Appendix

Appendix A
A.1 Hilbert spaces

Denition A.1.1. Let H be an inner product space over C. Dene |x|
2
= x, x)
for all x H. Using this, we dene
d(x, y) = |x y|, x, y H.
Then H will be a metric space with metric d. If every Cauchy sequence in H converges
to an element in H then H is called a Hilbert space. In other words, H is complete
under the metric d induced by the inner product , ).
Denition A.1.2. Let u
: A be a set of vectors in a Hilbert space H. This

set is said to be orthonormal if u
, u
) = 0 for all ,= , , A and |u
| = 1 for
each A.
Theorem A.1.3. Let u
: A be an orthonormal set in a Hilbert space. Then

the following conditions are equivalent.
(a) u
is a maximal orthonormal set in H.

(b) The set of all nite linear combination of member of u
is dense in H.
(c)
A
[x, u
)[
2
= |x|
2
x H.
(d)
A
x, u
)y, u
) = x, y) x, y H.
197
Denition A.1.4. A set of vectors u
: A in a Hilbert space H is said to be

an orthonormal basis if u
: A is an orthonormal set and satises one of the

equivalent condition of above theorem.
A.2 Banach spaces
Denition A.2.1. Let X be a vector space over C. Then X is called a normed linear
space if to each x X, there is associated a nonnegative real number |x| called the
norm of x, such that
(i) |x| = 0 if and only if x = 0.
(ii) |x| = [[|x| C, x X.
(iii) |x +y| |x| +|y| x, y X.
A normed linear space X will be a metric space under the metric d given by
d(x, y) = |x y| x, y X.
Denition A.2.2. If a normed linear space X is complete in the metric dened by
the norm, then X is called Banach space.
Theorem A.2.3. Every Hilbert space is a Banach space.
Let T be a linear transformation from a normed linear space X into a normed
linear space Y . Then the norm of T is dened by
|T| = sup|T| : x X, |x| 1.
198
Remark A.2.4. For a linear transformation T, boundedness and continuity are
equivalent.
Theorem A.2.5. Uniform boundedness principle. Let X be a Banach space
and Y be a normed linear space. Let T
: A denote a collection of bounded

linear transformation of X into Y. Then either there is a ball B in Y with radius 1
and center at 0 such that T
maps the unit ball of X into B or there exists x X

such that no ball in Y contains T
x for all x.
Theorem A.2.6. Open mapping theorem Let U and V be open unit balls of the
Banachs space X and Y, respectively. Let T be a bounded linear transformation of X
into Y. Then there exists a > 0 such that y : y U T(U).
Theorem A.2.7. Let X and Y be Banach spaces. Let T be a bounded linear trans-
formation of X onto Y, which also one-to-one. Then there exists a > 0 such that
|Tx| |x| x X. In other words, T
1
is a bounded linear transformation of Y
onto X.
Theorem A.2.8. Closed graph theorem. Let X and Y be Banach spaces. Let T
be a linear mapping of X into Y with the following properties. If x
n
converges to
x in X and Tx
n
converges y in Y, then y = Tx. If such property holds, then T is
continuous.
Theorem A.2.9. Hahn-Banach theorem. If M is a subspace of a normed linear
space X and if f is a bounded linear functional on N, then f can be extended to a
bounded linear functional F on X such that |F| = |f|.
199
Let X be a normed linear space. Let X
denote the collection of all bounded

linear functional on X. The elements of X
can be denoted as x
and x
(x) can be
denoted by x, x
), called the duality relation. The set X
is also a vector space.

Theorem A.2.10. Suppose B is a closed unit ball of a normed linear space X. Dene
|x
| = sup[x, x
)[ : x B
for every x
. Then X
turns out to be Banach space under this norm. Let B
be the closed unit ball of X
for every x X,
|x| = sup[x, x
)[ : x
.
Consequently, x
x, x
) is a bounded linear functional on X
, of norm |x|.
Theorem A.2.11. Let X and Y be normed linear spaces, let T be a bounded linear
transformation of X into Y. Then
|T| = sup[Tx, y
) : |x| 1, |y
| 1.
Theorem A.2.12. Suppose X and Y are normed linear spaces. To each bounded
linear transformation T of X into Y, there exists unique T
, which will be bounded

linear transformation of Y
into X
that satises the duality relation

Tx, y
) = x, T
)
for all x X y
. Further, T
satises |T
| = |T|.
200
Denition A.2.13. Let M be a subspace of a Banach space X. The annihilator of
M is dened to be the set of all x X such that x, x
) = 0 for every x M.
A.3 Banach algebras
Denition A.3.1. Let A be a vector space over C. A is called an algebra if A is a
ring and (xy) = (x)y = x(y) for every x, y A and C. If, in addition, A is a
Banach space with respect to a norm that satises |xy| |x||y| x, y A then
A is called a Banach algebra. If A has multiplicative identity e with |e| = 1, A is
called a Banach algebra with identity. If the multiplication operation is commutative,
A is called a commutative Banach algebra.
Example A.3.2. (i) C[0, 1], the space of all complex valued continuous functions on
[0, 1] with supremum norm is a commutative Banach algebra with identity.
(ii) Let H be a Hilbert space. Let B(H) denote the collection of all bounded linear
operators on H. Then B(H) is a non commutative Banach algebra with identity under
the operator norm.
A.4 Topological vector spaces
Denition A.4.1. Let X be a vector space. If is a topology on X such that
every singleton set in X is closed and the vector space operations are continuous with
respect to , then X is called a topological vector space. In other words, the map
: X X X (x, y) x +y and : F X X (, x) x are continuous.
The topological space X is said to be locally convex if there is a local base B
whose members are convex.
201
Denition A.4.2. Let p be a real valued functions on X then p is called a semi norm
on X if it satises the following:
(i) p(x +y) p(x) +p(y)
(ii) p(x) = [[p(x) for every x, y X, C. A family T of semi norms on X is
said to be separating if to each x ,= 0 corresponds at least one p T with p(x) ,= 0.
Theorem A.4.3. Suppose T is a separating family of semi norms on a vector space
X. Associate to each p T and to each positive integer n the set
V (p, n) =
x : p(x) <
1
n
.
Let B be the collection of all nite intersection of the sets V (p, n). Then B is a local
base for a topology on X, which turns X into a locally convex space.
Theorem A.4.4. Suppose T is separating family of semi norms on X. Let calQ be
the smallest family of semi norms on X that contains P and satises the following:
If p
1
, p
2
Q, p = max(p
1
, p
2
), then p Q. Let be a linear functional on X. Then
is continuous if and only if there exists p Q such that [x[ Mp(x) for all
x X and some constant M < .
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Appendix A

A.1 Hilbert spaces

: A be a set of vectors in a Hilbert space H. This

) = 0 for all ,= , , A and |u

: A be an orthonormal set in a Hilbert space. Then

is a maximal orthonormal set in H.

: A in a Hilbert space H is said to be

: A is an orthonormal set and satises one of the

: A denote a collection of bounded

maps the unit ball of X into B or there exists x X

denote the collection of all bounded

), called the duality relation. The set X

is also a vector space.

turns out to be Banach space under this norm. Let B

be the closed unit ball of X

) is a bounded linear functional on X

, which will be bounded

that satises the duality relation

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