Bio1 EcosystemsU

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Preliminary Biology Topic 1
A LOCAL ECOSYSTEM
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves: 1. DISTRIBUTION & ABUNDANCE OF ORGANISMS 2. BIOTIC & ABIOTIC FACTORS 3. ROLES & RELATIONSHIPS 4. THE FLOW OF ENERGY & MATTER 5. ADAPTATIONS TO ENVIRONMENT 6. HUMAN IMPACTS
but first, some definitions...

Ecology
is the study of living things and their environment, and all the inter-relationships between the lifeforms and the factors of the environment itself.
Community
refers to all the living things within an ecosystem... all the different types and individual organisms.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem comprises all the living things and the non-living environment of a particular, defined area. The size of an ecosystem can vary enormously... you might study the ecology under one rock, or in a lake. You might consider an entire mountain range as one ecosystem, or an entire ocean. Ultimately, the entire Earth can be considered as a single ecosystem.
THE SUN PROVIDES ALL THE ENERGY FOR THE ECOSYSTEM
Population
refers to all the individuals of a particular species living within the ecosystem. The community within a complex ecosystem such as a coral reef, or a tropical rainforest, contains thousands of populations of different species.
sun AN AUSTRALIAN ECOSYSTEM
The temperature, amount of light, the air, water and the soil are vital nonliving factors of every ecosystem Preliminary Biology Topic 1 Ecosystems copyright 2005-2008 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
The plants and animals interact with each other, and with the non-l living environment
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
Abiotic Factors
Biotic Factors Predator & Prey
Parasite & Host
Transect Studies
Quadrats & CaptureRecapture
Factors of an Ecosystem
Commensalism
Distribution & Abundance
Mutualism
Roles & Relationships

Allelopathy
A LOCAL ECOSYSTEM
Competition
Human Impacts
Adaptations to Environment
Flow of Energy & Matter
Biomass Pyramids Loss of Habitat Pollution Eutrophication Alien Species Structural Physiological Behavioural
Cycling of matter. Flow of Energy
Food Chains Food Webs
Preliminary Biology Topic 1 Ecosystems copyright 2005-2008 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
1. DISTRIBUTION & ABUNDANCE OF ORGANISMS

The first questions you might ask when beginning to study any ecosystem are: which organisms live here? where do they live, exactly? how many of them are there?
Distribution
In ecology, distribution refers to where within an ecosysytem the individuals of a species are located. Some species might be more or less evenly distributed throughout the area being studied, but often the population of a species is clumped together, or found only in certain parts of the environment. How a species is distributed gives clues about how it is interacting with the environment. For example: An animal that is usually found in tree tops may be there to find its food, or may be escaping its enemies.
Transect Study
A Transect is like a cross-section through a study area. The idea is to define a line which cuts right across the area being studied. This could be a string line or a series of marker sticks hammered into the soil. The study is done by moving along the line and noting and recording which species are located at each point. Often plants are the main subjects of a Transect Study, because many animals move around so far and so quickly that they cant be studied this way.
You may have done a Transect Study as part of your practical work, or field trip. For schools near the coast, a common field trip is to study the rocky seashore environment.
A plant found mainly along the banks of creeks or rivers may have a greater need for water to grow, or might only be able to reproduce by spreading its seeds in water.
So, one of the first things to do when studying an ecosystem is to study the distribution of the organisms present. One good way to do this is by carrying out a Transect Study.
A Typical Rocky Seashore The photo shows horizontal stripes of living things. Each stripe is a population of seaweeds, or barnacles, or tube-w worms, etc. Why stripes? turn over...
Preliminary Biology Topic 1 copyright 2005-2 2008 keep it simple science
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Distribution at a Rocky Seashore

In sea-shore studies it is quickly discovered that the different organisms tend to be found in quite distinct zones which are related to the vertical heights above and below the tide levels.
TRANSECT DIAGRAM OF A ROCKY SEASHORE Blue periwinkles Neptunes necklace seaweed High Tide level Black & striped periwinkles common here Crabs common Brown bubble weed Low Tide level Sea Urchins & Starfish common here Kelp seaweed only found at lower levels 30 metres Note: Vertical scale is exaggerated 3 metres
Exactly where each species is found is an indication of the interactions in the ecosystem between each species and factors such as: Food Supplies they need to be near. Predators they need to avoid. Wave Action. Most of the organisms along the sea-shore are well adapted to withstand the pounding of waves, but some are better adapted than others. Exposure to Air Sea-shore animals are all sea creatures which can withstand being exposed for a while at low tide. How well they cope with this often determines their exact distribution.
Abundance
Abundance refers to how many individuals are in the population of a species in the ecosystem. In some cases it can be easy enough to count the population directly. For example, to find the abundance of large trees in a small forest, simply walk back-andforth in a grid pattern and count as you go.
It would be impractical to try to count all the barnacles on a seashore. Sampling the population is much faster.
However, small organisms, large areas and animals that hide or move around a lot make direct counting impossible. In many cases, abundance of a species must be done by sampling... studying small samples of the environment, then scaling the data up to the whole area.
Two commonly used sampling techniques are described on the next page.
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Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only EXAMPLE OF A QUADRAT STUDY
KEY: Plant studied
Quadrat Sampling
A quadrat is a simple wire/wooden/plastic frame which is dropped onto the ground at random throughout the study area. At each quadrat drop the number of the species of interest is counted. After a number of drops (the more, the better) the average number of organisms per quadrat is calculated. Finally, the estimated population is found by scaling-up from the area of the quadrat to the total area being studied.
Quadrat drops 8 metres 1 m2
Study Area = 8x8 = 64 m2 8 metres
In the example shown, the quadrat has been dropped 8 times. The numbers of plants in each quadrat drop were 2,1,0,3,1,1,1,1 This gives an average of 1.25 plants in each quadrat. Remember this is an Estimated = Average count x Study area estimate only, and Population per quadrat Quadrat area can be improved by increasing the = 80 plants Estimated = 1.25 x 64 number of drops. Population 1
Capture-Recapture Sampling
The obvious problem with the Quadrat method is that it does not work with animals that will run, fly, or swim away from you. For mobile animals, or secretive, hard-to-find types, the capture-recapture technique can be useful. For the example shown, 5% (1/20) of the 2nd capture are re-captures. So statistically, the 1st capture sample of 50 should represent 1/20 of the total population of the study area. Therefore, population estimate = 1,000 individuals. (50 x 20) Mathematically, Estimated = 1st capture x 2nd capture Population no.marked in 2nd capture (no. re-captured) = 50 x 60 3 = 1,000 individuals
1. Capture a number of the species being studied.
2. Mark or tag the animals
Example: 1st Capture is 50 individuals 3. Release animals back where they were captured.
4. Carry out a second capture program.
. it.. wa
5. Count how many of the 2nd capture are marked from the 1st capture. Example: 2nd Capture is 60 individuals (not all shown)
Limitations
This technique relies on the tagged individuals mixing randomly back into the population and being re-caught again at random. Sometimes this doesnt happen.
Example: Out of 60 in the 2nd capture, 3 are marked. So, 5% (1/20) of the 2nd capture are re-c captures.
For example, intelligent mammals learn to avoid the traps or nets, or may even enjoy being caught (for the food in a trap) and learn to seek out the traps. Either way, this makes the estimate inaccurate.
Worksheet 1 Distribution & Abundance

Fill in the blank spaces. Distribution in ecology refers to a)..................... a species is located in an area. This gives clues to how a species is b)............................................ with the environment. For example, an animal found predominantly in treetops might be there to find c)........................, or it may be d)............................ from its enemies. A good technique for studying distribution is carry out a e).......................................... study. This is where you work along a f)..................................... across the study area, noting g)................... ........................ ....................... at each point. h)...................................... refers to how many individuals of a species are in an environment. One way to estimate this is by dropping i).................................... at random throughout the area.
At each drop you count how many organisms are in the quadrat. At the end you calculate the j)............................... per quadrat. Knowing the area of each quadrat, and the area of k)................................................., the total population can be estimated. The accuracy will be improved by l)......................................................... ....................................... For animals that move around a lot, the abundance is best estimated by the m)..................................... .................... method. This involves capturing a sample of the population, then n)............................. them in some way, and then o)..................................... them again. Later, you carry out a second p)..............................., and count how many of the sample are q)................................... This allows calculation of an estimate of the r)..................................... One limitation of this technique is that it relies on the captured specimens s)............................................. .............................., which doesnt always happen.
Worksheet 2
Quadrat Study Problems
Calculating Abundance
Capture-Recapture Problems
3. A capture-recapture study was carried out on the lizard population on an island. In the first capture exercise, 230 lizards were captured, tagged and released. A week later, 156 lizards were captured. Of these, 18 had tags from the 1st capture. Calculate an estimate of the lizard population on the island, to the nearest thousand. 4. To estimate the possum population in area, 65 possums were captured unharmed, tagged and released. A week later 48 possums were captured. Of these, 12 had tags. Estimate the possum population. It was later found that the possums rather enjoyed being trapped because of the tasty food used as bait. Does this mean your population estimate may be too high or too low? Explain your answer. 6
1. Abundance of starfish on a rock platform was studied by the quadrat method. The quadrat was a plastic frame with an area of 0.25 m2. The rock platform was a rectangle approximately 20m x 30m. The numbers of starfish in 10 quadrat drops were: 8, 0, 14, 11, 3, 1, 0, 0, 7, 2. Estimate the starfish population on the rock platform.
2. A farmer wished to estimate the population abundance of a noxious weed species in a paddock measuring 300 x 400 metres. He used a rectangular wire quadrat frame 1.0 x 0.5 metre. The number of target weeds in 20 quadrat drops were: 2, 8, 0, 15, 11, 0, 2, 1, 0, 9, 16, 3, 7, 13, 0, 1, 7, 0, 8, 2. What is the approximate population of weeds in the paddock?
Worksheet 3
Multiple Choice
Practice Questions (Section 1)

Longer Response Questions
Mark values given are suggestions only, and are to give you an idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate. 5. (4 marks) The following is a students sketch diagram of a transect done to study the distribution of 4 plant species J, K, L and M in a certain area.
Pond Vertical scale exaggerated
1. When studying an ecosystem, a transect study could be useful for recording the: A. abundance of species within the study area. B. distribution of species within the area. C. special adaptations of species to the habitat. D. food chains in the area. 2.
TRANSECT DIAGRAM OF A ROCKY SEASHORE Blue periwinkles Neptunes necklace seaweed High Tide level Black & striped periwinkles common here Crabs common Brown bubble weed Low Tide level Sea Urchins & Starfish common here Kelp seaweed only found at lower levels
Key J K L M
Creek
Describe the distribution of species K and L.
It would be reasonable to infer from this transect study that: A. Blue Periwinkles eat kelp plants. B. blue periwinkles can withstand drying effects at low tide better than starfish can. C. Crabs can survive the effects of wave action better than bubble weed. D. Kelp has special adaptations to resist drying. 3. The best way to improve the accuracy and reliability of a quadrat study is to: A. use a bigger quadrat frame. B. deliberately drop quadrats where the target species is found in larger numbers. C. measure the size of the study area more carefully. D. make more quadrat drops. 4. When using the capture-recapture technique, which of the following would be most likely to result in an INACCURATE estimate of population size. A. The marking technique used reduces survival chances of the animals. B. Increasing the number captured in the 2nd capture operation. C. After release from the first cature, the animals mix randomly back into the population. D. Increasing the number captured in the first capture operation.
6. (3 marks) Using a capture-recapture method to estimate the population of trout fish in a lake, the following results were obtained: 1st capture: 537 trout tagged & released. 2nd capture: 832 captured. Of these 45 were tagged. To the nearest 1,000, how many trout are in the lake? Show your working or reasoning. 7. (6 marks) To estimate the population size for a small plant species living in a field, a quadrat study was carried out. The field was rectangular, measuring 120m x 85m. The quadrat used was a square wired frame 0.50m x 0.50m = 0.25 m2 area. It was dropped at random 10 times in the field. The count of the target species in each of the drops was:- 8, 14, 2, 5, 9, 22, 3, 0, 12 and 7. a) Calculate i) the area of the field. ii) the average number of plants per quadrat. b) Find an estimate of the size of the plant population in the field. Show working. c) Suggest one way to improve this study to give a more accurate estimate.
2. BIOTIC & ABIOTIC FACTORS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The distribution and abundance of any species within an ecosystem depends on a whole host of factors...
Biotic Factors
(biotic = living) examples... Food organisms Predators Disease organisms Competitors
Abiotic Factors
(non-living) Availability of water Availability of oxygen Light intensity Temperature range Soil characteristics ...and many more.
Comparison of Abiotic Characteristics in the Terrestrial Environment (on land) & Aquatic Environment (in water) Viscosity
is a measure of the stickiness of a substance, and how easy or difficult it is to move through it. On land, plants and animals are surrounded by air, which has very low viscosity and is easy to move through.
STREAMLINING
Buoyancy
is a measure of flotation ability. Water is very buoyant and supports plant and animal bodies against the pull of gravity. Aquatic organisms do not need strong stems or legs to hold themselves up. Terrestrial plants need strong stems or trunks of wood to grow upwards against gravity. Animals need strong skeletons.
Bony skeleton supports body against gravity
Most of body is muscle to power the tail
Water has a much higher viscosity and is more difficult to move through. As a result, many aquatic animals are streamlined, and equipped with powerful tails for propulsion.
Strong trunk to hold leaves up to catch light
Availability of Gases
(oxygen & carbon dioxide) Since the air is about 20% oxygen, it is readily available in terrestrial environments. Carbon dioxide (needed by plants for photosynthesis) is only 0.04% of air, so land plants are limited by this. These gases do NOT dissolve well in water, so the concentration of gases in aquatic environments is very low, and gets lower as the water gets warmer. For this reason, fishs gills have to be highly efficient to extract the necessary oxygen, and are far better than our lungs for gas exchange.
Temperature Variation
On land the temperature can easily vary 20oC from day to night, and even more from summer to winter. Living things must be able to cope with that while maintaining stable internal body temperatures. Terrestrial animals need fur or feathers for insulation, or have physiological responses such as sweating or shivering. Some change their behaviour (sunbaking or seeking shade) in order to cope.
Availability of Water
Terrestrial environments are subject to evaporation, and plants and animals must have ways to conserve water, by having water-proof skin, or avoiding losses during excretion. This problem becomes extreme in some environments such as deserts.
Conserving water is critical for survival in a desert environment
Dogs keep cool by panting when they get too hot. They have few sweat glands, but panting evaporates water from gums and tongue. This has a cooling effect.
For sea-living plants and animals like jellyfish and worms, water is never a problem. They are constantly surrounded by a liquid exactly the same as their body fluids. They do not need to have special mechanisms to collect or conserve water. However, in some cases the organisms are surrounded by water, but they have water problems due to osmosis. This will be studied in the next topic, but in summary: In salt-water environments fish lose water by osmosis (mainly from their gills) and must constantly replace it.
SALTWATER FISH
Osmosis sucks water from body.
Water-living organisms generally do not need such special adaptations because aquatic environments have very stable temperatures. However, water-living mammals are often heavily insulated by blubber (fat) to maintain their high body temperature in cold water.
This seal looks fat because she is! Thick layers of blubber are both food storage and vital insulation to conserve body heat in cold water.
FRESH WATER FISH

Absorbs water due to osmosis
Must drink constantly to replace water loss
Must excrete water constantly
In fresh water, osmosis causes water to flow into the organisms body and must constantly be pumped out again. Their kidneys are mainly used to excrete water, rather than body wastes.
Availability of Light
Light is essential for plants to carry out photosynthesis. This process makes all the food, so the availability of light is a critical factor in any ecosystem. Light penetrates through air very easily, so most terrestrial environments get plenty of light for the plants. The floor of a rainforest is an exception... here the dense canopy of trees means very little light penetrates to reach the smaller species or seedlings. Rainforest plants have adapted to this in many ways: Epiphytes (e.g. staghorn ferns) germinate and grow high up in other plants and so avoid the darkness below. Birdnest fern epiphyte in a rainforest tree
In contrast to air, water does NOT allow light through so easily. Light can penetrate the surface layers easily enough, but even just 10 metres deep, much of the light has been absorbed, and by 100 m down it is totally dark. Also, water does not absorb all the different colours (wavelengths) equally. Red and orange are absorbed rapidly, while green and blue penetrate deeper into the water.
Different colours (frequencies) of light penetrate water to different depths.
Red light is absorbed near the surface
Blue light penetrates to greater depth
Many seaweeds have special pigments to efficiently absorb the available light.
Plants living on the rainforest floor have large, broad leaves, packed with extra chorophyll, to absorb what little light is available.
Most seaweeds are not the familiar green of land plants. Many are brown or red because they contain special pigments to absorb the dominant blue wavelength of light they receive.
Brown Kelp Seaweed
In deep ocean waters there is no light and consequently no plants. Deep ecosystems rely on dead organic remains drifting down from above for their food supply. On the deep ocean floor, some ecosystems are based on food made by chemosynthesis around volcanic vents. This will be explained in a later topic.
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Worksheet 4 Biotic & Abiotic Factors
Practice Questions for this section are in Worksheet 6
Divide these ecosystem factors into 2 lists... the Biotic and Abiotic factors. Light, prey, diseases, oxygen, water, predators, soil, temperature, food plants, exposure, competitors, acidity. Fill in the blanks In comparing the a)................................... (on land) environment with the b)...................................... (in water) environment, a number of Abiotic factors are very important; c).................................. refers to how easy/difficult it is to move through the medium. Air has a very d).............. ........................... while water is much e).......................................... Because of this, aquatic animals often have a f).............................. shape. Buoyancy is a measure of g).................................. ability. Water is much h)....................... (more/less) buoyant than air. Terrestrial animals and plants need strong i)............................... structures to withstand gravity, while aquatic organisms are supported by the water. Comparing temperature variations, the terrestrial environment shows j)..................................... variation than water. Thats why many land animals have special features such as k)................................ for insulation, or the ability to l)................................... when too hot.
WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Important gases like m).......................... are abundant in the air Gases do not n).............................. very well in water, so aquatic animals need very efficient o)................................. or other breathing organs. On land, plants and animals must have ways to p)............................................... water and avoid dehydration. This could involve having q)....................................... skin, or avoiding excessive water loss during r).................................... In aquatic environments there can be water problems too, due to the process of s)...................................................... For example, salt-water fish constantly t)....................................... water, while fresh-water fish need to constantly u).............................. water. On land, availability of light is generally not a problem, except in environments such v).......................................... To cope with this, epiphyte plants such as w)................................, grow up in the tops of trees. Plants on the floor may have leaves which are x)........................................................... to absorb any light available. In water, light penetration is poor, and the different y)........................................ of light penetrate differently. z)........................ wavelengths are absorbed rapidly, while aa)............................... penetrates further. Seaweed plants often have special ab)................................ (often red/brown in colour) to better absorb the available light. In the very deep ocean there is no light, and no ac)...................................... can survive there. Ecosystems must rely on ad)................................. drifting down from above, for food, or on ae)............................ around volcanic vents.
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3. ROLES & RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ORGANISMS

Ecology is very much about relationships. This section looks at some of the ways that different species within an ecosystem relate to each other.
Predator - Prey
This describes situations where one animal eats another. examples... Predator Dingo Lion Spider Dolphin Prey Wallaby Zebra Insect Fish
eats eats eats eats
Both predator and prey have major impacts on each others distribution and abundance, and each can cause the others population to rise and fall in a fairly regular pattern.
Commensalism
PREY SPECIES
Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism benefits while the other is neither harmed nor helped. A good example is the remora, or sucker fish which attaches itself to a shark with a suction cup structure and hitches a ride. It does the shark no harm at all. When the shark feeds, the remora feeds on the debris and scraps from the sharks meal.
Population Size (ABUNDANCE)
Population peaks
PREDATOR SPECIES
TIME (years)
Notice that Predator abundance is always lower than prey. (Reasons for this are explained later) The peaks and troughs of the predators population always occur after those of the prey. What happens: 1. The numbers of the prey species increase because of its breeding cycle, or seasonal increase in available food. 2. This provides more food for predators, who survive in greater numbers and reproduce more sucessfully. 3. As predator numbers increase, more prey get eaten and so the prey population decreases. 4. As prey numbers decline, less predators can survive, so their numbers decline. EACH ORGANISMS ABUNDANCE AFFECTS THE OTHERS ABUNDANCE.
Shark with remora hitching a ride
A simple example of commensalism is a bird nesting in a tree. The bird family gain the important benefit of a relatively safe and secure nest site, while the tree neither gains nor loses. Another example, seen commonly in rural areas is the cattle egret (bird) which follows the cattle through the pastures, feeding on the insects which are disturbed by the cows. The cow neither gains nor loses from the relationship. In Africa similar birds follow large grazing wild animals for the same reason. However, the grazers gain the benefit of an early warning system when the birds react to approaching predators. Since both species gain some advantage from the association, this is an example of mutualism (next page).
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Mutualism
In a mutualistic relationship, both species benefit. Mutualism is much more widespread in nature than is generally realized. The classic example are insects (e.g. bee) and many flowering plants. The insects total food supply is nectar and pollen from the flowers. As it gathers its food the plants gain the essential service of pollination of their flowers. Both benefit so profoundly that neither can survive without the other.
Another example is coral. The coral animal is a polyp... a soft, hollow animal related to jellyfish. Inside the polyps flesh lives another organism, an alga (microscopic plant).
The polyp provides a secure home for the alga, which pays its way by sharing the food it makes by photosynthesis. Both organisms gain tremendous benefits from the relationship. Many grazing animals (e.g. kangaroos) eat a diet rich in plant cellulose which is nutritious but difficult to digest. These animals have a population of mutualistic microbes living in their gut. The microbes are able to break the cellulose down and make its nutrition available to the animal, while the microbes gain a secure, stable place to live and a permanent food supply... both benefit. A mother koala will regurgitate pap from her gut to feed her baby. The pap contains the mutualistic bacteria that the baby must have to digest the tough gum leaves.
Parasite - Host
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism feeds on another without killing it, or even necessarily harming it significantly.
Allelopathy
is a relationship found particularly among plants and fungi, in which one organism directly inhibits the growth and development of others by releasing toxins. The famous antibiotic penicillin was discovered in the fungus Penicillium because of its inhibiting effect on the growth of bacteria. Some trees and shrubs (including the pest weed lantana) release inhibiting chemicals from their roots. These inhibitors slow down or prevent the germination and growth of the seeds and seedlings of other plants.
Some parasites, such as tapeworms, live inside their host and absorb digested food without doing much harm. This way the host stays healthy and the parasite has a secure home and guaranteed food supply. Other parasites, such as leeches and ticks, are casual parasites who attach to a host, take a feed of blood, and then drop off and live independently until hungry again. More serious are the many micro-organisms which can cause infectious diseases. These parasites include bacteria, viruses and a few protozoans and fungi. They invade the hosts body, feeding and reproducing so that the host becomes sick and may even die.
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Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only Dingo
Competition
occurs whenever two different species need to use exactly the same resource, in the same way. The resource in question may be a food, or nesting sites or simply living space, such as when plants like lantana or bitou bush grow over other plants. Competition usually results in a winner and a loser. One species will be slightly more successful than the other, and its population will grow, while the less sucessful competitor will decline in numbers and may eventually become extinct in the ecosystem. Sometimes what seems like competition turns out not to be. For example, the lion and the leopard are both large African predators, often living in the same areas and both feeding on the herds of grazing animals. However, careful study reveals that their hunting techniques are so different that they tend to prey on different species and different categories (e.g. young rather than adults) so they are in fact NOT competing and can both survive in the same habitat. This situation is called resource partitioning.
It is known from fossils that the Thylacine (Tasmanian tiger) was once widespread as one of the main predators on mainland Australia. However, its numbers rapidly declined after the introduction of the dingo from Asia about 10,000 years ago.
A TYPICAL COMPETITION GRAPH
Population Size (ABUNDANCE) Dingo Thylacine Original population reasonably stable
Dingo introduced TIME (years)
Thylacine Extinct
It seems the dingo was a more sucessful predator and out-competed the Thylacine on the mainland. The dingo was never introduced to Tasmania, so there the tigers survived until driven into total extinction by the impacts of European settlement. A relationship in which one organism gains an advantage, while the other neither gains nor loses, is called k)............................................ An example is the shark and the l).............................. Mutualism is when 2 organisms m)............................................................................. A good example is n).................... and ..................... Many grazing animals get help to digest the tough fibres of plant food from mutualistic relationship with o)....................................... living in their gut. Some plants and fungi produce chemical toxins which p)............................................ the growth of other organisms. This relationship is called q)...................................................... Competition is when 2 organisms both need to use r)................................................. in an environment. Usually, the result of competition is s).......................................................................... 14
Worksheet 5
Fill in the blank spaces.
Relationships
An animal which kills and eats another animal is called a a)......................................... The animal it eats is its b)............................ Each ones population abundance affects the other. For example, if the predator population increases, the prey population will c)............................. because d)............................................................ On a graph, the peaks & troughs will match each other, but the predators graph will always be e)............................ and f)................................... than the preys graph. A parasite is an organism which g)............................ on its host without h).................................... A good example is the i)............................................. which lives in the gut of its host, eating the digested food. Other parasites such as j)...................................... and .................................... feed on the hosts blood.
Worksheet 6
Multiple Choice
Practice Questions Sections 2

Longer Response Question
4. (4 marks) Construct a simple table and fill it in to compare the terrestrial and aquatic environments with respect to viscosity buoyancy temperature variation and availability of light
1. Which of the following is a biotic factor in an ecosystem? A. Light intensity. B. Soil type C. Diseases D. Temperature range. 2. The streamlined shape of a dolphin is an adaptation to: A. the high buoyancy of water. B. low availablity of gases in the sea. C. large temperature variations. D. the high viscosity of water. 3. Many seaweeds have brown or red pigments because: A. these absorb the predominately blue light that penetrates underwater. B. it camouflages them among the rocks of the sea floor. C. red and brown light penetrates water more than other colours. D. this helps them control their temperature by absorbing more heat.
Worksheet 7
Multiple Choice
Practice Questions Sections 3

3. (5 marks) a) Define the term mutualism.
1. The following graph shows the changes in population numbers for a prey species and 4 other species. Which one (A, B, C or D) is most likely to be the predator? A B
ABUNDANCE Prey species
C D
Time
b) Give an example of mutualism, naming 2 organisms and outlining how each is affected by the relationship.
2. The cleaner wrasse is a small fish of the coral reef which feeds on the parasites clinging to other fish. Many larger fish will queue up to wait for a cleaner wrasse to pick off their parasites. The relationship between the cleaner wrasse and the larger fish is an example of: A. Mutualism B. Commensalism C. Allelopathy D. Competition
4. (5 marks) In nature, allelopathy is a method of beating your competition. Discuss this statement briefly, giving definitions and examples as appropriate.
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4. THE FLOW OF ENERGY & MATTER IN AN ECOSYSTEM Cycling of Matter

Within any ecosystem the important chemicals of life tend to be re-cycled. The water cycle of nature is well known, and you should be familiar with the Oxygen-Carbon cycle.
How Organisms Use Energy

Everything that an organism does requires energy. Organisms:Move Grow and Repair body tissue Reproduce Seek, Eat and Assimilate their food Respond to happenings around them Keep their bodies warm
CO2
Respiration Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
is the process which releases the energy stored in food. It takes place in every living cell on the planet and after photosynthesis (next topic) is the next most important biological process on Earth.
PLANTS
rgy to rs ene transfe s s e c o The pr
O2
ANIMALS
ATP
Other chemicals that are recycled within ecosystems include Nitrogen, Calcium and Phosphorus... in fact ALL the chemicals get used over and over again.
Glucose + Oxygen (sugar)

in air
Carbon + Water Dioxide
Energy Inputs & Outputs

Unlike the chemicals, energy cannot be recycled. As it is used it must be replaced from outside the ecosystem. The ultimate source of ALL the energy in an ecosystem is the SUN. The Sun provides the heat to keep each ecosystem at a livable temperature, but it is the LIGHT of the Sun which powers all life.
SUN
Major energy compound in foods
Waste products
Energy-c carrying chemical used in all cells to power life processes.
C6H12O6 + 6O2
energy transfer
6CO2 + 6H2O ATP
INPUT
Ligh t
PLANTS capture light energy during Photosynthesis
Although the process can be written as a simple chemical reaction, this is very deceptive. Cellular respiration actually takes place as a sequence of about 50 chemical steps... the equation above is merely a summary of the overall process. Dont forget that the essential product of respiration is the energy-carrier ATP. The CO2 and H2O are merely waste products to be recycled in the ecosystem like all chemicals. A common misconception is that plants do PHOTOSYNTHESIS and make food, while animals do RESPIRATION to use the food. Its true that plants do photosynthesis and make all the food on Earth, but respiration is carried out by all living things... animals AND plants. Luckily for us animals, the plants carry out enough photosynthesis to feed themselves, AND produce a surplus to feed us as well. 16
Energy is stored in the FOOD
produced by plants
OUTPUT
waste heat energy
All organisms use the energy in food to power their life functions. The process of Respiration releases the energy in food.
Food Chains
Plants are food PRODUCERS. They capture light energy by the process of photosynthesis, and store it as the chemical energy in food. All other organisms are CONSUMERS of food. They rely on eating the plants or other animals. So, in any ecosystem there is a chain of feeding, based on the plants... a food chain.
is eaten by
is eaten by
Every food chain must begin with a plant
The arrow shows the direction that food energy flows. NEVER DRAW THEM BACKWARDS!
GRASS
Plant Producer
KANGAROO
Herbivore 1st order Consumer
DINGO
Carnivore 2nd order Consumer 3rd Trophic level
1st Trophic 2nd Trophic level level (trophic refers to feeding)
NOTES: 1. The arrows in a food chain show the direction that the energy flows. The arrows must never be reversed. 2. Note the different ways to describe each organisms role in the chain. Try not to confuse the different methods... e.g. a 1st Order Consumer is at the 2nd Trophic Level... etc.
The Role of the Decomposers

All along the food chain organic wastes are produced. Dead leaves from plants, body wastes and shed skin and fur from the animals are just a few examples. This left-over waste material is food for a very important group of organisms... the decomposers. The main decomposer organisms are the microscopic bacteria and the soil fungi. These organisms feed on the scraps and wastes and in doing so, cause wastes to decay and be broken down into very simple chemicals such as CO2 and nitrate and phosphate ions.
Mushrooms and toadstools are the reproductive structures of soil-l living fungi
THIS IS ESSENTIAL TO THE RECYCLING OF THE CHEMICALS IN AN ECOSYSTEM.

So the decomposers get rid of all the wastes and clean up the environment, and they ensure that the vital chemicals are recycled into air or soil for re-use by the plants... and so the food chains continue.
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Food Webs
Although we can best understand the flow of energy by a food chain, in fact simple food chains never exist by themselves in nature. Kangaroos dont just eat grass, and dingoes dont just eat wallabies. The real feeding relationships in an ecosystem can only be described by a food web which is made up of many inter-connected food chains.
Example: FOOD WEB IN A ROCK POOL
large fish octopus mussels small fish
starfish
limpets
periwinkles
chitons
(microscopic animals)
zooplankton
green algae
Hints on Constructing a Food Web
(microscopic plants)
phytoplankton
To keep it simple and read-able (K.I.S.S.) when constructing a food web: always start with the producers (plants) at the bottom and work upwards try to keep the members of the same trophic level in-line in the diagram. (not always possible, because some organisms may be feeding at more than one trophic level... look at the mussels in the diagram above.) A food web diagram allows us to analyse the flow of energy (stored in food) through the ecosystem and to make certain predictions... Question: If a disease wiped out all the mussels in a particular area, what effect might this have on the chiton population? Answer: (Chitons are not directly connected to mussels, so you might think thered be no effect, but...) If there are no mussels to eat, the octopus might eat more chitons. Therefore the chiton population could decrease. OR Without mussels to eat, the octopus might eat more starfish. This could mean less chitons being eaten by starfish so the chiton population could increase.
Example Questions and Answers

Question: List all organisms which are 1st order consumers. Answer: Limpets, periwinkles, chitons, mussels & zooplankton. Question: Which organism is at the highest Trophic Level above?
Answer: The large fish, which is at the 5th trophic level.
Question: What might be the effect on the mussel population if there was an increase in the octopus population? Answer: If there were more octopus they will eat more mussels, so the mussel population would decrease.
This demonstrates the difficulty of making predictions about natural food webs... the consequences of change can be quite unpredictable!
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Biomass
You are what you eat goes the old saying, and it is literally true that every molecule of your body is built from the chemicals that you have eaten as food over your lifetime. Your body weight is your Biomass... the mass (weight) of living flesh in you. An average person eats at least 250 kg of food per year and drinks at least 500 litres of liquids. So why arent we all as big as an elephant? Simply because we all produce roughly the same mass of wastes and excrete them so that our biomass stays more or less the same. (Unless still growing, of course). In ecology, we deal with the total biomass of an entire population, or of the whole community. For example, if there are 200 starfish living in a particular rockpool, and each has a mass (on average) of 50 grams, then the biomass of starfish in the rockpool is 200 x 50 = 10,000 g = 10 kg. It is always found that the biomass of plants is more than the biomass of herbivores, which is more than the biomass of carnivores, and so on. Why?
Everything you do requires energy, which you get from cellular respiration... C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
...and as you breathe out you excrete the waste CO2 (plus some water vapour) and so you lose a little of the mass of the food you previously ate. ...and as you use the energy of the ATP molecules, the energy is converted to low-grade heat and dissipates into your surroundings. This energy is lost, and cannot be re-used by living things. In any ecosystem it turns out that about 90% of the food/energy taken in at any trophic level, is lost as wastes and low-grade heat. (Thank goodness for the Decomposers to get rid of all that waste!) This means that in a food chain, only about 10% of the biomass and energy at any trophic level is available to be eaten by the next trophic level organisms. The result is a BIOMASS
So, for the food chain
PYRAMID.
PYRAMID OF BIOMASS & ENERGY
GRASS 4th Trophic Level
KANGAROO
DINGO
if there was (say) 100,000 kg of grass in an area, then this could not support more than about 10,000 kg of kangaroos, and only about 1,000kg of dingo biomass. The approximate population numbers would be: 5 million grass plants feeding about 400 kangaroos, feeding just 50 dingoes... a pyramid of numbers too.
3rd Trophic Level
10%
90% of Biomass and Energy lost
10% 2nd Trophic Level
Py ram id
Biomass of Herbivores
sh ap e
1st Trophic Level
10% available
Biomass of Producers (Plants)
This is why very few food chains in nature have more than 5 or 6 trophic levels... the available food & energy becomes too small to support higher level predators. Preliminary Biology Topic 1 Ecosystems copyright 2005-2008 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
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Worksheet 8
Multiple Choice
Practice Questions Section 4 (2 pages)

Mark values given are suggestions only, and are to give you an idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate. Answer in the spaces provided. 6. (8 marks) a) Write a word equation to summarize the process of cellular respiration.
1. Which of the following statements about ecosystems is generally true? A. Energy is re-cycled, while chemicals have to be constantly supplied. B. Both matter and energy are re-cycled. C. Matter is re-cycled, while energy has to be constantly supplied. D. Both matter and energy have to be constantly supplied. 2. The essential product of cellular respiration is: A. Glucose B. Oxygen C. Carbon Dioxide D. ATP 3. In the following food chain:
algae > limpet > octopus > fish > shark
b) The process makes energy available to living cells. i) What is the original source of this energy?
ii) How does the energy get into an ecosystem?
the herbivore and the organism at the 4th Trophic level are respectively: A. limpet and shark B. limpet and fish C. algae and fish D. algae and shark 4. Soil bacteria usually have the role in ecosystems of: A. Decomposers B. Disease causing parasites C. Producer organisms D. Epiphytes 5. In a certain area, the biomass of species is: Biomass (kg) Species P 10,000 Q 5,000,000 R 100,000 S 500 If these 4 organisms are involved in the same food chain, then the order in the food chain is most likely: A. S>R>P>Q B. P>Q>R>S C. Q>S>P>R D. Q>R>P>S Worksheet 9 is a Summary Worksheet for this section
iii) In what form is the energy passed from organism to organism?
7. (4 marks) In a seaside rockpool, the total biomass of all visible plants, herbivores and carnivores was estimated as follows: Plants 10 kg Hebivores 20 kg Carnivores 2 kg a) On these figures alone, could the rockpool be a viable, stable ecosystem? Explain your answer.
b) Over time, the rockpool community is studied and it is found to be very stable and more-or-less unchanging. Suggest how this might be possible.
20
Worksheet 8
Continued
8. (5 marks) The following observations were made about the feeding relationships in an Australian rural ecosystem. Use the information to construct a food web diagram.
Honey-eater birds feed on the nectar and pollen of native shrubs. These shrubs are also eaten by insects and wallabies. Grass is eaten by insects, rabbits and wallabies, while mice feed on the grass seeds. Frogs eat insects, while dingoes prey on rabbits and wallabies. Kookaburras hunt snakes and frogs. The snakes feed on frogs, mice and take the eggs and babies from honey-eater nests.
9. (8 marks) From your diagram for Q24 answer the following. a) Name three 2nd-order consumers. b) Name an organism which occupies more than one trophic level. c) Write the longest food chain within this web. d) Name 2 organisms who could well be competitors. e) There is a world-wide trend of decline in amphibian populations. If the frog population in this food web was drastically reduced, what might happen to the: i) insect population? ii) mouse population? f) Comment on a human impact apparent from the food web for this ecosystem.
21
5. ADAPTATIONS OF ORGANISMS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT Adaptations

are special characteristics that help an organism survive in its environment. A third category is behavioural adaptation, which is where an animals instinctive behaviour helps it survive and thrive in its environment
This lizard is sunbaking to warm itself up for active hunting for insects.
For example, the black bear of North America has a thick coat of fur. This is a structural adaptation to its environment. The fur helps insulate the body to keep it warm in the cold climate in which it lives. Other structural adaptations that have already been mentioned in previous sections include: streamlining of many aquatic animals to deal with the high viscosity of water. large, broad, leaves of plants living on the rainforest floor, to cope with the low light levels. the bony skeleton of most terrestrial animals needed to support the animal against gravity.
If it becomes too hot it will move into the shade to cool itself.
Dangers of Inferring Adaptations

You need to be careful when examining any organism for its adaptations because it may require careful study to be sure of the real reason for some characteristics. For example, it is possible that the adaptation you observe could be inherited from ancestors who lived in a different environment, and it is not a help to survival in the current habitat. Also, its not always easy to decide what survival advantage a particular characteristic may give.
Another category of adaptation is physiological adaptation. (Physiological refers to the way the body works or functions) Previously mentioned examples include: animals shivering when cold, and sweating when too hot. freshwater fish excreting water constantly to remove excess water from their bodies. This is controlled by the functioning of their kidneys. One of the classic physiological adaptations is the kidney function of many desert animals. In an environment where water is scarce, these animals conserve body water by producing only small amounts of very concentrated urine. In some cases, such as desert mice, their kidneys are so efficient at retaining water that they do not need to drink, but can survive on the metabolic water produced by cellular respiration. For example: is the magpies colour scheme an adaptation which helps it survive because it gives: camouflage? temperature control? sexual attraction for mating? identification, to keep a group together? Only careful study will reveal the truth 22
or or or
Worksheet 9 Flow of Energy and Matter

Fill in the blank spaces. In any ecosystem, the chemical resources tend to be a).........................., but the energy is used up and must be constantly b).......................................... The source of all the energy is the c)................... The energy is captured by the d).......................... in the process of e)...................................................This converts light energy into the energy stored in the f)............................. molecules. Organisms need energy for all the life processes such as moving around, g).......................... and ........................... The energy of food is released by the process of h).................................... This requires the gas i)............................ The products are the chemical wastes j)........................... and ........................... and the energy chemical known as k).....................
Energy is passed from one organism to another as food, and the flow of energy through an ecosystem is a l)................................. In any food chain, the plants are the m)................................, and animals are n)...................................... The Decomposers are vital to get rid of wastes and dead scraps and to o)....................................... vital chemicals. Single food chains rarely exist in nature. Instead, a number of food chains which p)........................... with each other, form a q)..................................... ......................... The total body weight of all the individuals of a species in an ecosystem is known as the r)................................ There is always about 10 times more r)............................... of plants than of s).................................... because about 90% is always lost as wastes. Because the biomass decreases rapidly up through any food chain it is referred to a biomass t)............................
Worksheet 10
Adaptations
For example, an animal might f)........................ when too hot, or g)....................................... if too cold. Many desert animals have highly efficient kidneys so they produce h)......................... amounts of highly i).................................... urine, in order to j)....................................... water. The third category of adaptations is k).................................................. For example, reptiles cannot regulate their body temperature physiologically, so they use behaviours instead. They will l).................................................. when too cool, and seek m)............................... when too hot.
23
Fill in the blank spaces. Special characteristics which help an organism survive in its environment are called a)........................................ Some of these are structural: they involve special structures, such as the fur of a bear which b)............................... in a cold climate. Another example is how many aquatic animals are c)...................................... to allow them to move more easily through water, which has a high d)............................ The second category of adaptations are those that are e)......................................, or related to the functioning of the body.
6. HUMAN IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEMS

Human culture is the learned behaviours we have accumulated over the millenia. Our culture includes language, art, music, customs and TECHNOLOGY. It is our over-population, and our complex, industrial technology that impacts on natural ecosytems...
Eutrophication
occurs when rivers and streams are over-fertilized by human sewerage and agricultural run-off. Although our sewerage may be thoroughly treated to make it safe to the environment, the effluent still contains many minerals which act as a fertilizer. Typically, the treated effluent from our sewer systems is discharged into waterways. Similarly, when farmers use fertilizer on their crops and fields, some will eventually be washed into creeks and rivers during rainy weather. The result is that algae living in the waterways are stimulated to grow in over-abundance, often choking waterways and blocking light from other water plants. Later, great masses of algae die off and their decay uses up all the oxygen in the water, so that many fish and other organisms suffocate.
Loss of Habitat
Very simply, humans clear forests, fill wetlands and divert streams to make room for our towns and cities and for our agriculture. For example, only about 3% of Australian rainforests remain, from those present 200 hundred years ago. Clearing of natural environments is disaster for many species. They are specially adapted to their habitat and cannot survive elsewhere.
Pollution
Many human activities produce chemicals which can harm the environment if released. Acid rain results from gases such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) released from burning of fossil fuels, especially coal. The gas dissolves in rainwater forming an acid solution that can seriously affect forests, lakes and wetlands by killing some organisms so that food chains are disrupted. Pesticides and industrial poisons, even in very small amounts can build up in living communities by biological magnification... example: the level of toxic chemical in a shrimp might be quite low, but a fish which eats many shrimp in a year ends up with a concentration of toxins 100 times higher... and so on up through the food chain.
Introduction of Alien Species

The European settlers to Australia brought many species from other places and released them into the new environment. The list includes plants such as prickly pear, lantana and bitou bush, and animals such as rabbits, foxes, pigs, camels, and cane toads.
Prickly Pear Cactus
Biological Magnification
Toxin concentration = 10 units Toxin concentration = 1000 units Toxin concentration = 1 unit
All of these species, and many others, have become major problems in the ecosystems, because: the aliens find themselves in an environment in which the normal predators and diseases are not present to keep their population in check they are often more ruthlessly efficient in using resources, and so they out-compete the native species. Many ecosystems around the world are being disrupted by alien species introduced by humans. 24
Scientists are currently alarmed by a world-wide decline in populations of amphibians (frogs & toads). It is suspected that various human-made chemicals are disrupting the reproduction and development of many species which are vital links in the food webs in many ecosystems.
Worksheet 11 Multiple Choice
Practice Questions Sections 5 & 6 Longer Response Questions

Answer in the spaces provided. 4. (4 marks) a) Explain what adaptation.
1. One of the adaptations visible in the North American beaver is a large, broad, flat tail.
is
meant
by
an
This adaptation probably helps the beaver survive because it: A. B. C. D. gives it more balance on land. helps it to carry twigs & branches. protects against predator attack. helps it to swim and steer in water.
b) Give an example of an adaptation for each of the following situations. i) A structural adaptation (ianimal) to a cold climate.
ii) A plant adaptation to low light levels on the rain forest floor.
2. Eutrophication is when: A. polluting chemicals in the environment become more concentrated up a food chain. B. aquatic habitats suffer from algal blooms due to over-fertilization. C. gases from burning of fossil fuels cause waterways to become acidic. D. an introduced species overpopulates an ecosystem. 3. Many animals seek shade when it becomes too hot in the Sun. This is an example of an adaptation which is probably: A. B. C. D. structural. physiological. behavioural. learned.
iii) An adaptation for water conservation in a desert animal.
5. (3 marks) Outline a human impact on a named type of ecosystem.
25
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts. Practise on this blank version.
A LOCAL ECOSYSTEM
26
Answer Section
Worksheet 1
a) where b) interacting c) food d) hiding / escaping e) transect f) straight line g) which species are present h) Abundance i) quadrats j) average number k) study area l) doing more quadrat drops m) Capture - Recapture n) marking/tagging o) releasing p) capture q) marked/tagged r) total population s) mixing randomly back into the population
Worksheet 3
1. B 2. B 3. D 4. A
5. Species K is not widely distributed, but seems confined to the hilltop (higher elevation). Species L seems to occur only near water, on the banks of ponds and creeks. 6. Estimated = 1st capture x 2nd capture
Population
no.marked in 2nd capture
= 537 x 832 45 = 9,929 To nearest 1000, Estimate = 10,000 trout. 7. a) i) Area = length x width = 120 x 85 = 10,200 m2. ii) Average = (8+14+2+5+9+22+3+0+12+7) / 10 = 82 / 10 = 8.2 plants / quadrat b) Estimated = Average count x Study area Population per quadrat Quadrat area = 8.2 x 10,200/0.25 = 334,560 Estimate = 335,000 plants approximately (Note: it is NOT appropriate to give an answer of 334,560 since this suggests that the process will calculate the exact number of plants. It is a statistical estimate only, and answers should be rounded off) c) Make more drops of the quadrat.
Worksheet 2
Quadrat Study Problems 1. Average per quadrat = 46 / 10 = 4.6 Study area = 20 x 30 = 600 m2
Estimated = Average count x Study area Population per quadrat Quadrat area = 4.6 x 600 / 0.25 = 11,040 Population estimate = 11,000 starfish approx. 2.
Average per quadrat = 105 / 20 = 5.25 Paddock area = 300 x 400 = 120,000 m2
Estimated = Average count x Study area Population per quadrat Quadrat area = 5.25 x 120,000 / 0.5 = 1,260,000 weeds approx.
Capture - Recapture Problems
Worksheet 4
Biotic Factors prey diseases predators food plants competitors Abiotic Factors light oxygen water soil temperature exposure acidity
3. Estimated = 1st capture x 2nd capture Population no.marked in 2nd capture = 230 x 156 18 = 1,993 Estimated population 2,000 lizards 4. Estimated = 1st capture x 2nd capture Population no.marked in 2nd capture = 65 x 48 12 = 260 possums
If the possums enjoy being trapped then the recapture sample contains a disproportionately HIGH number of tagged animals, who have come back to the traps deliberately. Mathematically, if the number 12 is too high, then the answer (260) is too low, so the real population is higher than the estimate.
Fill in the blanks a) terrestrial b) aquatic c) Viscosity d) low viscosity e) higher viscosity f) streamlined g) flotation h) more i) support j) much less k) fur/fat/feathers l) sweat m) oxygen n) dissolve o) gills p) conserve q) waterproof r) excretion s) osmosis t) lose u) excrete v) rainforests w) staghorns/orchids etc x) large/broad/packed with chlorophyll y) colours / wavelengths z) Red/orange aa) blue ab) pigments ac) plants ad) dead material ae) chemosynthesis
27
Worksheet 5
a) predator b) prey c) decrease d) more prey will be eaten e) lower f) later / after g) feeds h) killing it i) tapeworm j) ticks, mosquitoes, leeches k) commensalism l) remora (sucker fish) m) both gain a benefit n) bee & flowering plants o) bacteria / protozoa p) inhibit / slow q) allelopathy r) the same resource(s) s) one survives and thrives, the other declines. (one wins, one loses)
Worksheet 8
1. C 2. D 3. B 4. A 5. D 6. a) Glucose + Oxygen Carbon + Water + ATP Dioxide b) i) The Sun ii) Energy is captured by plants in photosynthesis. iii) As food (containing chemical potential energy) 7. a) No. Stable ecosystems always have about 10 times more biomass of plants than herbivores. The rockpool has less plant biomass than herbivores. This is not sustainable. b) The biomass figures include only visible plants. There may be a large biomass of microscopic algae and plankton not accounted for in the figures. or, Perhaps the herbivores in the rockpool are not just feeding on the plants present, but leave the pool at high tide to feed elsewhere. or, The community might be sustained by extra biomass which washes into the pool with waves and tides and feeds the herbivores. 8. kookaburras snakes frogs dingoes
Worksheet 6
1. C 4. Viscosity Buoyancy 2. D 3. A Terrestrial Environment low low Aquatic Environment high high low gets less with depth
Temp.variation high Light avail. good
Worksheet 7
1. C 2. A honey eaters insects mice wallabies rabbits
3. a) Mutualism is a relationship between 2 different species in which both gain a benefit. b) Honey bee and flowering plant. Bee gains food supply. Plant achieves pollination of its flowers. 4. Allelopathy is when one species produces a chemical or toxin to inhibit the growth and development of other species. Allelopathy is a method of dealing with competitors, such as the lantana plant producing toxins in its roots, which inhibits other plant species. This allows lantana to out-compete other plants and gain more soil minerals and light. (Note: this is why lantana is such a noxious weed... its a great competitor when introduced to a new environment without its natural diseases and enemies.)
native shrubs
grass
9. a) snakes, frogs, dingoes b) snake or kookaburra c)nat.shrubs>insects>frogs >snakes >kookaburras d) wallabies and rabbits (best answer) (Note: other possible answers are not as good. e.g. snakes & kookaburras both eat frogs, but kooks also eat the snake, so they are not just competing for frogs. Honey-eaters and insects both eat shrubs, but different parts of the plant, so not competing. Same with mice v rabbits... not eating the same parts of plants.) e) i) without predators, the insect population should increase. ii) If less frogs, then snakes might eat more mice. Therefore mouse population may decrease. f) The rabbit is an alien species introduced to Australia from Europe. In the absence of its natural enemies and diseases, it has overpopulated at the expense of native species. 28
Worksheet 9
a) re-cycled b) replaced / input c) Sun d) plants e) photosynthesis f) food (glucose) g) growing, reproducing, responding etc h) cellular respiration i) oxygen j) water & carbon dioxide k) ATP l) food chain m) producers n) consumers o) re-cycle p) inter-connect q) food web r) biomass s) herbivores t) pyramid
Worksheet 11
1. D 2. B 3. C
4. a) An adaptation is a special feature of an organism, which helps it to survive in its environment. b) i) A thick fur coat, or feathers, or layers of blubber (fat) all act as heat insulators. ii) Large, broad leaves capture what light is present. iii) Kidneys that produce small amounts of concentrated urine, so less water is lost by excretion. 5. (many different answers possible) Humans clear forests, fill and drain wetlands etc for agriculture and to build towns, roads etc. This results in loss of habitat for many forest species which are adapted to particular environments and cannot live elsewhere.
Worksheet 10
a) adaptations c) streamlined e) physiological g) shiver i) concentrated k) behavioural m) shade / shelter b) insulates it d) viscosity f) sweat h) small j) conserve l) sunbake
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Preliminary Biology Topic 1

but first, some definitions...

sun AN AUSTRALIAN ECOSYSTEM

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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Biotic Factors Predator & Prey

Parasite & Host

Quadrats & CaptureRecapture

Distribution & Abundance

Roles & Relationships

Flow of Energy & Matter

Cycling of matter. Flow of Energy

Food Chains Food Webs

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1. DISTRIBUTION & ABUNDANCE OF ORGANISMS

Preliminary Biology Topic 1 copyright 2005-2 2008 keep it simple science

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Distribution at a Rocky Seashore

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Quadrat drops 8 metres 1 m2

Study Area = 8x8 = 64 m2 8 metres

1. Capture a number of the species being studied.

2. Mark or tag the animals

4. Carry out a second capture program.

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Worksheet 1 Distribution & Abundance

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Practice Questions (Section 1)

Describe the distribution of species K and L.

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2. BIOTIC & ABIOTIC FACTORS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Most of body is muscle to power the tail

Strong trunk to hold leaves up to catch light

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FRESH WATER FISH

Must drink constantly to replace water loss

Must excrete water constantly

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Red light is absorbed near the surface

Blue light penetrates to greater depth

Brown Kelp Seaweed

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Worksheet 4 Biotic & Abiotic Factors

Practice Questions for this section are in Worksheet 6

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3. ROLES & RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ORGANISMS

eats eats eats eats