NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Theory and Technology of Commercial Nuclear Power

RONALD ALLEN KNIEF
Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania

American Nuclear Society, Inc. 555 North Kensington Avenue La Grange Park, Illinois 60526 USA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Knief, Ronald Allen, 1944 Nuclear engineering : theory and technology of commercial nuclear power 0 Ronald Allen Knief. 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-89448-458-3 1. Nuclear engineering. 2. Nuclear energy. I. Title. TK9145.K62 2008 621.48dc22 2008029390

ISBN-10: 0-89448-458-3 ISBN-13: 978-0-89448-458-2 Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 2008029390 ANS Order Number: 350023 2008 American Nuclear Society, Inc. 555 North Kensington Avenue La Grange Park, Illinois 60526 USA All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS

Foreword to the First Edition Preface xv Preface to the First Edition

xiii
XVll

Overview 1 Introduction
Nuclear Fuel Cycles
Nuclear Power Reactors

3
4
10

Exercises 20 Selected Bibliography

22

II
2

Basic Theory Nuclear Physics 27

The Nucleus 28 Radioactive Decay 31 Nuclear Reactions 36 Nuclear Fission 41 Reaction Rates 46 Exercise 63 Selected Bibliography 64

Nuclear Radiation Environment

Interaction Mechanisms Radiation Effects 72 Dose Estimates 79 69

67

vii

viii

Contents

Radiation Standards Exercises 94 Selected Bibliography

87 96

Reactor Physics

99

Infinite Systems 100 Finite Systems 108 Computational Methods 113 Exercises 131 Selected Bibliography 133

Reactor Kinetics and Control

Neutron Multiplication Feedbacks 145 Control Applications Exercises 157 Selected Bibliography 136 151 159

135

Fud Depletion and Related Effects

Fuel Burnup 162 Transmutation 163 Fission Products 170 Operational Impacts 176 Exercises 181 Selected Bibliography 182

161

Reactor Energy Removal

Power Distributions 187 Fuel-Pin Heat Transport 191 Nuclear Limits 197 Exercises 205 Selected Bibliography 206

185

III
8

Nuclear Reactor Systems Power Reactors: Economics and Design Principles

Economics of Nuclear Power 212 Reactor Design Principles 226 231 Reactor Fundamentals Exercises 237 Selected Bibliography 240

211

Reactor Fuel Design and Utilization

Fuel-Assembly Design Utilization 254 Exercises 259 Selected Bibliography 242

241

260

Contents

ix

10

Light-Water Reactors

261

Boiling-Water Reactors 262 268 Pressurized-Water Reactors Exercises 282 284 Selected Bibliography

11

Heavy-Water-Moderated and Graphite-Moderated Reactors 287

Heavy-Water-Moderated Reactors 288 Graphite-Moderated Reactors 296 Exercises 308 Selected Bibliography 310

12

Enhanced-Converter and Breeder Reactors

Spectral-Shift Converter Reactors Thermal-Breeder Reactors 317 321 Fast Reactors Exercises 332 Selected Bibliography 333 315

313

IV
13

Reactor Safety Reactor Safety Fundamentals

Safety Approach 338 Energy Sources 340 343 Accident Consequences Exercises 355 Selected Bibliography 356

337

14

Reactor Safety Systems and Accident Risk

Engineered Safety Systems 360 Quantitative Risk Assessment 384 Advanced Reactors 404 Exercises 410 Selected Bibliography 413

359

15

Reactor Operating Events, Accidents, and Their Lessons

Significant Events 419 TMI-2 Accident 423 Chernobyl Accident 450 Common Accident Lessons 467 Exercises 468 Selected Bibliography 472

417

16

Regulation and Administrative Guidelines

Legislation and Its Implementation Reactor Siting 480 Reactor Licensing 487 476

475

Contents

Administrative Guidelines 495 Exercises 500 Selected Bibliography 503

V
17

The Nuclear Fuel Cycle Fuel Cycle, Uranium Processing, and Enrichment
Nuclear Fuel Cycle Uranium 513 Exercises 532 Selected Bibliography 508

507

533

18

Fuel Fabrication and Handling

Fabrication 536 541 Fuel Recycle Spent Fuel 546 Exercises 553 Selected Bibliography

535

557

19

Reprocessing and Waste Management

Reprocessing 560 Fuel-Cycle Wastes 566 Waste Management 573 Exercises 593 Selected Bibliography 596

559

20

Nuclear Material Safeguards

Special Nuclear Materials 601 Domestic Safeguards 604 International Safeguards 618 Fuel-Cycle Alternatives 625 Exercises 628 Selected Bibliography 630

599

VI
21

Nuclear Fusion Controlled Fusion 635

Fusion Overview 636 643 Magnetic Confinement Inertial Confinement 650 Commercial Aspects 655 Non-Thermonuclear Fusion 659 Exercises 661 Selected Bibliography 662

Contents

xi

Appendixes I II III Nomenclature 667 671

Units and Conversion Factors

The Impending Energy Crisis: A Perspective on the Need for Nuclear Power 677
Energy Crisis 678 683 Options Proposed Solutions 694 Exercises 698 Selected Bibliography 702

IV

Reference Reactor Characteristics

Answers to Selected Exercises General Bibliography 721 Index 747 719

707

3
NUCLEAR RADIATION ENVIRONMENT

Objectives
After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: 1. Explain the differences among the mechanisms by which charged particles, electromagnetic radiation, and neutrons interact in materials. 2. Define absorbed and equivalent dose and perform calculations in SI and traditional units. 3. Describe radiation damage mechanisms in materials and biological tissue for charged particles, gamma radiation, and neutrons. 4. Define LD50/30. State the value of LD50/30 for whole-body radiation to humans. 5. Estimate radiation dose and dose rate from specified alpha, beta, and gamma sources. 6. Explain each of the three primary and two subordinate dose reduction principles. 7. Identify the three major purposes of a reactor shield. Describe the origin and effects of "secondary radiations." 8. Perform calculations for attenuation of primary gamma and neutron beams. 9. Summarize the three-part ICRP philosophy for radiation protection. Explain briefly the bases for setting external and internal dose limits.

67

68

Basic Theory

Prerequisite Concepts
Nuclear Radiations Radioactive Decay Nuclear Reactions, Cross Sections, Flux Chapter 2 Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Nuclear fission results in the production of many types of radiation by the direct and indirect processes considered in the previous chapter. The major potential hazard of commercial nuclear power is associated with the ability of the radiations to damage biological and material systems. Public perception of radiation hazards is colored in part by the three following considerations. 1. Atomic and nuclear science is relatively new, dating back only as far as 1895 when W. K. Roentgen discovered the x-ray. The basis for nuclear energy applications the discovery of fission announced in 1939. t 2. Radiation is not directly detectable by any of the human senses except at levels well above lethality. 3. The detonation of two nuclear weapons in Japan in 1945 provided the world with a dramatic and terrifying introduction to nuclear energy and radiation effects. These have led to the concept of radiation as a new, invisible, silent, and deadly hazard. In reality, radiation effects are not conceptually different from those known to occur from physical, chemical, and/or biological agents. Radiation effects have been very thoroughly studied and are better understood than the effects of many common environmental "insults" like the emissions from coal-burning power plants and motor vehicles. The radiation environment associated with the fission process results in several unique problems in nuclear reactor design. Based on origin and effect, the following classifications are useful: 1. fission prompt neutrons, and gamma radiation emitted at the time of fission 2. activation-gamma radiation emitted as a result of (n, y) reactions 3. delayed neutrons emitted by fission fragments and spontaneous-fission neutrons from transmutation products 4. delayed alpha, beta, and gamma radiations with half-lives from fractions of a second to millions of years emitted by fission fragments, activation products, and transmutation products The first category consists of radiations that are emitted only while the fission chain reaction continues. As shown in Table 2-2, these radiations account for 90

t Although the history of the "atomic and nuclear age" is fascinating, little of it is traced herein. Kaplan (1963), Rahn (1984), Leclercq (1986), and especially Rhodes (1986) integrate history and theory well for the technically minded. Hiebert and Hiebert (1970) profile the leading personalities in interesting pamphlets directed to a general audience.

Nuclear Radiation Environment

69

percent of the energy associated with fission. Thus, both radiation shielding and energy removal are required during power operation. Activation gammas are present only when there is a neutron source. Because most neutrons appear with fission, the impact of these gammas is comparable to that of the prompt fission gammas (except as noted below). During power operation the delayed and spontaneous-fission neutrons are overshadowed in number and total energy by the prompt fission-neutron source. However, they are the only neutrons that exist after shutdown of the chain reaction. They are also the only delayed radiations capable of causing nuclear reactions and thereby producing secondary radiations and radioactive species in a reactor. The major significance of the small fraction of delayed fission neutrons is in reactor control (as considered in Chap. 5). The direct effects of delayed neutrons generally disappear within tens of minutes after reactor shutdown because of the short half-life. On the other hand, components activated by the neutrons may provide a radiation source of relatively long duration. Certain of the new nuclides produced by transmutation undergo spontaneous fission and consequently emit neutrons. The isotope 240pU, for example, is a longlived spontaneous-fission neutron source in all irradiated fuel that contains 238U. Substantial concentrations of 240pU or other such nuclides require continuous neutron shielding after reactor shutdown. The final category of fission-related radiations includes the betas and gammas from fission products and the alphas, betas, and gammas from transmutation products. The fission-product radiations are responsible for 7+ percent of fission energy (as per Table 2-2). According to Eq. 2-10, the power falls off only as roughly the one-fifth power of time following shutdown, e.g., to roughly 1 percent of operating power after one day and to 0.1 ,percent after two months. The long-lived activity leads to a requirement for virtually constant shielding, heat removal, and/or remote handling for reactor, spent-fuel storage, reprocessing, waste management, and related transportation operations. Decay heat is also a very important energy source to consider in reactor accident scenarios (e.g., as described in Chaps. 13-15). The transmutation [transuranic-element] products as a group generate less power soon after shutdown, but have longer half-lives than their fission-product counterparts. For a typical LWR, their post-shutdown power is only 3-5 percent as great for on the order of a year. At very long times, however, the heat and radioactivity of the transuranics becomes the dominant problem of waste management (as described in Chaps. 6 and 19).

INTERACTION MECHANISMS
An alternative classification scheme for the radiations is based on the basic mechanisms by which they interact with various atoms and nuclei. The charged particles, electromagnetic radiation, and neutrons each behave in fundamentally different ways.

Charged Particles
Alpha particles [iHe 2 +], beta particles [_ ?e], and fission fragments each have one or more unpaired charges. The charges experience electrostatic [Coulomb] forces when they come close to the electrons of the atoms that compose the medium of interest.

70

Basic Theory

As a result of the action of these forces, the charged particles lose energy with each interaction. This energy, in turn, ultimately appears in the system as heat. The Coulomb forces are proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, or
F

(3-1)

for force F, charges q and q', distance r, and proportionality constant k. According to the equation, the force decreases fairly rapidly with distance, but becomes negligible only at very large distances. This implies that at any given instant of time a charged particle experiences forces from a large number of electrons. The resulting energy losses are found to be rather well defined for each charged particle and each material medium. The net macroscopic effect of charged-particle interactions may be characterized by range and linear energy transfer [LET]. As the name implies, the range is the average distance traveled by a charged particle before it is completely stopped. The LET is the energy deposition per unit distance of travel. Mathematically,
dE LET = d.x

for particle energy E and distance x and where the LET itself is generally a function of E. Because the range R is the total distance of travel for initial particle energy Eo to be reduced to zero,

Both the range and the LET of a specific radiation contribute to the effect they have on a material. The range determines the distance of penetration. The LET determines the distribution of energy deposited along the path. Fission fragments generally have masses between 80 and 150 amu (Fig. 2-6) and charges of about + 20e at the time of fission. The combination of large mass and high charge result in a range of only a few centimeters in air and a fraction of a millimeter in solid material. Thus, fission fragments generally stop very near their point of origin and deposit all of their energy within this short distance of travel. As a consequence, they have a very high LET. Alpha particles have a mass of 4 amu and are doubly charged. At typical energies, they have ranges only 3-6 times greater than fission fragments and LETs about an order of magnitude lower. As a point of reference, this sheet of paper is thick enough to stop any of the alphas or fission fragments produced in nuclear reactor materials. The combination of low mass and single charge gives electrons relative ranges about 100 times greater than those for alpha particles and LETs correspondingly reduced. Because of their low mass, the paths traced out by electrons deviate greatly

Nuclear Radiation Environment

71

from the roughly straight paths of the heavy charged particles. Both the total path length and net straight-line distance of travel (i.e., the range) vary substantially for individual electrons but have a predictable "spread" of values.

Electromagnetic Radiation
Photons of electromagnetic radiation interact directly with electrons and more rarely with nuclei. Three important mechanisms shown by Fig. 3-1 are:

I. The photoelectric effect-photon energy is converted completely to kinetic energy of an orbital electron. 2. Compton scattering-photon transfers a portion of its energy to an electron and leaves the reaction at a correspondingly lower energy. 3. Pair production-photon energy is converted to mass and kinetic energy of an electron-positron pair.
Only the photoelectric effect results in the complete loss of an x- or gamma-ray photon. The Compton process reduces the energy and changes the direction of the incident photon. The energy imparted to the electron is dissipated to heat as for any charged particle. The pair production interaction can occur only for a photon whose energy exceeds the mass of the two particles, i.e., twice the electron mass (5.5 X 10- 4 amu = 0.511 MeV) or 1.022 MeV. When the positron ultimately stops and contacts another electron, the combined mass is converted into two 0.51 I-MeV photons called annihilation gammas. Thus, the net effect of pair production is the conversion of one high-energy photon into two of 0.511 MeV (plus heat). Very short-range forces govern the electromagnetic mechanisms. A photon must essentially "hit" an electron for an interaction to occur. Thus, a parallel drawn to the neutron interactions described in Chap. 2 shows the same type of statistical behavior. Because an individual photon may travel essentially any distance, the concept of photon range may be defined only in terms of the average or mean of a large sample. This, of course, is in contrast to the well-defined range associated with charged-particle interactions. A very rough comparison of relative range and LET for the three naturally

0---
PHOTON

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

0
ELECTRON

./

./

.",

or

"

or

0--.
.......

SCATTERING

"'

PAIR PRODUCTION

FIGURE 3-1
Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with an electron by photoelectric, Compton scattering, and pairproduction mechanisms.

72

Basic Theory

occurring radiations is shown in Table 3-1. Because the important mechanisms each depend more on the density of electrons than on the specific atom composition, the relationships are relatively material-independent. These "rule of thumb" values demonstrate that gamma radiation is about 100 times as penetrating as beta particles. The betas, in tum, are more penetrating than alpha particles by about the same factor. As would be expected, the LET values are inversely related to the ranges.

Neutrons
A wide range of neutron interaction mechanisms were identified in Chap. 2. Of these, the absorption and scattering reactions are of most interest in the context of radiation effects. Most absorption reactions result in the loss of a neutron coupled with production of a charged particle or a gamma ray. When the product nucleus is radioactive, additional radiation is emitted at some later time. Scattering reactions result in the transfer of energy from a neutron to a nucleus. The latter then interacts in the system as a charged particle. As was established previously, neutron interactions may be characterized by a mean free path A as an average range. Generalized comparisons of neutron behavior with that of other radiations, however, are not readily made because of the extreme sensitivity of A values to neutron energy (e.g., Figs. 2-11 and 2-12) and material composition.

RADIATION EFFECTS
Nuclear radiations are energetic, so each has some potential for producing changes in biological tissue and other materials. Overall effects are determined by the type, energy, and intensity of the radiation and the detailed composition of the material medium.

Absorbed Dose
Historically, radiation exposure for x- and gamma-radiations was measured in units of the roentgen [R], where I roentgen = amount of radiation required to produce I esu of charge from either part of an ion pair in I cm 3 of air at standard temperature and pressure
TABLE 3-1 Comparison of Range and LET for Naturally Occurring Radiations in a Specified Material
Radiation Alpha Beta Gamma Relative range
I

Relative linear energy transfer [LET]

100 10,000

10,000 100 1

Nuclear Radiation Environment

73

One roentgen is also equivalent to depositing about 8.8 x 10- 6 J [88 ergs] in I g of air. This amount of energy will move the point of a sharpened pencil about 1+ mm across a piece of paper. Straightforward measurements may be made to determine radiation exposure in roentgens. However, the unit was not found to be very useful for comparing the effects of the various radiations on materials (i.e., effects on air do not necessarily correlate well to effects on other substances). Radiation absorbed dose [rad]-the energy deposition per unit mass of material-was initially defined as I rad = 100 erg/g The standard for absorbed dose (which has been accepted and used widely only since about 1980) is the SI-derived unit gray [Gy] where I Gy = I J/kg = 100 rad These units apply to any radiations and materials, but are used primarily with biological systems. The effects of radiation depend on both the absorbed dose and the LET of the radiation. For biological systems, it is convenient to define a relative biological effectiveness [RBE] for the various types of radiation as RBE dose of 250-keV x-rays producing given effect dose of reference radiation for same effect

The RBE depends on the effect studied, the dose, the dose rate, the physiological condition of the subject, and other factors. The upper limit of RBE's for a specific type of radiation is called the quality factor [QF]. Quality factor values depend on the radiation type and its energy. In radiation protection operations when the energy at the point of interest is not well known, it is permissible to use the approximations in Table 3-2 for the different types of radiation. The units rem (originally Roentgen equivalent man, but then simply rem) and the SI-derived sievert [Sv] are defined by Dose (rem) = QF x dose (rad) Dose (Sv) = QF x dose (Gy) = 100 x Dose (rem) Here the potential effects of all types of radiation can be considered from a common reference (because QF is an upper limit). Doses in sievert and rem are additive, independent of the specific radiation types involved. A dose accumulated over a very short period of time is said to be acute, while one accumulated over an extended period is said to be chronic. For a given total dose, an acute dose has been considered more harmful because natural repair mechanisms can operate during the acquisition of a chronic dose. The dose rate is the absorbed

74

Basic Theory

TABLE 3-2 Quality Factors Recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection t
Quality factor

Radiation X-rays, gamma rays, and electrons Neutrons, protons, and singly charged particles of rest mass greater than one atomic mass unit of unknown energy Alpha particles and multiply charged particles (and particles of unknown charge) of unknown energy Thermal neutrons

10

20
2.3

tReprinted with permission from ICRP/26 "Recommendations," copyright 1977, Pergamon Press, Ltd.

dose per unit time. Conversely, the dose is the product of the dose rate and the time over which it is delivered.

Radiation Damage
Radiation causes damage to various materials through three main mechanisms: I. displacement of electrons and atoms 2. large energy release in small volumes 3. production of impurities All types of radiation cause displacements and energy deposition. Only neutrons produce impurity nuclei. Such nuclei result from fission and activation reactions. Heavy charged particles and neutrons can transfer large amounts of energy to cause displacement of "knock-on" atoms. These atoms, in turn, can cause ionization and produce a cascade of secondary knock-on atoms. In high-symmetry crystalline lattices, displacement atoms may leave lattice vacancies and lodge in interstitial locations or cause interchange of dissimilar atoms in the lattice structure. Fission fragments are highly energetic (84 percent of the fission energy, .as per Table 2-2), highly charged ions which cause considerable ionization, displacement of atoms, and heat deposition over their very short ranges. They also become impurities with respect to the lattice and may contribute further damage by emission of delayed beta and gamma radiations. Like fission fragments, alpha particles cause ionization, displacement, and heat deposition over a very short range. Because alpha particles are helium nuclei, buildup of this inert gas may also cause pressurization problems, e.g., from (n, a)-reactions in lOB control-rod material. Beta radiation causes ionization and some displacement of atoms. The relatively short range leads to localized heat deposition. Gamma radiation also causes ionization but only rare displacements (the latter via nuclear Compton interactions). Gamma heating occurs over fairly substantial distances. The relatively lower damage potential of the betas and gammas is reflected in their quality factor of unity (see Table 3-2).

Nuclear Radiation Environment

75

Fast neutrons generally cause multiple displacements through scattering interactions. Because of their great range, they present a biological hazard and cause most of the radiation damage experienced by ex-core reactor components. Thermal neutrons cause radiation damage indirectly through absorption reactions. These reactions may lead to fission, charged-particle emission, or gamma emission. They may also produce lattice impurities. Radiation tends to be increasingly damaging in the following order of molecular formation: I. 2. 3. 4. metallic bond ionic bond covalent bond Van der Waals bond

largely due to the ability of ionization to disrupt the bonds. Biological tissue is characterized by substantial covalent bonding and, thus, is generally more susceptible to radiation damage than the metallic-bonded structural components. Other radiationdamage considerations include the observations that: Damage effects are generally less at elevated temperatures where enhanced diffusion may provide repair mechanisms. Low melting points enhance "annealing" (i.e., migration of dislocated atoms) and reduce radiation damage effects. Dose and dose rate are both important in determining overall damage levels.

Biological Effects
Biological cells are subject to radiation damage from direct and indirect mechanisms. Direct effects are thought to cause about 20 percent of the damage, while indirect effects account for the remainder. Tissue is affected directly when radiation interacts with cell nuclei to break important molecular chains, e.g., the DNA required for cell reproduction. This type of damage is generally not repairable. Indirect damage mechanisms break less critical molecules, like water [H 20] into reactive parts, which in turn undergo detrimental chemical reactions with DNA, protein, or other important molecules. Because diffusion processes control such damage, natural defense mechanisms of the body have some opportunity to act to reduce the effects. Figure 3-2 shows three ways that radiation can break the covalent H20 bonds. Recombination of components can then result in production of new species, of which H20 2 [peroxide] and HO; are potentially most damaging. Cell damage tends to be greatest in cells that have the highest degree of differentiation or are multiplying most rapidly. This establishes the following hierarchy of highest to lowest susceptibility: I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. lymph blood bone nerve brain muscle

76

Basic Theory

H: 0 : H H2 0 .

: 0: H

H0 + OH0 H: O:H .. H0 + OH0 H'

.0: H

[!J

H:O:H H2O

[]

H:O:H

H2 O @]@W+.OH
@

H' + . 0 H H2O H2 H2 0 2 H0;

H' +.H HO' + . OH H . + O2

[]

FIGURE 3-2
Primary (A, B, C) and secondary (0, E) products of radiation interaction with water molecules. (Courtesy of U.S. Department of Energy.)

Human Response
Very large acute doses of radiation have readily identifiable effects on the human body. Although individual differences occur, there are general trends which are summarized in Table 3-3. It may be noted that even doses well above lethality cannot be detected by the human senses until the medical effects appear. Lethal dose estimates are often expressed in the form LD50/30, meaning "Lethal Dose for 50 percent of the population with 30 days without medical attention." TABLE 3-3 Probable Effects of Acute Whole-Body Radiation Doses
Acute dose (rem) 0-75 75-200 Probable clinical effect No effects apparent. Chromosome abberations and temporary depression in white blood cell levels found in some individuals. Vomiting in 5 to 50 percent of exposed individuals within a few hours, with fatigue and loss of appetite. Moderate blood changes. Recovery within few weeks for most symptoms. For doses of 300 rem or more, all exposed individuals will exhibit vomiting within 2 h or less. Severe blood changes, with hemorrhage and increased susceptibility to infection, particularly at higher doses. Loss of hair after 2 weeks for doses over 300 rem. Recovery within 1 month to a year for most individuals exposed at lower end of range; only 20 percent survive at upper end of range. Vomiting within 1 h, severe blood changes, hemorrhage, infection, and loss of hair. From 80-100 percent of exposed individuals will succumb within 2 months; those who survive will be convalescent over a long period.

200-600

600-1000

Source: WASH-1250 (1973).

Nuclear Radiation Environment

77

A whole body dose of 4.5 Sv [450 rem] is considered LD50/30 for a general human population. Medical treatment has proven to be only marginally effective in increasing the survival rate following large doses near this magnitude (e.g., with the recent radiation accidents at Goiana in Brazil and the Chernobyl-4 reactor). Delayed effects of large acute doses and of comparable chronic doses include: leukemia and cancers cataracts genetic effects blood disorders lifespan shortening

Although there is strong scientific consensus on the magnitude of delayed effects, including low-dose-rate chronic exposure, a vocal minority sometimes gives the impression that the issues are unresolved. (The latter subject is considered further in the next section.) Overall, more than 80,000 studies have been reported in the scientific literature, indicating that radiation effects have been studied far more thoroughly than other environmental impacts. The "Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation" [BEIR- V (1990)] report, prepared by a committee of the United States' National Academy of Sciences and National Council, is a definitive reference on radiation effects.

Reactor Materials
Essentially all radiation damage to materials in nuclear reactors results in some way from neutron interactions. Fragments, fast neutrons, gammas, and delayed radiations from fission are major contributors. Radiations from activation- and transmutationproduct nuclides also cause damage. Thus, damage magnitude in a given system may be viewed as being related to the neutron flux history. The product of the neutron flux and the time over which it occurs is called fluence and serves as a convenient substitute for absorbed dose in measuring radiation damage in reactor materials. Because flux has units of neutrons per unit area per unit time [n/cm 2 s], fluence is expressed in terms of neutrons per unit area [n/cm 2 ]. Neutron irradiation is said to occur when a material is subjected to a neutron flux or, equivalently, when it accumulates neutron fluence. Nonfuel compositions are damaged primarily by fast neutrons. For this purpose it is common to define a fast fluence as that based only on neutrons whose energies exceed a threshold value (e.g., neutrons above 1 MeV that cause damage to steel structural components). In mathematical terms, fluence is defined as
F1uence =

dt <P(t)

(3-2)

for time-dependent flux <I>(t). The flux-time integral reduces to

dt <P(t)

= <Pot = Nut

(3-3)

78

Basic Theon

when a constant flux <1>0 is present (from Eq. 2-18 the flux is equal to the product of the neutron density N and speed u). Based on Eqs. 3-2 and 3-3, the terms jluence, jlux-time, and nut are often used interchangeably. Typical fast fluences for steel components, or "epi-I-MeV" values, are determined from

Fluence

I MeV) =

IE

ma ,

dE

1 MeV

II
0

dt <1>(E, t)

(3-4)

for maximum neutron energy E max and energy- and time-dependent flux <1>(E, t). Essentially all materials are subject to radiation damage. Selection of reactor materials is influenced heavily by their stability in the anticipated neutron environment. For example, ceramic reactor fuels like UO z have been favored over most metallic forms (as considered in some detail in Chap. 9). The water moderator and coolant employed in LWRs is subject to dissociation in a neutron environment. The hydrogen and oxygen produced in the process tend to enhance corrosion of cladding and other structures. The graphite blocks used as moderators in the HTGR design tend to swell (i.e., increase in volume and decrease in density) with increasing fluence. Thermal resistance and stored or internal energy are also amplified by neutron irradiation. Metal structural materials including the cladding, support fixtures, and pressure vessel are subject to a variety of neutron-induced changes. Important examples are: hardening and embrittlement due to disruption of initially symmetric lattice patterns swelling, or decreased density, caused by displacement of atoms from normal lattice sites and/or the presence of impurity atoms transformation of metallurgical phase (perhaps including a change of the overall lattice pattern) decreased corrosion resistance due to transmutation of alloying constituents changes in mechanical properties

In water-cooled systems, reduced corrosion resistance in structures combines with the increased corrosiveness of dissociated water to enhance the overall rate at which these chemical reactions occur. The effects of irradiation on several mechanical properties of one particular type of steel are shown in Fig. 3-3. Although description of the general mechanisms involved is beyond the scope of this book, the significance of the shapes of the two yield curves may be readily inferred. Yield strength is related to the amount of force required for permanent sample deformation, ultimate strength to that required for sample fracture. Although both increase with fluence, they converge, providing successively smaller ranges over which deformation without fracture is possible. Changes in structural properties often determine the maximum useful lifetimes of various structural components. Steel pressure vessels in LWRs, for example, have estimated lifetimes of 40-50 years in typical fast-neutron environments. Electronic components are another important class of materials subject to radiation damage. Semiconductor devices like transistors and integrated circuits, which depend on very closely controlled lattice compositions and impurity levels, are especially susceptible to neutron damage from displacements and activation. Thus, con-

Nuclear Radiation Environment

79

r------------------------,125 800
ULTIMATE STRENGTH

700 600 '" ll.I .t:l IZ 500 I-W t:la: ZIWVl a:w 400 1-1Vl<l:

ll. '"

-

75
REDUCTION

- --

-------

100

.....

...J-

300 wI_...J r:::l 200 100 0

50

.....
25

IZIWz U w a: U wa: ll.. w zll. o _<l: I-W <l:a: t:l<l: Zu. 00 ...J WZ o a: IOU u.:::l -0 ZW :::la:

2 X 10 19

4 X 10 19

6 X 10 19

8 X 10'

FAST FLUENCE, n/cm'

FIGURE 3-3
Dependence of mechanical properties of A212B carbon-silicon steel on fast-neutron fluence. (Adapted from Engineering Materials Science, by C. W. Richards. Copyright 1961 by Wadsworth, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the publisher, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Monterey, California. Data from Wilson and Berggren, Am. Soc. Test. Mats. Proceedings 55, 702, 1955.)

trol and safety circuitry must either be radiation-resistant or well protected from radiation exposure.

DOSE ESTIMATES
It is often possible to make rough estimates of absorbed radiation doses from knowledge of radiation type and energy plus material composition. For charged particles, energy deposition occurs over a short range. Electromagnetic radiations and neutrons, by contrast, are generally characterized by widely distributed energy deposition. Radiation dose from a given source may be reduced by limiting exposure time or increasing distance. The use of shielding material is often the most effective means for restricting personnel doses.

Alpha and Beta Radiation

None of the charged particles produced in a reactor core have ranges great enough to be of concern outside of the reactor vessel. However, radionuclides that emit alpha and/or beta particles are produced by fission and other neutron reactions. When such species leak or are otherwise removed from the core, they may come in contact with

80

Basic Theory

biological tissue. The resulting absorbed dose depends on particle energy, nuclide activity or decay rate, length of time, and tissue density. If radionuclides enter the body, essentially all of the charged-particle energy is deposited in organ tissue. External radioactivity affects only the skin. Alpha-particle emitters must be in direct contact with internal organs to have any impact. Betaparticles, on the other hand, may penetrate some amount of clothing, with a resulting decrease in energy. In either case, only the particles which actually strike the basal layer of the skin contribute to absorbed dose (e.g., because the particles have random directions, half of those emitted from a flat surface travel outward from the skin and are of no further concern). If an internal source deposits all particle energy in an organ of mass m, the timedependent dose rate Rp(t) is approximately
R (t) = Q(t)E
p

(3-5)

for activity Q(t) and average energy E per particle. The energy E is the full transition energy for alpha decay, but is only about one-third of the transition energy for beta decay (because of the sharing with antineutrinos noted in Chap. 2). For external doses, the rates may be modified by factors which account for surface and/or clothing effects as appropriate. Typical applications of Eq. 3-5 are based on the replacement

from Eq. 2-6 for initial activity Qo and decay constant A. Total dose is calculated by integrating Rp(t) over the time interval and converting the result to units of Gy or rad. Dose equivalent in Sv or rem, respectively, is obtained by multiplying by the appropriate quality factor (Table 3-2).

Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiation is subject to electromagnetic interactions with atomic electrons and nuclei. These occur on a "one-shot," statistical basis, so there is some probability for very great distances of travel, even through. dense materials. Primary gamma radiation associated with fission or the secondary radiation produced by its interactions may escape from a reactor core and the surrounding structures. The probability per unit distance of travel that a gamma ray photon will interact with nuclei of a given element is the linear attenuation coefficient JL. It is analogous to the neutron macroscopic cross section L, which is also an interaction probability per unit path length. Thus, Eq. 2-23 for narrow-beam neutron attenuation may be modified directly to
(3-6)

for gamma flux <f>, linear attenuation coefficient JL, and distance of travel x. As was the case for neutrons, the form of the equation dictates that the mean free path of a

Nuclear Radiation Environment

81

gamma ray is A == II J.L and that there is a finite (though increasingly small) probability of a photon penetrating to any arbitrarily large distance. The coefficient J.L is dependent on the gamma-ray energy and on the density and elemental composition of the material. Because the interactions occur predominantly with orbital electrons, the isotopic make-up of a sample has no significant effect (e. g. , all uranium enrichments "look the same" to gamma rays). The density dependence of J.L may be removed by defining a mass attenuation coefficient J.LI p for elemental density p. Equation 3-6 is then modified to
<I>(x) == <I>(O)e-(/L/P)Px

(3-7)

where the product px, the areal density (with typical units g/cm 2 ), replaces distance x in the formulation. The mass attenuation coefficient as a function of energy for lead is shown in Fig. 3-4. Contributions from the photoelectric, Compton-scattering and pair-production mechanisms are identified on the figure.

::::__ . .+. ...... +..... HW *_-_-++- ...... + -++_-++--+-+.....

e==_\-= -,

-+-t .....-+-+

-_T+

-_t-I--t+--t;-_-t+

10
ENERGY, MeV

100

FIGURE 3-4
Mass attenuation coefficients for total interaction and absorption of electromagnetic radiation in lead, including contributions from photoelectric, Compton scattering and absorption, and pair-production effects. (Adapted from The Atomic Nucleus, by R. D. Evans, 1955 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill Book Company.)

82

Basic Theory

Although the total attenuation coefficient is appropriate for describing narrowbeam attenuation, it does not allow direct calculation of energy deposition and absorbed dose. Compton-scattering and pair-production interactions result in partial energy conversion plus emission of secondary radiation. Thus, a total absorption coefficient is defined to include all photoelectric interactions but only the appropriate contributions of the other two mechanisms. Figure 3-4 has divided the Compton interaction into absorption and scattering components with only the former summed into the curve for energy absorption. As a practical matter, the total pair-production coefficient is added into the total absorption coefficient because even the potential loss of one or more of the .51 I-MeV annihilation photons has a minimal effect when viewed in the context of the other processes that occur simultaneously. Gamma radiation is generally so penetrating that both internal and external sources can contribute to the net flux and ultimately to the absorbed dose. The dose rate R y is approximately
R (t) = <I> (t)E
y y

fLa

(3-8)

for time-dependent gamma flux <I> y' gamma energy E y' and mass absorption coefficient fLa/ P for tissue density p. The total absorbed dose in rad is obtained by converting units as necessary and integrating over all energies and over the desired time interval.

Neutron Radiation
Fast-neutron radiation is highly penetrating in biological tissue and is, thus, potentially hazardous as an external source. As a practical matter, internal neutron sources are rare and are associated with much more highly damaging charged-particle emission (e.g., 240pU neutrons are from spontaneous fission). Fast-neutron scattering generates heat through kinetic energy transfer to charged nuclei. The fast-neutron dose rate R fn in a single-constituent medium may be approximated by (3-9) for time-dependent neutron flux <I> n' neutron energy En' macroscopic scattering cross section L s ' density p, and average fractional energy transfer per collision f where 2A

= (A

1)2

for a nuclide of atomic mass number A. When considering actual tissue, contributions in the form of Eg. 3-9 must be computed for all nuclides. Total absorbed dose in Gy or rad then depends on conversion of units, summation over all nuclides, and integration over fast-neutron energies and over time. Absorbed dose from thermal neutron radiation is an indirect result of absorption reactions. Activation radiations and induced radioactivity are the important sources.

Nuclear Radiation Environment

83

Dose calculations require detailed descriptions of the neutron flux, tissue composition, and interaction and decay mechanisms.

Sample Calculations
Consider dose rates from gamma and neutron radiations. Each is assumed to have an energy of I MeV and a flux of 10 8 cm- 2 s- l . For I-MeV gamma rays in water (or, roughly, hydrogenous material like most human tissue), p = I g/cm 3 and !-ta = 0.03 cm - '. The dose rate R y (Eq. 3-8) is thus R y = --'---'---'P
J yEy!-ta

10 8 ylcm 2 s x I MeV x 0.03 cm I g/cm

3

1.60

10- 13 J I MeV
X

I Gy

I J/kg

x ---

1000 g I kg

4.8

10- 4 Gy s
---

0 .48

I for

100 rad I Gy

48s

where the energy conversion factors are obtained from App. II. With QF gamma radiation,

Ry = 0.48 mGy x
s

sv) I Gy y

0 .48 m:v I

100 rem I Sv

48-s

Fast neutron dose rates are obtained from Eq. 3-9:

Because neutrons in water react primarily with the hydrogen atoms, 2A 2(1) = 0.5 + 1)2

= (A

1)2

(I

Assuming L s = 0.1 cm -',

10 8 n/cm 2 s

I MeV

x 0.1 cm - I x 0.5
=

I g/cm 3

x
I

1.60

10- 13 J

I MeV

x
or because QF

I Gy I J/kg

x 1000 g
I kg

0 . 8 mGy s

x 1000 rad
Gy

80s

10 for fast neutrons,

84

Basic Theory

Rfn

0.8 mGy
s

(10 sv)
1 Gy
n

1 8 .0 mSv Ix 100 rem

s Sv

1800 mrem 1
s

If both fluxes existed simultaneously, R

Ry

R fn

mSv mSv = 0.48 + 8.0 = 8.48s s s

= -848
1

mrem 800 mrem =48--+ s 2

mrem I
s

(The attenuation of either the gamma rays or the neutrons can be calculated in the manner shown for the latter at the end of Chap. 2.)

Dose Reduction and Control

Radiation levels from operating reactors and from irradiated fuel can be extremely large. Three basic principles for reducing personnel dose from such radiation sources are to: 1. restrict the time of proximity 2. increase the distance from the source 3. use shielding material to attenuate the radiation From a practical standpoint, there are two other approaches to dose reduction. A shutdown reactor or spent fuel element, for example, has radiation levels that decay away naturally with time. Thus, potential benefit from postponing an activity is always considered first (as is also the case for waste disposal as described in Chap. 19). Urgency and long half-lives, however, often lead more to reliance on a combination of the time, distance, and shielding principles. Radioactive gases and contamination (i.e., radioactive material in undesired locations, especially when it is mobile in dust-particle or other loose form) are problematic compared to fixed sources. Here containment principles (as introduced in Chap. 1) are applied, if possible, to the source (e.g., encapsulation or coating on a contaminated surface) or, otherwise, to the worker (e.g., use of a respirator and removable protective clothing [PCs]). Although the material used for containment may serve to reduce all or part of the charged-particle radiation, it generally has little effect on gamma radiation. Thus, containment often must be augmented by shielding and the other dose reduction principles. Radiation protection [radiological control] is a key aspect of design, operation, and maintenance of nuclear facilities. The discipline has come to be called health physics. A few important practices that apply to reactors are described in Chaps. 15 (TMI-2 and Chemobyl accident cleanup), 16 (nuclear safety principles), and 19 (decommissioning). Detailed descriptions are provided in publications listed in the Selected Bibliography.

Time and Distance

Time restriction is generally valid only in situations where distance and shielding cannot be used and where short-tenn exposure will not allow all perfonnance of the necessary

Nuclear Radiation Environment

85

task. In high radiation environments, workers may reach their dose limits very quickly and then be excluded from further exposure for a specified period of time. The decrease of dose rate with distance is most readily observed by considering a point radiation source. The photons or particles from the source So "spread out" to progressively larger 47Tr 2 spherical-areas, such that flux is
<I>(r)

a familiar "inverse square" or "one-over-r-squared" attenuation. The use of this "geometrical" attenuation is of value mainly where radiation levels are moderate and where substantial amounts of unused space are available.

Shielding Principles
Time restrictions have limited application and the cost of facility floor-space dictates against distance. Thus shielding plays the dominant role in dose reduction for nuclear facilities. Relationships among the important radiations associated with the fission process are depicted in Fig. 3-5. With one exception, alI constituents in the figure
FI SSI ON

COMPTON EFFECT

PHOTOELECTRI C EFFECT

(ABSORPTION) I

(Be OR D IF PRESENT)

PAIR PRODUCTION

FIGURE 3-5
Radiation produced as a result of fission. (Adapted from Nuclear Reactor Engineering by Samuel Glasstone and Alexander Sesonske, 1967 by Litton Educational Publishing. Inc. Reprinted by permission of Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.)

86

Basic Theory

have been described in this or the previous chapter. Bremsstrahlung, an electromagnetic radiation produced by deceleration of electrons, makes a negligible contribution to radiation dose from reactor systems. Shielding for charged particles is readily accomplished. Even longer range electrons are stopped by a few millimeters of metal, e.g., the walls of a typical liquidwaste handling tank. Gamma and neutron radiations create very complex shielding problems because of the potential long ranges for both primary and secondary radiations. The principles embodied in Eqs. 2-23 and 3-6 are always valid, but must be applied separately for each energy. Because of the highly energy-dependent nature of cross sections-e.g., as for 238U in Fig. 2-1 I-neutron calculations are very complex. Even with the more regular variation of attenuation coefficients-e.g., in Fig. 3-4-gamma calculations still are difficult. Scattering reactions for both radiations produce changes in energy and direction which in tum determine new reaction probabilities and escape path lengths. The secondary radiations shown on Fig. 3-5 complicate the picture further. Calculational procedures have been developed to describe the transport of neutrons, of gamma rays, and of the two together. The basic principles of neutron calculations are described briefly in Chap. 4. Applications to photon and coupled neutronphoton transport employ conceptually similar methods.

Reactor Shields
Effective reactor shields must attenuate both gammas and neutrons, including the secondary radiations they produce. Figure 3-6 shows an example of a composite shield designed to minimize the total weight of a 70-MW reactor system aboard the S.S. Savannah. Important features include:
I. steel thermal shields to reduce neutron and gamma energy and, thereby, remove heat energy to the adjacent cooling water 2. additional steel and lead layers for gamma and neutron attenuation 3. waterto thermalize fast neutrons so that they can be absorbed by the water, steel, or lead 4. a slab arrangement to reduce weight and handle secondary radiations

The curves on Fig. 3-6 show the behavior of the neutron and gamma radiations. In the top figure, the fast-neutron flux is seen to decrease regularly, with inelastic scattering in the steel being somewhat more effective than the elastic scattering in the water at causing attenuation. Moderation (explained in the next chapter) increases the thermal flux when it first enters a water layer, but capture then reduces it again. Absorption in the steel decreases the thermal flux, but fast-neutron slowing down provides a continuing source of thermal neutrons toward the outside of the slab. The behavior of the gamma population in the composite shield is shown by the curves in the lower portion of Fig. 3-6. The primary gammas from the reactor are attenuated somewhat regularly, with the denser steel being substantially more effective than water. The behavior of the secondary gammas is more complicated because it includes not only effects of Compton scattering, but is also coupled to neutron radiativecapture and inelastic-scattering reactions. The net result is that the dose rate due to secondary gammas dominates that of the primaries for most of the shield thickness.

Nuclear Radiation Environment

87

1011 1010
ME
<.> .... c

109 108 107 106 105 1016 10 14

CORE PRIMARY SECONDARY
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GAIt1A-RAY DOSES

g
c '"
::>

x'
-'
u.

::::J

.I::.

Q; E
I-

1012

l/l

...., ""
0
0

....,- 1010 <

108 106 104

CORE EDGE STEEL (PRESSURE VESSEll, STEEL (THERMAL SHIELD) CORE

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

ISO 200 '220

240

DI STANCE FROM CORE CENTERLI NE, cm

FIGURE 3-6
Neutron-flux and gamma-radiation dose profiles in a composite shield for a 70-MW reactor designed for use aboard the S. S. Savannah. (Adapted from Nuclear Reactor Engineering by Samuel Glasstone and Alexander Sesonske, 1967 by Lillon Educational Publishing, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.)

Conventional land-based reactors have little incentive for minimizing shield weight. Thus, massive amounts of concrete can provide a more easily fabricated, lower cost shield. The relatively low mass of concrete is good for neutron moderation, while at the same time many of its constituents are good neutron absorbers. Required gamma attenuation is obtained by sheer thickness.

RADIATION STANDARDS
Standards and limits for radiation exposure are established to protect the health and safety of workers and the public, while also allowing for reasonable efficiency in conduct of operations involving radioactive materials. Basic standards are developed

88

Basic Theory

for external radiation sources and then used to derive limits that apply to intake and internal deposition of radionuclides. Both natural background radiation levels and experimental dose-versus-effect relationships are considered in setting the standards.

Natural Background
Natural background radiation levels vary substantially throughout the world, but according to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation [UNSCEAR, 1988] they average about 2.4 mSv/y (240 mrem/y). The United States' average is now estimated to be higher at 3.0 mSv/y (300 mrem/y) based on recent reevaluation of the quantities and effects of radon gas (a daughter product of uranium considered in relation to ore processing and waste management, respectively, in Chaps. 17 and 19). The U.S. natural background, according to the National Council on Radiation Protection [NCRP, 1987], has the following sources:

I. cosmic or extraterrestrial, 0.27 mSv/y (varying from 0.15 to 5.0 mSv/y depending
on altitude) 2. cosmogenic (including certain cosmic-ray byproducts, fallout from nuclear weapons testing, and reactor emissions), 0.0 I mSv/y 3. terrestrial ( 4o K; 238U and 232Th and their daughter products), 0.28 mSv/y 4. inhaled (mainly 222Rn; also U, Ra and Th), 2.0 mSv/y 5. in the body C4 C, 4K, 21oPb/ 2I Opo), 0.40 mSv/y When medical and other radiation sources are also considered, an overall average of about 3.5 mSv/y (350 mrem/y) results. (Commercial nuclear power contributes < 101J. Sv/y [I mrem/y] to this total!)

Dose-Effect Data
Experimental dose-effect data on human subjects have been limited to post-exposure studies of groups of individuals who have received very large acute or chronic radiation doses. The bulk of the information base is provided from studies of nuclear-weapon effects, accident exposures (now including the 1986 Chernobyl-4 reactor accident [Chap. 15] and a 1987 incident with improperly disposed medical sources in Goiana, Brazil), other inadvertent exposures (e.g., the radium-dial painters mentioned later in this chapter), and medical radiation treatments. Detailed, controlled experiments have been performed only with animal populations. Available human data and those inferred from animal experiments are generally combined to estimate the consequences of low-level radiation exposure as a function of population dose. The population doses are in terms of person-sieverts (formerly person-rem or man-rem)-the sum over the population of interest of the product of the number of individuals and their dose-equivalent received. The BEIR-V (1989) report, for example, estimates that a general U.S. population of 100,000 persons exposed to a dose of 0.1 Sv (i.e., 10 4 person-Sv [10 6 person-rerns)) could develop 770-810 fatal cancers in excess of normal incidence. As a point of reference, normal incidence is for roughly one-third of the population to contract cancer and for onehalf of those (i.e., one-sixth of the population) to die as a result. The above correlation is based on a linear hypothesis of the dose-effect relationship, i.e., an extrapolation of high-dose data to the low-dose regime. Thus, a

Nuclear Radiation Environment

89

constant effect per unit dose is assumed. The underlying assumption is subject to controversy. Many authorities believe that a dose threshold exists below which no deleterious effects accrue, so that the linear hypothesis is recognized as appropriately conservative. A few have postulated the opposite, or that low doses can be relatively more harmful. According to BEIR-V (1989), "departure from linearity cannot be excluded" at very low doses and "such departure could be in the direction of either an increased or decreased risk. Moreover, epidemiological data cannot rigorously exclude the existence of a threshold in the millisievert range. Thus, the possibility that there may be no risks from exposure to external natural background radiation cannot be ruled out." The literature contains frequent reports of low-dose "anomalies," i.e., effects unrelated to and unpredictable from high-dose exposure experience. Thus, it has been postulated that radiation hormesis may exist where low-dose effects are different from those observed at high-dose rates. This corresponds, for example, to chemical elements or compounds that are poisonous in large quantity, but beneficial or even necessary to the human body in trace to moderate quantities (e.g., nickel, chromium, and even many hormones). Possible hormetic outcomes not inconsistent with experimental results are: increased longevity, increased growth and fertility in plants and animals, and reduction in cancer. However, new toxic effects may also be present. The usual measure for genetic effects of radiation exposure is doubling dosethat required for the total genetic-defect rate to be double natural incidence. Although studies of human populations (including some 75,000 children born to parents irradiated at Hiroshima and Nagasaki) have not confirmed any statistically significant increases in genetic-defect frequency, BEIR-V estimates that the "doubling dose in humans is not likely to be less than the approximately I Sv (100 rem) obtained from the studies in mice."

Philosophy
The philosophy of the International Commission on Radiological Protection [ICRP, 1977] is that: I. No practice shall be adopted unless its introduction provides net benefit 2. All exposures shall be kept as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), economic and social factors being taken into account 3. The dose equivalent to individuals shall not exceed the limits recommended for the appropriate circumstances by the commission Stated alternatively, planned radiation exposure first must be justified, then optimized using the ALARA principle, and finally subjected to dose limitation. The ICRP, NCRP, and national radiation-protection regulations call for exposures to be ALARA. Thus, reactor and fuel-cycle operations include substantial attention to reduction in radiation doses (both individual and collective person-Sv) as tempered by cost-benefit considerations.

External Radiation
Dose limits recommended by ICRP for workers and members of the public are shown in Table 3-4. Developed with input from NCRP and equivalent bodies of other nations,

90

Basic Theorv

TABLE 3-4
Recommended Annual Radiation Dose Limits from the International Council on Radiation Protection
Recommended limit Individual members of the public I mSv (0.1 rem)## SO mSv (5 rem) SO mSv (5 rem)

Tissue or organ Uniform irradiation of the whole body + + Lens of the eye All tissue except lens of the eye

Workers SO mSv ( 5 rem) ISO mSv (IS rem)' 500 mSv (SO rem)

Source: ICRP-26 (1977)

+ + or the committed effective dose-equivalent for non-uniform exposures ## ICRP in 1985 set this value as a principal limit on annual effective dose equivalent with the original 5 mSv (0.5 rem) as a subsidiary limit for some years provided that the annual effective dose equivalent averaged over a lifetime does not exceed the principal limit 'revised downward from 30 rem by ICRP in 1980
they have been incorporated into U. S. regulations that were approved in 1990 to take effect in 1993. (These limits are included in part 20 of title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations [IOCFR20]; 10CFR is described in Chap. 16). For historical perspective, selected features of the limits they replace are also described. The most general occupational dose limit is the 50-mSv [5-rem] annual whole body value (Table 3-4). The corresponding limit for individual members of the public is I mSv [0.1 rem]. These limits are intended for application to nonspecific radiationexposure situations and, thus, are conservative enough to cover an arbitrary combination of tissues, including particularly sensitive ones such as the gonads and red bone marrow. Under more controlled conditions where only a specific tissue is exposed, higher limits may be applied (e.g., those for the skin in Table 3-4). Radiation workers in the nuclear industry, hospitals, and elsewhere are required to wear dosimeters or devices that monitor radiation exposure. Composite devices may be employed to make separate measurements of charged-particle, gamma, or neutron doses as appropriate to a given facility. Conversion of measured parameters to doses in Sv or rems allows calculation of total dose equivalent. Whole-body exposure of 50 mSv is a prospective or target limit. Typical dosimeters do not provide instantaneous readout, however, so it is possible for a worker to accumulate excess dose. Thus, retrospective annual limits are also set. In the United States, for example, 100-120 mSv in a year had been considered tolerable subject to a total long-term limit of 50 mSv x (N - 18)-also known as the "5N minus 18 rule" for dose in rem-with N the worker's age in years. The expression contains the inherent assumption that occupational dose be limited prior to age 18. (In practice, minors were allowed one-tenth the dose of regular radiation workers.) If either the retrospective or long-term limit is exceeded in normal operations, further radiation-area work is to be prohibited for a period of time. The ICRP used the 50 mSv x (N - 18) lifetime limit until 1977 when it was replaced the "50 mSv plus ALARA" philosophy. There has also been recognition of special circumstances for preplanned emergency radiation doses. "Planned special exposures," however, are allowed to be two

Nuclear Radiation Environment

9/

times the annual limit in any single event, not to exceed five times the limit in a lifetime (but only justified when alternative techniques are unavailable or impractical). The earlier U.S. limits had been set at 750 mSv [75 rem] for saving a life and 250 mSv [25 rem] for less urgent actions such as limiting radiation releases or fighting fires. Both situations called for use of volunteers and specific authorization by senior plant management. The ICRP principal limit for general-public exposure (Table 3-4) is I mSv [0.1 rem] with a subsidiary limit of 5 mSv [0.5 rem] "for some years provided that the annual dose averaged over a lifetime does not exceed the principal limit." Historically, however, reactor emissions have been on the order of only a few percent of the principal limit. Likewise, a small fraction of radiation workers ever have received as much as 50 mSv [5 rem] in a given year. In the same time frame that the United States adopted the recommendations in Table 3-4, a new set of radiation protection standards was issued by ICRP (1991). The latter call for a dose limit of 20 mSv/y [2 rem/y] to be averaged over a period of 5 years with no more than 50 mSv [5 rem] in a single year. The I mSv/y [100 mrem/y] limit for the general public was reaffirmed. In 1988, even before conclusion of the ICRP work, the United Kingdom's National Radiological Protection Board [NRPB] reduced its recommended whole-body limits by factors of 2 to 3. The worker annual limit was dropped from 50 mSv to 15 mSv, the general-public limit from I mSv to 0.5 mSv.

Internal Radiation
Radionuclides deposited in internal organ tissue result in a dose commitment for the future. Because little can be done to reduce the dose (other than just to "let nature take its course"), the primary method for controlling internal exposure is to limit potential uptake. Historically, internal-dose limits were specified in terms of maximum permissible concentration [MPC] for radionuclides in air and water. The resulting dose commitment was considered as being separate from the annual limit for external exposure. The more recent focus is to define for each radionuclide an annual limit of intake [ALI] and a derived air concentration [DAC] each of which would result in a committed dose equal to the annual limit of occupational exposure (Table 3-4). ALI values, then, are the basis for determining allowed concentrations in water (equivalent to an MPC) or elsewhere in the food chain. (The transport of radioactive material in the food chain is considered further in Chap. 14.) The new IOCFR20 regulations require that the sum of the external dose and the dose commitment be within the annual limit (i.e., from Table 3-4). Specification of internal-dose limits in any form considers issues raised by the following historical example of an MPC determination:
I. A 0.1 jLCi [3.7 x 10 4 Bq] body burden of 226Ra was judged to have no discernable health effect (from studying "radium dial painters" who had ingested substantial quantities). An equivalent dose from another radionuclide, then was considered acceptable. 2. Evaluation of the effect of a particular radionuclide considered radiation type

92

Basic Theory

radiation energy radioactive half-life biological clearance rate critical organ t (i.e., that organ to which damage is most detrimental to the entire organism) fraction of ingested nuclide deposited in organ 3. An effective half-life for a radionuclide in the human body was calculated from the radioactive half-life T I /2 and the biological clearance rate according to the expression

T err 1/2

T1/2

T bio

(3-10)

1/2

4. The following conservative assumptions were used: dose-versus-effect data can be extrapolated linearly to very low doses (i.e., do not assume that a threshold exists below which no damage will occur). there is no dose-rate effect (i.e., neglect the fact that repair mechanisms may reduce the effect of a dose received at low dose rates over a long period of time). 5. Nuclide ingestion rates were determined from intake patterns for air and water. 6. The data was used to determine the maximum concentration of a nuclide that would lead to a dose equivalent no greater than that of the reference 0.1 /-LCi source of
226Ra.

7. MPC's were established by considering the above result, correcting for the effects of other nuclides, and including a "safety margin." Table 3-5 contains MPC and other data for several nuclides of interest in the nuclear fuel cycle and reactors. When a mixture of radionuclides is considered, each concentration must be reduced to a fraction of its value. For MPCs the limiting expression that must be satisfied is

c L __
all j

J_

1.0

(MPC)j

(3-11 )

for the concentration Cj and (MPC)j of each nuclide identified by subscript j. At the opposite end of the range of radionuclide concentrations is a minimum or de minimus level below which material would be treated as "ordinary waste." De minimus standards, established by comparison to radioactivity levels in naturally occurring materials (e.g., coal ash or even the human body), also define what is below regulatory concern.
t As noted earlier, the "critical organs" for external radiation are the gonads, lens of the eye, and the red bone marrow.

TABLE 3-5
Maximum Permissible Concentrations lMPC] and Related Data for Selected Radionuclides Encountered in Nuclear Power Activities
Radionuclide Characteristic Form of nuclide Physical half-life Biological half-life Effective half-life Radiation (energy) Critical organ t water MPC air

Soluble 27 d 110 d 22 d )'(.33 MeV) Kidney 2 X 10- 3 4 X 10- 7

90Sr
38

H2O
12.3 y 19 d 19 d {3(18 keV) Whole-body 2 x 10- 5 2 x 10- 9

Soluble 28 y II Y 7.9 Y {3(.5/2.3 MeV) Bone 3 X 10- 7 3 X 10- 11

Soluble 1622 y 44 Y 44 Y a(l4.5 MeV) Bone 3 X 10- 8 3 X 10- 12

So1ub le/insoIubIe 24,360 Y 120 y/360 d 120 y/360 d a(5.2 MeV) Bone/lungs 5 x 10- 6 /3 X 10- 5 6 x 10- 14/1 X 10- 12

t MPC values prescribed by 10CFR (1987) for general effluent release.

94

Basic Theorv

EXERCISES* Questions
3-1 . 3-2. 3-3. Explain why charged particles can be assigned definite ranges while neutrons and gamma rays cannot. State the three mechanisms by which electromagnetic radiations interact with electrons and identify the secondary radiation(s) produced by each. Describe the principal mechanisms by which charged particles, gamma rays, and neutrons cause direct radiation damage in biological tissue. Describe how neutrons also cause damage indirectly. Explain how radiation damage in a steel pressure vessel differs when caused by neutrons and gamma rays, respectively. Define LD50/30. State its value for whole-body radiation in humans. Explain each of the three primary and two subordinate dose reduction principles. Identify the three major purposes of a reactor shield. Describe the origin and effects of "secondary radiations." Summarize the three-part lCRP philosophy for radiation protection. Explain briefly the roles and bases for setting external and internal dose limits.

3-4. 3-5. 3-6. 3-7. 3-8.

Numerical Problems
Calculate the individual and total radiation doses in rem for each radiation and in total for a 2-h exposure to: a. 20-mrad/h gamma b. 15-mrad/h alpha c. 5-mrad/h fast neutron d. 25-mrad/h thermal neutron Which radiation is potentially most harmful according to the calculations? 3-10. Repeat the previous problem using the SI units of Gy and Sv. 3-11. Consider a 15,OOO-Ci 60Co source (typical of several university campuses) which gives off gamma rays of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV from each decay. Assume that the dose rate at a distance R cm from a source of strength C Curies emitting gamma energy E MeV for each disintegration is given by 3-9.

D (mrad/h)

4.6 x 10 6

CE

R2

(3-12)

a. Calculate the average hourly dose associated with a 5-rad yearly limit (assume a 50-week year of 40-h weeks). b. Calculate the dose rate at I m from the source and the time to receive the 75 rad "emergency, life-saving dose." c. Neglecting the effect of air and other materials, calculate the distance from the 6OCO source required to achieve the dose rate in (a). d. Based on the mass attenuation coefficient curve in Fig. 3-4, estimate the

*NOTE: Other exercises of the concepts in this chapter follow the discussions of reactor safety and accidents in Chaps. 13-15 and fuel cycle in Chaps. 18 and 19.

Nuclear Radiation Environment

95

thickness of lead (p = 11.35 g/cm 3 ) necessary to attenuate a beam with the dose rate in (b) to the acceptable level in (a). Neglect secondary radiations and geometry effects. 3-12. Convert Eq. 3-12 to calculate dose in mGy/h for source strength in Bq. 3-13. The Compton-interaction probabilities depend only on the density of electrons. Thus the mass attenuation coefficient is material-independent for this mechanism. The total coefficient, then, is roughly material-independent for the energy range where the Compton effect is dominant (e.g., j.t/p has the same energy dependence from 0.3-3 MeV for water and elements up to Z = 26 (iron); all elements up to lead have roughly the same j.t/p over the 1-2 MeV range). a. Estimate the fractional absorption of 6OCO gammas passing through your chest, assuming that the density of the human body is that of water. b. Calculate the thickness of water and of concrete (p = 4 g/cm 3 ), which provide the same attenuation as the lead in Prob. 3-11 (d). Assuming that each shield is a sphere surrounding a (point) source, calculate the required masses of lead, concrete, and water, respectively. 3-14. Boron-IO is often used as a thermal-neutron shield material because of its high absorption cross section (3838 b at 0.025 eV). Noting that full-density boron has an atom density of 0.128 x 10 24 per cm 3 , calculate for a beam of 0.025eV neutrons: a. the absorption mean free path for lOB b. the fraction transmitted through a I-mm-slab of JOB c. the relative (fractional) density of lOB required for the I-mm slab to attenuate the beam to I percent of its initial strength The mean free path of a neutron beam from the D-T fusion reaction is about 135 m. What is the total macroscopic cross section of air? Compute the effective half-life of 90S r in the human body. Also determine its maximum allowable discharge concentration in water if it must be mixed with I x 10- 5 j.tCi/ml tritium. The expression for the effective half-life in a biological system has the same form as that for parallel resistors in an electric circuit. Explain why. Assuming that human tissue has the same heat capacity as water and that a 1C temperature change is just noticeable, calculate the absorbed gamma dose in rad necessary to reach this "threshold of feeling." Compare the result to LD50/30. A pressure vessel is fabricated from a material whose properties become unacceptable after receiving a fast fluence of 10 21 /cm 2 . Calculate the expected life-time in years for such a vessel subject to a 5 x 1011 /cm 2 s - I fast neutron flux. Pre-job planning provides estimates that a given task in a reactor containment building will require 20 h in a 500-mr/h gamma field. Determine: a. the person-rem dose commitment for the task b. the minimum number of workers required to do this job without any of them exceeding the annual whole body dose limit in Table 3-4 c. the minimum number of workers required if an ALARA evaluation limits exposure of each to 15 percent of the annual limit

3-15. 3-16.

3-17. 3-18.

3-19.

3-20.

96

Basic Theon.

3-21. 3-22.

3-23.

3-24.

3-25. 3-26.

d. the changes in (a) and (b) if the annual limits adapted by the United Kingdom were adopted Repeat the second and third parts of the previous exercise for the most recent ICRP recommendations. A basis for the BEIR-II1 correlations was that a population of 85,000 survivors from the Japanese atomic-bomb detonations have experienced 250 excess cancer cases. a. Assuming each received 25-30 rem, estimate the range of person-rem population dose and the number of excess cancers per million rem. b. Assume that 30 percent of the population would have contracted cancer anyway and that it would be fatal for 60 percent of these. Estimate the fractional increase in cancer fatalities caused by the weapon detonation. c. Assuming the "linear hypothesis" of dose-versus-effect is valid, estimate the number of persons who would receive one rem for one excess cancer fatality to occur. d. If the linear hypothesis is not valid, how could the result in (c) change for existence of an "effect threshold," increased effect of low-dose radiation, and hormetic effects. e. Compare the result in part (a) to the range proposed by the BEIR- V report.' Assuming no increase in the number of excess cancer deaths, what change must BEIR-V have postulated? f. State the conclusion drawn on genetic effects from the weapon-detonation and other experimental data. One of the highest concentration levels for indoor radon was found in northeastern Pennsylvania at 2700 pCi/ I. What dilution factor must be applied to reduce this to the 15 pCi/ I maximum recommended by the ICRP? to the 4 pCill action level recommended by the U.S. EPA? An operating reactor reported the following the population doses for 1988liquid 3 mrem, noble gas 5 mrem, and iodine/particulate 15 mrem. Compare the total to the limit in Table 3-4. Estimate the additional chance of dying from cancer (as a percentage of normal incidence) after receiving: (a) 25- and (b) 75-rem voluntary "life saving" doses. The eruption of the Mt. St. Helens volcano on May 18, 1980, dispersed 15,000 tons of uranium and a total of 22,000 Ci of alpha-emitting solids into the air. Calculate the contribution of the uranium to this total.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHyt
Biological Effects Azimov & Dobzhansky, 1966 Beebe, 1982 Behling and Hildebrand, 1986 Frigerio, 1967 IAEA Bulletin, 1991c Lillie, 1986 Sagan, 1974 Upton, 1982

t Full citations are contained in the General Bibliography at the back of the book.

Nuclear Radiation Environment Materials Effects Anno, 1984 Billington & Crawford, 1961 Holden, 1958 Kelly, 1966 Ma, 1983 Robertson, 1969 Wilkinson & Murphey, 1958 Radiation Protection Cember, 1983 Henry, 1969 HEW, 1970 IAEA, 1990 Kathern, 1984a Marshall, 1983c Martin and Harbison, 1986 Nucl. Eng. Int., June 1989, July 1989, Feb. 1990, Sept. 1990, Nov. 1990, May 1991 Nuclear News, 1988a, 1991 Shleien and Terpilak, 1984 Turner, 1986 Shielding Chilton, 1984 Goldstein, 1959 Profio, 1979 Schaeffer, 1973 Radiation Standards BEIR lll, 1980 BEIR IV, 1988 BEIR V, 1990 Davis, 1986, 1990 EPA, 1974 Gonzales, 1983 ICRU-40, 1986 ICRP/26, 1977, NCRP-94. 1987 GECD, 1988a Paris, 1981 UNSCEAR, 1988 Environmental Radiation Eichholz, 1983 Eisenbud, 1986 Glasstone & Jordon, 1980 Kathern. 1984b Kerr, 1988 Lillie, 1986 Nero, 1988 Sagan. 1974 Low-Level Radiation Archer. 1980 Bulletin (current) Cohen. 1974 Lapp. 1979

97

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Basic Theory
Morgan, 1978 Pochin, 1983 Roberts, 1987 Sagan, 1987 Schull, 1981 Science (current) Webster, 1986

Other Sources with Appropriate Sections or Chapters Burcham, 1963 Cohen, 1974 Connolly, 1978 Etherington, 1958 Evans, 1955 Foster & Wright, 1983 G1asstone & Sesonske, 1981 Heibert & Heibert, 1970, 1973, 1974 Hunt, 1987 Kaplan, 1963 Lamarsh, 1983 Leclercq, 1986 Marshall, 1983c Murray, 1988 Rahn, 1984 Rhodes, 1986 WASH-1250,1973 Weart, 1988