Informal Fallacies

Correct reasoning involves clear expression and valid form. Formal fallacies are a matter of invalid form. Informal fallacies are a matter of unclear expression. Formal fallacies deal with the logic of the technical structure, while informal fallacies deal with the logic of the meaning of language. The word "informal" does not here mean it is inferior, casual or improper. It only means that our focus is not on the form of the argument, but on the meaning of the argument. An informal fallacy involves such things as: the misuse of language words or grammar, misstatements of fact or opinion, misconceptions due to underlying presuppositions, or just plain illogical sequences of thought. We encounter both formal and informal fallacies every day, but unlike formal fallacies, we cannot reduce informal fallacies to symbolic formulas. We can, however, compile a list of characteristic profiles of informal fallacies, and arrange them into general categories.

I. Informal Fallacies of Ambiguity

A. Equivocation
A word may have more than one distinguishable meaning. An argument may be constructed around the ambiguity of the meaning of that word. If you use one meaning of the word in a premise; then another meaning of the word in another premise, or in the conclusion, you may appear to have proved something. Example: Logic teaches you how to argue. People argue entirely too much. Therefore we don't need to teach people Logic. In this "argument" the word "argue" is used in two entirely different senses. In the first line, the word "argue" is used to mean only the process of arranging propositions to flow logically from a premise to a conclusion. In the second line, the word "argue" is used to include such meanings as a heated discussion, a bitter disagreement, a contentious altercation, a dispute or a controversy. A logical argument may sometimes lead to a dispute, or it may sometimes settle a dispute; but there is no necessary connection between teaching logical argument and encouraging people to bitterly argue. Often a person does not recognize that he is using a term in two senses because the two senses are often very close yet distinguishable. A gracious way to approach someone whom you think has equivocated is to ask him to define his use of the word in each proposition. If he does not recognize any difference, you

may point out the differences often subtle which you notice. If he still does not catch on, you may wish to offer an example of your own equivocation in order to humble yourself and thereby disarm any "defense" mechanism which may be kicking in and blinding him. Another possibility which you must consider is that you have invented the equivocation in your mind it is not real. If you are still satisfied that he has equivocated, you must determine whether the conversation can continue around the point, possibly returning later to the point after other things have been discussed and clarified.

B. Amphibology or Semantic and Syntactic Ambiguity

Example: Lots for sale. (Semantic Ambiguity: Allotments of land or numerous things?) Example: Laurie calls her mother when she's alone. (Syntactic Ambiguity: Who is alone, Laurie or her mother?)

A Semantic Ambiguity can be removed by defining the ambiguous word or by offering a synonym. A Syntactic Ambiguity can be removed by reconstructing the sentence. Some Amphibologies may be deliberate.

Example: "What I have written, I have written." (John 19:22)

Pilate states a fact, that he had written the inscription of condemnation on the cross; then he declares his intention, that he was not going to change the inscription.