Chemical Activity in the Cell

Describe

After you have nished reading this chapter, you should be able to: the structure and function of the cell membrane and of the various cell organelles.

Compare and contrast osmosis and diffusion; passive transport and active transport. Explain the importance of ATP to energy storage in cells and the role of enzymes and substrates in chemical reactions within cells.

As small as it may be, a cell is a living thing engaged in the risky business of survival. Cecile Starr

Introduction
Imagine that you are a single-celled organism. No one would ever know of your existence unless someone looked at you under a microscope. Your surroundings would be very important to youto make you feel comfortable and to supply your needs. Your needs would include food, which you would use to produce energy to stay alive. You would produce waste products that would have to be disposed of. Sooner or later, you would reproduce. Many activities would be going on inside you, and some kind of cell brain would have to control and coordinate all this activity. As a cell, you would be very much alive inside. However, the environment outside of you would be the oppositea physical, nonliving place where changes in temperature occur, where the amount of water and the amount of light also vary. What stands between a cell and the sometimes hostile environment that surrounds it?

119

120 Energy, Matter, and Organization

II THE CELL MEMBRANE

An ultrathin, extremely important layer separates the living world inside a cell from the nonliving world outside. This is the cell membrane. A cell, or plasma, membrane is so thin that at least 10,000 of them piled one on top of another would be needed to equal the thickness of a page of this book. The cell membrane performs two functions at the same time. It separates the cell from its environment, and it connects the cell to its surroundings by allowing the movement of materials and communication between the cell and whatever surrounds it. (See Figure 6-1.) Without a cell membrane, there could be no cell. It can be said that the beginning of life had to wait until the formation of the rst cell membrane.
Cell membrane

Figure 6-1 The cell membrane acts as a barrier, separating the inside of the cell from the outside (A) and as a bridge, allowing materials to move in and out of the cell (B).

As is true for much of the cell, the cell membrane demonstrates the tremendous unity among living things. The cell membranes of all cells from bacteria to the cells of mushrooms, roses, lobsters, chimpanzees, LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 6-1 s/s and humanshave the same basic structure. Under the powerful electron microscope, the cell membrane appears as a thin double line. What is being observed is a double layer of phospholipids. (See Figure 6-2.) Phospholipids are a special type of lipids with split personalities. Unlike in a typical lipid molecule, in a phospholipid molecule, one of its three fatty acids has been replaced by a phosphate group. This is a chemical group that has a special attraction for water molecules. The other two fatty acid chains tend to avoid water. Because of this, the phospholipid molecules arrange themselves in a special way. All the fatty acid tails of the molecules move into position to face each other and avoid contact with water. This creates a double layer of molecules, with the fatty acids of both layers facing inward. The phosphate heads of the phospholipid molecules face the outside of each layer, where they are in contact with water either inside or outside of the cell. This well-organized arrangement is called a phospholipid bilayer. Soap molecules, which behave like phos-

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 121

Figure 6-2 Phospholipid bilayer as seen by an electron microscope.

pholipids, arrange themselves into similar layers and then into spherical bubbles. In the same way, phospholipid molecules automatically and spontaneously arrange themselves into double layers that surround tiny spheres, or cells. The phospholipid bilayer of a cell membrane separates the inside of the cell from the surrounding environment. However, it is absolutely necessary for materials to move into and out of cells. Much of the movement of materials across the cell membrane is done by protein molecules located in the phospholipid bilayer. These protein molecules often extend from one side of the membrane through to the other. The lipid molecules in the membrane are constantly in motion. The protein molecules stuck in them are, therefore, always moving too. This description of the cell membrane is called the uid mosaic model. The protein molecules are thought of as oating in a double-layer sea of phospholipids. (See Figure 6-3.)

Phospholipid bilayer Head Tail Protein

Figure 6-3 The uid mosaic model of the cell membrane proposes that protein molecules oat in a doublelayer sea of phospholipids.

122 Energy, Matter, and Organization

II TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE

For a cell to remain alive, it must have a very special collection of chemicals inside it. This inside collection is quite different from the chemicals located in the environment outside the cell. Some substances that are abundant outside of the cell are not found inside the cell. Other substances that are scarce in the environment outside the cell are present in signicantly larger quantities inside the cell. It is the cell membrane that creates and maintains the special environment inside the cell. How does it do this? The cell membrane is picky. It allows some substances to pass through but keeps other substances out. This ability to pick and choose which molecules can pass through is called selective permeability. (To be permeable is to allow substances to go through. For example, cotton fabric is permeable to water; plastic is not.) The cell membrane is selectively permeable. The cell membrane also makes possible the rapid transport of some molecules across it, while other molecules pass through slowly. The selective permeability of the cell membrane is due to several factors. Only certain moleculesthose that are very small and those that dissolve in lipids but not in watercan move through the phospholipid bilayer. Some other specic molecules, including some larger ones, are allowed through because the protein molecules present in the cell membrane act as carriers. Now you know that the cell membrane acts as a gatekeeper that determines which molecules can pass through. But what determines the direction in which the molecules move? Do molecules go into or out of the cell?

II PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Picture a room, perhaps at an amusement park, lled with hundreds of plastic balls being blown in many directions by large fans. Suddenly a door opens connecting this room to another room with fans but only a few balls in it. What will automatically occur? Some of the balls in the rst room, bumping into each other, will move through the door and enter the second room. While one or two of the balls may move from the second room back in to the rst room, it is much more likely that the overall movement of balls will be through the door into the second room. A similar process occurs with molecules. Instead of a door, there is a membrane the molecules can move through. There is an overall or net movement of molecules from an area of high concentrationa place where the molecules were crowded togetherto an area of low concen-

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 123

tration. This kind of movement is called diffusion. (See Figure 6-4.) Molecules are constantly in motion, and they naturally move from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated. This movement happens automatically if the membrane is permeable to the substance and if there is a difference in concentration of the substance, a concentration gradient, on either side of the membrane. This is called passive transport, because no energy is used by the cell and no work is done. For example, one of the basic needs of most cells is oxygen. Many cells use oxygen molecules (O2). There are few O2 molecules inside the cell but usually an abundance of them in the water or other liquid that surrounds the cell. Oxygen molecules diffuse across the cell membrane into the cell by passive transport.
Figure 6-4 Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Because they are very small, water molecules can also easily move through the cell membrane. Usually, water moves from a high concenENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e /fig. 6-4 of s/s lower concentration inside trationLIVING gradient outside the cell to a region the cell. In situations where water is more abundant (high concentration) inside a cell than outside the cell (low concentration), which way will the water molecules move? In this case, they will move outside the cell. The diffusion of water molecules across a cell membraneso important for living cellsis given a special name, osmosis. Many cells, such as plant and fungus cells, have a stiff cell wall that surrounds their cell membranes. If water leaves the cell by osmosis, the contents of the cell shrink. As a result, the cell membrane moves away from the cell wall in a process called plasmolysis. Plasmolysis can be seen under a microscope when plant cells are put in a strong salt solution. The abundant fresh water inside the plant cells moves out of the cells, where there is more salt and fewer water molecules. You can actually see the cell membrane pull away from the cell wall. (See Figure 6-5 on page 124.) The reverse happens when limp celery or lettuce is put in fresh water. The celery stems or lettuce leaves are limp because their cells have too little water in them. When you put the celery or lettuce in water, osmosis

124 Energy, Matter, and Organization

Plasmolysis

H2 O (a) (b)

Figure 6-5 Effects of plasmolysis in a plant cell: water moves out of the cell.
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 6-5 s/s

occurs and water molecules move into the cells. The cells expand, the cell membranes push against the cell walls, making the cells rm and the celery and lettuce crisp again.

II ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Diffusion moves substances from high to low concentration, in the direction of the concentration gradient. As we have said, because no energy is required to move the diffusing substances, this is passive transport. A very different kind of transport, one that requires energy, also occurs. To function properly, human nerve cells must have at least 30 times more potassium inside them than is found in their surroundings. How do nerve cells keep this high concentration of potassium in them? They constantly transport potassium into themselves, even though there are already more atoms of potassium inside the nerve cell than outside. This is done by a protein molecule in the cell membrane that acts like a pump. Like an air pump that lls up a bicycle tire, this pump also requires energy to do work. This movement of a substance against the concentration gradient is known as active transport. When substances are moved from a low to a high concentration, energy is used and work is done. While the protein pump is moving potassium into nerve cells, it is also pumping sodium out. Amino acids, sugars, and other nutrients are also moved by active transport. It is one of the most important activities of cells. Other than using energy from your food to keep you warm, the most important use of energy in your body is to help pump substances across the membranes of your cells by active transporta process going on all the time without your knowledge!

Check Your Understanding Why is energy required for active transport to take place across a cell membrane? Why is energy not required for passive transport to occur?

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 125

II ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS INSIDE THE CELL

You have seen how important the cell membrane is in controlling substances that are kept inside and outside of a cell. You know that life depends on a constant input of energy. You can now begin to consider how a ow of matter and energy through cells is what life is really all about. The energy used in the chemical reactions that take place inside cells is associated with the electrons of atoms. The greater an electrons distance from its nucleus, the more stored, or potential, energy it has. When some atoms join, the electrons shared between them form the covalent bonds of a new chemical compound. Each type of covalent bond has a specic amount of energy. Whenever covalent bonds are formed or broken, the amount of stored energy changes. (See Figure 6-6.) Chemical reactions are mainly energy transformations in which energy stored in chemical bonds is transferred to other, newly formed chemical bonds or is released as heat or light. For example, the glucose in a chocolate bar is used by your cells after you eat the chocolate. In a chemical reaction that requires oxygen, the high-energy chemical bonds in the glucose molecules are broken. When glucose molecules are broken apart, carbon dioxide and water form. That is why we breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. The main point, however, is that the energy levels of the chemical bonds in carbon dioxide and water are lower than the energy levels of the chemical bonds in glucose. Energy has been released. If cells released all this energy at once, a great deal of heat would be produced. This heat would kill the cells. Over long periods of time, cells have developed the ability to control energy-releasing reactions, storing energy in the bonds of special substances and making it available only when and where the organism needs the energy. Much of the metabolism

Nucleus

Nucleus

Figure 6-6 The energy in a covalent bond depends on how far the shared electrons are from the nuclei of the atoms.

126 Energy, Matter, and Organization

Who Owns Your Cells?

The spleen is an organ that helps your body ght disease. It also helps break down old red blood cells. For John Moore, removal of his spleen cured his leukemia, a type of cancer of the blood, which he was found to have in 1976. Removing the spleen is a standard treatment for this disease. The leukemia did not return and Mr. Moore was very happy. But his attitude was soon to change. For what Mr. Moore did not know was that the physicians at the University of California who removed his spleen kept some of the cells from the spleen alive. The physicians put the cells in a special nutrient-rich solution. As the cells continued to reproduce, the physicians studied them. They discovered that cells from Mr. Moores spleen produced an interesting blood protein. The physicians received a patent on the cells, which made them the legal owners of the cells they removed from Mr. Moore. In turn, the cells and the blood protein they made were being sold to a company that planned to develop a new medicine from the cellsa medicine that would be sold for a large prot. Mr. Moore did not think this was right. He told the physicians, Dont use my cellsI own them, and then he went to court. The lawsuit was heard by the Supreme Court of California, which ruled on July 9, 1990 in favor of the physicians. Later, the United States Supreme Court also ruled in the physicians favor. The courts felt that scientic research would be threatened if researchers did not have the freedom to work with human cells. Besides, the courts said that John Moore never expected to get his cells returned to him when he gave permission for his spleen to be removed in his medical procedure. As of July 2001, Mr. Moore remains healthy. The drug company stock now owned by Mr. Moores original doctorin exchange for the rights to use the Moore cell lineis worth over ve million dollars. Were the courts correct? Did Mr. Moore have a legitimate claim to cells from his body? In other words, who owns your cells? What do you think?

of cells involves this interconnecting of energy-releasing and energyconsuming processes. An important compound in the metabolism of all living organisms is adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. ATP is the substance in which cells store this released energy temporarily until it is needed. (See Figure 6-7.) It is
Glucose + O2 CO2 + H2O

Figure 6-7 ATP is the form in which cells store the energy released by respiration. (ADP is changed to the higher-energy ATP when a phosphate bond is added.)

ADP + Pi ATP

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 127

like change in your pocket. You keep it there until you need to spend it. ATP is the energy currency of the cell. ATP molecules are small and contain usable amounts of energy stored in a form that is instantly available when it is needed. Glucose is like the money in your bank account for long-term storage.

II GETTING CHEMICAL REACTIONS TO HAPPEN

A chemist wants to cause a chemical reaction. She places two chemical compounds in a test tube, lights a Bunsen burner, and heats the compounds to a temperature of at least several hundred degrees. The molecules heat up, begin to move rapidly, and then begin to collide with each other with enough force to change each other. The reaction happens. Our cells, thankfully, cannot and do not do this. Our body temperature remains at a steady 37C and normally does not vary by more than a few degrees higher or lower. In fact, a very high fever of perhaps 42C may result in death. So how do cells have the amazing ability to perform the many chemical reactions of cellular metabolism at relatively low body temperatures?

II ENZYMES: THE CELLS MIRACLE WORKERS

For chemical reactions in the cell to take place, they must usually occur in a series of small steps rather than in a single large burst of activity, such as in the heated test tube. These steps must also be very precise. They must occur in the correct order, one after the other. For example, to change substances A and B into substance F, they may rst change into C, then D, which may join with E to nally become F. Substances A and B are called the reactants for reaction 1, and C is the product. C then becomes the reactant for reaction 2, changing into product D, and so on. An equation for this series of reactions looks like this:
A+B (1) C (2) D+E (3) F

In cells, metabolic activity includes hundreds of chemical reactions that occur in steps such as these. Cells must be well organized. One problem for the cell is that the reactants must get changed into exactly the right products and not something else. Also, as we mentioned, the reaction must occur at a relatively low temperature so that the cell is not harmed. Both problems are solved by enzymes. Enzymes are usually proteins, although new research has shown that some may be RNA molecules. Because a particular enzyme is needed for each type of chemical

128 Energy, Matter, and Organization

reaction, cells have thousands of different kinds of enzymes. Enzymes are able to do astounding things. For example, a reaction that normally might occur only once every hundred years can occur ten times a second if the correct enzyme is present! And the same enzyme molecule will do its job over and over again, without itself being changed. A substance responsible for greatly changing the rate at which a chemical reaction occurs without being changed itself is a catalyst. Enzymes are types of catalysts. Because they are either proteins or nucleic acids, enzymes are organic catalysts. Each enzyme is important; each has its own name. The name often comes from the name of the substrate, the substance that the enzyme acts on. An enzymes name usually ends with the letters ase. For example, the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction that splits the starch maltose into two glucose molecules is called maltase. Lipases are enzymes that break down lipids; proteases are enzymes that break down proteins. To get the reactants A and B to come together and change to C is not easy. Molecules behave like individuals who are proud of who they are, and these individuals resist change. You can think of it this way. Their resistance to reacting is similar to climbing a hill. You have to get the reactants over the hill in order for them to roll down the other side. That is when the reaction occurs. The energy needed to do this is called the activation energy. One of the most important functions of enzymes is lowering the level of activation energy needed to make the reaction occur. (See Figure 6-8.) In a sense, the enzyme lowers the hill. In the presence of

Without enzyme

Enzyme lowers activation energy

Energy

With enzyme

Reacti on

Figure 6-8 Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the level of activation energy needed to make the reaction occur.

LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 6-8 s/s

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 129

the proper enzyme, the reactants or substrates are much more likely to come together, go over the hill, and change into the new product. Besides speeding up the rate of a reaction, enzymes are amazingly good at getting reactions done correctly. Enzymes make certain that the product you get after the chemical reaction is the product you want. Consider thousands of parts that make up a car. If all of these parts were thrown into a large container and shaken, would you get a car? Of course not. On a car assembly line, each part is tted in a very precise manner to another part before going on to the next step. An enzyme is like the assembly-line robot that ts the parts together. To do this job, enzymes must be very precise in their actions. They are able to be very accurate in their work because they are usually proteins that have a particular shape. Remember that each protein molecule is a long chain of amino acids, which bends and twists into a specic shape. The shape of an enzyme molecule includes a spot somewhere on its surface that is sort of like a pocket. This pocket is exactly the right size and shape for a particular substrate molecule. If two different substrates are involved in the chemical reaction, there will be a precise fit in the enzymes pocket for each substrate molecule. This place on the enzyme molecule is called the active site. The t of the substrate in the active site resembles the t of a key in a lock, which is why scientists call this the lock-and-key model of enzyme action. (See Figure 6-9a.) An enzyme does its work by joining with the substrate molecules in this close t. However, this is only a temporary association and is known as the enzyme-substrate complex. The chemical reaction occurs while the enzyme and substrate are tted together. The substrate changes in a specic way, but the enzyme does not change. The product of the reaction is released from the active site and moves to the next step in the process. The unchanged enzyme, with its open active site, gets used again to catalyze the same reaction on another molecule of the same substrate. In fact, the enzymes are recycled.
Substrate molecules Enzyme-substrate complex Product

Active site

Enzyme

Figure 6-9a Lock-and-key model of enzyme action.

130 Energy, Matter, and Organization

Reactants Product

Active site changes shape to bind to substrates Active site

Enzyme

Enzyme Enzyme-substrate complex

Enzyme

Figure 6-9b Induced-t model of enzyme action.

LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 6-9b s/s

Recently, scientists found that when the substrate moves to an active site, a slight temporary change in the shape of the enzyme molecule may occur. The substrate itself is involved in creating or inducing a proper t with the enzyme. Rather than a key tting into a lock, it is more like one hand clasping another hand in a handshake. This momentary change in the shape of an enzyme may be involved in getting the substrate to change in a permanent way. Some researchers consider it better to change the name of the enzyme-substrate connection from the lock-and-key model to the induced-t model of enzyme action. (See Figure 6-9b.) Only small amounts of enzymes are needed to do their work. However, if an enzyme is needed for a particular chemical reaction, the absence of even the small amount needed can be disastrous. A genetic disease called phenylketonuria, which causes severe mental retardation in children, is due to the absence of a single enzyme in the body. Tay-Sachs is another genetic disease caused by the lack of a single enzyme. This disease usually leads to infant death.

II HELPING ENZYMES DO THEIR JOBS

Keeping an enzyme well supplied with substrate helps it work at its best. As soon as one substrate molecule leaves the active site, another one can pop into it. However, there are limits. If enough substrate molecules are present to keep the active site full all the time, adding more substrate molecules will not make a difference in the number of enzyme-substrate reac-

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 131

tions that occur. The enzyme is said to be saturated and working at its maximum speed and efciency. For an enzyme to work properly, the protein molecule must maintain its correct shape. Two conditions in the cell, temperature and pH, are very important for maintaining the shape of an enzyme molecule. Temperature. Many animals have evolved ways to maintain a relatively constant internal temperature, even as the temperature of their surroundings varies greatly. For example, the huge ears of the desert hare act as radiators. The blood that ows through the ears gives off heat to the air. The heat that is given off prevents the hare from overheating in the hot desert. The main reason animals need to maintain a constant body temperature is to allow cellular enzymes to function properly. The fact that high temperatures can destroy our own enzymes is one reason why a long-term high fever can cause death. (See Figure 6-10.)

Rate of enzyme activity

Optimum temperature

10

20 30 40 Degrees Celsius

50

60

Figure 6-10 A typical enzyme in our body works best at temperatures between 37C and 50C.

A look at eggs can help us understand how high temperatures affect proteins, including enzymes. Egg white consists of the protein albumin. LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 6-10 s/s When an egg is cooked, a big change occurs in the albumin protein. The heat used to cook the egg causes the protein to change shape. The change is not reversiblethe egg cannot be uncooked. If the albumin proteins had been enzyme molecules, they could no longer function. pH. Scientists use a special scale, the pH scale, to measure how acidic a solution is. The opposite of an acid is a base. Both an extremely strong acid and an extremely strong base can burn the skin. The pH scale runs from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly basic). A neutral solution such as pure water has a pH of 7. Vinegar, an acid, has a pH of 2.8; ammonia, a base, has a pH of 11.1. Slight changes in pH quickly change an enzymes shape

132 Energy, Matter, and Organization

Rate of enzyme activity

Optimum pH

Figure 6-11 Most enzymes function best at about pH 7, which is neutral.

4 pH

and its ability to affect a substrate. Most enzymes function best near pH 7. LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 6-11 s/s Our cells must maintain that pH in order to survive. (See Figure 6-11.) Many enzymes need nonprotein helpers to do their jobs. These helpers, called cofactors or coenzymes, may be organic compounds or metal atoms. Most vitamins and some minerals such as zinc, iron, and copper are necessary in our diet because they act as cofactors for enzymes.

II TAKING A TOUR OF THE CELL

Cells are the basic units of structure and function for all living things. Some living things are made up of a single cell, but most have many cells that work together on behalf of the organism. Still, almost everything we need to do to stay alive is accomplished by each individual cell: getting food, using food for energy, transporting substances, growing, reproducing, and eliminating wastes. Each of these activities involves a large number of chemical reactions. For all these reactions to take place under the careful, precise control of a great many enzymes involves organization. Leeuwenhoek and others after him thought that they saw structures inside the single-celled beasties in the drops of pond water. Picturing these structures as miniature hearts, lungs, and stomachs, they thought of them as little organs, or organelles. We now know that many cells contain internal structures, but they are not miniature organs. As was mentioned in Chapter 3, all cells can be divided into two main groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus. In structure, they appear simple. Besides lacking a nucleus, prokaryotes do not have the other membrane-bound organelles found in other cells. All bacteria are prokaryotic. Most scientists marvel at the ability of these so-called simple cells to perform all life functions and survive in a wide variety of different environments on Earth. (See Figure 6-12.)

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 133

Cell membrane Cell wall Cytoplasm Cytoplasmic membrane

Flagellum Ribosomes

Genetic material

Slime layer or capsule

Figure 6-12 Typical prokaryotic cell.

II THE EUKARYOTIC CELL

LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 6-12 s/s is, a nucleus surrounded by Eukaryotic cells have a separate nucleus , that a membrane within the cell. The genetic information of a eukaryotic cell is stored mainly in the nucleus. As you look at a eukaryotic cell through a microscope, you can observe a wide assortment of other complex structures. The cells of all protists, fungi, plants, and animals are eukaryotic. Humans are eukaryotic organisms. A typical eukaryotic cell is about 10 to 100 times larger than a prokaryotic cell. Lets tour the inside of a eukaryotic cell. To enter a cell, we have to pass through a cell membrane, the phospholipid bilayer. To take our tour, we have to swim, moving through the cytoplasm that lls the cell. Cytoplasm is a thin gel, made up mostly of water, with many other chemicals dissolved in it. Around us we observe many ribosomes, organelles where proteins are made. We also see lysosomes, the structures involved in getting food broken down, scattered throughout the cell. The kidney-beanshaped mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, the places where energy is released. (See Figure 6-13.)

Vacuole

Cytoplasm Ribosomes Cell membrane Nucleolus Chromosome Nucleus material Nuclear membrane Endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion

Figure 6-13 Organelles of a typical animal cell.

134 Energy, Matter, and Organization

By far the largest structure in the cell is the nucleus. The nucleus often lls the entire central portion of a eukaryotic cell. We can see a system of canals that spreads out from the nucleus. This system, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), may have ribosomes attached to it. Proteins, made on the ribosomes, and lipids, made in the ER, are then moved through the ER. Near the ER is a structure that looks like a stack of curved plates sitting one on top of another. This is the Golgi complex, which makes, packages, and distributes many materials. The organelles mentioned above would be visible no matter what kind of eukaryotic cell we explored.
Ribosomes Chloroplast Nucleolus Nuclear membrane Chromosome material Cytoplasm Cell membrane Vacuole Nucleus

Figure 6-14 Organelles of a typical plant cell.

Cell wall Mitochondrion

Other organelles are also present in some cells. If we were touring an animal cell, we would see two sets of rods grouped in rings. These are cenLIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 6-14 s/s trioles, structures involved in cell division. If we visited a plant cell, we would rst have to pass through a tough, rigid cell wall made of the polysaccharide cellulose. (See Figure 6-14.) Inside the cell we would notice a large space occupied by a vacuole, the place for storing materials including wastes. Finally, we would notice the green football-shaped objects called chloroplasts, the organelles where plants perform the job of converting energy from the sun into food, which the plants and most other organismsincluding usneed to live. (See table below.)
SOME CELL ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Nucleus Vacuole

Controls cell activities Stores materials for cell

Mitochondria Golgi complex Lysosomes

Release energy Packages materials Break food down

Ribosomes Where proteins are made

LABORATORY INVESTIGATION 6

What Is the Role of the Cell Membrane in Diffusion?

INTRODUCTION Diffusion is the movement of molecules from areas of greater concentration to areas of lesser concentration. In organisms, diffusion is limited by the selective permeability of the membrane that surrounds a cell. In this activity, you will study the diffusion of water molecules (osmosis) into and out of red onion cells. You will observe some of the factors that inuence the direction of movement of the water molecules. MATERIALS Forceps, red onion, glass slides, tap water, coverslips, compound microscope, 5% NaCl solution, paper towels, distilled water PROCEDURE 1. Use the forceps to remove a very thin piece of the red onion skin and place it at on a microscope slide. Note: The skin is not the brown, papery layer that surrounds an onion. To remove the piece of onion skin that you need, bend a segment of the onion in half and tear one half from the other. If you do this correctly, you will have a very thin piece of onion skin that is transparent and a reddish or light purple in color. 2. Add a drop of tap water to the onion skin. Use your nger to smooth out the onion skin. Add another drop of tap water, if you need to. Place a coverslip over the onion cells. Make sure that the bottom of the glass slide is dry. Place the slide on the microscope stage. 3. Focus the low-power lens on the cells. Make a drawing of what you observe. Switch to high power. Make a drawing of the cells under high power. In your laboratory notebook, use complete sentences to write a description of the cells. 4. Place a small drop of NaCl solution at one edge of the coverslip. Place a small piece of paper toweling at the opposite edge of the coverslip. The paper towel will draw the salt solution over the onion cells.

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 135

5. Wait several minutes; then carefully observe the red onion cells. Draw what you observe. 6. Place a drop of distilled water at one edge of the coverslip. Use a piece of paper toweling to draw this water over the cells. 7. Wait several minutes; then carefully observe the red onion cells again and draw them as they now appear. INTERPRETIVE QUESTIONS 1. How can you explain the changed appearance of the onion cells? 2. Molecules of NaCl do not move through a cell membrane. What explanation can you offer for this? 3. How can the diffusion of water molecules explain what you observed after distilled water was added to your slide? 4. The red onion cells will burst if they remain in distilled water for a long period of time. Offer an explanation for this observation.

136 Energy, Matter, and Organization

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 137

II CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
Answer these questions on a separate sheet of paper. VOCABULARY The following list contains all of the boldfaced terms in this chapter. Dene each of these terms in your own words. activation energy, active site, active transport, adenosine triphosphate, catalyst, cell membrane, coenzymes, cofactors, concentration gradient, cytoplasm, diffusion, enzymes, enzyme-substrate complex, uid mosaic model, nucleus, organelles, osmosis, passive transport, pH, phospholipids, plasmolysis, selective permeability PART AMULTIPLE CHOICE Choose the response that best completes the sentence or answers the question. 1. The thin layer that separates a cells contents from the outside environment is the a. cell membrane b. nucleus c. cytoplasm d. endoplasmic reticulum. 2. Which structure is missing in prokaryotic cells? a. nucleus b. cell membrane c. cytoplasm d. ribosome 3. A nonprotein helper that assists an enzyme is called a a. mitochondrion b. ribozyme c. vacuole d. coenzyme. 4. The movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane is called a. osmosis b. diffusion c. passive transport d. active transport. 5. The movement of a substance from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration is called a. osmosis b. diffusion c. passive transport d. active transport. 6. Sugars and amino acids move into a cell via a. osmosis b. diffusion c. passive transport d. active transport. 7. The system of canals in which proteins and lipids are made and transported in a cell is the a. Golgi apparatus b. nucleolus c. endoplasmic reticulum d. mitochondria. 8. Plasmolysis explains why a. amebas explode when put into distilled water b. plants wilt when they dont get enough water c. you can smell the perfume counter from the other side of a store d. enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction. 9. The proteins in the cell membrane a. remain in xed positions b. allow small molecules that can dissolve in lipids to pass into

138 Energy, Matter, and Organization

10.

11.

12. 13. 14.

15.

the cell c. transport certain molecules into or out of the cell d. prevent osmosis from taking place. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is important because it a. catalyzes important chemical reactions b. pumps potassium into and sodium out of nerve cells c. holds energy in small amounts so it can be stored or used gradually d. helps enzymes do their job. Enzymes a. are usually made up of lipids b. lower the activation energy of certain reactions c. are used up when they catalyze a reaction d. operate at any temperature. If a substance has a pH of 6.5, it is a. highly acidic b. highly basic c. mildly acidic d. mildly basic. The powerhouses of the cell are the a. mitochondria b. centrioles c. chloroplasts d. vacuoles. Which organelle would you not expect to nd in an animal cell? a. nucleus b. chloroplast c. centriole d. endoplasmic reticulum A barrier that allows some substances in while keeping other substances out is said to be a. subpermeable b. selectively permeable c. superpermeable d. impermeable.

PART BCONSTRUCTED RESPONSE Use the information in the chapter to respond to these items.
Temperature (C) pH

Relative Rate of Enzyme Action

Relative Rate of Enzyme Action

Pepsin

Trypsin

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

16. According to the graphs, how do temperature and pH affect enzyme action? What might be the reason for these results? 17. Based on the data in the graphs, do you think pepsin and trypsin LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 6-Q16 s/s are found in the same part of the human body? Explain your answer. 18. Using what you know about the movement of materials in and out of cells, explain why traditional methods of preserving food, such as candying fruits and salting meats, worked to some degree. 19. Describe the lock-and-key model of enzyme action. 20. Describe the structure of a cell membrane.

Chapter 6 / Chemical Activity in the Cell 139

PART CREADING COMPREHENSION Base your answers to questions 21 through 23 on the information below and on your knowledge of biology. Source: Science News (December 14, 2002): vol. 162, p. 381. Bilirubin: Both Villain and Hero? Bilirubin, the bile pigment that yellows the skin of babies born with jaundice, is generally considered a toxic molecule. According to a new study, however, bilirubin may actually protect cells from dangerous oxygen-containing molecules called free radicals. Bilirubin forms during the breakdown of hemoglobin, the oxygencarrying protein in blood cells, and can build up to high concentrations in the blood. Several lines of evidence indicate that bilirubin is toxic, but why then is there a specic enzyme that converts the seemingly harmless molecule known as biliverdin into bilirubin? Scientists puzzled by this question have unearthed data suggesting that bilirubin, when present at the right concentration, is helpful instead of harmful. A research team headed by Solomon H. Snyder of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in Baltimore reports that bilirubin protects brain cells growing in lab dishes from the damage typically caused by hydrogen peroxide, a free radical. The scientists compared normal cells with ones in which the bilirubinmaking enzyme was inhibited. The normal cells were able to survive a dose of hydrogen peroxide 10,000 times greater than the lethal dose for the bilirubin-deprived cells. The investigators report their ndings in an upcoming Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Snyder and his colleagues also garnered evidence for a mechanism by which bilirubin, which is altered when it defuses free radicals, is recycled back into its original form. This reuse amplies its protective powers. A protective role for bilirubin may explain previous ndings that have linked low blood concentrations of the molecule to cancer, heart attacks, and other diseases, the scientists note. 21. Describe how bilirubin is produced in the body. 22. Explain why scientists have been confused about bilirubin. 23. State two types of evidence scientists have gathered that point to a protective role for bilirubin.