Design Methodology and Criteria

9.3.1 Design Frequency and Spread Table 9-1 provides recommended inlet design frequencies and allowable spreads for various roadway classifications. Table 9-2 provides design frequencies for storm drain conduit. Ta b le 9-1. Crite ria for In le t De sign
Ro a d w a y Class ific a tio n Principal Arterial With Shoulder On Grade Sag Location On Grade Without Shoulder
5 5

Design Speed (mph)

Design Storm Freq u ency (year

1, 2

Intensity (in./hr.) Actual Actual Actual

Maximum Design 3 Spread Width (ft) Sh. Width + 3 Sh. Width Sh. Width + 3 Driving Lane + Gutter Width (If Any) Driving Lane + Gutter Width (If Any) Driving Lane + Gutter Width (If Any) Driving Lane + Gutter Width (If Any) Sh. Width + 3 Sh. Width Sh. Width + 3 Driving Lane + Gutter Width (If Any) Driving Lane + Gutter Width (If Any)

50 > 50 All 50

10 10 10 N/A
4

On Grade

> 50
5

10
4

Actual

Sag Location

50

N/A

> 50 Minor Arterial, Collector, Local With Shoulder On Grade Sag Location On Grade 50 > 50 All All

50

Actual

N/A 4 N/A N/A N/A

4

4 4 4 4

Without Shoulder

Sag Location

All

N/A

Ta b le 9-2. De sig n Freq uencies fo r Sto rm Drain co n d uit

Roadway Classification Principal Arterial With Shoulder Without Shoulder Minor Arterial, Collector, Local With or Without Shoulder Design Speed (mph) All 50 > 50 All Design Storm Frequency 1, 2 (year ) 25 10 25 10

The following notes apply to the superscripts in Table 9-1 and Table 9-2: Notes 1 through 3 are General Notes and should be applied to any functional classification roadway where the site conditions are comparable to the conditions described in each note. 1. At locations where the vertical alignment of the roadway creates a sag condition in either a depressed roadway section or a roadway section utilizing concrete barriers, and ponded water on the roadway can only be removed through the storm drain system, a 50year storm frequency and the actual time of concentration should be used as the design criteria for both the drop inlet and the pipe system. 2. Federal Flood Insurance criteria dictate that the effects of the 100-year storm event (using the actual time of concentration) on buildings insured under the Flood Insurance Program must be investigated. Such cases should only be encountered where the roadway traverses a designated floodplain area containing insured buildings and the depth of water on the pavement is sufficient to overtop the curb and flow to the buildings. 3 a. The maximum design spread width may not be obtainable due to the pavement/shoulder slope and the height of the curb. In locations where the curb would be overtopped and water would escape the roadway section prior to achieving the maximum design spread width, the maximum depth of ponded water allowed adjacent to the curb for the design storm shall be curb height minus one (1) inch.

b. For those locations that show a maximum spread width of 1/2 Driving Lane * Width + Gutter width (If Any), the table assumes that the driving lane is adjacent to the curb/curb and gutter section. If the driving lane is not adjacent to the curb/curb and gutter section (e.g., there is a parking or bicycle lane between the curb/curb and gutter section and the driving lane), then the maximum spread width shall be 10 feet, except in no case shall the spread of the water be allowed to encroach beyond the center of the closet driving lane adjacent to the parking or bicycle lane. c. For those locations that show a maximum spread width of Shoulder Width (not Shoulder Width + 3), the table assumes that the shoulder width will be a minimum of 6 feet. Where the shoulder width is less than 6 feet, the maximum spread width shall be 6 feet, except in no case shall the spread of the water be allowed to encroach more than 3 feet into the driving lane adjacent to the shoulder.

Notes 4 through 5 should normally be applied to the specific locations as noted in the criteria table. 4. At locations where it may be reasonably anticipated that the runoff from storm events with rainfall intensities greater than 4 inches per hour will overtax the drop inlet system to the point that excess flow will escape the roadway section and result in potential damage to the adjacent property and/or roadway right of way, the drop inlet system shall be analyzed for a check storm event with a rainfall intensity of 6.5 inches per hour.

If all of the runoff from the check storm event is found to be contained within the roadway section, both at the site and down grade, or if runoff escaping the roadway section is found to not be damaging to adjacent property, the drop inlet system may be used as originally designed under the general criteria. If the drop inlet system fails to meet the check storm criteria, it must be re-designed to accommodate the runoff from the check storm event. 5. Drop inlets in these locations are prone to clogging and are often located in areas where maintenance is difficult. To compensate for partial clogging, the computed slot length value should be adjusted by multiplying by a factor of two (2). The adjusted computed slot length value should then be used to determine the slot length specified on the plans.

9.3.2 Hydrology
The Rational Method is the recommended method for the design of storm drain systems. Drainage systems involving detention storage, pumping stations, and large or complex storm systems require the development of a runoff hydrograph. The Rational Method is described in Chapter 6, Hydrology.

9.3.3 Pavement Drainage

The desirable gutter profile grade for curbed pavements should not be less than 0.5 * percent. The minimum gutter profile grade is 0.2 percent. The minimum pavement cross slope should not be less than 2 percent except during the occurrence of superelevation transition. The coincident occurrence of superelevation transitions and sag points or zero grades should be avoided.

9.3.4 Inlet Design

Drainage inlets should be sized and located to limit the spread of water on travel lanes in accordance with the design criteria specified in Section 9.3.1.

Grate inlets and local depression at curb opening inlets should be located outside the through travel lanes to minimize the shifting of vehicles attempting to avoid these areas. All inlet grates should be bicycle safe when used at locations where bicycle travel is anticipated. Curb inlets are preferred to grate inlets because of their debris handling capabilities. To properly drain sag vertical curves, it is recommended practice to place flanking inlets * on each side of the inlet located at the low point in the gutter grade. See section 9.4.6.7 for specific recommendations. In addition to determining the spread of water resulting from the inlet in the low point of the gutter grade, the spread on the approach roadway just upgrade of the sag point should also be determined. A longitudinal slope of 0.1% should be used in determining the spread on the approach roadway. There are cases where special treatment of the gutter gradient is provided. In those instances, the flattest grade that will actually occur on the approach gradient should be used in lieu of 0.1%.

9.3.5 Conduit Design

Storm drains should have adequate capacity to accommodate runoff that will enter the system. They should be designed considering anticipated future development based on local land use plans. The minimum recommended conduit size for storm drainage pipe is 15-inch diameter or its equivalent for non-circular shapes. Where necessary, it will be permissible to use a 12-inch diameter pipe for laterals or initial pipe runs of 50 feet or less. Where feasible, the storm drains should be designed to avoid existing utilities. A minimum velocity of 3 feet per second for the design storm is desirable in the storm drain in order to prevent sedimentation from occurring. Attention should be given to the storm drain outfalls to ensure that potential erosion is minimized. The proposed storm drain system design should be coordinated with the proposed sequence of construction and maintenance of traffic plans on large construction projects in order to prevent unsafe ponding of water and to maintain an outlet throughout the construction of the project.

9.3.6 Access Hole Spacing

The maximum spacing of access structures whether manholes, junction boxes, or inlets should be as identified in Table 9-3 below.

Ta b le 9-3. Ac c e s s Ho le S p a c in g
Pipe Diameter (in) Maximum Distance (ft)

12 15 - 42 48

50 3001 800

Note 1: This distance may be increased to 400 feet if the flow velocity for the design storm exceeds 5 feet per second and the flow depth for the design storm is at least 25 percent of the pipe diameter.

9.3.7 Hydraulic Grade Line

The hydraulic grade line should be checked for all storm drain systems using the VDOT method described in Section 9.5.6. For the design storm, the storm drain should be designed such that the hydraulic grade line does not exceed any critical elevation. A critical elevation is defined as a level above which there would be unacceptable inundation of the travel way or adjoining property. This includes the tops of manholes, junctions, and inlets. Because the inlet design is predicated on free-fall conditions, they hydraulic grade line should not exceed an elevation that interferes with the operational conditions of the inlet. Refer to Table 9-2 for design and check storm frequencies.

9.3.8 Unique Conditions

There may be unique situations that do not permit the application of the criteria provided herein. In such cases, the designer should develop and document site-specific criteria indicating the rationale and factors used to determine such criteria.

9.4 Design Concepts

9.4.1 System Planning

The design of a storm drain system is generally a process that evolves as a project develops. The primary ingredients to this process are listed below in a general sequence by which they may be accomplished. 1. 2. 3. 4. Data collection (Section 9.4.1.1) Coordination with other agencies and adjacent projects Preliminary layout of project with respect to surrounding area Plan layout of storm drain system Locate main outfall(s) Determine direction of flow Determine contributing drainage areas Determine inlet type, spacing, and capacity (Sections 9.4.4.5, 9.4.5, 9.4.6, and 9.4.7 ) Determine location of existing utilities Determine location of existing storm drain systems Locate additional access holes Size the conduit (Section 9.4.8) Perform hydraulic grade line analysis (Section 9.4.9) Prepare the plan Documentation of design (Section 9.5.1)

5. 6. 7.
8.

9.4.1.1 Required Data The designer should be familiar with land use patterns and local comprehensive land use plans, the nature of the physical development of the area(s) to be served by the storm drainage system, the stormwater management plans for the area and the ultimate pattern of drainage (both by overland flow and by enclosed storm drains) to existing outfall locations. Furthermore, there should be an understanding of the characteristics of the outfall since it usually has a significant influence on the design of the storm drainage system. In environmentally sensitive areas, there may be water quality requirements to consider as well. Actual surveys are the most reliable means of gathering the required data. Photogrammetric mapping has become one of the most important methods of obtaining the large amounts of data required for drainage design. Existing topographic maps are available from the U. S. Geological Survey and the National Resources Conservation Service. Many municipalities and some county governments and even private developers are also valuable sources for the kind of data needed to perform a proper storm drainage design. Governmental planning agencies should be consulted regarding development plans for the area in question. Often, in rapidly growing urban areas, the physical characteristics of an area to be served by a storm drainage system may change

drastically in a very short time. In such cases, the designer is to anticipate these changes and consider them in the storm drainage design. Local comprehensive

stormwater management plans and floodplain ordinances should also be considered in the storm drainage design process. For detailed information of survey requirements, refer to the Virginia Department of Transportation Survey Instruction Manual. When an existing storm drain is to be used, the designer should secure the following information: Invert elevations for all significant system components including conduits, drop inlets, catch basins, manholes, junctions, etc. Type and size of conduit This information should extend beyond the limits of the proposed project, at least to the next access structure. 9.4.1.2 Preliminary Layout Preliminary or working layouts, featuring the basic components of the intended design, are invaluable in the design development. After design completion, the layout facilitates documentation of the overall plan. The following items may be included in the preliminary layout: General roadway layout (plan and profile) Basic hydrologic data Pertinent physical features Characteristics of flow diversion (if applicable) Detention features (if applicable) Outfall location and characteristics Surface features (topography) Utilities Proposed or existing foundations and structures

The layout should be used to develop a logical storm drain system that identifies and minimizes utility conflicts, avoids conflicts with structures and conforms to the proposed construction sequencing and maintenance of traffic plans. Additionally, the layout can be used to identify locations for necessary soil borings. 9.4.1.3 Special Considerations

Primary consideration in the planning of the storm drainage system should be directed toward avoidance of utilities and deep excavations. In many cases, traffic must be maintained on existing roadways or temporary bypasses may be constructed with temporary drainage provided during the construction phase. Consideration should be given to the actual trunk line layout and its constructibility with regards to the maintenance of traffic plan. Some instances may dictate a trunk line on both sides of the roadway with very few cross laterals while other instances may dictate a single trunk line. Such decisions are usually based on economics but may be controlled by existing utilities or other physical features. The designer should accommodate all natural drainage areas contributing to the system and minimize interference to natural drainage patterns. Except in unusual circumstances, a storm drain system should discharge to a single outfall. Generally, storm drainage pipes should not decrease in size in a downstream direction regardless of the available pipe slope. However, if found necessary, any decrease in pipe size should not exceed 6 inches.

9.4.2 Hydrology
9.4.2.1 Applicable Methods Refer to Chapter 6, Hydrology, for detailed description of hydrologic methods. The recommended method used for storm drain design is the Rational Method. The subsequent text in this chapter assumes use of the Rational Method for estimating peak discharge rates. 9.4.2.2 Runoff Coefficients Recommended runoff coefficients for various types of land surfaces are provided in Chapter 6, Appendix 6E-1. 9.4.2.3 Time of Concentration When determining the discharge for inlet size and spacing, use the estimated time of concentration for the drainage area to the location of the inlet unless otherwise indicated by the criteria identified in Table 9-1. When determining the discharge for conduit sizing, use the longest travel time to the upstream end of the conduit under consideration. 9.4.2.4 Rainfall Intensity The rainfall intensity should be based on the time of concentration identified in Section 9.4.2.3 or the limiting value identified in Table 9-1. Refer to Chapter 6 for determining the appropriate rainfall intensity when using the actual time of concentration.

9.4.3 Pavement Drainage

9.4.3.1 Introduction

A chief objective in the design of a storm drain system is to move any accumulated water off the travelway as quickly and efficiently as possible. Where the flow is concentrated, the design objective should be to minimize the depth and horizontal extent of that flow. Appropriate longitudinal and transverse slopes can serve to move water off the travel way to minimize the depth of sheet flow and thus minimize the potential for hydroplaning. An objective of the design should be to establish efficient drainage in conjunction with the geometric and pavement design. 9.4.3.2 Hydroplaning Refer to FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 22, Urban Drainage Design Manual for a discussion on hydroplaning. NCHRP research project I-29, "Improved Surface Drainage of Pavements," suggests that hydroplaning conditions can develop for relatively low vehicle speeds and at low rainfall intensities for storms that frequently occur each year. Analysis methods developed through this research effort provide guidance in identifying potential hydroplaning conditions. Unfortunately, it is virtually impossible to prevent water from exceeding a depth that would be identified through this analysis procedure as a potential hydroplaning condition for a wide pavement section during high intensity rainfall. Some of the primary controlling factors for hydroplaning are: Vehicle speed Tire conditions (pressure and tire tread) Pavement micro and macro texture Roadway geometrics (pavement width, cross slope, grade) Pavement conditions (rutting, depressions, roughness)

Speed appears as a significant factor in the occurrence of hydroplaning, therefore, it is considered to be the driver's responsibility to exercise prudence and caution when driving during wet conditions (Highway Drainage Guidelines, Chapter * 9, Storm Drain Systems). In many respects hydroplaning conditions are analogous to ice or snow on the roadway. Designers do not have control over all of the factors involved in hydroplaning. However, many remedial measures can be included in development of a project to reduce hydroplaning potential. The following is provided as guidance for the designer as practical measures to consider in accordance with the AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design of Highways: Pavement Sheet Flow Maximize transverse slope Gutter Flow Limit spread on the travelway (inlet spacing) Maximize interception of gutter flow above superelevation transitions Limit duration and depth of ponded water in sag locations

 Limit depth and duration of overtopping flow 9.4.3.3 Longitudinal Slope

A minimum longitudinal slope is more important for a curbed pavement section than for an uncurbed pavement section since a curbed pavement section is susceptible to the spread of stormwater adjacent to the curb. Flat slopes on uncurbed pavements can also lead to a spread problem if vegetation is allowed to build up along the pavement edge. Desirable gutter grades should not be less than 0.5 percent for curbed pavements with an absolute minimum of 0.2 percent. Minimum grades can be maintained in very flat terrain by use of a rolling profile. Although spread is not usually a problem at crest vertical curves, on extremely flat curves a similar minimum slope should be provided to facilitate drainage. 9.4.3.4 Cross Slope The current AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design is standard practice and should be consulted prior to any deviation from the recommendations contained herein. Pavement cross slope is often a comprise between the need for reasonably steep cross slopes for drainage and relatively flat cross slopes for driver comfort. It has been found that cross slopes of 2 percent have little effect on driver effort in steering, especially with power steering, or on friction demand for vehicle stability. HEC-12 (archived) * Thus, the minimum recommended cross slope is 2 percent. A careful check should be made of designs to minimize the number and length of flat pavement sections in cross slope transition areas. Consideration should be given to increasing cross slopes in sag vertical curves, crest vertical curves, and in sections of flat longitudinal grades where needed. Where curbs are used, depressed gutter sections can be effective at increasing gutter capacity and reducing spread on the travelway. Where curbs or raised barriers are used at superelevation transitions, inlets should be located at the upstream side of the transition where the cross slope is at 1 percent minimum. Generally, shoulders should be sloped to drain away from the travelway except in areas of narrow raised medians. 9.4.3.5 Curb and Gutter Curbing at the outside edge of pavements is normal practice for low-speed, urban highway facilities. It serves several purposes, including containing the surface runoff within the roadway section and directing it away from adjacent properties, preventing erosion, providing pavement delineation and enabling the orderly development of property adjacent to the roadway. Curbs may be either barrier or mountable type. A curb and gutter forms a triangular channel that can be an efficient hydraulic conveyance facility, which can convey runoff of a lesser magnitude than the design flow without impact

of the traffic. When a design storm flow occurs, there is a spread or widening of the conveyed water surface. This spread of the water surface includes not only the gutter width, but also parking lanes or shoulders, and portions of the travelway. The designer, as discussed in Section 9.4.4.5, must limit this spread. Where practicable, it is desirable to intercept runoff from cut slopes and other areas draining toward the roadway before it reaches the curb and gutter section. This minimizes the deposition of sediment and other debris on the roadway and reduces the amount of water that must be carried in the gutter section. 9.4.3.6 Shoulder Curbs Shoulder curbs may be appropriate to protect fill slopes from erosion caused by water from the roadway pavement. See Location and Design Instructional and Information Memo (I&IM) LD (D) 150 for details. Shoulder curbs may be appropriate at bridge ends where concentrated flow from the bridge deck would otherwise run down the fill slope. This section of curb should be long enough to include any pavement transitions. Shoulder curbs are not required on the high side of superelevated sections or adjacent to barrier walls on high fills. Drop inlets are the preferred means of intercepting flow along these sections. Drop inlets should be located in accordance with the criteria in Table 9-1 for spread and frequency. A limiting factor that sometimes dictates the location of shoulder curb drop inlets is the requirement that the depth of the design flow at the curb should be limited to one (1) inch below the top of the curb. 9.4.3.7 Depressed Median/Median Barrier Depressed medians are commonly used to separate opposing lanes of traffic on divided highways. It is preferable to slope median areas and inside shoulders to a center depression to prevent drainage from the median area from running across the travel way. Where median barriers are used particularly at horizontal curve locations with associated superelevations, it is necessary to provide inlets and connecting storm drain pipes to collect the water that accumulates against the barrier. Slotted drains adjacent to the median barrier and in some cases weep holes in the barrier can also be used for collection of the water. 9.4.3.8 Impact Attenuators The location of impact attenuator systems should be reviewed to determine the need for drainage structures in these areas. With impact attenuator systems such as BRAKEMASTER* or CAT systems, it is necessary to have a clear or unobstructed open area as traffic approaches the point of impact in order to allow a vehicle to impact the system head on. If the impact attenuator is placed in an area where superelevation or other grade separation occurs, grate inlets and/or slotted drains may need to be placed to prevent water from running through the clear open area and crossing the travelway. Curb, curb-type structures or swales cannot be used to direct water across this clear open area as these types of structures could cause vehicle vaulting in the area of the impact attenuator system.

9.4.4 Gutter Flow

9.4.4.1 Introduction Gutter flow calculations are necessary in order to relate the quantity of flow in the curbed channel to the spread of water on the shoulder, parking lane, or travel lane. Gutter flow calculations can be performed using equations in the following sections or using nomographs provided in Appendices 9C-1 through 9C-9 *. Computer programs, such as the FHWA HEC-12 are often used for this computational process. 9.4.4.2 Mannings n for Pavement and Gutter Flow It is recommended that an n-value of 0.015 be used in the computational analysis for pavement and gutter flow. 9.4.4.3 Flow in Gutters Flow in a gutter operates under the principles of open channel flow. Gutter capacity is a function of the geometric shape of the gutter, the roughness of the pavement surface, the longitudinal slope, and the allowable spread. The gutter capacity for a uniform cross slope (as shown in Figure 9-1) may be computed using Equation 9.1.

Cross slope S x = 1/z Fig u re 9-1. Unifo rm Cro ss Section

Q = [0.56 / n] Sx5/3 S1/2 T8/3

(9.1)

Where:

Q = n =

Gutter flow rate, cfs Mannings roughness coefficient

S = Sx = T =

Longitudinal (gutter) slope, ft/ft pavement cross slope, ft/ft Spread width, ft