Managing the Cultural Differences in Learning

Aaron S.L. Pun

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This article aims to provide a concise account of the cultural differences in learning between the West and the Chinese oriented societies. It is hoped that it can provide Western educators, trainers and developers with some insights whichwillhelp them in conducting programmes more appropriately for Chinese managers. Additionally, the author would hope that possible misunderstandings through misinterpretation of the behaviour and reactions of the Chinese managers due to cultural differences, can be reduced. In directing management development programmes in a cross-cultural organisation and for universities at postgraduate levels, I have always been challenged by the need to adjust the programme design and instructional methodologies, to meet the different ways of learning due to cultural differences. The differences in learning orientation between the people from the West and the Chinese cannot be neglected. Studies on this subject are important not only in academic terms but because Western experts are often invited to conduct programmes for the locals in Hong Kong. Management theories, programme designs and instructional methods are imported and applied with little adaptation by lecturers from abroad. Neglecting the cultural element often results in misunderstanding and ineffective learning. Participation in the Learning Process I believe it is legitimate to start the discussion by referring to the comments made by participants in management programmes. Quite different from the Chinese, the feedback from expatriate students shows a strong preference (for them) to learn in a discovery or heuristic manner. Their degree of participation and involvement during discussion time also confirms this preference. Most evaluations of programmes which provide plenty of these opportunities were commented on favourably by the expatriate students. They consider such activities bring about significant learning though the teachers had only provided a structure for learning and not particular learning items. This contrasts sharply with the Chinese managers who are usually uncomfortable with searching for their own answers through discussion, especially when the teacher uses a nondirective approach. Even if they have derived a lot of learning and insight from the discussions, they do not consider that this is learning unless these points come directly from the teacher. This does not mean that they have not learned, but their interpretation of what it means to learn is different. In contrast, Western-educated managers more readily accept that learning can take place through their own discovery and construction. It is more

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acceptable in their culture to accept the teacher as a facilitator to bring about such discovery through providing a structure for the learners' own search. The "teacher" is viewed more as a resource person providing them with the direction and guidance for them to map out their own learning path. From the Chinese perspective, a teacher is an expert who bestows his wisdom and shares his experience for the benefit of the learners. Hence, the Chinese managers will prefer to receive without questioning the wisdom from the expert, and expect him to provide the exposition of the learning points at the outset. Note-taking is a sign of accepting the exposition and regurgitation is not considered improper. Collecting the information becomes the prime concern and the filtering process will usually take place after the teaching. Questions are most likely directed to their peers in the form of private discussion rather than to the teacher. This contrasts with western managers who will only accept points they find appropriate and question the teachers in the course of the filtering process. Self-direction in the Learning Process Closely connected with the above, the degree of ambiguity avoidance and selfreliance have a good deal of effect on the way these two groups learn. Expatriate learners will accept without much discomfort the fact that there is no set syllabus or content outline for the programme. So long as a broad course aim or objective is provided they are prepared to do the timetabling together, search for direction and accept the ambiguity. It is not unlikely that when the same is applied to the Chinese, complaints will be generated. They see the role of a management teacher as someone who will provide the structure, content outline and syllabus for the programmes. Unlike managers from Western cultures, they do not welcome with open arms the freedom given to make their choices or map out the direction of their learning. They prefer to have the teacher make the decision for them and accept the "expert" ruling. In contrast, Western managers consider that decisions should be made by those who are being affected. As the learning outcome affects them, they prefer to participate or at least to have a say in the design, content and delivery of the programme. It is not uncommon for some educators to attach value judgements on which learning orientation is superior. In passing such a judgement, elements of cultural difference have not been adequately taken into consideration. In the Western world, school is an institutionalised setting for learning and teachers are part of the organisation to provide the service. In comparative terms, teachers are less personal than someone in the intimate circle. It has been a tradition that when a Chinese child starts schooling, he follows a ritual of bowing to the teacher and a portrait of Confucious. When someone wishes to learn a particular skill or becomes an apprentice of a particular trade, he has to bow to the master. The perception of a teacher in the Western culture is very much different from that in the oriental one. I do not believe that a Western manager will ever equate

the role of a teacher with that of his father. However, the meaning behind the saying that, "One day be the teacher, the whole life be the father", is still valued by the Chinese though not strictly adhered to in this contemporary age. It will therefore be inappropriate from the Chinese manager's perspective to do the talking or to make major decisions on the programme direction leaving the teacher in an "equal" role. Hierarchy and Decision Making in Learning Western managers are participation oriented, acting on the assumption that all those, insofar as they are affected by a decision, are capable of helping to make it. They like making their own decisions and mutually agreeing learning devices. It is acceptable for most Chinese to entrust decisions affecting them to the expert or the wise men. From the Western perspective, the wise man may not be the appropriate person to make the decision as he is not affected by it. Also, the teacher may not be considered to be that smart! However, the Chinese society does not share the same thinking. The Chinese perceive that a decision can be made, not necessarily by those who are involved, but by those who have the appropriate experience. It will be difficult for people from the West to comprehend on what bases Chinese parents are given the authority to endorse, if not choose, whom their children should marry. The Chinese community is a hierarchical one operated in a totally different system from that of the, by and large, egalitarian system in the West. The duality of relationship usually places the senior and elder members as the decision makers. From the interpretation of some philosophers, the rationale behind this system is that everyone has an equal chance to be a decision maker so long as he lives long enough to be a senior member of a family or clan. This provides the stability and harmony in the community. Hence the elders are well respected and so equally is the teacher in Chinese society. Respect in the Learning Process Western management development practitioners may often be astonished by the degree of respect shown by Chinese managers to their teachers. Even for postgraduates occupying senior level managerial posts in multinational corporations, they equally display a high degree of respect towards their teachers. Their meals, travel arrangements and domestic matters are well taken care of. Although culture changes with item, the deep structure in this aspect remains the same while the behaviour may be expressed in a different manner only. For instance, the Chinese cultural value is that whenever wine and food are present, the teachers ought to be served first and the students should provide the teachers with their services. In addition, a feeling of indebtedness is one of the characteristics of the Chinese, especially when they have found people who help to enrich their lives. The managerial behaviour of seeking close relationships with the teacher often leads western educators to believe that they can become informal and

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more carefree with the students. Including them in outside class activities is often a sign of hospitality rather than genuine integration. Managers, however, will react with a certain degree of discomfort when the teacher appears to be too informal in class. The role model of a teacher is somebody who is solemn and paternalistic. Not being strict and solemn in teaching is often associated with laziness.

With these values, the Chinese students accept a high standard imposed on them, and the teacher's demand for a great deal of homework. Chinese managers would seldom complain if the assignments or case studies required them to stay overnight or to a minor degree sacrifice their lunch. They tend to work very hard, put in a great deal of effort and make frugal use of time for their study. Equally, they expect and accept that their teachers will drive them hard. Learning Design In formulating a learning design, management teachers may need to pay special attention to the fact that Chinese managers tend to grasp concrete learning a lot quicker than abstract learning. Principles and theories can be more effectively assimilated when concrete examples are presented to them. A theory presented to them in a vacuum will make it difficult to comprehend. This does not mean that they cannot think in an abstract manner, but they look for immediate comprehension of the world rather than pure theory. Such a conceptual style concurs with Northrop's assertion that non-western cultures insist on the immediate comprehension of the world[l]. A principle of theory becomes real to them when analogies, metaphors, and similes are used because they evoke images, concreteness and emotion. It is recognised that analogy can only be taken in most circumstances as an illustration but may not totally represent a theory. This will serve as a useful starting point for the Chinese manager to understand abstract ideas. It is not an uncommon remark by academic staff in universities, that papers written by Chinese managers tend to be descriptive rather than analytical. There is a tendency for them to avoid taking a stand in their analysis or to avoid critical examination of a theory. When compelled to do so, they take a way out by making generalisations which at times are inappropriate, lack clarity, and are mixed with subjectivity. However, they are extremely strong in the identification of concepts, sensitive to wholeness and memorising series of events. Their conceptual style is less abstract or analytical but tends to be more concrete and holistic. These characteristics appear to fit with Cohen's description[2] of the relational patterns of thinking. This pattern of thinking is evident in their process of formulating topics for theses, defining concepts in their studies, and interpreting the data collected. This ability to think analytically by breaking the whole into parts with clarity and objectivity has been a concern of the academic staff and particularly research supervisors. Their relational pattern of thinking often led the academic staff to doubt the analytical and the critical examination ability of the students. Western educators of managers may easily feel uncomfortable with this phenomenon and raise questions about the competency of the managers concerned.

The Learning Climate Perhaps, it should be appreciated that the pedagogical educational system experienced for most of their educational life and the family socialisation process have made Chinese managers receptive rather than critical of the theories and concepts presented to them. Many professors attribute this to their lack of intellectual ability for critical analysis. I tend to attribute this less to intellectual ability but more to their conceptual style, level of confidence and lack of courage to comment critically on the established theories. Shifting their orientation requires a good deal of effort. Unlearning their rote learning style, their role as passive receiver of knowledge and their unquestionable respect for the teacher, will be the basis of the shift. The unlearning needs to be closely followed by relearning and reinforcement. From my experience, Chinese managers tend to respond well to trust, support, assurance and encouragement, and I tend to be more optimistic than others in bringing about this shift. The more uptight and demanding the supervisor becomes, the less confidence and readiness is shown by the managers for the change. From my contacts with them, they tend to respond better to the "nurturing" rather than the "critical" parent approach. A warm coaching relationship between the manager and the professor appears to be the ingredient for bringing about such a change. They are more likely to shift such an orientation if they are made aware of the need to be critical and objective, particularly if they are postgraduate managers at an early stage of their studies. Setting goals jointly between the "teachers" and "students" in a non-threatening manner, and developing a social contract for continuous review at the beginning of a programme will facilitate the shift.
Learning Feature Participation Western Manager Accepts involvement, and learning through own discovery and exploration Chinese Manager Expects the teacher to lead and provide learning points

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Self direction

Accepts that the programme Prefers the structure and content can be developed by syllabus to be prescribed by the expert the group together Decisions to be made by those affected Teachers and students share equal status. Peers' views can be as equally respected as that of the teacher Accepts learning from theories; constructs and abstract ideas Dynamic looking for critical analysis and open questioning of ideas Decisions to be made by the superior High degree of respect and feeling of indebtedness towards teachers Less respects to peers Prefers learning with concrete facts, procedures and precedents Receptive, needing trust, support, assurance and encouragement

Decision making Respect

Preferred learning design Preferred learning climate

Figure 1. Cultural Differences in Learning for Managers: A West-East Perspective

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Summary This article has attempted to highlight some culture differences concerning the learning pattern of Chinese managers, with particular emphasis on their pattern of thinking, approaches to learning and the role perception of the teacher. The limit of space has deterred me from further re-examining the validity of Western managament theory and learning concepts in a Chinese setting. It will be an interesting-subject for another study and I hope that this article can serve as a springboard for follow-up studies in these areas.
References
1. 2. Northrop, F.S.C., The Meeting of East and West, An Inquiry Concerning World Understanding, Macmillan, New York, 1946. Cohen, R.A., "Conceptual Styles, Culture Complied, and Nonverbal Tests of Intelligence", American Anthropologist, Vol. 71 No. 5, October 1969, pp. 828-56.

Further Reading Nakamura, H., Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples: India, China, Tibet and Japan, University Press, Honolulu, 1964. Bond, M.P.H., The Psychology of the Chinese People, Oxford University Press, 1986.