Truss facts book

An introduction to the history design and mechanics of prefabricated timber roof trusses.

Table of contents

Table of contents
What is a truss?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The evolution of trusses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 History.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 The universal truss plate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Engineered design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Proven. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 How it works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Truss terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Truss numbering system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Truss shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Truss systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Gable end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Hip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Dutch hip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Girder and saddle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Special truss systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Cantilever. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Truss design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Truss analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Truss loading combination and load duration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Load duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Design of truss members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Webs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Chords. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Modification factors used in design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Standard and complex design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Basic truss mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Bending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Truss action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Deflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Design loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Live loads (from AS1170 Part 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Top chord live loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Wind load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Terrain categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Seismic loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Truss handling and erection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Truss fact book

What is a truss?

What is a truss?

A truss is formed when structural members are joined together in triangular configurations. The truss is one of the basic types of structural frames formed from structural members. A truss consists of a group of ties and struts designed and connected to form a structure that acts as a large span beam. The members usually form one or more triangles in a single plane and are arranged so the external loads are applied at the joints and therefore theoretically cause only axial tension or axial compression in the members. The members are assumed to be connected at their joints with frictionless hinges or pins that allow the ends of the members to rotate slightly. Because the members in a truss are assumed to be connected to frictionless pins, the triangle formed is the only stable shape. Studies conducted on the truss show it is impossible for the triangle to change shape under load, unless one or more of the sides is either bent or broken. Shapes of four or more sides are not stable and may collapse under load, as shown in the following images:

These structures may be deformed without a change in length of any of their members.

Truss fact book

The evolution of trusses

The evolution of trusses

In only a few decades, timber trusses have almost completely replaced traditional roof construction methods. Their advantage in allowing greater freedom of design and in speeding up construction, while reducing the impact of external influences including weather and building site theft, are major factors contributing to their success. Since 1979, Multinail has pioneered development of the engineering technology that made these changes possible and ensures Multinail Fabricators continue to provide the highest quality products at competitive price. Multinail also produce all the specialised hardware for manufacturing building components including roof trusses, wall frames and floor trusses, and also offers a large range of high production machines and equipment used during fabrication.

History...

This method continued after the war, with the boom of single family housing. To further reduce the labour-intensive practice of cutting plywood gussets and then gluing or nailing the gussets to the timber, a light gauge metal plate was created with predrilled holes that allowed nails to be hammered through. As the pre-drilled metal plates were inadequate and still labour intensive, Arthur Carol Sanford developed an alternative - the truss plate. His truss plate was the first to use stamping to create triangular teeth embedded at the truss panel points to transfer the structural loads across the joints. In 1979, one of Americas leading building industry magazines Automation in Housing and Systems Building News honoured Arthur Carol Sanford for his singular invention of the toothed metal connector plate in 1952.

Before the 1940s, trusses were primarily constructed for large buildings and bridges and manufactured from heavy steel, with wood members limited to timbers with bolted connections. World War II, saw the demand for speedy military housing construction that required less labour-intensive practices and reduced job site time for framing roofs. Timber members were used to meet these new requirements, and connected together using glued and nailed plywood gussets, or simply nailed to joints, to form wood trusses.

Sanford made other contributions to the growing truss industry, including contributing to the development of the rolling press, a method where fabricators use extremely high pressures to embed nailplates into timber during truss manufacture. The strength of the joints constructed using this method generates trusses with predictable engineering properties. Pre-fabricated timber trusses have extended from a simple collection of individual timber members to become complete building components for building entire roofs or floors.

Truss fact book

The evolution of trusses

Today
Over the next decade truss plates naturally progressed from the early truss plates that required hand-applied nails to modern truss plates that require no nails. As part of the nailplate progression, the Multinail Truss Plate was developed. Multinail nailplates are manufactured from G300 steel with a galvanised coating of 275 grams per square metre. Stainless steel nailplates are also available, and nailplates can also be powder-coated or have additional galvanising applied if required. Multinail nailplates incorporate many refinements, especially in the tooth shape that is designed to grip the timber more securely. The bending and twisting of teeth during manufacture was carefully designed to aid the transfer of forces across the finished joint. This also increase the joints resistance to damage during handling when forces may be applied from virtually any direction. The reliability of Multinail trusses results from the following factors: Truss plate - made from high grade steel to exacting tolerances that maintains the reliability and performance essential to safe truss construction. Quality of engineering design - based on Multinails years of effort, talent and experience. Methods for cutting and assembling timber members using automated saws and computer aided controls helps ensure members and joints fit accurately. Care taken by Multinail fabricators to ensure trusses are manufactured in strict accordance with designs and handled appropriately.

Over time, the wood truss has become a highly-engineered, prefabricated structural product using two very reliable resources, Wood and Steel. The predicted life of nailplates depends on the protection of the nailplates from the weather, wind and other corrosive elements including salt spray and chemicals.

Truss fact book

The universal truss plate

The universal truss plate

Engineered design
Manufacturing an engineered truss requires accurate cutting, jigging and pressing. Fabricators do not want timber splitting or truss plate teeth bending during pressing as this can result in production delays, site calls and increased costs of repairs and rebuilding. Timber splitting, teeth bending and associated problems can be eliminated by using Multinails Universal Truss Plates. The Universal Truss Plate is the ideal choice for fabricators as they are designed to provide excellent holding power (with eight teeth per square inch) at a low cost per truss. Multinail was also the first company to introduce South East Asia to the concept of eight teeth per square inch in nailplates. At Multinail, we didnt just stop there. If you look carefully at the Universal Truss Plate, you can notice a uniquely-designed tooth shape that gives the nailplate full penetration and holding power - other companies have tried to copy this method but have been unable to reproduce.

Features
Long teeth; Low plate cost per truss; Penetrates high density hardwoods; Eliminates tooth bending and wood splitting; High force transfer per unit area; High holding power in hardwoods and softwoods and Prime quality galvanised steel.

Proven
Extensive tests in Australia and Asia have proved the versatility of the Universal Truss Plate. The Universal Truss Plate is suitable for use with high density woods (e.g. Ironbark and Karri from Australia, Kapur and Selangur Batu from Malaysia) as well as other high and low density hardwood timbers and low density woods (e.g. Radiata Pine and Oregon).

How it works
The Universal Truss Plate provides high density tooth concentration that ensures high strength transfer. When combined with the universal tooth shape, this virtually eliminates teeth bending or wood splitting. The Universal Truss Plate produces tight fitting joints that help resist rough truss handling during delivery or on site.

Truss fact book

Truss terms

Truss terms
Battens Web Tie (Web Bracing)

Top Chord

Nailplate Roofing

Pitch Overall Height

Pitching Point Fascia

Pitching Point Web

Ceiling

Cantilever Web

Ceiling Batten

Bottom Chord Tie

Panel Point

Bottom Chord

Truss Overhang

Cantilever Truss Span

Truss Overhang

Truss
A prefabricated, engineered building component which functions as a structural support member.

Bending stress
A measure of the intensity of the combined bending forces acting on a member, calculated by dividing the bending moment by the section modulus of the member. Measured in mega pascals (MPa).

Member
Any element (chord or web) of a truss.

Apex
The point on a truss at which the top chords meet.

Bottom chord
The member which defines the bottom edge of the truss. Usually horizontal, this member carries a combined tension and bending stress under normal gravity loads.

Axial force
A force (either compression or tension) that acts along the length of a truss member. Measured in newtons (N) or kilo newtons (kN)

Butt joint
A joint perpendicular to the length of two members joined at their ends.

Axial stress
A measure of the intensity of an axial force at a point along a member, calculated by dividing the axial force at that point by the cross-sectional area of the member. Measured in mega pascals (MPa).

Camber
An vertical displacement which is built into a truss to compensate for the anticipated deflection due to applied loads. All trusses spanning relatively large distances are cambered.

Battens
Structural members which are fixed perpendicular to the top chords of a truss to support roofing material or to the bottom chords to support ceiling material and to restrain truss from buckling.

Cantilever
Where the support point of the truss is moved to an internal position along the bottom chord of the truss.

Combined stress
The combined axial and bending stresses which act on a member simultaneously; ie, the combination of compression and bending stresses in a top chord or tension and bending stresses in a bottom chord which typically occur under normal gravity loads.

Bending moment
A measure of the intensity of the combined forces acting on a member; ie, the reaction of a member to forces applied perpendicular to it (including the perpendicular components of applied forces). The maximum bending moment is generally towards the centre of a simple beam member. 8 | Truss fact book

Concentrated or point load

A load applied at a specific point; ie, a load arising from a man standing on the truss.

Truss terms

Cut-off
The term used to describe a truss which is based on a standard shape but cut short of the full span.

Overhang
The clear extension of a chord beyond the main structure of a truss.

Dead load
The weight of all the permanent loads applied to member of a truss; ie, the weight of the member itself, purlins, roofing ceilings, tiles, etc.

Panel
The chord segment of a truss, usually top or bottom chord, between two panel points.

Deflection
The linear movement of a point on a member as a result of the application of a load or combination of loads. A measure of the deformation of a beam under load.

Panel point
The connection point between a chord and web.

Panel point splice

A splice joint in a chord which coincides with a panel point.

Eaves overhang
The extension of the top chord beyond the end of the truss to form the eaves of a roofing structure.

Pitch
The angular slope of a roof or ceiling. Also the angular slope of the top or bottom chords of a truss which form and/or follow the line of a roof or ceiling.

Heel
A point on a truss where the top and bottom chords join.

Plumb cut
A vertical cut. A plumb cut is perpendicular to a horizontal member. All splices are plumb cut.

Hip joint
The joint between the sloping and horizontal top chords of a truncated truss.

Purlin
A structural member fixed perpendicular to the top chord of a truss to support roofing.

Interpanel splice
A splice in a member (at a specified distance from a panel point).

Span
The distance between the outer edges of the load-bearing walls supporting the trusses.

Laminated beam or truss

Two or more members or trusses mechanically fastened to act as a composite unit. Lamination allows the achievement of increased strength without the use of solid, larger section timber.

Splice joint
The point at which top or bottom chords are joined (at or between panel points) to form a single truss member.

Lateral or longitudinal tie

A member connected at right angles to a chord or web member of a truss to restrain the member.

Support reactions
Those forces (usually resolved into horizontal and vertical components) which are provided by the truss supports and are equal and opposite to the sum of the applied forces.

Live load
Temporary loads applied to the truss during maintenance by workers and during constructions.

Top chords
The generally sloping members of a truss which define its top edge. Under normal gravity loads, these members usually carry a combined compression and bending stress.

Load duration coefficient

The percentage increase in the stress allowed in a member based upon the length of time that the load causing the stress is on the member. (The shorter the duration of the load, the higher the Load Duration Coefficient). (K1)

Truncated girder station

The position of a truncated girder. Defined in terms of its distance from the end wall.

Manufacturing details
Drawings which contain the data for truss fabrication and approval by local building authorities. (Produced automatically by the software used by Multinail Fabricators.)

Webs
Members which join the top and bottom chords, and together with them, form a truss by which structural loads are transferred to the truss support.

Mitre cut
A cut in one or more members made at an angle to a plane of the truss. I.e. the top or bottom chords of a creeper truss are mitred at 45 degrees at the end of the truss where they meet the hip truss.

Wind loads
Winds loads are the forces applied to roof trusses by virtue of wind blowing on the structure, typically (but not always) upwards; ie, opposite to dead loads.

Truss fact book

Truss numbering system

Truss numbering system

Multinail uses a simple, flexible and very versatile system of member and joint numbers to identify all members and connectors. LH RH TO Left heel Right heel Always allocated to the apex T2R T1L T2L TCR TCL
TO
TC L
TC R

Joint immediately to the right of T1R joint Joint immediately to the left of TO joint Joint immediately to the left of T1L joint Top chord on the right hand side of TO joint Top chord on the left hand side of TO joint

BSO  Always allocated to the joint immediately below the apex joint T1R Joint immediately to the right of TO joint

T1L
W1 L

WO

T1R

W1
BSO

R
BC2 HR

HL

BC1

A variation to this Numbering System occurs when the Top Chord contains a splice. The Top Chord is then allocated two denotations: TC1-R  The upper Top Chord on the right hand side of the TO joint
TC 1L

TC2-R  The lower Top Chord on the right hand side of the TO joint and on the right hand side of the splice If the Top Chord contains three members, than the next Top Chord would be marked TC3-R, etc.
TO
TC 1R

W1

TS (splice) T2L
T L C2

T1L

T1R
W1 R

TS (splice) T2R
TC R2

HL B2L

BC1 B1L BS@1R (splice)

BC2 B2R

HR

Bottom Chords
For the bottom chord, the numbers and markings are similar. If the truss does not have a BO joint, then the joints are marked as B1R, etc. and B1L from an imaginary line from the TO connector. Hence, the more joints, the more numbers to each side of this imaginary line. With standard trusses, there is normally only one splice joint per bottom chord and the size and stress grade of each member is the same, thus the bottom chords are numbered BC1 and BC2 as it is not critical to which side of the truss it is positioned. For trusses with multiple bottom chords such as Cathedral trusses in which there may be up to five bottom chords (and each may be a different size), the members are numbered from the left hand side of the truss and are marked as BC1, BC2 BC5. This numbering reflects the manner in which the truss drawing is developed.

Splices
When a chord is spliced between panel points, it is marked as LTS1 (being the first splice in the top chord on the left hand side of the TO position). Similarly to RTS1. When the chord is spliced at a panel point, the joint is marked as LTS2 or LBS3 relevant to the joint number in the top or bottom chord.

Webs
Webs (the internal truss members) are marked according to their position in relation to the apex joint TO and the vertical web under this joint, or the imaginary line from the TO position. Thus, webs to the left of TO are marked W1L, W2L, etc. and webs to the right of this line are marked W1R, W2R, etc. Note that it is possible that there may be more webs on one side than the other of the TO position.

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Truss fact book

Truss shapes

Truss shapes
These diagrams indicate the approximate shapes of the trusses in most common use. The choice of truss shape for a particular application depends upon the loading and span requirements (general spans mentioned are for 90mm top and bottom chords).

Kingpost truss
For spans approximately 4m. Used primarily in house and garage construction.

Half A-truss
For spans up to 6m. Used for residential construction where the trusses may form a decorative feature.

Queenpost truss
For spans approximately 6m. Used mainly for house construction.

Half B-truss
For spans up to 9m. Uses are similar to those for the A-truss.

A-truss
For spans approximately 9m. This is the most commonly used truss for both domestic and commercial applications.

Half C-truss
For spans up to 11m. Uses are similar to those for the A-truss but tends to be preferred to the half A-truss for reasons given under C-truss.

B-truss
For spans approximately 13m. Used primarily in residential and smaller commercial buildings, this truss is generally preferred to the A-truss for larger spans since it offers greater strength (additional web members) at lower cost due to the reduction in size of top and bottom chord timber.

Truncated truss
Spans depend on depth. There are two types of Truncated truss - the truncated girder truss and the standard truncated truss. Together they facilitate hip roof construction.

C-truss
For spans approximately 16m. Used principally for commercial and industrial buildings. Can be constructed with lower strength timbers.

Hip truss
A half truss with an extended top chord which is used to form the hip ridge of a hip roof.

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Truss shapes

Jack truss
Similar to the half A-truss but with an extended mitred top chord which overlies a truncated truss to meet the extended top chord of a Hip truss.

Pitched warren
Generally used for industrial or commercial buildings to achieve low pitch with high strength over large spans.

Creeper truss
Similar to a jack truss but mitre cut to intersect the Hip truss between the outer wall and the truncated girder.

Dual pitch truss

Non-standard truss used to achieve special architectural effects. The left top chord is a different pitch to the right top chord.

Cut-off truss Girder truss

Special truss of any standard truss shape used to support other trusses which meet it at right angles. (The standard shape is maintained but girder truss members are generally larger in both size and stress grade.) Girder can be any shape and carry trusses at any angles. Any truss, the shape of which forms part of a standard truss. As the name implies, the cut-off truss has a shorter span than that of the standard truss on which it is based; it is terminated by a vertical member along the line of the cut-off.

Bowstring truss Scissor truss

Not a standard truss design but often used to achieve special vaulted ceiling effects, sometimes with relatively wide spans. Used for large span industrial and commercial buildings including aircraft hangars, where the roof profile is curved. Bowstrings can be used everywhere domestic included.

Howe truss Half scissor truss

As its name implies, one-half of the standard scissor truss used for industrial, commercial and residential buildings. For spans up to 12m. Used mainly for applications which involve high loading of the bottom chord (in preference to the A-truss).

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Truss fact book

Truss shapes

Pratt truss
For spans up to 12m. May be used in preference to Howe truss for circumstances of high bottom chord loading.

Portal frame
A standard commercial and industrial design for wide spans.

Fan fink truss

For spans up to 9m. Used mainly for applications which involve high loading of the top chord (eg, where the truss is exposed and the ceiling load is carried on the top chord).

Inverted cantilever
Used to achieve special architectural effects in churches, restaurants, motels, etc.

Double howe truss

For spans up to 20m. Used for the same reasons as the Howe truss (in preference to the B-truss).

Cathedral truss
A non-standard truss used mainly in residential buildings to achieve a vaulted ceiling effect.

Parallel chorded
As its name implies, the top and bottom chord are parallel. Used for both floor and roof applications.

Bell truss
A standard truss used to achieve a bell-shaped roofline. E.g. 4 top chord at different pitches.

Attic truss
Special purpose truss to simplify attic construction.

Truss fact book

13

Truss systems

Truss systems
Gable end
The Gable is one of the simplest and most common roof types. Gable ends may be either flush or may overhang the end wall of the building with overhangs being either open or boxed. Gable ends can be formed with a cutdown truss - a truss of reduced height sometimes supported along its length by the end wall. This truss can in turn support either verge rafters (for a flush gable) or an outrigger superstructure where an open gable overhangs the end wall. There are several possible forms of superstructure shown in the diagrams. For example, the outrigger purlins may be supported by the top chords of the cutdown truss extending inwards to intersect the top chords of the next truss and extending outwards to end in verge rafters. Alternatively under-purlins can be used, attached to the lower edges of the top chords of the last two or three trusses. A boxed gable can be constructed using a standard truss as the end truss fixed to cantilevered beams supported by the buildings side walls. The cantilevered beams should extend at least 2.5 times the cantilever distance and must be specifically designed for the expected load. The position of the gable truss on the end wall is determined by structural demands as well as by requirements for conveniently fixing purlins and roofing material, ceiling material, gable end battens and cladding.
Standard truss

Gable blocks

Outriggers

Cutdown truss Gable verge rafter

Batten

Outrigger purlins

Standard truss

Cutdown truss

Under purlins

Batten

Under purlins

Standard truss

Prop

Standard truss

Cantilevered beam

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Truss fact book

Truss systems

Hip

Jack truss Truncated standard

Standard trusses

Truncated girder Hip truss Creeper truss

The hip roof truss system is built around a truncated girder that transfers the weight of the hipped roof sections to the side walls. The system design specifies a girder station - the distance where the Truncated Girder is located relative to the end wall. The trusses that form the hips of the roof (called the hip trusses) are supported at their outer ends by the corners of the end or side walls and at their inner ends by the truncated girder. Their top chords which form the hips are extended to meet the ridge line. On the end wall side of the truncated girder, the roof structure is formed by jack trusses (between the end wall and the truncated girder) and creeper trusses (between the side walls and each of the hip trusses). On the internal side of the truncated girder, the roof structure is formed by truncated trusses of increasing height towards the end of the ridge. The top chords of the jack trusses extend over the truncated girder and truncated standard trusses. The hip roof truss system allows the construction of traditional roof design without needing to locate load-bearing walls to support the hipped roof sections. A number of variations are possible and are usually derived by intersecting the first hip system with another or different type of truss system.

Standard truss

Jack truss

Truncated girder

Truncated standard

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15

Truss systems

Dutch hip

Girder truss

Girder truss

The dutch hip truss system is built around a special girder truss with a waling plate fixed to one side. As with the other girder trusses, it is placed at the specified girder station. The roof structure is similar to the hip truss system; however there is no need for truncated trusses - rather than continuing over the girder truss, the top chords of the jack trusses sit on the waling plate. The result is a roof structure that combines some features of the hip roof with features of the gable.
Jack truss Waling plate

Standard truss

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Truss fact book

Truss systems

Girder and saddle

Laminated girder truss

The girder and saddle truss eliminates the need for a load-bearing wall at the intersection of two gables in the roof structure. In this system, a girder truss placed parallel to the trusses in the second roof is used at the intersection to support the ends of the trusses forming the first roof. Truss boots are usually fixed to the girder truss to transfer the load from the trusses to the girder and through the girder to the side walls. The secondary roof line is continued past the girder truss by saddle trusses that diminish in size.
Laminated girder truss

Saddle trusses

Standard truss

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Truss systems

Special truss systems

Chimneys
The diagrams show typical roof structure treatment around chimneys with standard trusses used at either side of the chimney. The intervening cutoff trusses are supported by beams fixed to the side walls of the chimney.

Chimney

Cutoff trusses supported by beam

Chimney

Cutoffs
Cutoff trusses are created when the truss must be stopped short of its normal span (e.g. to allow for a chimney). This is supported at one end by the heel in the standard manner and at the other by the bottom chord immediately below the end member. Double cutoff trusses can be formed by modifying standard truss designs at both ends.
Chimney Cutoff trusses

Beam

Parallel chorded girder trusses

Chimney

Cutoff trusses

Beam or parallel chorded girder trusses

Solar hot water system

Hot water systems

Special provision must be made in the design and fabrication of trusses that carry additional loads such as those imposed by Hot Water Systems.

Solar hot water systems

Special provision should be made in the design and fabrication of a roof truss system to carry the additional load imposed by a solar hot water system. Where this load will be carried by an existing roof not specifically designed for the purpose, a solar hot water heater with a capacity of up to 300 litres may generally be installed on the roof system provided the trusses within a roof length of approximately 3600mm are suitably modified. Details of these modifications (which take the form of strengthening both the chords and joints of each truss) can be obtained from Multinail Fabricators.

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Truss systems

Cantilever
A cantilever exists where a truss is supported inside its span rather than at the end of its bottom chord (i.e. at the heel). A truss may be cantilevered on one side only, or on both. The diagrams show the three main types of cantilever: The maximum length of cantilever that can be handled using standard design information is limited (e.g. trusses with cantilever distances up to 1/5 nominal span for Type A Trusses, 1/6 nominal span for Type B Trusses and a combined distance of 1/4 the nominal span for any truss). Larger cantilevers demand special design.

A.  Where the bearing of the truss falls wholly within the solid length of the heel joint, the standard truss requires no alteration.

Cantilever

B.  Where the bearing of the truss is relatively close to the heel but outside of the solid length of the heel joint, a supplementary top chord is required to convert a standard truss into a cantilever truss.

Cantilever

C.  Where the distance between the heel joint and the bearing of the truss is relatively large, additional members must be used.

Cantilever

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Truss shapes

Truss design
Introduction
This section provides a brief introduction to the techniques for truss design; it is not intended as a comprehensive guide. The design of the truss members can begin immediately after determining the anticipated loadings (i.e. Dead Load, Live Load and Wind Load) .

Load duration
The limit state stress in a timber member is depends on the load duration factor (K1). For a combination of loads, the selected load duration factor is the factor corresponding to the shortest duration load in the combination. For trusses designed according to AS1720.1-1997, the duration of a load considered to act on a truss is of major importance for dead loads only; the load is considered permanent and thus factor K1 at 0.57 is used. For dead and wind load combinations, the wind load duration is considered as gusts of extremely short duration and K1 of 1.15 (for timber) is used. For dead and live load combinations several load cases may have to be checked due to differing load durations. In general, live loads are taken as applicable for up to 5 hours with a K1 of 0.94 (for timber). Live loads on overhangs are applicable for up to 5 hours with a K1 of 0.97. Either may be critical.

Truss analysis
For truss shapes, where members and joints form a fully triangulated system (i.e. statically determinant trusses), truss analysis makes the following assumptions; i)  Chords are continuous members for bending moment, shear and deflection calculations. Negative moments at joint (nodes) areas evaluated using Clapyrons Theorem of Three Moments and these moments are used to calculate the shear and deflection values at any point along the chord, for distributed and concentrated loads. ii)  Member forces can be calculated using a pure truss (i.e. all members pin-jointed) and calculated using either Maxwell Diagram or equilibrium of forces at joints. iii)  Total truss deflection used to evaluate truss camber and to limit overall deflections can be calculated using the system of virtual work. Again, the members are considered as pinended and a dummy unit load is placed at the required point of deflection.

Design of truss members

Truss webs are designed for axial forces and chords, for axial forces plus bending moments and checked for shear and deflection between web junctions.

Webs
Tension webs are checked for slenderness and the nett crosssectional area is used to evaluate the tension stress. The crosssectional area is taken as the product of the actual member depth and the thickness - less 6mm to allow for timber fibre damage by the Multinail Connector Plate. Compression webs are also checked for slenderness. Effective length is used for buckling of the web in the plane of the truss and out of the truss plane.

Truss loading combination and load duration

The following load combinations are used when designing all trusses: a) b) c) d) SW + DL: permanent duration SW + DL + SLL: short term live load combination

SW + DL + MLL: medium term live load combination SW + DL + WL: SW DL SLL, MLL WL extremely short duration = Self Weight (timber trusses) = Dead Loads (tiles, plaster) = Live Loads (people, snow) = Wind Loads

Where,

Each member in the truss is checked for strength under all three combinations of loadings. Dead loads plus live loads and dead loads plus wind loads may constitute several separate combinations in order to have checked the worst possible combination.

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Truss shapes

Chords
Tension chords are designed for strength and stiffness and must withstand combined tension and bending. The slenderness of the member is checked as tension webs and also as a beam. The shear of the member is also checked but is usually critical only on heavily loaded members (e.g. girder trusses). The stiffness criteria is to limit the deflection of a chord between the panel points. The long term deflection is calculated for dead loads only, as the instantaneous deflection under this load multiplied by duration factor (from AS1720) is determined by the moisture condition of the timber. The limit on this deflection is (panel length) 300. Live load and wind load deflections are calculated separately without consideration of the dead load deflection. Deflection is limited for live and wind loads to overcome damage to cladding materials and to reduce unsightly bows in the roof or ceiling. Compression chords are also designed for strength and stiffness. The strength of compression chords depends largely on the lateral restraint conditions of the chords. The combined compression and bending stresses in the members are checked using the index equation in AS1720. Shear stress is also checked as for tension chords. Deflections are checked as for tension chords and designed for similar allowable values.

Standard and complex design

Both standard truss designs and complex truss designs can be generated by Multinail Fabricators or Multinail Engineers. When a complex design is generated by the Fabricator for a quotation job, it is standard practice for a copy of the input and output to be checked by an engineer - either an independent consultant or a Multinail Engineer - before manufacturing the truss. For large projects (e.g. hospitals, schools, offices, etc.) the entire project is initially analysed and an overall truss and bracing layout completed. Each truss is then individually analysed, designed, drawn to scale, costed and presented with full cutting and jig layout dimensions to ensure accurate and uniform manufacture. Trusses are usually analysed and designed for dead, live and wind loads; however the analysis and design may be extended to include concentrated point loads as required. Trusses can also be analysed and designed for snow load, impact loads, moving loads, seismic loads, etc. If the drawing specifies the purpose of the structure and the anticipated loads, all the loads will be considered during truss analysis and design and clearly itemised on the drawing. Computations can also be supplied if required.

Modification factors used in design

The following is a typical calculation for bending strength. The capacity in bending (M) of unnotched beams, for strength limit state, shall satisfy (M) M* where: (M) = k[fbZ] and, M* = = design action effect in bending capacity factor k1 x k4 . x k12 and is the cumulative effective of the appropriate modification factors characteristic strength in bending

k = fb Z =

=  section modulus of beam about the axis of bending (bd2/6)

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Basic truss mechanics

Basic truss mechanics

Introduction
The Australian Standard AS1720.1 Timber Structures Code outlines the design properties of timbers for bending, tension, shear and compression. Multinail software checks that truss member stresses do not exceed the allowable values and, if required, larger members or higher strength timber are considered to help ensure stresses do not exceed allowable values. Stress levels in nailplates are checked against the allowable tooth pickup and steel strength values that Multinail has determined over the years with different timbers.

Bending
Beams are subject to bending stress (e.g. scaffold plank, diving board, etc.). The actual bending stress fb = Bending/Section Modulus.
Foc

Allowable stress

Tension
A member in tension (e.g. tow rope or chain). is subject to tensile stress

Slenderness ratio 10

L or L D B 20 30 40 50

Tension Stress (in a member) = P/A in MPa Where: P = Load in Newtons

Pull

The Section Modulus (Z) is the resistance of a beam section to bending stress. This property depends upon size and cross sectional shape and for a uniformly rectangular shaped beam: Z = bd2 6 Where: b = width in mm d = depth in mm

A = Area in Square mm
Pull

NOTE:

Compression
A member in compression is tending to buckle or crush. Long compression members buckle and are weaker than short ones which crush. The allowable compression stress for a particular timber depends on the slenderness ratio which is the greater of length/width or length/depth.
Push

Z depends on the square of d, so doubling the depth increases the strength of the beam four times. For example: Increasing 125 x 38 to 150 x 38 gives a sectional modulus of 1425003 which is stronger than a 125 x 50 which has a section modulus of 130208 mm3. The depth is simply more important than the width. Deep beams require more careful lateral restraint. The Bending Moment depends on the load and the length of the beam. For example: Consider a simply supported beam carrying a Point Load P at midspan.
P P 2

L P 2

L 2 = P 2 x L 2

L 2 = PL 4

The maximum bending moment Push

By doubling the length (L) or load (P), you double the bending moment.

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Deflection
During the analysis process when designing a truss, a number of deflection calculations are made to determine:

The deflection calculated in the bottom chord panel points is used to calculate camber built into the truss during manufacture.

NOTE:
For trusses without horizontal bottom chords, the horizontal deflection is very important as it may cause the supporting structure to deflect outwards. Care must be taken in applying the truss loads, fixing the truss to the bearing point and maybe even design of the supporting structure, to resist these loads.

A) Chord inter-panel deflection

The actual deflection of the timber chord between panel points is calculated and compared to the allowable deflection by the Australian Standard or stricter limits that may be applied.

B) Joint deflection
Each joint within the truss is checked for vertical and horizontal deflection. In a flat (i.e. horizontal) bottom chord truss, there is no horizontal deflection in the bottom chord panel points and only some small horizontal deflection in that top chord panels.

Joint

Inter-panel deflection

Truss action
A truss is like a large beam with each member in tension or compression, the chords acting as beams between the panel points as well as carrying axial load. At any joint, the sum of the forces acting must be zero (otherwise motion would occur) - this enables the forces to be determined. For example:
top c hord
15

The following diagrams show typical Tension (T) Compression (C) forces in the modulus of a truss under uniformly distributed gravity loads.
C C

C C T

T C T T

P1 -

C P2 - bottom chord O Reaction 10.0 KN

C T

By measuring (or scaling) or by using simple trig. The forces are found to be 37.3 kN tension in the bottom chord and 38.6 kN compression in the top chord.
Nc 8.6 k essio ompr n
10kN

C T T

C T

P1 =

O O C P2 = 37.3kN tension T

O O

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Basic truss mechanics

Design loads
The following details contain the basic dead, live and wind loads used for all truss design. The loads are used in as many combinations as required to achieve the most adverse loads on a particular truss. Dead loads are those loads considered to be applied to a truss system for the duration of the life of the structure. They include the weight of roof sheeting and purlins, ceiling material and battens, wind bracing, insulation, self-weight of the truss, hot water tanks, walls, etc. Loads are considered in two major combinations: a. Maximum dead load value - used for calculations involving all dead and live load combinations and for wind load (acting down on the truss) which is an additional gravity load. b. Minimum dead load value - used in combination with wind load causing maximum possible uplift on the structure, thus achieving the largest stress reversal in the truss members. The following tables show examples of loads used for truss details.

Live loads (from AS1170 Part 1)

Top chord live loads
For non-trafficable roofs (from AS1170 Part 1 Section 4.8). Where the area supported by the truss exceeds 14m2, a value of 0.25KPa live load is applied over the plan area of the roof. If the supported area is less than 14m2, the value of live load is taken as: 1.8 = + 0.12KPa (Supported Area)

The supported area is usually the product of the truss span and spacing.

Bottom chord live loads

(From AS1170 Part 1 Section 3.7.3) The load is assumed as that of a man standing in the centre of a particular panel of the truss bottom chord. The value is taken as 1.4kN where the internal height of the truss exceeds 1200mm and 0.9kN for height less than 1200mm. For exposed trusses (section 4.8.3.2), the bottom chord load is taken as 1.3kN applied at each end panel point in turn and centrally in a panel where the internal height exceeds 1200mm. For exposed Industrial and Commercial Buildings (Section 4.8.3.1) the bottom chord load is taken as 4.5kN applied at each bottom chord panel point, taken one at a time.

NOTE:
This information is subject to changes according to Code requirements. Tiles Sheet Roof Plaster = = = Approximately 55kg/m2 Approximately 12kg/m2 Approximately 10kg/m2

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Basic truss mechanics

Wind load
1. Basic wind velocity Vp
Basic wind velocity Vp is determined from Table 3.2.3 for capital cities in AS1170 Part 2. For other areas, the following basic wind velocities can be used in timber structures: Region A Region B Region C Region D - - - - 41m/sec; 49m/sec; 57m/sec; 69m/sec

Other design criteria

Roof Span Roofing Ceiling Roof Pitch Truss Spacing Timber Web Configuration - 10 metres - Sheeting - Plasterboard - 15 - 900mm - Green Hardwood - A Type

2. Design wind velocity Vz

Vz = V x M(z, cat) x Ms x Mt x Mi Where: M(Z, cat) = Terrain-Height Multiplier (Table 3.2.5.1 and Table 3.2.5.2) Ms = Shielding Multiplier (Table 3.2.7) Mt = Topographic Multiplier (Table 3.2.8) Mi = Structure Importance Multiplier (Table 3.2.9 in AS1170 Part 2)

The Wind Uplift force of each truss at support is calculated as follows: Wind Uplift = (P-DL) x Spacing x (Int. + Ext.) x Span/2 Where: Dead Load = D  L, including roofing and ceiling material and self weight of truss.

NOTE:
This information is provided as a guide only. Wind load calculation changes occur continuously and you must carefully consult the relevant Codes and other sources before undertaking this task. Multinails TrusSource (Truss Design Software) performs these calculations automatically, based on the latest Code refinements and best practice design criteria.

3. Wind pressure (P)

Wind Pressure (P) = 0.0006 x Vz2 (KPa)

4. Examples
Assuming a house with an eaves height of less than 5 metres and in a Category 2 Region C area. The Wind Load is calculated as follows: Basic Wind Velocity M(z, cat) Ms Mt Design Wind Velocity Wind Pressure (P) P = 57.0 (m/sec) = 0.91 = 1.0 = 1.0 = 57 x 0.91 x 1 x 1 = 52(m/sec) = 522 x 0.0006 = 1.6224 (KPa)

The results are summarised in the following

Case 1 2 3 4 Int. + Ext. 0.8 1.2 1.3 1.7 TC Size 100*38-F11 125*38-F11 100*38-F11 125*38-F11 Web1 Size 75*38-F11 100*38-F11 125*38-F11 175*38-F11 Uplift (KN) 3.662 6.340 6.972 9.631

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Basic truss mechanics

Terrain categories
The surrounding terrain affects the wind forces acting on a structure. The design wind velocity depends upon whether the structure is exposed, is on an open or hilly terrain with or without scattered obstructions of varying heights, or is in a well wooded or heavily built up area such as suburbs, industrial areas, cities, etc. These and many other factors affect the wind forces on the structure. To assist in the selection of the terrain category, the following sketch and notes have been produced. Also refer to AS1170 Part 2 for more detailed explanations. NOTE: For structures located in areas with gradual terrain changes (e.g. from a low category number to a high category number, or conversely a high category number to a lower category number), the structure is subject to either a reduction or increase in the design wind velocity. This relationship is called fetch/height. For details refer to AS1170 Part 2.

Seismic loads
The Australian Standard for Earthquakes AS1170.4 considers houses as ductile structures. In order to determine whether seismic loading affects the structure, a number of factors must be known including the acceleration coefficient that depends on the geographic location of the structure; and the site factor that depends on the soil profile. When considering seismic loading, the connection of the wall supporting members to the roof trusses must be capable of resisting horizontal forces generated by the seismic activity. According to Australian Loading Code, AS1170.4-1993, only ductile structures in the highest earthquake design category H3 - require the design of the connection to resist a horizontal force at the top plate equal to approximately 5% of the dead load reaction. All other earthquake design categories for domestic structures require no specific earthquake design requirements. In general, if a structure needs to withstand seismic loads, you should consult a Multinail engineer.

Category 1
Exposed open terrain with few or no obstructions. Average height of obstructions surrounding structure less than 1.5m. Includes open seacoast and flat treeless plains.

Category 2
Open terrain with well scattered obstructions having heights generally 1.5m to 10m. Includes airfields, open parklands and undeveloped, sparsely built-up outskirts of towns and suburbs.

Category 3
Terrain with numerous obstructions the size of domestic houses. Includes well wooded areas, suburbs, towns and industrial areas fully or partially developed.

Category 3 Category 1

Category 2 Category 2 Category 1

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Truss handling and erection

Truss handling and erection

All trusses are to be erected in accordance with the Australian Standard AS4440, The Installation of Nailplated Timber Trusses. Before trusses are erected they must be checked to ensure that: They comply with the requirements of the job (i.e. roofing and ceiling material, additional unit loads including hot water tanks, solar heaters, air conditioners, etc.). All relevant documents received with the trusses comply with the intended use of the trusses. The quality of all trusses are scrutinised (i.e. checked for damage during transport, broken members, missing plates, etc. ). Any damage or poor quality in truss manufacture should be immediately reported the fabricator.

Battens
Battens to be attached to every lamination of every truss and not joined at girders.

Installation tolerances
Trusses must be installed straight and vertical and in their correct position. The best method for ensuring the correct truss positioning is to mark the locations on the top plate in accordance with the truss layout prior to truss erection.

Alterations
A timber truss is an engineered structural component, designed and manufactured for specific conditions. Timber trusses must not be sawn, drilled or cut unless explicit written approval from the truss manufacturer is received. Unauthorised alterations may seriously impair the truss strength and could lead to failure of the structure.

DO NOT attach any fall arrests or guardrail system to the trusses unless you receive explicit written approval from the truss fabricator. Wall frames (see Framing Code AS1684) must also be checked to ensure they will be able to adequately support and hold down the trusses and their associated roof, ceiling or floor loads. The building must be stable horizontally before, during and after construction.

Weather
Trusses should be kept dry while they are waiting to be erected. Exposure to weather conditions can cause damage to trusses which can result in gaps between the timber and nailplate.

Bowing
Trusses must be erected with minimal bow in the truss and chord members. The bow must not exceed the length of bowed section/200 or 50mm (whichever is the minimum).

Inspection and storage

Trusses should be inspected on arrival at site. Any damaged trusses should be reported immediately and not site repaired without the approval of the truss fabricator. Trusses may be transported either vertically or horizontally provided that in either case they are fully supported. Bundles (or individual trusses) should be stored flat and kept dry. Gluts or packers should be placed at 3000mm maximum spacing to support the trusses off the ground.

Leaning
Trusses must be erected so that no part of the truss is out of plumb with a tolerance not exceeding the lesser of height/50 or 50mm.

Lifting
When lifting, take special care to avoid truss joint damage. If it is necessary to handle a truss on its side, take precautions to avoid damage due to sagging. Use spreader bars (with attachment to panel points) where the span exceeds 9000mm.
Crane

Temporary bracing
All trusses are required to be braced (temporary and/or permanently) and stabilised throughout the installation of the roof truss system. As with any construction site, a risk assessment must be undertaken as truss installation invariably involves working at heights. All relevant workplace safety practices must be followed.

<60

1/3 to 1/2 span Crane

Permanent bracing
Before loading, the roof trusses must be permanently braced back to a rigid building structure, usually the supporting walls, to prevent rotation or buckling of the trusses. Permanent bracing relies upon the roof bracing along with the roof battens to effectively restrain the loads in the trusses and the wind loads.

Chain for brace on lateral movement of truss Vertical chain or sling

1/3 to 1/2 span

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ME.PB.TFB.01.Au