Tint, and Shade

guished, 5 Hungary Blue, 57

distin-

Lake, Chinese, 48, 50 Cochineal, 49 Field's, 48 Florentine, 49 Green, 72 Hamburg, 50 Kermes, 48 Lac, 50

Madder, 48
of Colour-

"ILLUSTRATIONS
J-

Purple, 79 Red, 47

ing. 9

Roman, 50
Rubric, 48 Scarlet, 49

Impasting in Oil Painting, 71 Impurity of Pigments, 6 Indian Blue, 60

Ink, 108 Lake, 50 Red, 46 Varnish, 146 Yellow, 38 Indigo, 60 Inherent and Transient Colours, 13 Ink, China, 108 Indian, 108 Intense Blue, 61 Brown, 86 Intonaco (in Fresco Painting), 175 Invisible Green, 76 Iodine, Scarlet, 43 Ionic Capital, 189 Iron, Cyanide of, 59 Effects of, on Pigments, 115 Yellow, 34 Irregular-shaped Brushes, 166 Italian Green, 71 Pink, 39 Ivory Black, 105 Brown, 95

Venetian, 50 Yellow, 38 Lamp Black, 105 Laque Minerale, 65 Lavender Oil, 142 Tints, 25 Lead, Black, 109 Chromate of, 29 Colour, 17
Its effects

on Colours, 18

Orange, 67 Red, 44 Sulphate of, 21 White, 18 Lensic Prism, its Power, 3 Light and Colours, 2 Light and Shade, 2, 14 Light, Elementary, 2, 14 Linseed Oil, 136 Preserved and Purified, 139

Rendered Drying, 139

Litharge, 133

London White, 19 Lotus, or Water Lily

(in

Egyp-

TAPANNER'S

Gold Size, 13S Jaune Minerale, 29 Jauae de Mars, or Jaune de

tian Ornament), 182 Louis Quatorze Style of Ornament, 213 Louis Quinze Style of Ornament, 213

Fer, 36 Jews' Pitch, 95

MADDER 61 Carmine,
Lake, 48 Purple, 79 Russet, 85 Malachite, 74

Brown, 98

KERMES, Yellow, King's

Lake, 48 36

INDEX.
Mangarpse Brown, 92 Maps, Tinting (with Verdigris),
73

Norman

Style, 199 Capitals, 200

Ornamental Bands, 199

Marble Tesselation (Byzantine),

194

Round Arch, 199

Nottingham White, 19 Numerical Proportion of Ccloura,
7

Marine Groen, 72
Marrone, 89 Mars Orange, 66
Massicot, 31 Mastic Varnish, 144 Material Colours, 13 Maxims in Colouring, 155

Nut

Oils, 140

OCHRE, Brown,

Media, 132 In Tempera Painting, 161 Megilp, 140

Black, 108 94 De Rue, 33 Indian, 45

Melody

of Colours, 12
of,

of, 65 43 Sulphuret of (Vermilion), 42 Milk of Lime, 131 Mineral Black, 107 Green, 74 Pitch, 95 Purple, 80 Yellow, 36

Mercury, Chromate
Iodide

Orange, 66 Purple, 80 Red, 45 Roman, 33 Scarlet, 45

Spruce, 30, 33 Stone, 31, 33 Yellow, 32 Oil, Boiled, 139 Drying, 138 Expressed, 135 Fish, 140 Lavender, 142 Linseed, 136 Nut, 140

Minium, 44 Mixed Tints, 2426 Mixing of Colours, 156

Modan White,

23
of Paint-

Of Pinks, 139
OfTurpentine, 142
Olive, 140

Modes and Operations

Monochrome, Painting

ing, 151, 156, 160, 164, 173

in, 157 Subjects for Practice in, 158 Moors their Principles of Design, 196 Morat White, 23 Mosaics (Byzantine), 194 Mountain Blue, 62

Poppy, 139
Spike, 142 Volatile or 141
Oil Painting, 164
Essential,
135.

Green, 74 Mucilage, 129 Mummy, 96

135 Olive Colour, 5 Green, 88 Mixed, 88

Oils,

Olympian Green, 72
Opacity, 15

Open Flower

(in

Assyrian Orna-

VTAPHTHA,
11

143

Naples, Yellow, 30 Natural Scale of Colours, 3 Negative Colours, 17

ment), 186 Orange, 4

Nero

di Foglio, 107
2, 3, 17,

Antimony, 67 Chrome, 65 Compound, 65

Lead, 67 Mars, 66 Ochre, 66

Neutral Black, 102

Colours,

102

Gray, 98
Tint, 100 White, 16 Neutralization of Colours, 6

Ornament, Assyrian, 184

Byzantine, 191 Cinquecento, 211

INDEX.
Ornament,
Egyptian, 181 Gothic, 198 Grecian, 187 Louis Quatorze, 213 Of, generally, 179 Roman, 190 Renaissance, 207 Saracenic, 195 Orpiment, 35 Orange, 67 Red, 35 Yellow, 35 Oxford Ochre, 32
Ox-gall, 131 Oyster-shell White, 23

221

Pigments, Gray, 98 Green, 68 Mixed, 88

Olive, 87 Qualities
of,

14
4

Plumbago, 102 Polarity of Light and Colours,

206

Polish, French, 146 Portcullis (Perpendicular Gothic),

Powers of Colours, 7
Practical Colouring, 13 Primary Colours, 3, 26 Contrasts, 7 Prism, The Lensic, 3 Prussian Blue, 60

PAINTING, Fresco, Modes and JL

Oil,

173
of,

Brown, 98
151

Operations

164

Tempera, 160
Water-colour, 156 To Remove, 178 Palette, 172
Paint,

Green, 75 Prussiate of Copper, 86 Of Iron, 59 Purple, 4 Burnt Carmine, 79 Its Relation to other Colours,
'

Papyrus-plant in Egyptian Ornament, 182 Paris Blue, 58

White, 20 Parthenon Frieze (Grecian Ornament), 187 Patent Green, 72 Yellow, 30 Peach Black, 106 Pearl White, 22

76,77 Lake, 79 Madder, 7 Mixed, 78 Ochre, 80 Of Gold, 78

Rubiate, or Field's, 79

AUALITIES of Pigments,
\d
Capitals,

14

Quattrocento Period, 207

Permanence Permanent White, 22

Perpendicular 205

of Colours, 16

Gothic

83 EAW Umber, Earth,

Sienna

34

Bed

Characteristic Features, 204

Foliage, 205 Ornaments, 206 Windows, 205 Persian Green, 72 Red, 46 Phosphate of Iron, 101 Photogen and Sciogen, Elements of Light and Colours, 14
Picture-cleaning;, 176

Colours, 3, 39 Carmine, 60 English, 43 Indian, 46

Iodine Scarlet, 43 Lake, 47 Lake Lac, 60 Lake Scarlet, 49 Lead, 44 Light, 46

Madder Carmine, 51
Ochre, 45 Pigments, 42 Red, Persian, 46 Prussian, 47 Saturnine, 44 Spanish, 47

Pigments and Colours, difference between the Terms, 16 Pigments, Black, 102
Blue, 52

Brown, 89
Citrine, 80

222
Red,

INDEX.
Secondary Colours, 4 Semi-neutral Colours, 89 Sepia, 97
Series of Colours, 5 Shades, Tints, and Hues, 6 Shadow Colours, 10 Sky Colours, 53, 55 Siccatives (Dryers), 133

Venetian, 47 Vermilion, 42 Refraction of Light, 3 Refrangibility of Colours, 4 Relations of Colours, 5 Renaissance Period of Ornament, 207

Repose, Principles of, 10 Retiring Colours, 10 Rinmann's Green, 72 Roman Lake, 50 Ochre, 33 Style of Ornament, 189 White, 20 Rose Pink, 51 Rubric or Madder Lake, 48 Roucou, 67 Rouen White, 23 Rough Cast Ground in Fresco Painting, 175 Royal Blue, 59 Rubens' Brown, 94 Rubiate, or Field's Purple, 79 Rubiates, 48 Rubric Lake, 48 Rue, Ochre de, 33 Russet Colour, 5, 84, 85 Field's, 85 Mixed, 85 Ochre, 86
.

Sienna Earth, Burnt, 66 Raw, 34 Silver White, 20

Size, 131

Smalt, 58 Spanish Black, 107 Brown, 45 White, 23

Spectral Colours, 3 Spike, Oil of, 142 Spirit of Wine, 143

Sphinx, Egyptian, 184 Greek, 184 Spruce Ochre, 33

Square
Stil

Flower

(Decorated

Gothic), 204 de Grain, 39 Stippling, 164

Stone Ochre, 33 Styles of Ornament, Assyrian, 181 Byzantine, 191 Cinquecento, 211 Egyptian, 181 Elizabethan, 210
Gothic, 198 Grecian, 187 Louis Quatorze, 213 Louis Quinze, 213 Renaissance, 207 Roman, 190 Saracenic, 195
Subjects for Study, 158 Sugar of Lead, 133 Sulphate of Lead, 21 Sulphuret of Antimony, 67 Arsenic, 35 Cadmium, 36 Mercury or Quicksilver, 42 Zinc, 133 Symbolic Colouring, 121 Symbols, Heraldic, 119, 123 System, Chromatic, 3

QABLE U Sap Green, 76

Brushes, 106

Satin White, 23 Saturnine Red, 44 Saunders Blue, 62 Saxon Blue, 67 Green, 72 Scale of Colours, Primary, 3
Contrasts, 6

Equivalents, 7

43 Lake, 49 Ochre, 45 Scene Painting, 162 Scheele's Green, 74 Schweinfurt Blue, 62 Green, 75 Science of Colours, 2
Scarlet, Iodine,

Sciogen, 14
Scroll in Grecian

Ornament, 189
190

rmBLES of Colours
JL

Roman Ornament,
Scumbling

(in Oil Painting), 171

Fresco Colours, 118 Heraldic Colours, 119

INDEX.
Tables of Colours
Oil Colours, 125 Tempera Colours, 124

223

Varnishes, Indian, 146 Lac, 146

Various Qualities, 111, 112,

113, 114, 115, 116, 117 Water-colours, 123, 124 Taste, 2, 5

Tempera Painting, 160

Terra Orleans, 67 Terre Blue, 62 De Cassel, 94
Verte, 69, 71 Tertiary Colours, 2 Tests of Lakes, 49, 51 Ultramarine, &c., 56, 67 Vermilion, 43 Thenard's Blue, 57 Theory of Colours, I, 12

Lac, White, 146 Mastic, 144 Resinous, 144 To remove, 176 Vehicles, 126 Egg, 161
Oil,

135143 144149 Water, &c., 128132

Varnish,

Venetian Green, 76 Red, 43, 45 White, 18

Verdigris, 73

Burnt, 88
Verditer, Blue, 61

Time, Effects of, on Colours, 15 Tin White, 21

Brown, 25 Green, 26 Grey, 25 Lavender, 25 Mixed, 24, 25, 26 Yellow, 26 Tints, Hues, and Shades, 6 Tiver, 94 Tragacanth, 130 Transient Colours, 13 Transition (Gothic), 200 Trecento Period, 207 Triads of Colours, 3 Troy White, 23 Tudor Flower, 206 Rose, 206 Turpentine Oil, 142 Tuscan Capitals, 191
Tints,

Green, 72, 73 Vermilion, 42 Verona Green, 71 Verte, Terre, 71 Vienna Blue, 58 Vine Black, 106 Viride Mrie, 73 Vision, Effects of Colour on, 9 Volatile Oils, 135, 141

TTTATER-COLOURS,
VV
Painting
in,

15f>

TTLTRAMARINE,
Ashes, 56, 101 Factitious, 56 French, 66 Umber, Burnt, 89 Raw, 83 Useful Receipts, 176

54

'

TTANDYKE Brown,
V

92

Varley's Green, 70 Varnishes, 143 Blooming of, 149 Copal, 145 Cowdie, or Fossil, 147 Damas, 144

156 Water Vehicles, 128 Wave-Scroll in Egyptian Ornament, 183 Wax Painting, 163 White, 7, 16 Barytic, 22 Bismuth (Pearl), 22 Bougeval, 23 Chinese, 23 Colours, 16 Constant, 22 Copperas, 133 Egg-shell, 23 Flake, 20 Krems, or Krenmitz, 20 Lead, 18 London, 19 Modan, 23 Morat, 23 Nottingham, 19 Oyster-shell, 23 Pearl, 22 Roman, 20 Rouen, 23

224
White,
Satin, 23 Silver, 20

INDEX.
Yellow,
Italian Piuk, 39

Jaune de Mars, or Jaune d(

Fer, 34

Spanish, 23 Sulphate of Lead, 21

Tin, 21 Troy, 23

Jaune Mineralo, 29
King's, 36 Lake, 38 Massicot, 31

Venetian, 18
Vitriol, 131

Mineral (Arsenic), 36
Montpelliet, 30 Naples, 30 Ochre and Oxford, 32 Orpiment, 35

Zinc, 21

White Chalk, 23 Wine, Spirit of, 143 Winged Globe, The (in Egyptian
Ornament), 181

Patent, 30
3,

y ELLOW
JL

Colour, Arsenic, 36

27

Brown

Aureolin, 38 Ochre, 33 Cadmium, 36 Chinese, 36

Pigments, 27 Ochre, 33 Stil de Grain, 39 Stone Ochre, 33 Terra Sienna, 34

Roman

Tints, 26

Chrome, 29 Dutch Pink, 39

English Pink, 39
Gall-Stone, 37

/j Zarnic, 35 Zigzag (in Egyptian Ornament),

182

r/AFFRE,

57

Gamboge, 36
Indian, 38 Iron, 34

In Norman Ornament, 199

Zinc, Sulphate of, 133 White, 21

THE END.

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