Glina I Glineni Proizvodi 1915

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PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES
CLAYS
AND
CLAY PRODUCTS
ALFRED
;
R'
SEARLE
CONSULTING EXPERT IN CLAYS, CLAY PRODUCTS AND ALLIED MATERIALS LECTUREk ON BRICK-MAKING UNDER THE CANTOR BEQUEST, ETC.
AUTHOR OF
"
BRITISH CLAYS, SHALES,

;
AND SANDS
"
;
'THE CLAYWORKER'S HANDBOOK " " MODERN BRICKMAKING "; BRICKS & ARTIFICIAL STONES"; "CEMENT, CONCRETE, & BRICKS";
REFRACTORY MATERIALS, THEIR MANUFACTURE AND USE
"
;
ETC.
SECOND EDITION'
London
Sir Isaac Pitman
& Sons,
Ltd.,
Bath, Melbourne and
Amen Corner. New York
E.C.4
&
Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman Sons, Ltd., London, Bath,
Melbourne and New York
PREFACE
This volume,
contrary,
its
like the others in this series,
at exhausting the subject with
which
it
deals.
does not aim On the
sufficient insight into the
to give the commercial man nature of the various materials and products described for him to reahse, in broad outline, the processes involved in their treatment and the extent to which they may be used for the purposes of
chief
aim
is
his
those who are actually engaged in the manufacture of clay products, have any idea of the wide ramifications of the industries connected there-
own business. Few people, except
removed and and civihsed peoples would be incredibly great. Vast and important as is the Iron and Steel industry, it is in many ways only secondary to the trades connected with clays and clay-products indeed, without the latter, the very production of iron would become practically
with, yet,
if
clay products were suddenly
became
irreplaceable, the loss
among both
primitive
impossible, architecture would, in

stifled,
many
of
districts,
be
and the most evident
signs
civilisation
of the industries connected with so important a subject should form part of the education of every commercial and business man, and it is for such
would be absent. To know something
that this volume has primarily been written. No pains have been spared to express what is written in as simple terms as the complex nature of the subject permits, whilst at the same time every effort has been made to give the most recent information on such important points as the constitution of clays
and certain clay

VI
PREFACE
products. In this respect much progress has been made during the past few years, with the result that the nature of clays is much better understood than it was formerly, though even at the present time it is extremely difficult to find a definition of the term clay which is entirely satisfactory to all users. The requirements of the engineer are often quite different from those of the
builder,
and the potter
desires properties
which are
entirely opposed to those required
of firebricks, whilst the maker of and other products of a chemical nature, can make use of clays which are of no value in other branches of industry. Yet the materials used by all these people
by the manufacturer ultramarine, cement
notwithstanding their wide diversity, known as The reader who once realises this fact will not find it difficult to understand that the study of clays and their products has a fascination peculiarly its own as well as a commercial importance of the highest
are,
clays.
value.
a fairly large literature of clayworking and but much of it is inaccessible to the ordinary business man readers who wish for further information should consult the volumes mentioned on
There
is
allied industries,
page
158.
is grateful to those who have provided the illustrations (their names are attached to these) also to Mr. E. R. Bradforth a member of his staff for assistance in seeing this volume through the press
The Author
and
for preparing the Index.
ALFRED
Shrfheld,
August, 1915.
B.
SEARLE.
CONTENTS
PACK
PREFACE
ORIGIN AND VARIETIES

CHAP.
I.
FORMATION OF CLAYS
VARIETIES OF CLAYS
II.
THE WINNING OF CLAYS

III.
IV.
PROSPECTING AND BORING MINING AND QUARRYING
30 34
PREPARING THE CLAY

V.
WEATHERING
PURIFYING CLAYS CRUSHING AND GRINDING TEMPERING AND PUGGING CLAY SLIPS AND THEIR USES
.
VI.
VII.
40 43
47
VIII.
IX.
53 60
MAKING ARTICLES OF CLAY

X
XI.
XII.
BRICKS
TILES
....
W ARE
.
XIII
TERRA-COTTA COARSE POTTERY AND SANITARY
66 93 98
102 106
111
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
STONEWARE AND DRAIN-PIPES FINE EARTHENWARE

PORCELAIN (INCLUDING CHINA WARE AND CHEMICAL ware) REFRACTORY MATERIALS (INCLUDING RE,
134
XVII.
TORTS,
XVIII.
FIREBRICKS, FURNACE LININGS,

. .
XIX
AND CRUCIBLES AND GLASS POTS) PORTLAND CEMENT ULTRAMARINE AND OTHER CHEMICALS
.
.
BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX
......
.
.
.
138 147 155 158 159
LIST
1.
OF ILLUSTRATIONS
"
BOY CARRYING
SAGGERS "
.
Frontispiece
2. 3.
4.
5.
TYPICAL CLAY QUARRY MINING BALL CLAY WASH MILL EDGE-RUNNER MILL WITH REVOLVING PAN EDGE-RUNNER MILL WITH REVOLVING PAN
6.
7.
TROUGH MIXER
8.
9.
10. 11.
12.
13.
14. 15.
16. 17. 18.
19.
20.
21. 22. 23.
VERTICAL PUG-MILL FILTER PRESS FANCY BRICKS FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES MACHINE FOR MAKING SEMI-DRY BRICKS MOULD FOR HAND-MADE BRICKS HORSE-DRIVEN MACHINE FOR WIRE-CUT BRICKS ENGINE-DRIVEN MACHINE FOR WIRE-CUT BRICKS CUTTING TABLE MACHINE FOR STIFF-PLASTIC BRICKS MACHINE FOR STIFF-PLASTIC BRICKS MACHINE FOR STIFF-PLASTIC BRICKS PORTABLE BRICK-PRESS TILE AND BRICK PRESS (SCREW TYPE) ROOFING TILES OF VARIOUS PATTERNS THROWER AT WORK
.... .... ....
....
.
24. 25.
26. 27. 28.
BLUNGERS TURNING POTTERY MAKING CUPS ON JIGGER GREENHOUSE OR DRYING ROOM MAKING BASINS KILN FOR MELTING FRIT
....
ENAMEL KILN
TURNING PORCELAIN WARE ROTARY KILN
ix
29.
30.
CLAYS AND CLAY PRODUCTS

CHAPTER
The
I
THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF CLAYS

origin of clays is largely obscured by the many changes which they have undergone since they were first formed. Moreover, the greater part of the clays now known must have been formed at periods so long before the advent of mankind, that it is impossible to do more than speculate as to the sources from which they have been derived. In these speculations, the aid of geology, chemistry, mineralogy and many other sciences, is used with great advantage, but when all is said the real origin of clays still remains a matter of deduction from the observed facts rather than one of actual or experimental knowledge. So far as can be ciscertained, all clays are products of the decomposition of certain rocks, of which felspar is the most t\îcal, though the variety of such rocks is extremely large. All these rocks are composed of silica, alumina, and some base such as lime, soda or potash the silica and alumina being combined so as to form an acid (a so-called alumino-silicic acid), which is in turn combined with the base to form the felspar or other rock. Extensive investigations have shown that it is only from alumino-silicate rocks that clays can be produced.
;
The decomposition of the felspars and other clayforming rocks appears to have been gradually effected
by the action of the weather, including that of water, whereby the base (lime, soda or potash) is removed and is ta'ken away in solution, whilst the residue consists of a mixture of alumino-silicic acid (clay) and free
together with whatever portions of the rock have escaped decomposition. Usually, the clay particles are so fine that they are carried along by the water for somedistance, but they gradually settle and form a clay deposit. As various geological changes occurred, the original clay deposits were distorted or destroyed and the clay was carried still further away from its place of origin and was again subjected to the action of water and to any impurities which the water happened to contain. The result of the prolonged action of water appears to have effected very important changes in the nature of the clay, as well as causing it to become contaminated with various materials, so that when the clay was again carried in suspension by the water and was again allowed to subside and form a deposit the latter consisted of material having quite different properties from those of the original clay. The difference is not alone due to the impurities present, but is largely due to some constitutional change in the clay itself a change whose nature has not yet been fully elucidated, but the most
silica (quartz),
original
marked characteristic of which is the great increase in the plasticity of the clay. In subsequent geological periods many clays have been carried away from their places of deposition an indefinite number of times, during which they may become either purer or more contaminated with im.purities according to the conThus, in some ditions to which they were subjected.
parts of Derbyshire there are clays which appear
to

have formed but a small proportion of the constituents the limestone has subsequently of an impure limestone been removed by solution in water impregnated with carbonic acid, whilst the clay, being insoluble, has been left behind in pockets in the hills. WTiat appears to have occurred in the formation of the huge beds of clays in the British Isles may be very
;
briefly described as follows
largely
The igneous rocks were first formed, and these were composed of the minerals which, when decom-
posed in certain ways, result in the formation of clays. The action of the weather and other natural agencies on these primary rocks was to wear them down and to carry them to the sea where they formed the first of the sedimentary or deposited rocks. During this process the clays would be formed. Whilst immersed in this manner, various changes in composition and physical properties occurred so that a further series of minerals was produced. The earliest available materials of this nature are the Torridian and Cambrian rocks chiefly sandstones and slates. The land then appears to have risen above sea-level, but to have subsided again during the period in which the Silurian sandstones and shales were deposited on the Cambrian beds, or rather on what was left of the latter. The Siliuian period must have been an unimaginably lengthy one, as there are still deposits belonging to it which are 20,000 feet in thickness. It was accompanied or followed by a period of active volcanic action and of earthquakes which caused the deposits to be folded into curious shapes and placed some of them at a steep
slope instead of leaving
position.
them
in their originally flat of
The
further
action
the weather
again
removed a large proportion of the surface of the earth, and thick masses of sandstone and clays accumulated
as the Old Red Sandstone period of volcanic action then occurred, and the whole of the British Isles was again raised above sea-level, only to be again worn down by the action of the weather with the formation of the clays and rocks known as the Coal Measures. Further local
deposits.
and formed what are known
further
risings then followed, and in the enclosed hollows inundated by the sea, the Permian clays and rocks were laid down. After a further indefinite period, the waterlevel was again lowered, and desert conditions appear to have prevailed, only to be followed by a further denudation which resulted in the formation of the New Red Sandstone and the Triassic clays. After this there appear to have been many changes in the relative heights of land and sea, particularly in the south where the Lias, Ooolite and Wealden clays and rocks were deposited. These were followed by the formation in the sea of vast quantities of shells, which eventually settled to the bottom and formed the Chalk beds. After this a gradual rising of the ground again occurred, and the Tertiary clays and rocks were formed by the denudation of the earth's surface. During the Pliocene period which followed, the eastern counties were again submerged and the Pliocene clays were laid down. After this the temperature fell greatly, intense Arctic conditions prevailed, and the huge glaciers or rivers of ice
denuded the hills and valleys, carrying boulders along and grinding some of them to powder in their journey until, as the ice melted and the materials carried by it were deposited they formed a huge blanket of drift, a part of which forms the well-known Boulder clay of the North and Midlands. Since this Glacial Period the changes which have occurred are those which can be seen at work at the present time, the more violent risings and subsidences of former ages being less

noticeable
since
has inhabited the earth, going on, slowly and relentlessly as ever, as may be seen from an examination of the East Coast and other exposed pieces of land. In fact, every streamlet is contributing its share to the present denudation and to the formation of a fresh deposit of material in the beds of the oceans
mankind
though these changes are
still
now
in existence.
The
result of all these changes in the relative positions
and water during an innumerable number of years has been the formation of an extensive series of layers or beds of various kinds of rocks, including clays, in approximately the order shown in the Table
of land
on the next page, the most recently deposited being

uppermost.
The reader's present interest being in clays, these are given the chief prominence in the Table, though actually they form a comparatively small proportion of the deposits of some periods, and many clays are so contaminated with impurities as to be almost useless. For this reason it is necessary to examine any clay deposit carefully, before its value can be ascertained, as geologists include under the term clay all materials which become plastic when mixed with a little water or are so closely associated with clays as to render their separation inconvenient for the purposes of geological classification. Unless this is borne in mind great disappointment may result from reading a geological statement that certain clays are abundant in a given locality such a statement may be of much greater geological than commercial importance.
:
Table showing the Relative Geological Positions

OF Various Clays.
Geological
Systems.
Groups.
Clay Contents.
Post Tertiary
Cement
and
clays, silts, fluviatile alluvial clays, brick earths and boulder clays.
Pleistocene
Tertiaxy
I
Miocene
Oligocene
.Brick earths, pottery clays,

ball clays.
Eocene
I
rChalk
Cretaceous
Greensand [Wealden
'
Brick clays.
Jurassic
Triassic
Oolite
I
Lias
(.Brick clays.
Brick clays.
Permian
Carboniferous
The
so-called (brick clays).
red
marls
Brick clays, fireclays,

ganister.
Old Red Sandstone

Silurian
Slaty shales, brick clays, and

slates.
Slates
Slates Slates
and and
slaty shales.
shales.
Ordovician
and slaty
Cambrian Pre-Cambrian
Metamorphic
Igneous
slaty shales.
Schists
and serpentines.
schists.
Clay slates and

Granites, etc.
These are the
on
clay-forming rocks which, decomposition, form the primary clays (china
clays, etc.).
CHAPTER
From what
is
II
THE VARIETIES OF CLAYS

has been stated in the previous chapter, must be many varieties of clays, and that if there were only one chemical compound which is the essential ingredient of aU clays, yet the changes they undergo, from the time of their formation by the decomposition of the original igneous rock to the time when the clay is quarried or mined, are so great and so numerous, that the original nature of the clay substance is hardly recognisable. The ages which have elapsed since the formation of the clays found even in the most recent deposits are so long that it is not sm-prising that there are almost endless variations in clays. Some people have even gone so far as to say that no two samples of clay are precisely alike, and whilst there is much truth in such a statement, it is admittedly an extravagant one. Without going too deeply into the composition and chemical constitution of the various clays ^this would be too complex for those for whom this volume is primarily intended ît will be found that there is in all clays a varying proportion of one or more very highly complex substances which are known by the names of aluminosilicic acids. These axe the essential substances of all clays, and when any sample of clay has been freed
it
clear that there
as far as possible
from
all its impiu"ities, it
will consist
almost entirely of alumino-silicic acids. There have been several writers who regard clays as containing one definite chemical compound, to which they give the name clay substance or true clay ; such a
7
2<I465B)
8
view
is convenient, but probably incomplete. In the present writer's opinion there are numerous aluminosilicic acids whose chemical composition is the same or
almost the same as that of the purest clays, but owing

to the great complexity of these acids the arrangement
atoms in them may be quite different. Hence, it is probable that the clays form a large and important class containing certain alumino-silicic acids which may, for convenience, be regarded as almost identical and, therefore, grouped together as " clay substance," though a closer investigation will show that the clay substance from different clays is by no means
of the various
identical,
and
is
really
composed
of different acids all
having in
a general percentage composition and certain chemical properties. Several similar cases occur in organic chemical compounds, especially among the dyes, but the greater ease with which organic
common
be decomposed and their greater temperatures at which experiments may conveniently be carried out, has enabled their structures to be studied more thoroughly than has that of the various clays. So much work has been done on clays in recent years, however, that with the research work now proceeding on the subject, there is great hope of the constitution of the purer clays being known definitely in the near future the investigation is, howactivity at
;
compounds can
ever,
accompanied by so many
difficulties
that
it
may
be some years before practical use can be made of the results of present researches. From what has already been discovered, it is reasonable to conclude that the purest clays are all aluminosilicic acids, and that the clays found in Nature are impure forms of these acids. The alumino-silicic acids (of which clay forms a portion) are white solid substances, which may occur
in the form of very minute plate-like crystcils, but which are usually obtained in particles of no particular shape, to which the expression amorphous is usually
applied.
On
analysis,
all
the
alumino-sihcic
acids
appear to be composed of alumina, s hca and water, but the elements composing them are not necessarily, or even probably, grouped in this manner, but in an extremely complex arrangement of aluminium, silicon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, which on analysis rearrange themselves forming alumina, silica and water. In spite of their great complexity all the alumino-silicic acids occurring in clays have a similar composition approximately corresponding to
Alumina
Silica
Water
but the
silica,
.... ....
.
39 45 per cent. 4664
1391
..
proportion of water and sihca vâry greatly,

the existence of acids
and imply
clays.
especially in the fireclays
and
somewhat richer in in some red-burning
As the proportions given above correspond to the chemical formula AliO,, 2Si02, 2H,0, this formula is sometimes stated to be that of pure clay substance. Such a statement is apt to be very misleading, as it merely represents the lowest proportions in which the various elements are present, and in all probability
is much more complex though the same proportions ma)^ be maintained. If this is the case it is easy to see that a reaiTangement of several of the atoms in a complex grouping maj^ produce an entirely different kind of clay, whilst the substance as a whole is still an alumino-sihcic acid. Like all acids, clays have certain well defined proper-
the formula
ties
they
differ
in being solid,
from the commoner acids of commerce and as they do not become fluid except
10
at exceedingly high temperatures, their acid properties
have largely escaped the attention of investigators. At a bright red heat, the acid properties of clays are readily observable, such as the manner in which they corrode limestone and combine with this and other
bases forming a " salt " (molten slag) just as commoner acids do at appropriately lower temperatures. Like
,
strong acids, clays also decompose salts of weaker replacing the weaker acid and setting it free. This occurs in the manufacture of salt-glazed ware, the clay of which the goods are made decomposing the
all
acids,
common
(sodium chloride) thrown into the kiln forming a soda glaze and setting free the hydrochloric acid in the form of vapour. Like the
salt
for the purpose,
acids, clays are decomposed by heat with evolution of water, and in a variety of other ways their strongly acid character may be demonstrated. It is very important to remember the fact that clays are essentially acids, as many of their most important
complex organic
properties are due to
it.
The purest alumino-silicic acids which have been prepared show no signs of fusion when heated to a
tem.perature below 2,000 C. (3632 R), but almost all clays fuse below this temperature on account of the impurities they contain. Alumino-silicic acids are decomposed on heating to a dull red heat (about 500 C.)
lose water, forming an amorphous mass which only slightly heated is readilj^ soluble in acids, but strongly becomes insoluble. The chemical if heated composition of this heated material is not definitely known in some respects it behaves precisely like a simple mixture of free silica and free alumina, whilst Whatin other respects it behaves like a compound. ever may be its nature it is an essential material in all bricks, pottery and other clay-ware, and on its general
and then
if

resistance to acids
11
and other substances the practical value of these articles depends. The impurities found in clays are so numerous and so complex that they render it almost impossible to obtain pure alumino-silicic acids from some clays, and the
slow rate at which these acids react makes it appear as though the artificial production of cla3rs is beyond the power of mankind on account of the periods required. It is quite within the bounds of possibilities that researches now being prosecuted on the production of clays from their elements may be concluded with unexpected suddenness and that what now appears to be almost impossible may be accomplished. Meanwhile, it is important to observe that the consequently clays found in Nature are never pure they differ greatly in many of their properties from the alumino-silicic acids which form their chief con;
stituents.
Nevertheless, in so far as
it
is
possible to
purify clays, so far does their composition approach
that of the pure acids, and there is no known fact which is in opposition to the view stated above that the essential ingredient of all clays is one or more
alumino-silicic acids.
examined it will be found to which can be separated from each other by means of a series of sieves of different mesh, the separation being more readily effected if the clay is first mixed with about twice its weight of water and sufi&cient additional water added to the residue on each sieve. In this way a natural clay may be separated into one or more of the following groups small stones and gravel, sand of several degrees of fineness, and a material so fine that it will pass complete^ through ^the finest sieve procurable,
If
is
any natural clay
consist of grains of various sizes
that
is,
one hav-ing 250 holes per linear inch.
This
12

whole of the true clay, the
finest portion contains the
coarser portions being readily seen to consist of sand
or stone.
The
still
finest particles
further sub-divided
removed from the clay may be by subjecting them to the
action of a stream of water flowing at a carefully regulated speed, and it will then be found that all materials which are not carried away by a stream flowing at the rate of 2 ft. per hour, are not of the nature
which are carried stream contain all the true clay in the natural material, though even then the clay This represents the nearest is not free from impurity. approach to pure clay which can be obtained on a commercial scale, and it is significant of the wide variety " of materials commonly included in the term " clay
of clay.
fine particles
The extremely
away by
this slow-flowing
that most natural clays do not contain more than half

their weight of true clay.
In sharp distinction from
these impure materials are the china clays, which contain about 90 per cent, as
and
may
occasionally contain
much
as 98 per cent, of pure alumino-silicic acid.

limits are the clays of
Between these wide

value,
usually^ designated
by the purpose
commercial for which
they are generally employed, as brick clays, pipe clays, and pottery clays, or by some term indicative of their nature as fireclay, which is resistent to heat, ball clay, which is sold in the form of blocks or balls, etc. Space does not permit the mention of more than a few of these for others the reader should consult varieties of clays one of the larger books mentioned in the Appendix at the end of this volume. Alluvial clays are those formed by rivers and shallow
;
lakes.
Alluvial deposits are usually irregular in
position
and rather
is
thin,
ft.
comthough some of the Thames

Alluvial clays usually
alluvium
over 60
thick.
14
contain a considerable proportion of sand and other and are not of much value. The better qualities are used for making bricks and Portland cement.
impurities,
Ball clays are chiefly of Tertiary origin (p. 6) and occur chiefly in Devonshire and Dorsetshire. They are noted for their high plasticity and for the whiteness of the material formed when the clay is heated intensely in a kiln. In addition to this they undergo partial fusion (known technically as vitrification) the pores of the material being filled with this fused matter so that when the mass is cooled a remarkably strong
ware is produced. Good qualities do not lose their shape by fusion until a temperature above 1600 C. (2900 F.) is reached, and
and
acid-resisting
of ball clays
combination of vitrification without loss shape is extremely important in many branches of pottery manufacture. Although ball clays are white when burned, in their natural state they are usually grey, " blue," or even black the colouring matter is of an organic nature and burns away in the kiln. Ball clays are extremely fine in texture, and will pass almost completely through a sieve with 200 holes per linear inch. The best qualities have a composition closely resembling that of pure alumino-silicic acid (p. 9) but containing a variable proportion of soda and potash. They may, therefore, be regarded as pure clays in which a small portion of the acid has been combined with alkali this accounts for their vitrification combined with ability to resist very high temperatures without
this valuable
of
loss of shape.
The
chief uses of ball clays are for pottery
they constitute the chief plastic ingredient
in
which
as
ând
a bond for uniting less plastic materials into a plastic mass.
15
Boulder Clays are those which form part of the which is the material immediately below the soil over the greater part of the North and Midlands. The term is used to include all the plastic portions of the deposit so that boulder clays are usually very impure and contain large proportions of sand and Sometimes boulder clays are seriously constones. taminated with limestone particles, which destroy any goods made from such clays. Boulder clays are usually highly plastic, but are too they are impure to be used for high-class pottery extensively employed in the manufacture of bricks,
Glacial Drift (p. 4)
;
and coarse ware. Brick Clays are usually impure mixtures of clay and sand or chalk. When very loose and friable in texture the sandy clays are termed loams and the chalky clays
tiles
marls.
clays,
The more
plastic
clays are
known
as strong
but if excessively plastic and so unusable for brickmaking they are regarded as foul clays. Clays which are deficient in plasticity are termed lean clays. Most brick clays contain sufficient iron oxide to produce red bricks, but those which also contain chalk or to which chalk is added in course of manufacture, form white bricks. If the proportion of iron in the clay is very small or if it is in the form of coarse particles of iron sulphide (pyrite), buff bricks will be produced the lower grades of fireclay are of this nature. Brick clays which are sufficiently lean to be used without admixture and with very httle preliminary treatment are frequently knowTi as hrick earths, but they do not differ in any other respect from the other kinds of clay used for brickmaking. Brick clays do not form a distinct class, as any clay which can be made into bricks may be so termed hence clays from almost every geological system are
;
;
16
CLAYS AND CLAY PRODUCTS and the composition

is
legitimately termed brick clays,

of the clays used for this purpose
therefore too varied statement concerning it. It is important to observe that pure clays are not suitable for brickmaking, and would not produce the pleasing colours for which some brick clays are so famous. These colours are largely due to the iron compounds present in the clay whilst the lime, alkalies, and other materials effect a partial fusion and usually give added strength to the bricks. A further range of colours is also produced by the action of the fuel and kiln-gases on the impurities in the clay thus the blue bricks of Staffordshire owe their colour to the reduction of the iron compounds they contain, whereby a dark coloured fusible compound is produced which, when cold, forms bricks of remarkable strength. Cement Clays are used in the manufacture of Portland and similar cements. They are usually alluvial in character and preferably contain a considerable proportion of chalk or limestone dust. Shales (p. 26) are also used for the same purpose (Chap. XIX). China Clays are those used in the manufacture of china ware and other forms of porcelain, but as they are among the purest clays, they are also employed for a variety of other purposes, including the manufacture of paper and as a filling or diluent of various chemical
to admit of
any
definite
preparations, toilet powders, etc.
China clays are also known as kaolins and as porclays ; they are found almost exclusively in Cornwall and Devonshire (so far as Great Britain is concerned), but materials closely resembling china clay, yet occurring in different geological formations and possessing certain distinguishing properties, are found in Europe, China, United States and in various other parts of the world. The true china clay of Cornwall
celain
17
and Devonshire occurs irregularly mixed with the decomposed granite of those localities and must be removed by some process of purification (Chap. VI)
before
it
is
fit
for use.
commerce usually consist of about 90 per cent, of alumino-silicic acid (p. 9) and 10 per cent, of mica and other impmities, including a small the best specimens are regarded proportion of silica as consisting almost entirely of pure clay. China clays are perfectly white when sufficiently pure, but inferior qualities are slightly cream coloured. They are only feebly plastic and thus present a marked
The china
clays of
contrast to the ball clays (p. 14) which most nearly When china clay resemble them in composition.
is
heated to a dull red heat
it
loses
water and behaves
precisely like alumino-silicic acid (p. 9), except that it begins to fuse at a temperature lower than that of the
pure acid on account of the mica, free

tains.
silica, etc., it
con-
The burned material
is
so deficient in vitrified
matter (owing to the absence of hme, soda and potash
and other metallic oxides

that
it
in
appreciable quantities)
in pottery
is
readily crushed.
For use
facture the china clay must, therefore, be
manumixed with a
more
etc.
fusible material
such as felspar, calcined bones,
The
chief fimction of china clay in the

is
facture of pottery
to produce a white
manubody which is
and
not very sensitive to sudden changes in temperature, its leanness and resistance to heat make it valuable for this purpose. Under a powerful microscope, china clay is seen to consist chiefly of irregular shaped particles, together with a few lamellar plates characteristic of kaolinite and others indicative of mica. It is, however, erroneous
to consider that china clay as the former
is
and kaohnite cire identical, amorphous and the latter crystalline.
18
though the clay particles are usually so minute that it is seldom possible to state definitely whether they are
crystalline or not.
Fireclays are those which are sufficiently refractory to
show no
signs of fusion when heated in a steadily increasing temperature to 1,580 C. (2,876 F.) though the
term is commonly restricted to clays of this character found in association with coal and not to the china and ball clays. The Coal Measure fireclays occur
the large coalfields in commercially valuable and are largely used in the manufacture of bricks for furnace-linings and other refractory purposes, as well as for the manufacture of sanitary ware, glazed bricks and other materials where a glaze free from lead, of high melting point and great resistance to acids and atmospheric influences is required. Such glazes cannot be burned on clays which are not refractory, as the clay would lose its shape at a lower temperature than that at which the glaze will fuse. Fireclays occur in the form of a soft rock which requires considerable force to crush it. They become plastic when the crushed clay is mixed with water; but are not plastic when mined. In composition they
in
all
quantities,
appear to consist of alumino-silicic acids, which are richer in silica than the composition mentioned on page 9 and usually contain between 50 and 70 per cent, of silica in combination with 20 to 28 per cent, of alumina. Their composition is, however, so variable
in different localities that
it is
difficult
to represent
them by any chemical formula.

alumino-silicic
acid
present,
In addition to the fireclays contain small
proportions of iron oxide and sulphide (Pyrite), lime, magnesia, potash and soda the total amount of these should not exceed 5 per cent, (and should usually be far less) in a good fireclay, or the material will not be
;

sufficiently
19
clays which contain more value for the purposes for which Some fireclays contain a are employed. fireclays variable amount of free silica which also reduces their this silica must not be confused refractoriness (p. 25) with that combined ^v^th the alumina and forming the
heat-resisting
little
;
impurities are of
clay
proper. Small proportions of organic matter give fireclays a grey colour but, on burning, this is destroyed and a buff or stone-coloured material is
produced
spoiled
by spots and patches
the uniformity of the colour is commonly of a darker colour due to
the effect of the heat on the iron compounds present, though the proportion may not be sufficiently large to interfere seriously with the refractoriness of the
clay.
Kaolinite
is
a crystalline mineral occurring in
many
clays in small proportions
and occasionally found alone. In chemical composition it is an alumino-silicic acid, and on analysis yields the figmês mentioned on p. 9. Its crystalline nature distinguishes it from clays, though
otherwise it is so closely related to them that for many years it was regaided as typical of piire clay. Being
crystalline of
it is necessarily devoid of plasticity, and it is no commercial value, being chiefly interesting on account of the coincidence between its composition and that of the kaolin (china clay) from which it derives its name. Marls are natural mixtures of chalk and clay, but the term is also used for friable clays which are devoid of
chalk.
This double usage
is
confusing.
Ochre is a fine clay rich in iron compounds, to which it owes its colour and distinguishing properties. It is chiefly used as a pigment, and may be well imitated by mixing ferric oxide \îth a white clay such as china clay. When heated carefuUy to dull redness it forms
20
burnt sienna a pigment first made by thus treating the ochre found at Sienna. Pipeclays are clays suitable for making clay tobacco pipes, but the term is applied to all white clays, and therefore includes china clay and some ball clays as
well as a number of impure clays which burn white at a moderate temperature yet are too fusible to be classed with either of the foregoing. The leaner varieties of pipeclay are largely used as a mild abrasive for polishing metals and for whitening leather, etc. Plastic Clays are those in which the property of plasticity is sufficiently developed to be noticeable, so that the term " plastic " is used quite independently of the composition of the clays. The most plastic clays are those described under ball clays (p. 14), whilst the china clays may be regarded as possessing the least plasticity of the relatively pure clays. Plasticity may be defined as the property which enables a material to be pressed into any desired shape and to retain that shape indefinitely when the force producing it has been removed. It is this property
which makes clays so valuable for modelling and for the manufacture of pottery of all kinds, and in many ways it distinguishes clays from all other substances. Some others are plastic under special conditions as glass when at a red heat but no natural substance of a mineral character is so plastic as clay, and few, if any, artificial materials possess as much true plasticity. The plasticity of clays appears to be a physical
rather than a chemical property, though the relation between the chemical constitution and the plasticity of clays has been studied for so short a time that it is
make any definite statement So far as present knowledge can show, the plasticity of clays is due to their peculiar power
impossible, at present, to
it.
regarding

of retaining or
is
21
combining with water. A clay which is never plastic, and it is only when the particles are sufficiently small and are very intimately mixed with a suitable proportion of water Hence, all investithat the material becomes plastic. gations as to the cause of plasticity are made with a view to learning whether the water enters into a physical One widely or chemical combination with the clay. accepted view is that the water combines chemically
perfectly dry
with the clay, converting

applied.
it
into a jelly-like substance

is
to which the term colloidal (from kollos, glue)
commonly
substances that they swell when in contact with water, and that they absorb water in a form which is different from that in which a sponge absorbs it. When dried, the absorbed water is driven off and the substance then
It is characteristic of all colloidal
shrinks in volume and becomes
somewhat hard and
horny. A further characteristic property of colloidal substances is the manner in which they can remove dyes from a solution, leaving a colourless fluid, whilst the colour cannot be removed from the colloid by any washing process. These and various other properties of colloid substances are possessed by plastic clays, though the view that clays are colloids does not explain all the facts. This may be due to insufficient knowledge of the facts, and there is a great probability that the colloid theory will play an important part in the explanation of the cause of plasticity, even though it may require to be supplemented by other information. There are many other explanations as to the cause of plasticity which have been suggested one of the most probable is that the particles of clay are so small and so porous that the proportion of water they can absorb mechanically is much greater than that so retained by larger particles, and that the water which adheres
;
22
to the exterior of the clay particles forms a peculiar cushion which enables the particles to move freely over each other when subject to pressure, and yet is sufficiently adhesive to prevent them losing their new positions when the pressure is removed. This purel}' mechanical theory accounts well for the plasticity, but it does not explain many of the other facts known
about clays. A similar remark is applicable to all other published theories as to the cause of plasticity
in clays.
When a plastic clay is dried it loses its plasticity, but unless it has been overheated, the plasticity will be restored on again mixing the clay with water. If the plastic clay is heated to a temperature of 300 to 500 C, or above, the plasticity is destroyed permanently in all probability the conand cannot be restored stitution of the clay has been changed by the heat, the constituent atoms being then re-arranged so that a restoration of the original grouping may be impossible. Hence a clay which has been burned in a kiln cannot be made plastic by any process of treatment. This change in the character of the heated material is of great importance in regard to the uses for which articles made of clay are employed. Highly plastic clays are seldom used alone, as they This may be shrink and crack too much in drying. prevented by mixing them with a non-plastic material such as sand or burned clay (grog). Potter's Clays are those suitable for making pottery,
;
but the term

(Chap.
is
usually limited to those clays which are
sufficiently plastic to
be "thrown" on a potter's wheel

best
potter's
Xni).
The
clays
are the
is
ball
usually mixed to increase the whiteness of the product and to reduce the sensitiveness of the ware to sudden changes
clays (p. 14) with
which some china clay

in
23
class pottery, only those clays
earthenware, and other highcan be used which burn cheaper wares plastic for white, but white or almost clays of the nature of brick clays are used, the finer varieties of these being extensively employed in the temperature.
For
manufacture of
terra-cotta, etc.
common
red earthenware, flower-pots,
known red
Red-burning Claj^ are those which are of the weUcolour when heated to about 1000 C. They
are usually plastic brick clays (p. 15) or potter's clays (p. 22) which are sufficiently rich in iron compounds to produce the desired colour. The minuteness of the
compoimd have an important influence on the colour of the burned clay so that no definite proportion of iron can be regarded as the minimum essential in a red-burning clay, though clays containing less than 4 per cent, of iron expressed as ferric oxide The are seldom of a good red colour when burned.
particles of iron
red-burning clays are widely distributed, some of the best being found near Accrington, Ruabon, Reading, Corfe Mullen and Fareham, as well as in Staffordshire, Shropshire and Leicestershire. In many other districts excellent red-biu-ning clays are found, and as a complete list is impossible of inclusion within the space here available, it is somewhat invidious to make
distinctions
between the clays of different localities. Attempts have been made to improve the colour of
red-burning clays by the addition of iron oxide ; it is seldom that these are successful as the iron compound in the natural clays is so much more finely divided than that which is prepared artificially. The composition of red-burning clays varies as much as that of brick clays, and it is important to remember that it is the iron compound rather than the other
ingredients in the
clay which produces the coloiu:
3(14658)
24
for this reason the chemical composition of such clays

is
of
minor
interest.
The
precise composition of the colouring matter in

;
red-burning clays is not certainly known in the natural state these clays give no indication of the colour they will produce when burned. There is a widespread impression that the colour is due to red if this is the case some other compound oxide of iron of iron must be present in the raw clay, and this must be decomposed on heating, as few clays are red before they are burned. Various ferro-silicates decompose on heating, with the formation of a red product, but their existence has not definitely been proved in
;
clays.
Refractory Clays
(see Fireclays, p.
are
those
which are
sufficiently
etc.
resistant to heat to be used for furnace-linings,

18).
The most refractory clays are the china clays, ball clays, and fireclays, good qualities of which will not show any sign of fusion when heated
at 1,600 C. (2,920 F.) whilst the best qualities will not
fuse below 1,700 C. (3,100 F.).
clay depends principally on the

contains,
The refractoriness of a amount of pure clay it

so great that
it
but the influence of small proportions of

is
oxides present as impurities
usually
appears to be out of all proportion to the amount of impurity present. This is largely due to the fact that these extraneous oxides readily combine with the clay, forming compounds (alumino-silicates and silicates) which are readily fusible, so that the reduction of the heat resistance of the clay is not dependent on the extraneous oxide but on the compounds it forms with the clay and with any other impurities present. Thus, if two metallic oxides such as soda and lime are both present in a clay they will reduce its refractoriness more than an equal proportion of either oxide without the other. The
25
reasons for this curious action are too complex to be

discussed here.
equally as refractory a mixture is made of sihca and a refractory clay, the mixture will be much
It is
silica is
if
a curious fact that
as the best refractory clays, yet

refractory.
less
The
loss
in
heat-resistance depends
partly on the proportion of the two materials and partly on the sizes of the particles small grains producing a more readily fusible product than larger ones. The
mixture of silica and refractory clay con20 per cent; of clay (alumino-silicic acid) and 80 per cent, of free silica, or using the form common in analysis, is composed of 9 per cent, of alumina and 91
fusible
sists of
most
per cent, of
silica.
Users generally expect a high grade refractory clay when made into bricks or other articles to be capable of (a) resisting any temperature to which it is likely to be exposed when in use, (b) resisting pressure put on it by the contents of the fiu"nace or by adjacent masonry, (c) resisting the cutting action of flame and hot gases, including any flue dust therein, (i) resisting any abrasive action due to the movement of the contents of the furnace or accidental blo\v3 as from a poker, (e) resisting sudden changes in temperature which may be unavoidable in ordinary work and (/) expanding or contracting within such narrow limits that the strength of the work is not endangered. No articles made of refractory clay can fulfil all these requirements in the highest degree, and it is therefore necessary to choose which are the more important. Thus, strength can only be gained at the expense of some refractoriness and vice versa, and
resistance to sudden changes in temperature is incompatible with great strength or an absence of porosity.
It
is
in
the
balancing
of
these
various
opposing
26
requirements
consists.

that
the
skill
of
the
clay-worker
Sagger Marls are really fireclays (p. 18) the term being used almost exclusively in Staffordshire for clays suitable for the manufacture of the fireclay cases or saggers used by potters in burning ware, though these clays are equally suitable for many other purposes for
fireclays are used. Shales are clays which have been hardened by pressure and by the formation of a cementitious matter between the particles so as to produce "rocks." When the
which
ditions are suitable, slates are formed.
very extensive and other conThe term shale relates to the physical state of the material rather than to its chemical composition, a characteristic feature of all shales being the ease with which they can be split
cementitious matter
is
into thin layers or into
still
thinner laminae.
Some
shales are chiefly
composed
of grains of
sand cemented
together with a siliceous material, others consist of sand and clay similarly united, whilst others again are
composed almost exclusively of clay these last are valuable as a source of clay and are conveniently known as clay shales. They are simply indurated clays, and on crushing them to powder they are again converted
;
into lean clays, which, with a suitable proportion of
water, form a plastic mass very suitable for bricks, tiles and terra-cotta. Some of the clay shales burn to
a particularly pleasing red colour and are, for this reason, demand as a material for the manufacture of the goods just mentioned. They are particularly suitable for the manufacture of large pieces, as they are not so plastic and are less tender than many clays which have not been subjected to compression. Many shales are entirely useless for the manufacture of bricks and other articles, but some of them are used as a source
in great

of mineral oil {oil shales)
in the
27
and others form a raw material manufacture of alum {alum shales), on accoimt of the large amoimt of pjoite they contain. Siliceous Clays are those with a larger proportion of silica than that needed to form the alumino-sihcic acids which constitute the essential material in all clays. The term is, howev'er, used for all clays containing more than 50 per cent, of silica, this being slightly above
the proportion of that oxide in the best pottery clays.
which the remainder of the silica is present is still open to question in some of the fireclays almost the whole of the silica is combined with the alumina in the form of alumino-sihcic acids
in in siliceous clays
;
The form
rich in silica, but in various other clays a considerable

silica is present as sand or silt, which can usually be removed by careful washing, though the separation is never perfect. Stoneware Clays are usually related to the ball clays (p. 14) and are sufficiently rich in fusible matter to form a strong, vitrified and impervious ware when heated to a suitable temperature in a kiln. The chief characteristic of a stoneware clay is that the ware made from it shall be impervious without loss of shape, and this can only be secured by the intimate admixture of a flux or fusible compound with the clay, this mixture being made artificially or having occurred naturally in some remote geological period. The natural clays are preferable, as the mixing is more intimate than is possible with a mechanically produced substance. The substances which produce this partial fusion or vitrification are primarily metallic oxides such eis lime, magnesia, potash and soda, with iron oxide in the less pure clays. These oxides are not usually present in the free state, but in the form of compoimds such as felspar, mica and other
proportion of free
alumino-sihcates
and
silicates.
28
filters,
Stoneware clays are used for the manufacture of hot water bottles, chemical ware and for all pottery of a coarse character in which strength and impermeability are required. Porcelain may be regarded as a superfine stoneware, though this term is never applied to it in commerce. Surface Clays are those which he so near the surface that they can be won by simple digging or quarrying in this way they are distinguished from the fireclays or underclays which have to be mined. The varieties of clays which are rightly included as surface clays is so great that the term gives but little idea of the nature of the clays, though most of them are red burning ones or white burning marls. Terra-cotta Clays do not, strictly, form a class by themselves, though the term is conveniently used for those clays which are sufficiently uniform in composition and sufficiently lean to be used for the manufacture of large pieces. For the best ware, a terra-cotta clay should contain such a proportion of fine clay that its surface can be worked to a smooth finish which becomes vitrified and impervious when the goods are burned in a kiln. At one time it was customary to confine the use of the word " terra-cotta " to ware of a brick red colour, but similar ware made of buff-burning clay is now known as terra-cotta, and architectural blocks made of clay and covered with a glaze are commonly
;
referred
to
as
being
made
of
" glazed terra-cotta,"
irrespective of their colour.
which form an impervious mass when burned. As all clays will do this, if the temperature to which they are heated is sufficiently high, it is necessary to add that only those clays are regarded as vitrifiable which become impervious at a temperature below 1,400 C. (2,550 F.)
Vitrifiable Clays are those
or vitrified
29
For most purposes it is also necessary that the ware should retain its shape at the temperature at which the clay \'itrifies, though when clays are used cis bonds in the manufacture of abrasives, etc., this is not necessciry. " There is an important distinction between " \'itrified " clays the former must fuse to and " readily fusible such an extent that the mass becomes impervious to water as the pores are filled with the fused material, whilst the mass, as a whole, retains its shape. A fusible clay, on the contrary, fuses to a fluid at a temperature easily attained in an industrial furnace. The vitrifiable clays are chiefly used for the manufacture of earthenware (ball clays, p. 14), stoneware (p. 27) and
;
electrical insulators.
CHAPTER
The
III
PROSPECTING AND BORING

search for clay for a given purpose is known as is usually below the surface, it is necessary to seek for indications of it rather
prospecting, and, as the material
than to make a direct search. For such work a good knowledge of geology is essential, and with this and a
careful search in railway cuttings, streams,
hills,
wells
and other disturbances

determine with
fair
of the ground,
it
is
possible to
accuracy the limits of a particular In some cases; the simplest method is to dig deep holes in the ground and to examine the material thus brought to the surface, whilst, if the clay is very deep, it may be necessary to bore with special tools. Great care is needed in these operations to ensure the material brought to the surface being fairly representative of the whole, for even simple borings may be misleading, and, unless under more skilled supervision than is often the case, the examination of the borings may lead to seriously erroneous conclusions. A careful record must be kept of the depth of each material encountered in digging or boring, the thickness of this material and the nature of those immediately This information is best recorded above and below it. by making a drawing showing a vertical section of the
clay formation.
through, which the bore-hole passes. The materials must be kept quite separate very difficult matter in some cases as a mixture of two or more in the drill may lead to wrong conclusions
ground
different
as to their nature or to the supposition that the deposit is much thicker than is really the case.
30

It
is
31
highly important that the various samples of
material should be obtained from several distinct pits or borings, some distance apart, as the results from only one would be misleading if the material is irregularly distributed.
Here, again, the services of a geothough he must be one with a special knowledge of clays rather than of the general subject, as very few men have paid sufficient attention to the economic geology of clays. The more samples and the further apart the places from which they are taken, the greater \\411 be the probabihty of obtaining a reliable report but, as the examination of samples is a somewhat costly process, it is usually considered sufficient to take about six samples per acre and to make these samples Conclusions based on the examinaas large as possible. tion of about 2 lbs. of clay taken from a single pit or borif they are correct it is more ing are seldom valuable by luck than good management, and many clay deposits have been condemned as valueless simply because the prospectors only tested a single specimen which did not accurately represent the bulk of the material. It is scarcely possible to take too much care in obtaining representative samples of the material, and, though the examination of these may appear to be costly, it will afterwards be found to be far less so than the loss caused by the installation of unsuitable machinery, the attempt to use a clay for purposes for which it is not suited, and the opening up of a works on a site where there was only sufficient material to last a couple of years, yet all these difficulties have been experienced on several occasions by firms who were " penny wise and pound foolish " with regard to prospecting and the examination of the materials. It is a curious fact that some of the most attractive clays are the most misleading to the uninitiated ; thus
logist are invaluable,
; ;
32
the glacial drift clays of Lancashire are extensivelyused for bricks and coarse pottery, and some of them are well suited for this purpose, yet other portions of the deposit, which have a smoother texture and greater plasticity, are almost worthless on account of the fine limestone dust and pebbles scattered through them. Some other clays are highly plastic, and to an outsider would appear to be excellent for bricks and tiles, but they are useless for this purpose, because they break up when dried. The London clay is a good instance of this kind of material, for it is useless for brickmaking, except where it is closely associated with sand or chalk which can be mixed with the clay so as to deprive it
of its objectionable qualities.
Failure to realise this
has resulted in the loss of many thousands of pounds. Having found the clay and having learned the purposes for which it may be employed ^these being preferably ascertained by an expert whose impartiality and unbiassed judgment can be relied upon it is next necessary to decide the most suitable treatment whereby the clay can be made into the desired articles or .products. Even in such an apparently simple matter as the manufacture of bricks there are several processes available, some of which are entirely unsuitable for cer-
tain clays,
and
failure
is
bound
to result
attempt to use such methods
for those clays
from any on a com-
mercial scale. It is therefore imperative that the clay should be adequately tested as to the best method of working it before a plant is put down for that purpose. In making such tests it is equally important that they should be done by someone who has the necessary
incentive to
and appliances and yet is entirely free from any recommend the machinery or kilns supplied " by certain firms. The possibilities of a biassed " expert faking results are so great and the reward for so doing
skill

(in
33
will
the form of a secret commission from the firm who provide the machinery or kilns on his recommend-
is so much more than the fee which a prospective manufactm-er will pay for testing, that too much care cannot be taken to ensure the entirely independent character of any expert's report. WTiilst some makers of brick machinery are sufficiently honest to decline to supply machinery which they know is unsuitable for the clay submitted to them, there are others who are not so, and, as the purchaser of the plant is the one who will lose if a mistake is made, it is always wise for him to ensure the impartiality of the expert he employs. It is a common maxim that " a man who acts as his own lawyer has a fool as his client " it is equally foolish for a prospective manufacturer to make his own tests of a clay, and scarcely less so for him to expect to get reliable results if the tests are carried out " gratis " by
ation)
a firm of machinery makers in the hope that they will thereby obtain the order for the plant.
CHAPTER
For commercial
IV
MINING AND QUARRYING

purposes, clays are obtained by quarrying those which are sufficiently near to the surface and
by mining those which occur at a greater depth. The choice between the two processes also depends on the nature of the material overlying the clay, on the location of the
ground with respect to watershed, and on
Thus, the ball clays of Dorset and Devon are often worked by shallow mines in preference to open quarries, because in this way the clays are kept covered and the flooding of the workings is largely avoided moreover, the amount of overlying material is sufficiently great to prove costly in removal, yet it is so soft that the driving of a series of shafts costs less than the removal of the whole of the over-burden. Usually, hrick clays and those allied to them are obtained by simple quarrying, as the cost of mining would be prohibitive, but, in some localities, clays which have been discarded by coal miners and brought to the surface of the ground in order to make more room inside a coal pit are used for the manufacture of bricks, tiles, terra-cotta, etc. Hence no general rule can be given as covering general practice. Fireclays are almost invariably obtained by mining, as they are usually overlain by a great thickness of material. China clays are obtained by a special form of quarrying, which consists in removing the overlying material by digging, and then washing out the clay by means of a series of streams of water which flow in circuitous
;
many
other local conditions.
34
35
The water, directions dowTi the face of the quarry. laden with clay and " sand," is allowed to settle so that the coarser impurities may be removed, and the milky fluid is then pumped to the ground level where it is subjected to fmther treatment in order to separate as much as possible of the materials other than clay
Chap. VI). In quarrying clay the usual practice is to employ men with spades who dig the material, throwing the overburden of useless material into wagons or barrows so that it may be removed to a tip or spoil bank, and putting the good clay into other wagons or barrows in which it is taken to the works. It is necessary to have an efl&cient foreman at the quarry, as the admixture of unsuitable material with the clay sent to the works may result in serious loss to the manufacturers. It is usual to find the clay interspersed with layers or masses of sand, gravel, hmestone dust and other unsuitable materials, and care must be taken to keep these separate from the clay sent to the works, much ingenuity being needed in some quarries to obtain the maximum quantity of clay at a minimum of
(see
expense.
Some clays are so plastic that an admixture of sand is necessary to make them useful in such cases the sand may be mixed with the clay in the quarry or at some early stage in the treatment of the material. If the sand occurs in the quarry or in some accessible position
;
much the better otherwise it must be purchased. Recently, the enormous quantities of clay required by some works has necessitated the use of mechanical means of getting the clay, and the use of steam navvies has met with considerable success. These large digging machines will dig and load into wagons at the rate
so
;
of a ton per
minute under ordinary conditions, but they
36
require a moderately high face of clay, and cannot be used in some clay quarries because the thickness of the
clay strata is insufficient. When their use is possible, the cost of working is about one-fifth of the price for digging and loading by hand. Shales and other hard clays must usually be quarried with the aid of explosives. A hole is bored in the ground a short distance from the face of the quarry and into this hole is placed a charge of explosives. In a large works several charges may be fired in different parts at the same time. The material is loosened and may either fall of its own weight or it may be felled by the aid of picks and then placed in wagons and taken to the works. As it is essential that the machinery should be supplied as regularly as possible with clay, it is now usual to employ mechanical haulage from the quarry to the works. The arrangement known as endless haulage, in which the wagons are attached to an endless chain or band, is the most satisfactory in the majority of cases, but in some works it is better to have a simple haulage with a single rope, only one wagon being drawn up at
a time. In mining clay the methods employed vary with the nature of the material. The ball clays of Devon and Dorset and some of the Staffordshire marls are mined by means of shallow shafts fitted with a simple winchlifting gear, but the fireclays and other clays from the
deeper pits are mined in a similar manner to coal. Long passages, specially ventilated, are made underground, and from the sides of these the clay is obtained by means of picks and shovels. The use of explosives is common in some mines, but is prohibited in others on account of the danger. The clays are placed in small wagons which are hauled by ponies to the bê of the shaft and
38
are then lifted to the surface by the usual winding plant at the pit -head, and are taken from thence to the
works, usually by means of a pony, but sometimes by a small locomotive.

Precautions. It is essential in mining or quarrying clay that the material should be kept as free as possible
from contamination with undesirable substances which occur in close association with it. This is sometimes very difficult to secure, yet the success of the works may largely depend on the skill of the quarrymen or miners in this respect. The mixing of low
grade bind or sihceous rock with a fireclay may make it useless as a refractory material, and the presence of a shovelful of limestone dust or duff in a wagon of brick clay may effect the destruction of more than a thousand bricks. These two instances will show how careful must be the supervision of the quarry or mine, and unless sufficient precautions are taken it will be impossible to make goods of saleable quality. Some localities are more favoured than others in this respect thus the boulder clay deposits are particularly liable to cause trouble by limestone dust, some river-deposited clays are so irregular and uncertain in their composition as to be almost useless, and some deep-lying clays are too thin to be worked profitably. In other localities clays and shales occur in beds of such thickness that there is little or no trouble caused by adventitious materials, whilst in still other districts the only way to make satisfactory goods is to use a carefully compounded mixture from several different strata. In ascertaining the precautions needed to be taken and in seeing that they are duly observed lies part of the skill of the successful clayworker a skill which is often far greater than is commonly supposed by those unacquainted with the difficulties of the work. It is a

curious
39
clay quarry-
and
interesting fact that

Uttle or
many
no book knowledge of distinguishing remarkably adept at geology are between different kinds of materials under conditions of lighting which would baflQe some of the most learned
men and miners with
petrologists
and
mineralogists.
4 (1465B)
CHAPTER V
WEATHERING
The particles of true clay in a commercial clay are so extremely small that it is difficult to see their shape even under the most powerful microscope, but the clay as it comes from the quarry or mine is in the form of irregular sized lumps of stiff paste or rock. These are formed by the grains of material being compressed
by natural forces and, in some cases, by their being cemented together by some natural cement. In order to obtain a satisfactory material for use it is
together
necessary to break down these lumps so as to separate the grains from each other as completely as possible. To some extent this can be done by crushing machinery, as described in Chap. VII, but such machinery can only exert pressure on the outside of the lumps, and its action can never be so complete as one which works from the
This latter action is most effectweathering and washing. Of these the latter is too costly, except for the more valuable clays, but the action of the weather may usefully be applied to almost all clays, the exceptions to this statement being so small that in a volume like the present they may be ignored. Weathering consists in exposing the clay to the action of the weather in order to effect its disintegration, and also to effect certain minor changes which may improve the value of the clay for working purposes. The chief action of the weather is during the latter peneperiods of frost following rain trates the clay and then freezes. In freezing, the
interior outwards.
ively produced
by two processes
40
WEATHERING
water
apart
41
expands and forces the particles of clay This action is repeated from each other. in each succeeding frost until the whole of the material For this action to be satisfactory, the is broken up. clay must be sufficiently dry at first, and must not be subjected to too much rain, as this would form an impervious coating and would prevent the rain penetrating
into the interior. The action of the frost does not extend to a depth of more than a foot from the surface, so that the best results are obtained if the material is spread out in moderately thin layers rather than tipped in a large heap. Some clays are affected by air and sunshine almost as much as by frost, and these are broken up sufficiently by exposure to the air for two or three days in summer
weather, whilst other clays require two or three years' exposure to the most severe wintry weather before their disintegration is sufficiently advanced. Clays which weather slowly are less satisfactory as regards the cost of treatment, as the amount of capital tied up in the weathering grounds is often very great. This is particularly the case with some of the more valuable clays such as ball clays. The chief action of the weather on clays niay conveniently be summarised under the following heads Mechanical Disruption brought about by the action of the water, and particularly by frost on the clay. This action is usually very slow, though very complete if sufficient time is allowed. Oxidation of impurities, and especially of a cement of vegetable origin which binds the particles of some clays together. This oxidation may occur very rapidly under favourable conditions and is chiefly due to the action of the air. Some of the minerals in the clay may also become oxidized the red hmonite
:
42
stains
observable in some light coloured clays are partly due to this cause. Hydrolysis or the combination of water with some of the substances present in the clay. The effect of
is comparaon the clay its chief effect is to increase the plasticity, though the rate at which this can occur is so slow, that it is often difficult to note any change except after long periods of time.
hydrolysis on the impurities in the clay

;
tively unimportant
CHAPTER
VI
PURIFYING CLAYS
For the manufacture of bricks, roofing tiles and coarse pottery the clays are used as they come from the quarry, mine or weathering ground without any purification. To a large extent the same is true of the ball clays used for earthenware. China clay, on the contrary, is purified by a process of washing, and some of
the more impure clays are subjected to special treatment to remove stones, and excess of sand or gravel. There are fom- chief methods of purifying clays, each
of
left
which
may
be
briefly described, the reader being
to decide for himself which he would use imder or Picking
any
given circumstances
is a very simple process. It examining every piece of clay as it comes from the quarry and picking out obvious impurities such as stones, nodules of iron pjo-ites, pieces of wood and other adventitious materials, etc. It must be carried out by careful and thoroughly conscientious men who are old enough to do this tedious work in a competent manner. In the case of fireclays this preliminary sorting should never be omitted with other clays it is often considered an
Sorting
consists in carefully
unnecessary expense. Cleaning clay consists in making it into a soft paste by the addition of water and mixing in a suitable machine, foUowed by passing the paste through some form of sieve which will allow the small particles to pass whilst the larger ones (gravel and stones) are retained. The pressure required to force the clay through holes ^Vth in. diameter is very great, so the
43
44

is
best form of sieve

of
a hollow cylinder of steel the sides
which are perforated with a large number of holes. The stones and gravel are then retained in the cylinder whilst the cleaned clay passes out through the perforations.
It
is
clear
that
only
impurities
coarse
enough to be retained by the sieve are removed in this manner, so that the process is never very efficient, though extremely useful in the working of clays whose chief drawback is the presence of gravel or stones.
Washing consists in treating the clay with so much water that a cream or slurry is produced in which the clay remains in suspension whilst the sand and other coarser impurities are allowed to settle to the bottom of the washing tank. The slurry carrying the clay is then run off into another tank where the suspended matter is allowed to settle and the clear water is run off. The thick slime may be freed from a further quantity of water by means of a filter press, or the water may be removed by heating the material on a hot floor or dryer. The amount of purification which can be effected by washing depends on the extent of the treatment if the slurry is only allowed to remain stationary for a few moments the clay will be very impure, but if several hours standing is possible the greater part of the impurities will settle out and a much purer clay will be obtained. Under no circumstances is the clay perfectly pure, as some of the impurities are so fine that they cannot be removed by this means. In order that the washing may be effective it is necessary that the clay and water shall be very intimately mixed together this is effected by breaking the clay into small pieces and feeding these into a circular tank (Fig. 3) with the water necessary to make a slurry. In the tank are arms or harrows which
; ;
PURIFYING CLAYS
45
are rotated in such a manner that they break up the clay still further and cause it to mix with the water. By subjecting it to the action of these arms or to blades
mounted on a
the clay
is
shaft which behave in a similar manner,
up and mixed with the water that a uniform slurry is formed in which the clay and sand When the blades or harrows are both in suspension.
so broken
Fig. 3
WASH-MILL and after what is deemed a suitable time the fluid is run off. The clay which is washed most carefully is china
are stopped, the sand begins to settle,
clay.
This is obtained (as described on p. 34) in the form of a milk-white fluid containing a mixture of clay and mica the latter is in the form of minute flakes which do not settle so readily as sand grains. Consequently the china clay slurry is allowed to flow very slowly down long channels arranged in the form of a huge grid, with the result that the bulk of the mica is depc sited and the clay contained in the slurry which flows out of the channels is comparatively pure. This
;
46
slurry
is
then run into large settling pits where the clay clear water is run off. The soft slimy material at the bottom of these pits is then dried on hot floors heated by iiies, a stiff paste being thereby obtained. For some purposes the drying is carried still further, so that lumps of dry clay are produced. In the South of England, brick clay is often washed to free it from stones and in order that it may be more effectively mixed with chalk, the latter being needed to reduce the plasticity of the clay and to make the bricks stronger than would otherwise be the case. Chalk has also the effect of making the bricks white in colour. The washed clay (mixed with chalk) is run off into large shallow tanks, termed wash-hacks, where it is allowed to settle and the water is then run off. The residual mixture is allowed to dry until it is stiff enough to bear the weight of a man, when it is dug out and sent to the works. This process is very slow and tedious it may be quickened by drying the clay by artificial heat, but that would be too costly for brickmaking it is frequently done when a similar clay (but without the chalk) is used for making coarse pottery. Electro-Osmosis is a process invented by Count Schwerin some years ago which has never made much progress in spite of its apparent advantages. It consists in suspending the clay in water as in washing and then subjecting the slurry to the action of an
settles
and the
electric current.
The
impurities in the clay settle to
the bottom and the purified clay is deposited on a rotary drum in the form of a soft paste and is removed from the drum by means of scrapers. Tests of various
clays have produced remarkable results, but the process
regarded as too costly for commercial use. Various other purifying methods are in use, but are only employed to a very limited extent.
is
CHAPTER
VII
CRUSHING AND GRINDING
For the manufacture of bricks, roofing tiles and other purposes where a coarse clay is required, the material from the quarry, mine or weathering bank is reduced to the necessary fineness by some form of crushing or grinding machinery. and Clayworkers distinguish between crushing grinding inasmuch as they employ the first term for the breaking down of a material into pieces of a smaller size, whilst the latter is invariably used with reference to the production of a powder. Plastic clays cannot be reduced to powder unless they have been dried and their plasticity placed in abeyance, but shales and other hard clays (such as fireclays) can be ground to powder of almost any desired fineness. The usual method of crushing a plastic clay is to pass it between two horizontal rollers, placed side by side in such a manner that the clay falls on top and is drawn between the rotating rolls and is crushed to a thin sheet. If the clay contains stones which it is not considered necessary to remove, it may be necessary to use two or even three pairs of rolls placed one above the other, the uppermost pair being placed about 1 in. apart, the middle pair about | in. apart, and the lowest pair almost touching each other. In this way the material is gradually reduced by the rolls into a
series
of thin flakes.
Very
difi&cult
clays are some-
times subjected to the action of an edge-runner mill which consists of a pair of grinding stones running on a pan-hke base.
47
48
After the stones have crushed the clay, it is drawn of the pan, and at the next turn of the rolhng stones it is pressed through the perforations to the crushing rolls beneath. Care is needed with plastic clays that the material which has passed between the rolls is sufficiently thin
by scrapers over a perforated part
By
ihi courtesy of
Messrs. John Whitehead
&
Co., Lid.
Fig. 4
EDGE-RUNNER MILL WITH REVOLVING PAN

and broken up to mix readily with water when treated
Unless this is done be difficult to produce a material of sufficient uniformity. Shales, fireclays and other hard clays are preferably
as described in the next chapter.
it
will
49
ground in an entirely different manner. One of the most suitable types of machinery for this purpose is an edge-runner mill, which consists of a pan in which a pair of grinding stones rotate on their circumference whence the name of the mill. These runners are usually 4 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 6 in. diameter, the pan being
By
the
coutUsy u)
iukir
&
Co., Ltd.
Fig. 5
EDGE-RUNNER MILL WITH REVOLVING PAN

ft. diameter the runners may be mounted on a horizontal shaft connected to a crown wheel and pinion so that they are driven around the pan, or
about 11
they
may
pan driven
be mounted loosely on a fixed shaft and the at a moderate rate, the friction between
50
the pan, the clay
to revolve.
is
and the runners causing the latter The former arrangement with a fixed pan
not used so
much
as formerly, except for very hard
materials, as the output of the revolving
pan
is
much
greater in comparison with the driving power required.

suitable for the material to be ground, the
In order to obtain good results, the runners must be pan must be driven at a suitable speed, and the shaft carrying the runners must be free to move up and down so as to allow the runners to press with their full weight on the material. It is also essential that the quantity of
there
clay on the pan shall be as constant as possible, for if is too much clay the mill will not grind properly, and too little material will obviously prevent the mill
capacity. To secure a steady supply some firms use automatic feeders with advantage and economy. As the material on the pan is crushed by the action of the runners, it is moved by scrapers into a portion of the pan which is perforated with slots or small holes
working at
its full
of material,
tainer below the mill.
through which the crushed particles pass into a conAny particles which have not been crushed sufficiently small to pass out of the pan are carried forward and again pass beneath the runners and are subjected to a further crushing. The action of the mill is therefore quite automatic when once the material is on the pan. The material which passes out of the mill will contain particles of all sizes less than the width of the slot or hole in the pan. It is not advisable to have
in. is
these slots or holes too small (about ^
the usual
It is
minimum),
as they
would wear away too rapidly on
account of the grinding action of the material.

therefore necessary to
employ some form
of riddle
or
screen in order to separate the coarser from the finer

particles of
is
51
material of which these a coarse wire gauze having 12 to 20 meshes per linear inch, but a much simpler arrangement is a sheet of steel placed at an angle of about 45 degrees and perforated with ^ in. holes. The angle at which the plate is fixed converts it into a sieve with the effect of much smaller holes than it actually possesses, so that the wear is slight and there is so little resistance to the flow of the material over the metal that a large output is obtained. When a gauze screen is used it is necessary to vibrate it mechanically in order that the particles may hop over the cross wires and so travel down the screen ; this is effected by a simple form of crank or by a loosely-hung bar, which raps the framework of the screen at frequent intervals. The material which is too coarse to pass through the screen, travels over its surface from one end to the other, and finally drops down a chute and back to the edge-runner mill . for further grinding. The finer particles pass through the screen and are received on a floor or in a hopper they should be of a convenient size for the goods to be made from them, a coarser or finer screen being used according to the sizes of the
ground
clay.
The
screens
usually
made
is
particles desired.
This method of grinding reduces the clay to a mode-
which will unite together under moderate pressure, but will not form a plastic mass until water is added to them. This is a great convenience, as it enables a much smaller quantity of water to be used than is contained in some plastic
clays.
rately fine powder, the particles of
There are many details which require care and attention in order to grind or crush clays efl&ciently and at
the lowest possible cost these are beyond the scope of the present volume, and for further particulars some
;
52
of the larger technical works
on the subject (such as those mentioned in the Appendix) should be consulted.

In some branches of clayworking it is necessary to grind materials other than clay, such as old bricks (grog), cement clinker, etc. For these it is sometimes necessary to use other types of grinding plant, such as disintegrators, ball mills, tube mills, etc. The screening devices for some of these materials must be capable of dealing with much finer powders than the ones described, and air-separators, which work on the centrifugal
principle, are largely
employed.
CHAPTER Mil
TEMPERING AND PUGGING
When
articles are
made
of plastic clay
it
is
usually
important to treat the clay in such a manner that its plasticity is as uniform as possible, as otherwise the goods will vary in size, and this may prove extremely inconvenient. In order to ensure this uniformity of texture, the clay and any other materials which may be mixed with it must be tempered with sufficient water to convert it into a paste of the desired
consistency.
There are two common methods of mechanically tempering clays one consists in mixing the clay in a special form of edge-runner mill, and the other involves the latter method is often known the use of a pugmill What is sometimes termed " hand-temas pugging. pering " consists in wetting the clay, then digging it and turning it over repeatedly with a wooden spade, or in using the hands to mix the water and clay together, pieces of the mass being broken off, turned and put back into the mass an indefinite number of times imtil the paste is uniform in texture. If the paste is very stiff it is sometimes cut into thin shces by means of a tightly-stretched wire these shces are then re-arranged and put together to form a fresh mass which is beaten until it is homogeneous. This process ^termed wedging is repeated frequently until the mass is homogeneous. For small quantities, hand-tempering is satisfactory and gives very good results, but it is too costly for large outputs, and is also very laborious. The labour may be reduced by using the feet instead of the bands,
; ; ;
53
54
the wetted clay being placed on a smooth floor and trodden by the naked feet of the workmen, who use their toes to work and knead the paste, but even this method is confined to a limited class of goods on account
of its cost.
Mechanical tempering in a pan-mill is particularly but rather costly. The mill used for this purpose is an edge-runner mill with a solid revolving pan, similar in many ways to the mill used for grinding clays (Fig. 4), but of much lighter construction. Moreover, the runners are so arranged that they do not press with all their weight on the material in the pan, but only apply sufficient pressure to ensure the material being thoroughly mixed. The mills used for " grinding mortar are a well-known type of tempering mill, but those used in clay-works are usually of better construction and more thorough action. A suitable quantity of the clay and water is placed in the mill, and the latter is then set in motion for fifteen to thirty minutes, after which the speed of the mill is reduced and a shovel with a long swivelled handle is used to
efficient,
remove the paste from the pan. Some pan-mills are provided with a continuous acting device, some of the material being removed from the pan in a steady stream, whilst a fresh supply of material enters near the centre of the mill. These continuous mixers have a much larger output than the intermittent ones, but their operation is not nearly so thorough and, unless the material is easily mixed, the product is not so uniform. Arrangements of scrapers on a revolving frame are occasionally used when a very soft or friable paste is required, but to secure as perfect a union of the clay and water as can possibly be prepared, the pasting and rubbing action of the pan-mill is essential. Hence,
By
courtesy of Messrs.
John WkUehead
&
Co.,
Ud.
Fig. 6
TROUGH-MIXER
5 (1465 b)
56
though a pan-mill is costly to operate, it still remains the best machine where an entirely homogeneous paste
is
required.
purposes, and trough-mixer.
Unfortunately, it is too costly for many is then replaced it by a pugmill or

is sufficient,
When
a moderate degree of uniformity

is
one which can be readily converted into a paste of the desired consistency, a troughmixer (Fig. 6) or a pugmill (Fig. 7) may be used. These are really two forms of the same machine, the troughmixer being merely a pugmill with an open top. It is less powerful in action than a pugmill, but is much cheaper to construct and is more convenient to use, so that it often forms an efficient preliminary mixer, the tempering being completed by the pugmill. Both the trough-mixer and the pugmill consist essentially of a case containing a longitudinal shaft fitted with mixing blades. These blades are placed at such an angle to each other and to the axis of the shaft that when the latter revolves and the machine is full of clay paste, the blades cut into the clay, turning it over and over until it is well mixed. The extent of the mixing will depend chiefly on the angle of the blades and on the length of the mixer if the blades form an almost true screw-thread about the shaft the paste will be propelled rapidly from one end of the mixer to the other, but very little mixing will occur. If, on the contrary, the blades make no such uniform figure, the cutting and mixing power will be increased, but the rate of travel through the machine will be correspondingly reduced. Makers of these machines therefore effect a compromise and endeavour to combine the mixing and propelling abilities so as to give the best results with the least expenditure of time and power. The solid material is fed into the mixer or pugmill
;
or where the clay
By
the courtesy of
ifessrs.
C. WluOaker
&
Co., Ltd.
Fig. 7
VERTICAL PUGMIIL
58
(Fig, 7) in a small, steady stream, and any additional water required is allowed to trickle into it from a perforated pipe, it being usually necessary to employ a smart youth to adjust the water-supply so as to produce a suitable paste. By using a short length of trough-mixer, it is easy for this youth to see that the requisite proportions of solid and water are present before they enter the closed portion or pugmill. If the material issues from the mill in too stiff a form, it must be wetted still more and put through the mill again if it is too soft it must be allowed to dry somewhat and then must be pugged over again. As both
;
these processes are troublesome, it is desirable to see that the material is neither too wet nor too dry when it enters the pugmill. Plastic clays from crushing rolls
little or no added water and may be passed directly into the pugmill dry, ground clay, on the contrary, requires a considerable quantity of water to convert it into a plastic paste, and for this reason an open mixer, about 6 ft. long, is desirable as
usually require
a preliminary mixing machine.
The consistency of the tempered material will depend upon the purpose for which it is to be used. For hand-moulded bricks it must be too soft to
handle without it adhering tenaciously to the fingers, but for modelling, or for use in plaster moulds, and for mechanical pressing, it should be so stiff that it will readily take an impression of the fine lines of the skin yet will not adhere unduly when a piece is squeezed tightly in the hand. For some mechanical presses an even stiffer paste is preferable. The consistency is largely regulated by the amount of water present in the material, but the size of the solid particles, the amount of sand and other non-plastic material and the extent of the mixing are also important.
TEMPERING AND PUGGING
59
When it is required to prepare a clay paste of the greatest possible uniformity, with the plasticity of the clay developed to the fullest extent, it is necessary to
temper it several times, and in the intervals between the temperings to keep the paste in a cool place where it may "sour" without being liable to freeze. The
it was nature of this souring is imperfectly known at one time thought to be due to bacterial action, though this has not been proved, and it is now generally considered as a purely chemical reaction between the water and the clay. It is certain that during the process of souring the water is distributed more imiformly throughout the mass than is possible by any mechanical means yet de\nsed, and that the plasticity of the clay is markedly increased. If the paste is kept in a hot
;
room
it
dries too rapidly,

is
and the reaction whereby

is less
the plasticity
It
is
increased
noticeable, hence the
desirability of storing the paste in a cool place.
considered
by brick manufacturers, and by
many
others engaged in the production of clay goods,
in comparison is too costly with the results obtained, and this is probably true where the cost is of priiue consideration in the manufacture of valuable ware such as porcelain, however, the value of souring is more appreciated, particularly among the Chinese, who have been accustomed to store some of their clay pastes for several generations before deeming it fit for use for their best ware. A short storage of a couple of days or so greatly improves the working power of all clay pastes, so that where it can be done this storage is desirable, even when a longer period, though preferable, may be deemed too costly.
that prolonged storing
CHAPTER IX
CLAY SLIPS AND THEIR USES
a clay with about an equal weight or more of water are known as slips, and the production of such fluids serves several useful purposes in clay working. In the first place, materials which may occur as impurities in the clay may not be able to remain in suspension so long as do the clay particles, so that the production of a slip which is allowed to stand for some time and the fluid then run off will serve as an efficient means of removing such impurities. Such a process is known as " Washing " (p. 44). The production of a slip is also a convenient means of obtaining a clay or other substance in a state convenient to mix with others. Thus, in the manufacture of earthenware (Chap. XV) the clay and other ingredients are all converted into slips these slips are then mixed together, after which the mixed slip is passed through a filter-press where the bulk of the water is separated and a plastic cake is produced. By this means a much more uniform mixture is obtained than would be produced if the materials were treated as
fluids
;
The
made by mixing
described in Chap. VIII.

Slips are usually produced from the higher grades of This clay in a machine known as a blimger (Fig. 22) consists of an upright drum or cylinder fitted with a vertical shaft carrying a number of arms or blades. The materials and water are placed in this blunger, and the shaft is rotated somewhat slowly at first and then
.
more rapidly. As the blades travel round they churn up the contents and cause a thorough intermingling of
60

solid
is
61
slip of uniform consistency the material in the Hunger consists of a particularly tough clay, it may be necessary to run the machine for an unprofitably long time this may be avoided by breaking up the clay into smaller pieces and putting only a few at a time into the machine.
and water whereby a

If
formed.
of material in a slip can be judged with accuracy by weighing one pint of the slip, and potters are accustomed to make their slips to certain definite densities (expressed in terms of " ounces per pint "), so as to secure uniformity of composition for their various mixtures. In order that a material may be made into a useful slip, it is necessary that it shall consist of small particles, like clay, or that it shall have been ground to a fine powder. Blungers have no true grinding or crushing action they merely serve to disintegrate particles which are minute yet held feebly together by some adhesive power. Hence, felspar and other materials used in the manufacture of glazes, must be ground to powder before they are made into slip in a blunger. This prehminary grinding is usually effected in an edge-runner mill or a ball mill (Chap. VII). When mixtures of several clays are to be used, or where a body is to be composed of several substances, it is often convenient to make each into a separate slip with a definite weight per pint, and then to mix suitable volumes of these slips together. In practice, this is much simpler and more accurate than weighing out the corresponding weights of each material and then mixing them together. It has the further advantage that two or more clays can be mixed with great intimacy, whereas this is almost impossible when several plastic clays are tempered in the plastic or pasty state.
The amount
considerable
62
Tempering (Chap. VIII) is excellent for making a homogeneous paste from a single clay or from a mixture of clay with sand or grog, but, where two or more plastic clays are to be mixed into a paste and great
uniformity is essential, it is better to first make each into a slip by blunging, mix the two slips together in the desired proportions, blunge the mixture thoroughly so as to secure complete comminution and
homogeneity and then removing the surplus water by
means
of a filter-press.
a series bags of closely woven material these bags are filled with slip and are then closed. Pressure is applied to the bags in such a manner that the water escapes through the material, but the clay is retained in the bag. After all the surplus water has been squeezed " out in this manner, the bags are opened and the " cake of paste is then removed. An alternative method of converting a slip into a plastic paste consists in heating the slip in a large, shallow tank or pan, so as to evaporate the greater part of the water. This requires a much longer time than when a filter-press is used, but the combined effect of the heat and the time of treatment produce a more This is plastic paste than that formed in a filter-press. often important in dealing with mixtures of low plasticity as are some of those from which porcelain is manufactured (see Chap. XV). Slips are extensively used as a convenient means of applying a coating of fine clay or glaze to an article the latter is burned so as to make it porous and is then dipped into the shp. The water in the slip is absorbed in the pores of the article, and the solid matter remains on the exterior of the article as a thin, uniform coating. Such slips are made by grinding the appropriate raw
filter-press (Fig. 8) consists essentially of
;
of
64
and then with water in a blunger. In order that any coarse particles may be removed, the slip is passed through a fine sieve (termed a lawn) which only permits the finer particles to pass through it. It is necessary to keep such slips in a state of frequent motion by stirring them immediately before use, as otherwise the heavier particles will sink towards the bottom of the container and the composition of the slip will be made irregular. Stirring obviates this if it is performed with sufficient frequency and at the right time. By covering an article made of a cheap clay with a thin coating of a more expensive clay it is often possible to obtain the same effect as if the article had been made throughout of the better clay. Thus, glazed white bricks are usually made of a buff-burning clay covered with a slip in which the white-burning clays predominate. Sometimes pots which are made of a very common clay are *' faced " with a coating of a high grade, red-burning clay, and thus present an appearance which is superior to that which would be obtained were no such coating used. It is necessary that the slips used for this purpose should be composed of such materials that the coating has the same conotherwise traction as the cheaper clay when heated the coating will crack or peel off and so will spoil the goods. Sand or flint is generally added to reduce the of coating, but the addition shrinkage of the Cornish stone or felspar is sometimes necessary in order that the coating may be made sufficiently fusible to adhere properly to the article to which it
;
materials, mixing these in suitable proportions
is
attached.
Articles
of coarse clay may first be covered white clay, as described above, and afterwards with a glaze, the latter being applied in a similar
made
with a
slip of

manner.
or engobe.
65
The coating
of fine clay
is
kno\\Ti as a body
The compounding of successful slips requires great and experience and is an important part of the work of the successful manufacturer.
skill
CHAPTER X
BRICKS
The manufacture
insufficient
of bricks covers so
many
operations
is
;
and includes so many processes that a large volume

to
with the subject in the following pages, therefore, only the merest outline can be given of an industry which is of exceedingly great importance, and the reader who wishes for further information must consult one of the works mentioned at the end of this present volume. Commercially, bricks may be divided into four main groups, viz., (a) Building bricks for architectural purposes, (b) Engineering bricks for bridges and other
deal
exhaustively
structures
to
where
is
exceptional
required,
(c)
strength
or
resistance
chiefly
corrosion
Glazed
bricks,
used in architecture, and

linings
(d) firebricks
used for furnace

are described
and other structures

is
in
last
which great resistance
to heat
in
necessary.
The
named
Chap. XVII. Clays used for Bricks. For building bricks the clays used are generally impure in fact, a pure clay would not prove at all suitable for such a purpose, as it would not produce bricks of sufficient strength, and the colour would be a dead white, which would soon become discoloured, as the material would be very porous. The attractive colour of red bricks is due to iron oxide
present in the clay the curious colour of blue engineering bricks is due to the same substance, but the
;
firing of
different colour
is
the bricks being under different conditions, a is produced. The strength of bricks largely due to the formation of a bond or cementing
66
Fig. 9
FANCY BRICKS FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES
68

;
material which unites the grains together

is
this
bond
produced by the fusion of some of the constituents of the clay or by the combination of some of the impurities with the clay itself so as to form a readily fusible compound. This fused matter, on cooling, becomes solid and holds the particles of the bricks very firmly together. Building bricks are made from almost all the commoner varieties of clay (see page 15), either alone or mixed with some material to confer special properties on them. Thus, London Stocks are made from a mixture of chalk, cinder dust and clay this forms a mixture which is less plastic than the original clay. The chalk provides one ingredient which combines with the clay and forms a fusible bond, whilst the cinder dust forms a fuel which is mixed so intimately with the clay that it secures the brick being heated more intensely than if the whole of the fuel were external to the brick. The result is a brick of great strength compared with the quantity of fuel with which it is fired. White Suffolk bricks are made from a mixture of clay and chalk, but without the cinder dust. Red Bricks, both common bricks and facings, are made from clays rich in iron oxide buff bricks are made from clays which contain a less proportion of this oxide. Glazed bricks are made of fireclay and are
;
;
afterwards glazed by dipping them in a suitable slip which, in the kiln, fuses and produces the glaze. Various terms are applied to bricks which are defective, such bricks are only such as grizzles^ burnovers, etc. used for the roughest work or where strength or appearance is unimportant. The best qualities of building
;
bricks are used for exterior work,

facings
;
and are known as they are selected on account of their pleasing
colour, their fine texture, their strength,
and the nature
BRICKS
of their surface.
69
In order to produce a slightly dull
and roughened surface, the bricks are sometimes coated with sand, and are then known as sand-faced bricks.
Local terms are extensively used, but the foregoing include the chief varieties of building bricks of a saleable character. There has been an increasing tendency of late to designate bricks by fancy names, such as
"Rustic"
names
bricks,
are usually registered,
asset to the firm
"Tapestry" bricks, etc.; these and often form a valuable which is able to build up a good
of such a special title for their
business
by the use
goods.
Preparation of Clay. ^The clay used for brickmaking is usually converted into a plastic paste, but sometimes a slightly damp powder, made by grinding the dry clay or shale, is used (see p. 49). According to the nature of the clay and its freedom from objectionable impurities, the clay is either cleaned (p. 43), passed through crushing rolls (p. 47), or put direct into the mixer or pugmill (p. 56), the necessary water being added so as to make a paste of the desired consistency. If the material is too hard to be treated in this manner,
it
is ground in an edge-runner mill powder and water are then mixed as
(p.
49)
and the
before.
According to the consistency of the paste produced, the process used is known as the plastic, stiff-plastic, or
semi-dry process respectively. The advantage of the two latter is that the bricks require less drying than when a very soft and highly plastic paste is used the softer paste is easier to use and does not require so much mechanical power as the stiffer ones, but the drying
;
presents difficulties.
Making the
bricks
Bricks.
^The
on
depend
chiefly
material to be used.
methods of shaping the the consistency of the The simplest method to describe
70
is
known
as the semi-dry process
; it
consists in pass-
ing the ground
powdery clay through a short mixer which will distribute any moisture present evenly throughout the mass yet without causing it to become
By
the courtesy oj
Messrs. C. WkUtaker
&
Co.,
Ud.
Fig. 10
MACHINE FOR MAKING SEMI- DRY BRICKS

box or die of a powerful press (Fig. 10) which the material is subjected to the pressure of a plunger, which squeezes it to such an extent that the Owing particles are compressed into a firm, hard brick.
pasty, then into the
in
BRICKS
71
to technical difficulties, such as the retention of air

is difficult to produce sound but by applying severed distinct pressures, these difficulties are largely overcome, and with a suitable press and a material adapted to this method of working, it is possible to make excellent bricks. In the Peterborough district this semi-dry method has been used for years with great success, the material there being one of the few which are
between the
bricks
particles,
it
by
this process,
suitable for this process.
The Hand-moulding Process
is
next in simpUcity
Fig. 11
MOULD FOR HAND-MADE BRICKS

it, a plastic and rather soft paste is used. This is placed on a wooden bench of convenient height, a sufficient space being left for the mould (Fig. 11), which is
in
a rectangular box without top or bottom and shghtly larger than a brick. The moulder dips the mould in water and may then dip it in sand he then places the mould on the bench and takes up a mass of the soft paste in his hands and roUs it into a sohd lump on the previously wetted or sanded bench. He then hfts this clot high above his head with both hands and throws it with great violence into the mould, fiUing the latter completely. The moulder then presses the paste well into the bottom corners of the mould with his fingers, and afterwards cuts off any superfluous paste from the mould
;
6(146SB)
72

tightly stretched wire across
it.
by drawing a
Some
men
prefer to use a straight piece of wood, which they
strike, and to scrape off the superfluous paste with this the latter method is distinctly quicker when it can be used. With a quick turn of his wrists, the man then turns the mould with its contents on one side and he then empties the mould on to a small board or places it on a rack, from whence it is carried away by a boy and emptied on to the drying floor. If the maker turns out the brick on to a pallet board, the carry-off boy places a similar board on the brick, and spanning both boards with his fingers without either squeezing the brick or allowing it to fall out, carries it away to the drying floor, on which he sets it carefully so as not to produce a misshapen brick. A good maker will produce 5,000 bricks a day with the aid of one strong youth and
; ;
term a
two boys. The amount of skill required to make bricks by hand at a sufficiently rapid rate is much greater than is usually supposed, and, as the pay is small and the work both onerous and laborious, the number of handmoulders is never equal to the demands of the trade. Consequently it has become customary to adopt various mechanical devices in order that youths and unskilled men may be employed at this part of the manufacture. The machines which imitate hand-moulding have never met with' much success, as they necessarily depend on
the material being capable of being pressed uniformly into the mould, whereas it is extremely difficult to fill a mould properly with a soft paste by means of any mechanism. Where a paste is moderately sandy these " soft mud machines " have proved fairly satisfactory for the production of
common
bricks
they
usually consist otra pugmill placed above a series of
BRICKS
73
is
moulds
directly
in
such a manner that the paste
passed
from the pugmill to the moulds. The machine is stopped momentarily whilst a wire is drawn across the top of the moulds so as to cut off the superfluous The moulds are then removed and replaced by clay.
others, so that a fresh set of bricks
the
first
set are being
is being made whilst turned out of the moulds.
By the
courtesy of
Meisrs.
Fig. 12
HORSE-DRIV'EX M.^CHINE FOR WIRE-CUT BRICKS
Wire-Cut Bricks ^ are made from a soft, plastic paste by an ingenious and simple process which consists in
John WTiitehead & Co., Ltd., were among the makers of machines for bricks of this kind, and Fig. 12 is interesting on this account. This type of machine is still extensively used where engine power is not available. The
1
Messrs.
earliest
present fashion is in favour of a horizontal pugmill in place of the vertical one shown, the bricks now Lssuing from only one end of the machine.
74

(p.
it
making the exit of the pugmill that the paste extruded from
column or band
of clay-paste
56) of such a shape
is
in the shape of a
whose width is equal to the length of the brick and whose height is that of the brick to be made. Hence, by cutting this column into
By
the courtesy of
&
Co., Ltd.
Fig. 13
ENGINE-DRIVEN MACHINE FOR MAKING WIRE-CUT BRICKS

pieces, each the
width of an ordinary brick, it is easy to may be desired. In the United States it is customary to make a longer and narrower column and to cut off the bricks lengthwise, but in other
make
as
many
bricks as
BRICKS
respects the
75
process is that used in Great Britain. Small, but important, alterations in the pugmill are necessary when the clay paste extruded from it has to
pass through an opening of special shape, as it is necessary that the paste shall be more consolidated than in an ordinary mixing pugmiU. The column must be received on roUers or on a well-greased plate, as any resistance imposed on its movement will cause distortion of the bricks. There are man}' devices
column into bricks, and some and almost automatic. It is usual, however, to employ another arrangement (Fig. 14), whose chief recommendation is that it is simple and does not soon get out of order, namely, a frame across which vsires are stretched in a vertical direction above a fixed base or table. This is placed parallel to the issuing column of paste, and at suitable intervals a sufl&cient length of the latter is cut off by means of a tightly-stretched wue, and is pushed by hand until
available for cutting the
of
them
are very ingenious
it is
close to the wires.
mechanical pusher, operated
by a hand-lever or by gearing, is then set in motion, and this pushes the column of paste at right angles to its original direction and past the wires in such a manner that it is cut into a suitable number of bricks. The
either
process of pushing the paste against the wires rather than the wires against the clay is technically bad, and results in ragged edges and corners much better results can be obtained b}'^ the use of a travelling cutting table with a movable frame in which the wires actually cut the material, though the latter has never become popular in England whilst the former is only made by British firms. The wire-cut bricks are simply rectangular clots the shape and size of a brick ; it is impossible to make them very accurate in shape, though it is remarkable
;
;
BRICKS
77
how
well they look
when
â
relatively
heavy, though this
perforating
them
is
a wall. They are ba overcome by process which does not add to

built into
may
the cost, as it the pugmill.
done by inserting bars in the mouth of

is
The wire-cut process
excellent for plastic materials
which are too soft to be worked by the stiff-plastic process, and there is scarcely a clay which cannot be worked by one of these two processes cheaper than by any others. The semi-dry process is generally the cheapest of all where the output is sufficiently large, but it can only be used for a very limited number of hard clays. When wire-cut bricks are required to be specially accurate in shape, they are pressed as described on p. 81.
facture of wire-cut
difficult
Expression Rolls are vised to facilitate the manubricks from materials which are
to use. They consist essentially of a pair of placed one above the other and at such a distance apart that the column of clay coming from the pugmill is drawn and rolled into the desired shape before it passes through the mouthpiece or die which gives it its final shape. Pastes which would crack if made in a wire-cut machine may be worked successfully by the use of expression rolls, and these appliances have, therefore, met with great popularity in the past, though they are now somewhat overshadowed by the
rollers
stiff-plastic process.
So
far as the
more
is
plastic clays
are concerned, however, their popularity
well deserved.
Usually one pair of expression

special cases
but in arranged so that the paste passes successively through them, have proved entirely satisfactory. These rolls do not change the shape of the clay paste so suddenly as the ordinary wire-cut machine, and their success is largely due to
rolls is sufficient,
three or
more
pairs,
78
the gentle treatment of tender clays which is possible with their aid. Stiff Plastic Bricks are made of a paste which is stiff enough to require the application of considerable pressure before an indentation can be made in it. The
By
the courtesy of
Messrs. C. Whittaker
&
Co., Ltd.
Fig. 15
MACHINE FOR MAKING STIFF-PLASTIC BRICKS

paste is usually made from a dry-ground clay, as the naturally plastic clays are usually too soft for the purpose.
The mixture of powder and water is mixed in an open mixer, and is then moulded into a rough clot " bricks (p. 72), in the same manner as the " soft mud but using a more powerful compressor. The roughly-
made
clot is
then carried mechanically until
it
enters
1^
OS
I/)
'J
o
5-
X <
80
it is subjected to a thereby properly shaped. The machines used for the manufacture of this class of brick vary considerably in appearance, but they all contain, as essential features, a mixer, a clot-former, and a re-pressing machine to give the brick its proper
the die or box of a press where

is
great pressure, and the brick
shape.
By
the courtesy o;
Messrs. T. C. Fawcett, Ltd.
Fig. 17
MACHINE FOR MAKING STIFF-PLASTIC BRICKS
The great advantage of stiff-plastic bricks is that they are sufficiently accurate in shape to be used as facings they can be provided with a frog or hollow space on one or both sides so as to make them light, and they may usually be placed directly into the kiln without the necessity of drying them. This practice is not to be recommended, as the bricks which have been dried are usually much better coloured than those
;
which have been sent dfrect to the
kiln.
further
BRICKS
81
advantage of
dried
stiff-plastic bricks
is
that the cost of drying
a more plastic paste, as the larger proportion of water. The stiff-plastic process can only be used for clays or shales which are sufficiently dry to make a stiff paste moister clays must be dried (which would usually be too costly), or they must be worked by one of the processes described for
;
when they are much less than with latter contains a much
is
even
plastic pastes.
Re-pressing Bricks.
As
it is
essential to the strength
and good appearance

it
of a brickwork structure that the
bricks should be as regular as possible in size

is
and shape,
usually necessary that the best bricks should be pressed at some stage in their manufacture. The
presses used for this purpose consist essentially of a steel-hned box, the size of the brick, and a plunger which fits into the box or die and compresses the brick to the desired shape. The die is fixed, but the plunger is
vertically by some powerful mechanical device such as a lever, screw or toggle lever. Simple lever presses (Fig. 18) can only be used where a small pressure is sufiicient to make the bricks accurate in shape screw presses (Fig. 19) are highly efficient, but the large ones required for bricks are slow in action hence, toggle lever presses are generally the best for pressing mechanically-made bricks and for all re-pressing, though some makes of cam-operated presses have proved highly satisfactory for this kind of work. Typical presses are shown in Figs. 15-19 that in Fig. 16 being operated by a cam those in Figs. 15 and 17 by toggle levers that in Fig. 19 by a screw whilst that shown in Fig. 18 is a hand-operated lever press. The bricks to be pressed should be as accurately made as possible, as any material change in their shape will necessitate a partial destruction of the texture
;
moved up and down
82
of the brick in the press,
and the
original texture,
if
once destroyed, can never be restored.
This
is
one
By the
courtesy of
&
Co., Ltd.
Fig. is
PORTABLE BRICK PRESS

reason
why many
same
bricks before re-pressing

alter its
pressed bricks are weaker than the the pressure exerted

;
on the brick tends to
shape and make
it
more
By
the
courUsy of
Messrs. Pullan
&
Mann.
Fig. 19
TILE
AND BRICK PRESS (SCREW TYPE)
84
exact by the displacement of some of the material instead of the pressm'e being applied equally to every particle. The result is the formation of a series of laminations or zones of different texture and a consequent reduction in the uniformity and strength of the brick.
Bricks
state
;
leave it the pressed particles will not adhere well to each other. Re-pressing bricks made by the wire-cut or other process in which a plastic material is used will improve
should be pressed when in a stiff-plastic too soft they adhere to the die and will not properly, whilst if too hard they will crumble, and
if
the appearance of the bricks, but will not usually increase their strength. Such bricks should be pressed when
about half dry. Drying Bricks.

is
After bricks have been made, it usually necessary to dry them in order that they may be burned without undue distortion. The drying
be effected in the open air, the bricks being stacked long rows, or artificial heat may be used. The latter is commonly thought to be more expensive, but is not necessarily so, as the amount of ground occupied in the open air, necessitating the men travelling long distances with the bricks, together with the almost
in
may
constant care and attention and the number of bricks spoiled by bad weather, all react unfavourably on the Moreover, in a large works, cost of air-dried bricks. wnere the bricks are made by machinery, open-air drying is too slow and uncertain, and under these conThis is ditions the use of a dryer becomes essential. the chief reason why so many attempts have been made to use materials such as the harder clays and shales, as the less the proportion of water which has to be removed, the cheaper will be the drying, and if the drying can be dispensed with altogether, as is the
BRICKS
case with semi-dry bricks
stiff-plastic
(p.
85
70), and sometimes with considerable saving is a (p. When it is noted that from an ordinary effected. plastic brick no less than 1 lb. of water must be dried out before the brick can safely be placed in the kiln, it will soon be realised with what enormous quantities of water the manufacturer of 5,000,000 bricks per annum a quite normal quantity ^has to deal. The usual method of drying bricks is to place them separately on a floor which is heated from below by exhaust steam from the engine, supplemented at night by live steam from the boiler. This method is simple and convenient, but is wasteful of heat a much more economical one is to use a tunnel-dryer, which consists of a long chamber in which the bricks are placed on a series of cars. The tunnel is heated by steam or waste kiln-gases, and the temperature is arranged in such a manner that the bricks are dried very gradually under conditions which prevent them from drying irregularly and so cracking. The tunnel remains full of cars loaded with bricks, and, at intervals of an hour or so, one car is withdrawn at one end of the tunnel whilst another car, loaded with wet bricks, enters at the other. In this way a constant succession of cars passes through the tunnel. The chief drawbacks to the use of tunneldryers are (a) the great capital outlay necessary for the structure and the cars and {b) the habihty of the dryer to. get out of order. This latter defect is chiefly due to the installation of dryers of an experimental type by men who have not sufficient knowledge of the scientific principles underlying drying or of the effect of heat and moisture on the cars, rails, etc. Whatever form of dryer is employed, it is necessary that, at first, the bricks should be kept in an atmosphere which is almost satiu-ated with moisture, so that
bricks
80),
86
they
may be warmed without any drying taking place. When they are warmed through, air which is less saturated with moisture may be supplied, and, as the
temperature of the bricks continues to rise, drier and still drier air may be employed. The commonest cause of damage to bricks during drying is the use of too dry an atmosphere, which hardens the outside of the brick, causing it to shrink more rapidly than the interior and thus produces cracks by keeping the air at a suitable state of moistness the drying may be effected rapidly and with little or no risk of damage to the goods. In an open dryer or steam-heated floor this regulation of the state of the air used is not easy the best that can be done is to keep the building closed and to use a little heat at first, the amount of ventilation and heat being gradually increased as the drying proceeds. Some clays are so tender that it is necessary to keep the bricks stacked close during the earlier stages of the drying and to re-arrange them when they are about half dry this is too costly for use in a large works and a tunnel dryer is then preferable, provided that it has been properly designed, which is, unfortunately, seldom the case. Burning the Bricks. Although the drying of the bricks converts them into a mass of moderate hardness, they are not at all durable, and would be destroyed by any shower to which they were exposed. This is due to the fact that drying does not decpmpose the the clay, but merely renders its plasticity latent decomposition must be effected by heating the clay in a kiln, this process being known as burning or firing. Burning is effected by placing the bricks in a kiln in such a manner that the heat can distribute itself uniformly among them. Usually the bricks are " set " about f in. apart in rows across the kiln, the
;
BRICKS
direction of the
87
as to cause a baffling action
rows being changed every few feet so and better distribution of the heat. The kihis in which bricks are burned consist essentially of a brickwork chamber provided with a
number of fires arranged along its sides. The heat from these fires enters the kilns, being carried by the fire-gases, and as these pass through the kilns they come into direct contact with the bricks, heating the latter to the desired temperature, and then passing away to the kiln chimney or to another chamber to be
suitable
similarly heated.
In the older types of kiln, the bricks are burned ina rectangular chamber with an open top, the fires being along the two longer sides, and the heated gases rising among the bricks and finally passing out through the top. Such an arrangement is known as an updraught kiln. It is cheap to construct, but is irregular in action and wasteful in fuel. Bricks of much better quality and improved colour may be obtained by using a down-draught kiln these are usually circular in shape, but are equally satisfactory if made rectangular. In a downdraught kiln the hot gases from the they fire rise up channels or bags to the top of the kiln are thence deflected downwards among the goods, and finally pass out through the floor of the kiln to an underground flue leading to the chimney. Down-draught kilns are very uniform as regards heating, but they require from 8 to 15 cwts. of coal for a thousand bricks, whereas the same number of bricks can be equally well burned with 2| to 4 cwts. of coal in a continuous
;
kiln of suitable type.
In a single kQn, the gases which have been used for heating the goods pass directly to the chimney, but in a continuous kiln the corresponding portions (known as chambers) are placed side by side so as to form an 7(1465B)
88
endless

series.
The gases from one chamber pass chamber and then to another, this being repeated until they become too cool to be of further use, and they are then allowed to pass up the chimney. In this way several chambers filled with bricks are heated by the gases from one set of fires, and the best possible use is, therefore, made of the fuel. At the same time, the heat in the finished goods is withdrawn by passing a gentle current of air over them, this air
into the next
being used to burn the fuel required for heating the When one chamber is finished, the firing is stopped, and the fires in another chamber are lighted, so that the action of the kiln is quite continuous, there being sufficient chambers in the kiln to enable one to be filled, another emptied, and the rest in various stages of burning and cooling. The great economy in fuel secured by the use of a continuous kiln is very marked, and it will usually be found that with a daily output of 16,000 bricks per day, the kiln will pay for itself in about two years. As there are many kinds of continuous kilns, it is important to use one which is properly designed for the particular class of goods to be burned and adapted to the peculiarities of the clay to be used clays differ so greatly that where these precautions are not taken it may be impossible to secure good results in some works, though in others the same tjê of kiln works with complete satisfaction. The advantages of a continuous kiln cannot be realised unless there is a perfectly regular output of at least one chamber per day with very low and irregular outputs it is better to use single kilns and to utilise the waste heat in another manner. The changes which occur when a brick is burned are numerous and complex indeed there is considerable difference of opinion as to what does actually
goods.
; ; ;
BRICKS
occur.
It
is
89
generally agreed that at a temperature
of 500 C. (932o F.) the clay begins to decompose, losing
water and changing its character completely. As the temperature rises the decomposition becomes more and more complete until a hard, stonehke mass is formed which has the well-known characteristics of terra-cotta If the or burned clay, such as porosity, hardness, etc. heating is continued at a still higher temperature, some of the constituents of the clay will begin to react with the clay and will form a fusible mass which, at a still higher temperature, will cause the whole brick to collapse, so that the heating must be stopped before distortion occurs or the brick wiU be spoiled. The matter which fuses nms in between the unfused particles, and as the bricks cool this fused mass vêry soon becomes solid and forms an intensely strong bond, producing bricks of great strength and resistance to crushing. The production of a sufficient amount of fused matter to form a good bond without permitting any distortion of the article is known as vitrification ; the temperature at which it occius depends on the size of the particles present in the "clay," the nature and amoimt of the impurities (particularly the metallic oxides) and the duration of the heating. The more impure the clay and the longer the heating, the greater will be the amount of vitrification at any givxn temperature. If red bricks are desired, the kiln must be heated under conditions which provide for plenty of air gaining access to the kiln during the firing, but if it is desired to increase the strength of the brick without regard to the colour, and the clay contains a sufficient proportion of iron, it is better to restrict the air somewhat towards the end of the burning. The result of this is to rob some of the iron oxide of a part of its oxygen and to form another oxide which will readily attack the clav
90
with
the
formation of a fusible compound. This forms the bond which increases the strength of the bricks, and, if the heating and restriction of air have been properly carried out, the bricks will be " blue " or almost black in colour. The enormously strong Staffordshire engineering bricks are made in this manner if the same material is heated with a large excess of air, red bricks of much less strength are produced.
latter substance
;
and, as it is not the purpose of this volume to teach burning, it is sufficient to state here that the heating is continued until the desired colour is obtained in the bricks, or until a sufficient amount of vitrification has been produced. It is customary to fill the kiln almost to the top with bricks and to measure the "settlement" or shrinkage which occurs at intervals during the burning. As soon as a sufficient amount of shrinkage has occurred, the heating is stopped, and the kiln or chamber is allowed to cool slowly, the entrance of currents or draughts of air being prevented from spoiling the goods. Other methods of determining when the heating has been sufficient consist in the use of pyrometers or temperature-recorders, or in withdrawing small trial-pieces of a convenient shape from the kiln and examining these in various ways. The last-named method is specially used in the burning of glazed bricks, as, if these trial pieces are satisfactorily glazed, it is assumed that the bricks have been
sufficiently fired.
To burn bricks much experience,
successfully requires great skill
and
Properties, of Bricks.
in a brick are that
it
^The chief properties demanded
it shall be strong enough for the required to do, with an ample margin for unexpected strains that it shall be accurate in size and
work
is
shape, that
its
appearance shall be pleasing, and that
BRICKS
it
91
shall be capable of being laid readily in
to
to
mortar so as form a strong structure, sufficiently, impervious and yet with good drying moisture, etc.,
fulfil
is
capacity.
requirements in the highest all these impossible in a single brick, as good drying requires porosity, whilst impervnousness needs the pura brick as devoid as possible of porosity
degree
;
To
must, therefore, decide the extent to which he is \\ilhng to forego something in one direction in order to obtain what he requires in another. Thus, a structure built of blue engineering bricks would be exceedingly strong, but, whilst it would be impervdous to external moisture, it would probably prove damp internally, as there would not be the same facilities for the escape of internal moisture as in a similar structure built of porous bricks. It is a common mistake to suppose that when a house is damp the bricks are too porous it not infrequently happens that they are not porous enough, and that the water inside the house cannot escape as it should do, or in other words the brickwork does not breathe
chaser
;
properly.
greatly,
The strength of different kinds of bricks varies and bricks from the same works differ in a remarkable manner in this respect. The weakest bricks in regular use have a crushing strength of about 80 tons per sq. ft. ; the bricks made by mechanical
methods, such as the wire-cut or the stiff-plastic process, have usually a crushing strength above 200 tons per sq. ft. and rising in some cases to 500 tons per sq. ft. semi-dry process bricks should have a strength of at least 250 tons per sq. ft., whilst blue engineering bricks, made in Staffordshire, have a crushing strength of 400 to 780 tons per sq. ft. For safety, the following
;
92
should be regarded as the minima for each class of

bricks mentioned
Engineering bricks
First class facing bricks
.....
. .
Tons per
sq.
ft.
Common bricks for interiors 90 The shape of a good brick should be such that
length being
is
;
....130
.
300
its
almost exactly twice its width, due allowance made for the joints the thickness is usually about half the width, but much thinner bricks are largely used. The standard size established by the
Royal Institute
following limits
;
:
of British Architects lies
Length
8^^
and 4^ in. Thickness 2|The porosity of a building brick should usually be such that, when the brick is immersed in water, it will
absorb about one-sixth of its weight of water. Engineering bricks, on the contrary, should not absorb more than one-fiftieth of their weight of water, and the better qualities will not absorb any water at all. Bricks which are almost impervious are difficult to lay as they tend to float on the mortar instead of being imbedded in it ; the same objection is sometimes made to bricks made by the semi-dry process. Glazed Bricks, in addition to the foregoing properties, require to be covered on the exposed face with a glaze which can withstand the action of the weather. The glazes ordinarily used for coarse pottery are rich in
;
and 9 in. and 2}^ in.
between the Breadth 4 -{j^
lead compounds, and are unsuitable for glazed bricks, as
they crack and peel away when exposed to the weather. For glazed bricks, the only suitable glazes are leadless ones, in which the predominating constituent is felspar these are fired at a temperature of at least 1,180 C. (2,156 R), so that the bricks must be made of fireclay (Chap. XVII), or they would lose their shape at the same temperature as that at which the glaze melts.
;
CHAPTER XI
TILES
The manufacture of tiles includes the work of several branches of clayworking, as roofing tiles are made quite differently from floor tiles, and both are made differently from glazed tiles used for internal decoration. Roofing Tiles are made in a manner similar to bricks, but, as they are only about J iii. thick and are longer and wider than bricks, they require much more care in Hand-made roofing tiles manufacture and burning. are made in a wooden or iron mould in precisely the
same
tiles
manner
are
as
in
bricks
(p.
71)
wire-cut
roofing
the same manner as bricks, but the cutting wires must be arranged in a special manner so as to cut the tiles to the required shape. The holes in plain roofing tiles are made afterwards by means of a punch fastened to a convenient frame the nibs or projecting portions of the tiles are made by the workman pressing the tile
made
and so forming the nibs, or by leaving a space in the mould to form two small projections which the workman afterwards presses backwards with his thumbs.
Some firms make plain cakes of plastic clay in a wirecut machine and then mould these to shape by hand ;
they regard this as a quicker method than moulding wholly by hand. What are known as French roofing tiles are made to interlock and so form a stronger and more weather-
They are moulded in plaster-moulds power-driven press of special design. Pan-tiles are made flat, and are afterwards curved by stacking
resisting roof.
in a
93
Fig. 20
ROOFING TILES OF VARIOUS PATTERNS

I.
Plain
<).
tile
2. fish-tail tile
;
half or gable tile

tile
;
6.
;
eave
tile
;
10.
3. round-end tile 4. club-end tile ; 5. tile and ; octagon hip-tile 7. ornamental or grooved ridge-tile. 8. pan12. hip tile ; Madeira or Spanish tile 11. diamond tile
; ; ; ;
13. valley tile
saddle-back tile;
ridge-tile.
14. 18.
Roman
tile
capped
; 15. rolled ridge-tile ; 16. plain ridge-tile ; 17. ridge-tile;, it), expanding ridge-tile; 20. crestl
TILES
95
curved to the shape of
them on a
stool
whose top
is
the finished tOes. The clay used for roofing tiles is similar to that used for bricks, but is preferably of finer texture ; it must be capable of being burned without any distortion, notwithstanding the disadvantages in this respect caused by the shape of the tiles. It is prepared in the
same manner
as clay for bricks (p. 69).
Roofing tiles require to be dried very slowly many weeks being usually required and are burned carefully and slowly in dowTi-draught kilns. The burning must be arranged so that the tiles are sufficiently porous to afford the necessary ventilation, but yet sufiiciently impervious to prevent rain passing through the tiles this necessitates many pores of extremely small diameter, and consequently the use of a finegrained paste, rich in clay, but containing sufficient non-plastic particles to dry without cracking unduly. Apart from minor differences, the manufacture of bricks and roofing tiles is so similar that they may be considered as almost identical so far as the general reader is concerned those who wish for further information are referred to the books mentioned at the end of this volume. Floor Tiles are usually plainly square or rectangular in shape and, as their name imphes, are chiefly used in the construction of floors, especially those which are required to stand hard wear without producing a dust and yet be resistant to water. They are preferably made of
a clay which will vitrify sufficiently to form a tough and wear-resisting tile of considerable hardness and
very low plasticity, some of the red and buff-buming clays in the Midlands being specially suitable for this
sively employed.
purpose, though clays from other locahties are extenFloor tiles are made by hand in
96
wooden moulds and are afterwards re-pressed in the same manner as hand-made, re-pressed bricks (pp. 71 and 81), or they may be made by any of the other processes used in brickmaking (Chaps. VII ^X). The burning must be continued until sufficient vitrification
(p.
89) has occurred, as in the manufacture of engineering
bricks, to
which good
floor tiles
bear a close resemblance.
number of clays which produce tiles of a pleasing red colour when vitrified, it is not unusual to find red floor tiles made of an ordinary brick clay these are readily recognised by their
to the limited
;
Owing
porosity and should not be employed, as they are too soft to resist the wear and tear to which floor tiles are subjected in ordinary use.
Glazed Tiles are used extensively for internal decoraThey are usually made of a buffburning clay which is covered with a glaze. The clays used for this purpose are the buff-burning Midland clays and the fireclays, though others are sometimes employed. The clay or mixture of clay with nonplastic material is dried and ground to dust in a disintegrator or edge-runner mill and is carefully screened to remove all coarse particles. The dust is then placed in a screw-driven press (p. 83) and is compressed into tiles, one tile being made at a time the various methods used for making bricks (Chaps. VII X) may also be employed, but are seldom so satisfactory as the dry pressing of the dust. The dust -tiles are placed in fireclay boxes, termed saggers, in which they are burned in the kiln. The burned (biscuit) tiles are afterwards dipped in suitable slips (p. 64) so as to cover them with glaze, or first with a fine clay body and then with glaze. They are next dried and re-burned at a temperature which is suitable for the glaze. On allowing the kiln to cool and withdrawing them, the tiles are
tion, hearths, etc.
;
TILES
sorted, defective ones are
97
rest are
removed, and the
ready for use.
The
colours used for glazed tiles are
made
of various
chromium, copper, cobalt and tin being among the most important. These oxides are prepared in various ways and are then added to the glaze slip before the latter is used. WTien a tile bears a definite pattern the latter must be
metallic oxides, those of iron,
painted or printed in glaze colours in a manner similar Earthenware (Chap. XV). Encavistic Tiles may be regarded as inlaid tUes ; they consist of a background into which is inserted one or more " clays " of different colours, the latter being
to
arranged as a pattern. There are several methods of working, but the one generally preferred consists in having a mould fitted with a loose inset which forms the mould for the pattern. The "clays" used for this are then poured or pressed consecutively into the respective parts of the inset and are allowed to dry shghtly. The inset is then removed and the remainder of the mould is filled up with the " clay " for the " background " of the design, this also being added in the form of a shp. In order to bind these various clays together the tile is " backed " with a commoner clay which fills the mould completely and gives the tile the necessary thickness and strength. After the tUes have been removed from the mould it is usually necessary to scrape the face of each one so as to make the pattern show clearly. The tOes are then dried carefully
and are burned
in a kiln until slightly vitrified ; this not only increases the strength of the tiles, but it greatly improves their durability, especially as encaustic tiles are largely used for floors.
CHAPTER
Terra-cotta
XII
TERRA-COTTA
is a term which, in the strictest sense, merely means baked or burned earth or goods of such material, but it has long been customary to apply it to articles which cannot conveniently be classed under any other popular term. Thus, blocks and architectural ornaments made of clay cannot conveniently be described as " pottery," and the term " terracotta " is advantageously applied to them. Hence in the modern use of the term, terra-cotta may be regarded as comprising blocks, carved and moulded work and various ornamental pieces used in architecture, with a possible extension to vases and other vessels made of unglazed clay.
The
chief characteristic of true terra-cotta
is
that
of a piece of burned clay with a thin but impervious " skin " which makes it resistant to the weather and to
the abrasion experienced in ordinary use. Without " skin," this terra-cotta soon becomes protective disfigured by the weather and by use and is liable For this reason to deteriorate somewhat rapidly. all ornamentation should be completed before the material goes to the kiln, as any subsequent carving In order to heighten removes the protective " skin."
and to produce a white appearance, archihave recently used large quantities of what is this is ordinary terratermed " glazed terra-cotta "
this effect
tects
cotta glazed with a felspathic, leadless glaze, the coating being so thin or the glaze of such a nature as to
prevent the formation of a highly glossy surface. As many terra-cotta articles are very large
98
it
is
TERRA-COTTA
99
necessary to use " clays " which do not shrink unduly nor crack readily in drying. The most satisfactory materials are natural mixtures of clay and very fine sand or highly siliceous clays. The former may be represented by some of the Midland red-biu'ning clays, the latter by the fireclays. In all cases the material is made into a paste of moderate softness and plasticity by the methods described in Chapters VII and VIIL Terra-cotta articles are either modelled, moulded or made on a potter's wheel, the last-named being described in Chapter XIII. Modelling consists in building up the article from a mass of clay paste, adding a piece here and removing one there until the desired shape is obtained it differs from the work of the sculptor inasmuch as the latter must usually start with a large block and cut off this imtil the desired shape is left. In modelling terra-cotta it is often convenient to adopt the methods of the sculptor, using small wooden tools instead of a hammer and chisel, but the true artist ^vill use his fingers extensively and will either add or remove material so as to obtain the effect he desires. For successful modeUing, the paste must be moderately stiff and sufficiently plastic to adhere well when a fresh piece is added to the mass and to bend and twist readily when the modeller requires it to do so. Modelling is the prehminary stage in the making of almost any piece of terra-cotta or pottery, the duplicate pieces being obtained by the use of moulds made from the first or original model. Moulding consists in preparing a mould (usually of plaster of Paris) of the article to be made and of filling the mould to the required extent with a suitable clay paste. This paste is pressed into position by the hands of the workman, aided by simple pads and other tools. In many cases, the construction of the mould
;
100
is
simplified by leaving a considerable amount of the work to the judgment and skill of the workman, so
that in the moulding of the large, hollow terra-cotta blocks used in architecture, the face exposed in the building is usually produced by the mould, but the inner faces and the " ties " which increase the strength
of the block are left for the
man
to "
model " as best
he can.
large
The result is that moulding usually requires a amount of skill. When the mould has been
filled it is
placed on one side so that the plaster may withdraw a portion of the water from the paste and so
;
cause the article to shrink slightly this shrinkage enables it to be removed readily from the mould. When this has been done, and the article is standing on a board, the workman examines it carefully, touching up any defects and smoothing out any undesirable roughness or small cracks. After this, the article is sent to the drying room, or is kept in a warm part of the making shop, and is allowed to dry very slowly. It is examined occasionally and may be turned on to its side or inverted so that it may dry uniformly. Parts which are liable to dry more rapidly than the rest must be kept moist by the application of damp cloths, as irregularity in drying is a frequent cause of cracked articles. When quite dry, the goods are sent to the kiln where they are burned in a similar manner to bricks (p. 86), in fact, the manufacture of terra-cotta and hand-made bricks greatly resemble each other, though the terra-cotta usually requires more care and attention on account of the larger sizes of the articles
and the consequently

inattention.
far greater risk of
damage by
Glazed Terra-cotta is made in a similar manner to that just described, but either before or after being burned it is coated, on the faces to be exposed, with a
TERRA-COTTA
felspathic
101
of a
glaze
slip
applied
by means
brush.
it,
Some
firms prefer to burn the ware before glazing
but others apply the glaze to the unbumed ware and so save the expense of one burning. The most important characteristics required in terracotta articles are ample strength, combined with durability the former is secured by the use of a suitable material one which is neither too plastic nor too " lean," and the latter is obtained by the formation of the shghtly vitrified " skin " previously mentioned. This " skin " forms automatically if a " terra-cotta clay " is used, and so causes no trouble to the manufacturer it is apparently due to the finer particles which collect on the surface of the article, especially when the workman smooths it soon after it has been taken out of the mould. The colour of terra-cotta is usually a pecuhar red, due to using clays containing iron oxide, but buff and even white terra-cotta is manufactured, suitable clays for these two varieties being abundant, though the product is seldom so durable as the red terra-cotta, because the buff and white kinds do not usually possess so marked a " skin."
;
Most
architects
and users
of
terra-cotta
seldom
reahse the great care needed in its manufacture and the long period necessary for drying, burning and cooling the goods three months may be required to
:
produce a simple block, and some large and complex pieces require double or treble this time.
CHAPTER
The term
Coarse Pottery
is
XIII
COARSE POTTERY AND SANITARY WARE

applied to
all vessels
made
of a natural clay to which no other material, with the exception of water, has been added. Such a definition
excludes earthenware and porcelain, but includes all the pottery made of red-burning clay and the various appliances such as baths and other lavatory fittings known by the general term of sanitary ware. Coarse pottery chiefly comprises large pans, glazed only on the inside, flower-pots and the coarser domestic ware, all these having a naturally porous nature, and the similar ware made of impervious materials termed stoneware, described in the next chapter.
The clays chiefly used for coarse pottery have the general characteristics of terra-cotta and brick clays, the finer textured and red-burning clays being preferred.
The articles are made of a plastic paste prepared by one of the methods described in Chapters VII and VIII, though in some cases the material has first to be cleaned, as described in Chapter VI. The commonest method
on a
potter's
of
making coarse pottery
is
wheel, the operation being
known
as
sits just above and at one side which can be rotated at any desired speed, either by a youth who turns a large handle, or by some mechanical means, a rope being usually preferred to
throwing.
The potter
of a flat disc
lump
a belt for power-driven machines. The potter takes a of the paste in both hands and throws it violently
on to the centre of the

adhere to the
latter.
disc or wheel so as to
make
it
Whilst the wheel

102
is
revolving
103
slowly the potter presses his hands on the paste and according to the position of his fingers he makes it into
any desired regular circular shape. If a vase is required, or any other hollow vessel, he presses one or both thumbs hard down on to the centre of the paste, so as to make it into a kind of tube and then proceeds with his shaping.
By
courtesy of
Messrs. The Worcester Porcelain Co.
Fig. 21
THROWER AT WORK
almost of the required shape, the with his fingers, but he usually prefers a small piece of wood, as he thereby obtains a smoother finish and a more accurate shape. The speed at which the wheel revolves must be adjusted to suit the shape and size of the article to be made in the more primitive hand-driven wheels, the potter calls out instructions to the boy assisting him, but in using a power-driven wheel, he regulates the speed by means of a foot-brake. When the article is completed, the potter stops the wheel and cuts off the article by
the vessel
is
When
potter
may
finish
it
8<I465B)
1-04

of a tightly-stretched wire.
means
lifted
The
article is
then
on to a board, and then taken away to be dried, usually on the shelves of a warm room. Some pieces of coarse pottery are made by moulding this is more expensive than throwing on a (p. 99) potter's wheel when the articles are simple in shape, but the products are more exact in size. The body of coarse pottery ware being porous it is necessary to glaze it before the articles can be used to hold water or other liquid. The glaze is applied in the form of a slip consisting of galena, ball clay, flint and water, which is poured into the vessel to be glazed the latter is moved so that the whole interior is covered and the surplus glaze is poured out. The vessel is then set aside to dry and is afterwards burned in a potter's oven (p. 122). When the outside of an article is to be glazed, the article is dipped into the glaze slip. The glaze is usually dark brown in colour when the goods come from the kiln if a black glaze is required a little manganese ore is added to the slip
;
; ;
before use.
If the inside of
the vessel
is
to be white or
cream coloured, the
vessel
is first
rinsed out with a slip
made
and water, and when this has treated with glaze, as before. The intermediate coating of slip will produce the light coloured
of ball clay, flint
it
dried,
is
interior.
Sanitary Ware is largely made of fireclay or of a mixture of fireclay and a white-burning pottery clay convenient proportions. in The ware is usually moulded (p. 99) from a plastic paste made by grinding the fireclay and then mixing it with water as described in Chapters VII and VIII. Quite recently, sanitary ware has been made by casting like Earthenware (Chap. XV). The essential feature of most sanitary ware is that it shall be strong, that the glaze on it

shall be quite
105
impervious to any liquids with which it and that it shall be entirely free from all tendency to crack or craze. These conditions can only be obtained bj' the use of felspathic, leadless glazes, burned at a high temperature and similar in many respects to those used for glazed bricks (p. 92). The glaze is usually apphed in the form of slip by means of a brush either to the burned or unbumed goods, and after they are completely dry they are fired in muffle kilns in which they are protected from the direct action of the fire and flame. The size of the goods and the high temperatuie at which they are burned make the manufacture of sanitary ware of first class quality peculiarly difiicult. This is specially the case with baths and large tanks, as these are made by gradually bmlding up the article without much aid from moulds the manufacture of these articles is, in fact, a form of modelling (p. 99) on a large scale. The manufacture of sanitary ware is essentially one in which the principles involved are comparatively simple, but the materials are pecuharly difl&cult to manage, and unless great care and skill are employed, it will be impossible to obtain good results. Like architectural terra-cotta, sanitary ware requires a long time to dry, bum and cool, so that, if the goods have to be made to order, ample time must be allowed for their manufacture.
may come
in contact,
CHAPTER XIV
STONEWARE AND DRAIN-PIPES
The term
stoneware is used to include all ware with an impervious, vitrified body, with the exception of porcelain. It is chiefly applied to goods intended to contain liquids (including corrosive chemicals) or through
which such liquids may be required to flow. The texture and surface of stoneware also lend themselves to decorative effects, so that panels and large tiles are
made
The
of this material.
clays or mixtures used for stoneware must be such that they will vitrify and become impervious without suffering any appreciable amount of distortion.
Some
clays."
of the
ball
clays are particularly suitable for
this purpose,
and are commonly known as " stoneware
sufficiently
plastic clays are unable to vitrify without loss of shape it is customary to add some flux such as Cornish stone or felspar which will combine with some of the clay and form a vitrified mass. By the use of a suitable flux a fireclay may form an excellent stoneware clay, in fact some fii'eclays contain sufficient natural fluxes to make good stoneware of a coarse variety without any addition being necessary. Stoneware articles are made in a variety of ways many of them are made by according to their shape the methods described for Coarse Pottery (Chap. XIII) or for Earthenware (Chap. XV), whilst others are moulded as described in Chapter XII. The mode of manufacture does not differ materially from that of other clayware, as the properties of stoneware depend on the raw material and on the manner of burning
;
As other
more than on anything
else.
106

Drain-Pipes are
107
stoneware,
commonly included
in
though some of them are made of a porous body covered both internally and externally with a glaze. The best drain-pipes are, however, made of stoneware. in Such pipes are made by machines similar principle to the wire-cut bricks machines described in Chapter X, but arranged in such a manner that the pipe is delivered in a vertical position, whereas bricks are made from a horizontal column. The pipes used by farmers for land drainage are, however, made
horizontally.
The clays used

less
for glazed drain pipes are usually the

;
made
unglazed drain pipes being used for bricks. The raw material is made into a paste as described in Chapters and VIII. This paste is then placed in a pipe machine which may consist of a cylinder fitted with a piston driven by a steam-chest, the cyhnder having an opening at one end through which the paste is expressed by the piston. In the centre of this opening is a metallic disc or core with a space all round it, and it is through this annular space that the paste is expressed in the form of a pipe. The cylinder is emptied, the piston drawn back to its full height by applying steam to the lower part of the chest and the cylinder is then filled with clay paste and closed. The piston is then driven forward by steam pressure and forces the clay out of the cylinder. Operated in this manner it would produce pipes without any socket, the latter being formed by a kind of " collar " which is temporarily afiixed to the opening in the cylinder. This collar allows the clay to form a short piece of pipe of enlarged section, and as soon as this is completed the collar is loosened from the machine and travels downwards with the pipe. When the latter has attained a sufScient length
refractory fireclays
of the
same clay
as
is
Vn
108
it

cut with a taut wire and
is carried away to be then re-attached to the machine. Various modifications of this arrangement exist thus the collar may be made in two pieces, hinged so as to open sideways and allow the pipe to pass between them after the socket has been completed, or the machine itself may be a simple vertical pugmill, the outlet of which is fitted with a suitable mouthpiece. The pipes are sometimes trimmed immediately after they have come from the machine, but unless they are made very stiff it is better to allow them to dry slightly so as to make them firmer and less liable to distortion during the trimming or fettling process. This consists in mounting the pipe on a vertical or horizontal cylinder and turning it slowly by mechanical power whilst a workman applies a small sponge or rubber to the surface so as to smooth the latter and is
dried.
The
collar
is
remove any defects. Any cracks are removed at the same time by means of a knife, and the grooves in the socket and on the spigot are made at the same time. The pipe is then removed and placed on a small stand or directly on the floor of the drying shed, where it
allowed to dry slowly, being turned over at least once during the drying in order that there may be no
is
distortion.
The dry pipes used

brick
kilns,
for agriculture
are burned in
being placed vertically on top of the They must not be heated too strongly, as they bricks. The pipes are required to be as porous as possible. used for sewage and general sanitary purposes are
salt -glazed
and burned simultaneously in the following manner The pipes are placed vertically in a round downdraught kiln, the smaller pipes being placed inside the larger ones and piled on top of one another until the

kiln
109
is filled. It is necessary that all the pipes shall be placed vertically, as otherwise they would not be glazed all over, and the draught of the kiln would also be The pipes are burned in a manner similar to affected. bricks, but when a trial (a piece of broken pipe placed in a convenient part of the kiln) is withdrawn, and shows that vitrification has commenced, it is time to commence the " salting." This consists in making up the fires with plenty of coal so that they glow brightly
and
the
will last
some time
^îthout attention,
salt
throwing a
fire
shovêlful of
filling
common
and then on to the back of
up the front with coal. If the opermanaged the salt wiU begin to jump about inside the kiln, and wiU eventually come in contact with the pipes to which it will adhere. As
and
ation has been properly
soon as this occurs a chemical combination between the salt and the clay takes place and a glaze is formed on the pipes. The glaze melts and flow-s uniformly over the surface of the pipes producing a glossy bro\vn glass of characteristic appearance. It is usually necessary to continue the heating, after the first dose of salt has been added, until the temperature has regained what it lost b}'^ the formation of a glaze. The kiln is then treated %%ith a second dose of salt, and further doses may be given after subsequent heatings, if they are found to be necessary. TMs is ascertained by looking in the kiln through " spy-holes " provided for the purpose and by withdrawing broken pieces of pipe specially inserted as trials and examining the glaze on these. \Mien a satisfactory glaze has been obtained the kiln is allowed to cool slowly with little or no admission of air. Salt glazing is less easy than it appears to be at first sight. The fires require very careful regulation in order to produce a satisfactory result, as the admission
110
of too much or too little air wiU produce a great difference in the colour of the pipes, insufficient air producing pipes which are too dark to be pleasant, whilst with an excess of air it is sometimes very difficult to get a glossy surface on the goods. It has been explained in Chapter I that clays are essentially acid in character, and like other acids they can decompose certain salts, turning out the acid element in the salt and replacing it by the acid in the clay. In salt -glazing what occurs is the replacement of the chlorine in the salt by the clay-acid with the formation of a readily fusible alumino-silicate ; the chlorine is set free in the form of hydrochloric acid gas which escapes up the chimney. The precise composition of the alumino-silicate formed depends on the clay used with silica alone it is almost impossible to get a good salt-glaze, and some clays contain alumino-silicic acids which will not prove satisfactory at the temperatures The most at which it is most convenient to work. satisfactory clays are the lower grade fireclays and
;
certain ball or stoneware clays,

rich in silica.
all of
which are relatively
The advantage of salt-glazed ware over that glazed by the application of a fusible dip is the simplicity of the process of glazing and the great durability of the Although produced at a convenient temperaglaze.
ture (1,100 C. or 2,000 F.) it does not crack like lead Its glazes and it is particularly resistant to acids.
is its somewhat uneven surface and the extent to which it is coloured brown by impurities these defects may be overcome by dipping in the clay the goods to be glazed in a suitable body-slip of purer
drawback
clay, but this is unnecessary for drain-pipes.
CHAPTER XV
FINE EARTHENWARE
The term
earthenware
is
usually employed to include
all
the wares (other than porcelain) which are used for domestic purposes, particular!}^ for table ware and cooking. The ware used for heating food is sometimes more correctly described as stoneware, thus
pie-dishes are usually earthenware, but stew-pots are
In a still broader sense the stoneware (Chap. XIV). term is used to include all ware made of clay and glazed, but such a definition is too inclusive for general use and must be sub-dixnded into Coarse and Fine Earthenware the former is described in Chapter XIII. Fine or Domestic earthenware consists of a porous body made of a white-burning clay which, in its turn, is covered vsith a glaze. Fine earthenware is always burned twice ; once in order to harden the body of the ware, and the second time after the apphcation of the glaze. The second heating is at a lower temperature than the first. Materials. ^Fine earthenware is made of a mixture of three classes of substance (a) clay {b) glass-forming materials such as Cornish stone, felspar, and (c) indifferent substances such as flint. China clay and ball clay are the chief clays used, a somewhat larger proportion of the latter than of the former being employed. The china clay is necessary, as the ball clay alone would shrink too much and would not bum sufficiently white. The Cornish stone vitrifies on burning and forms a bond which unites the particles of clay and flint into a sound, strong mass. The flint is chiefly used to reduce the contracting of the material to within convenient
;
111
112
limits,

but
it
also fulfils a useful purpose in adding
free silica to the mixture.
Preparation, ^The materials are each supplied in a form in which they can readily be reduced to a slip or cream when mixed with water in the case of the flint and Cornish stone it is necessary to use materials which have been very finely ground. The raw materials are placed in a blunger (Fig. 22) with a suitable quantity of water, and after the two have been thoroughly incorporated in the blunger the slip is ready To ensure the correct to run into the mixing ark. proportion of material being used in the earthenware, the slip is allowed to rest a moment and the net weight of exactly one pint of it is carefully ascertained by weighing. The following densities are usually regarded if thinner slips are used the solid as the most suitable matter tends to separate unduly
;
;
Ball clay China clay

Flint
^^
Cornish stone
24 26 32 32
oz. oz.
per per oz. per oz. per
pint. pint. pint. pint.
To produce
a suitable earthenware body, these slips
must be mixed in suitable proportions, the measurement of which is effected in a very simple but peculiar manner. As the proportions are measured by volumes it is customary to run the slips, one at a time, into the mixing ark (p. 114) and to insert a plain wooden As the staff, marked clearly in inches, in the ark. sides of the ark are vertical, the proportionate volumes can be measured directly by the depth of fluid in the the increase in depth caused by the admission ark of each slip being expressed in inches on the measuring A Httle thought staff which are wetted by the fluid.
;
1 Flint and Cornish stone are sold in the Potteries in the form of slips of the density mentioned, and so do not need blunging
before use.
114
will
convince the reader that this gives the same results the slips were measured in gallons or cubic feet, and it is much simpler and less liable to error. The following proportions are frequently used, they are stated, as described above, in " wet inches "
as
if
Body Formulae FOR Earthenware (in Wet Inches)

Quality of earthenware
Good
10
Medium
12
Common
15
Ball clay slip (24 oz. per pint) China clay slip (26 oz. per pint) Flint slip (32 oz. per pint) Cornish stone slip (32 oz. per pt.)
8
5
8
5
8 4
2
2J
2i
These proportions are varied slightly according to the composition and varying characteristics of the
materials.
The desired proportions having been decided, the blunger containing the ball clay slip is fitted with a fine sieve or lawn at its outlet and the slip is run into another blunger until the latter is filled to (say) 10 in. from the bottom. The supplj^ of ball clay is then shut off and the china clay is run through another lawn into the blunger (the latter being known as a mixing ark) until the fluid in it has risen a further (say) 8 in. The china clay slip is shut off and the proper proportions of flint and stone are successively added in a similar manner. Finally (except for the common ware) a little cobalt oxide, ground exceedingly fine and made into a shp of similar consistency to the others, is added in such a proportion as to neutralise the yellowish shade of the
burned ware and to improve its whiteness. The purpose of this stain is precisely the same as the use of blue in laundry work to whiten clothes which, without it, would have an unpleasant yellow tinge. The blue colour produced by the cobalt neutralises the
FINE EARTHENWARE
115
yellow colour of the burned clay and so produces whiter ware. Too much stain must be avoided or the
ware
will
be blue.
The various shps are mixed thoroughly in the ark, and when this stage is complete the mixed slip is pumped on to a series of lawns or sieves of silk or phosphorbronze
slip is
wire,
through which the

ire
fine
particles pass,
whilst the coarser ones
then passed down electro-magnets which retain any particles of metallic iron which may have entered the slip during the grinding or blunging of the materials. This iron, if left in the slip, would produce reddish or yellowish spots in the ware and would disfigure it. After this, the slip is passed into a finishing ark, which is similar to the mixing ark, and in this slip is once more mixed
thoroughly so as to secure uniformity of composition. The mixed slip is then treated so as to remove the greater part of the water present and to convert it into a paste of convenient consistency. In olden times the shp was run into a large shallow tank, the bottom of which was heated by flues beneath it. On this dryer, the water gradually evaporated leaving an irregular pasty mass which required thorough mixing before it could be used. In order to produce the paste at a greater rate and at a less expense, it is now customary to employ filter-presses (Fig. 8) instead of a dryer. When all the surplus water has been removed the cakes of paste are taken out of the press, rolled up and carried away, the cloths being replaced by clean ones as often as necessary. These press-cakes are, in many respects, quite as good as the paste formed by the hot floor (or slip-kiln), but the latter produces a
slightly
held back. The screened a trough containing powerful
more
plastic
and stronger material which

is
is
preferable where cost
a secondary consideration.
116

presses
The paste from the

pugged
as
(p.
or
it
53) in order to
make
sUp-kiln must be uniformly consistent,
otherwise it would shrink irregularly, and would cause distortion in the articles made from it. The pugged paste is then ready for use, though its quality is improved if it is stored for some time in a cool place and then pugged a second time. Making Earthenware Goods. Articles made of fine earthenware are made in several ways, including throwing and casting, but they are chiefly formed in plaster moulds from a plastic paste prepared as described above. Throwing has been described on p. 102. It is seldom
that this
in
method produces
fine
articles sufficiently accurate

;
shape for
earthenware
it
is
therefore
cus-
tomary^ to allow the articles to become almost dry and then to turn them accurately to shape in a lathe (Fig. 23), just as though they were made of wood or metal. The Casting is chiefly used for very thin ware. articles are made by pouring slip from the finishing ark
into the moulds, allowing it to remain a short time and then pouring out the surplus fluid. On examining the mould it will be found that the plaster has absorbed a large proportion of the water in the slip and has left a " This " coating coating on the inside of the mould. will shrink slightly as the mould dries, and can be removed later in the form of the article it is desired to produce. Casting enables vessels of very complex shapes and with very thin walls to be made readily and at a lower it has its own special cost than by other methods difficulties which limit its application and so cause a very large number of vessels to be made by other methods. Casting is, however, largely employed for cups and other hollow ware. (See also p. 146.)
;
FINE
EARTHENWARE
117
Pressing or Moulding is effected in plaster moulds, the paste being treated in a manner similar to that As earthenware paste is finer in described on p. 99. to get fine detail in small articles texture, it is easier
By
courtesy of
Messrs. U'.
T.
Copeland
&
Sons.
Fig. 23
TURNING POTTERY
than with the paste used for terra-cotta. Earthenware manufacturers never use the term " moulding," but invariably employ the term " pressing " for this
work.
Much domestic earthenware is made with the aid of a machine which carries the mould and rotates it whilst the workman holds a specially shaped arm (termed a profile) on to the paste and by this means forces the paste to take the desired shape. By the use
118
of a profile the
mould can be made
to produce the out-
article, whilst the forms the inside or upper face. Thus a platemould placed on such a machine has a slab of paste
side shape or the lower face of
an
profile
on it and the profile is pressed on to the clay. As the mould revolves, the clay-paste is spread out between the mould and the profile, the former making one face and the latter the other one on the plate. As plates
laid
and saucers are always made " upside down " the profile forms the " bottom " of the plate. The machines used for this work are known as jiggers and jolleys ; both types work on the same principle, the names merely serving to distinguish the machine used for flat ware from
that used for deep hollow ware.
Quite recently there
have been attempts at producing pottery in steel moulds in a manner similar to that used for pressing bricks (p. 78), but so arranged that both the mould and the plunger are revolved when in use. This arrangement has proved highly satisfactory for ware not less than J in. thick and it effects an important economy
by saving the expense inevitable in the renewal moulds when these are made of plaster. The use
these
steel
of
of
moulds, with their corresponding greater away with the need for a baiting machine to beat the paste into a suitable shape before it can be put on the plaster mould. Ware which is not circular in plan cannot be made it must on machines in the manner just described be moulded by hand in plaster moulds as described on pp. 99 and 100. Some articles are so small that great skill is needed to mould them properly, the joints being fine, strong and invisible and yet avoiding the
pressure also does
;
reason, casting
use of an unnecessary amount of material. For this is often preferred for the more complex articles, as by its use joints are avoided.
By
courtesy of
ArcktUacon Graham.
Fig. 24
MAKING CUPS ON JIGGER

9(1465B>
120
Cups, jugs and other articles with one or more handles made without any handle by any convenient method, the handle being moulded separately and attached afterwards by moistening both the article and the handle and pressing them together. The feet of tureens
are
and
other articles are also made separately and attached in a similar manner. Dust Pressing (p.. 96) is used for some earthenware
articles.
Drying. Fine Earthenware is usually so thin that it can be dried in warm chambers or stoves (Fig. 25), the goods being placed on open shelves and the drying
being effected at a fairly rapid rate. The larger articles and those with thicker walls must be dried more slowly and with more precautions to prevent cracking and
For small articles made in fine earthenware, the shelves on which the ware is dried are fitted in a revolving frame which is rotated little by little as the
distortion.
maker fills up one section this enables the men to work in a cooler room than that in which the ware is dried, and it also reduces the amount of space occupied and the distance the ware has to be taken to be
;
dried.
Decorating the Ware. ^To a large extent the production of designs in relief, or in other ways in which the ornamentation is due to the shape of the surface of the clay, is effected automatically in the moulding, but where this is impracticable the ware may be ornamented by modelhng with the hands or with small tools, by attaching pieces which have been moulded separately as the white figures in Wedgwood's jasper
ware
by
cutting
refilling
away
the
certain
parts
and
(in
some
vacant places with coloured clays. Ware may also be decorated by a process of engraving or engine-turning, by dipping the ware into
cases)
by
FIXE EARTHENWARE
a
slip
121
Which wiU burn to a different colour and afterwards removing part of the added shp so as to form a two-colour design, and finaUy, by painting designs on the ware by means of sUps which burn
to various
''' '"'"''''' "'
-^'^^rs.
W.
T.
Copland
Sons.
Fig. 25
GREENHOUSE OR DRYING ROOM

colours.
The
great
great latitude
effects to be comparatively simple manner The decoration of the ware must usually be made after it has dried fairly hard but before it' is burned, though
and enable exceedingly beautiful
possibihties in these directions are very
produced
is
permissible in this respect,
some forms
122
of decoration being
more readily applied to the burned
ware.
Burning. Fine earthenware is burned in a potter's oven, the ware being packed in saggers or fireclay
boxes which are piled one on another until the oven is completely filled. These saggers not only form a convenient means of supporting the ware: but they keep it protected from the direct action of the smoke and dust inside the oven. Each pile of saggers is termed a bung, and the various bungs are arranged in rings concentric with the oven. Potter's ovens are of various types, but the ones generally used, are circular ones of the up-draught type, the heat being derived from the fires placed round the circumference of the oven and delivering the hot gases and flames in two series one set travelling upwards to the top of the oven whilst the others go under the floor of the oven and pass up through an opening in its centre. This arrangement secures the centre of the oven being adequately heated as well The oven is as the parts nearer the circumference. usually surmounted by a conical chimney which may rest upon the oven or may surround it completely in the latter case a hovel oven is formed with the advantage that the fires and workmen are better protected from the weather than in an ordinary oven in the open
air.
(p. 87) are also used earthenware and are specially suited to works manufacturing a limited range of colours, as the temperature in these ovens is very uniform. " What appears likely to be the " oven of the future This is in the for pottery is known as the liinnel oven. form of a long tunnel, the ware being placed on wagons at one end and travelling through the tunnel, being
Round down-draught ovens
for
124
gradually heated, burned and then cooled whilst on its journey and emerging at the other end in a cool state. The fires are confined to the central part of the kiln, and the fire-gases are so arranged that they cannot come into contact with the goods. There are various
arrangements
principle
in use, but all work on the same general and depend on the regular supply of goods which are passed through the kiln at a slow but steady
rate.
The temperature reached inside the kiln or oven must not, as a rule, exceed 1,250 C. (2.282 F.) or the ware would be over-fired and distorted. The temperature is not measured directly, however, but the effect of the heat on the ware is determined by examining trial The conpieces withdrawn from the oven or kiln. traction of these pieces is measured accurately and
gives a very fair idea of the progress of the burning. It is also necessary to pay careful attention to the
appearance of the interior of the oven during the burning, as the most skilled burners rely quite as much on this as on the trials. When the trials show that the ware has been sufficiently baked, the heating is stopped, the openings for fuel and air are closed and the oven is allowed to cool slowly. When quite cool, the doorway is opened by removing the brickwork of which it is composed and the oven is emptied by the men known as drawers. These men, like the placers engaged in filling the ovens, must be careful and conscientious workers or the breakage of the ware will be very heavy. The ware drawn from the oven is placed on benches or on a floor where it can be sorted, the useless articles being thrown away, and those whose defects can be remedied being treated in an appropriate manner. At this stage the ware is known as biscuit, a singularly inappropriate term,
FINE
EARTHENWARE
125
For some as its real significance is "twice cooked." purposes, biscuit ware of fine earthenware is useful, but it should usually be regarded as an intermediate stage,
as, for
most purposes, it requires to be glazed before use. Under-glaze Decoration. \Mien a design is painted on the biscuit ware it is knowTi as under-glaze decoration, as the ware is afterwards glazed and the decoration is thereby fully protected from abrasion. The colours used for this purpose are the oxides of various metals prepared so as to produce tints of the desired shade when burned. Thus, chromium oxide is the basis of
many
greens, cobalt of
most of the
blues,
and so on
(see p. 97).
The colours appear quite
different in the
raw state to that after they are fired, so that the artist must have considerable experience of the particular materials used and the changes effected in the kiln before
accurate shading can be accomplished with certainty. The colours are mixed with a residual oil derived from turpentine termed fui oil and the resultant paste is applied with a brush or small sponge or by spraying a
shp on to the ware.
Various mechanical devices are used
to facihtate the decoration of the ware, such as standing
the article on a revolving table when painting bands or horizontal fines on it. Designs are also applied by
a special form of printing, the colour being applied to an engraved plate, printed from this on to a sheet of prepared paper and then transferred from the latter to the ware. The design may be wholly in one colour and printed throughout, or the outHne may be printed and transferred to the ware, the design being afterwards filled in with coloiir appfied by hand. The oH, which has been mixed with the colour in order to facihtate its application to the ware, must be
burned away before the glaze not adhere to an oiled surface.
is
applied, as glaze will
The decorated ware
is.
126
therefore, heated in a muffle kiln at a dull red heat

until all the volatile matter has been removed.
The ware must then be handled with great care, as the decoration is easily damaged at this stage of manufacture. Under -glaze decoration affords the maximum of durability, and it also gives the ware a greater depth of tone
Unfortunately, the heat required to fuse the glaze limits the range of tints which can be used, the more delicate colours having to be applied to the glazed ware (see p. 130). Glazing. ^The biscuit ware, either plain or decorated, must next be glazed. This is effected by dipping it in a slip composed of some or all of the following materials mixed in suitable proportions Borax, boracic acid, Cornish stone, felspar, whiting, china clay, flint, and white or red lead. It is usual to melt the bulk of the material other than the lead and to grind the frit so produced to a fine powder which is afterwards mixed with the lead and also with some Cornish stone, and possibly with some flint. Various other materials such as soda may be used, and sometimes materials bearing
than can otherwise be produced.
other names, but identical with one of the foregoing, thus tincal is a crude form of borax. are employed Each manufacturer of earthenware has one or more glaze recipes which he varies according to the require;
ments of his bodies, for the glaze and body must have the same shrinkage when burned in the glost kiln The following recipe may be or the ware will craze. taken as t5rpical, but it will require adaptation to suit
any given works

Frit or fuse together
Borax
Cornish stone
Whiting
Flint
30 30 20
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
China clay
15 lbs. 5 lbs.
128 The
frit is

ground to a
Frit
.
fine
powder and
.
is
then mixed with

lbs. lbs.
lbs.
the following
.
Cornish stone White lead
...
. .
.100
30 50
fine before
materials must be ground sufficiently they are made into a slip or the resulting glaze will not fuse properly and will be very irregular in composition. Great care is essential in the preparation of glazes, and unless this work is done by a careful man
The
glaze
it
may
The
lead to endless trouble.

glaze
is
the latter into the
usually applied to the ware by dipping slip, the ware being held in such a
manner that all parts to be glazed are covered by the slip. The density of the slip and the porosity of the
ware will largely determine the thickness of the coating, which must be regulated to suit the nature of the ware. Any uncovered parts may be covered with a little slip applied by the fingers or a brush, but such patchwork must be avoided as far as possible. Considerable experience is required to dip ware successfully and to avoid an excess of glaze in any part of the ware. As soon as the ware has dried it is examined, and any superfluous glaze is trimmed off, after which it is ready for the glost oven where the glaze is fused and made
glossy.
is placed in the glost oven in but it is necessary that each article should be supported in such a manner that the glaze on it is not damaged during the burning. For this reason, care must be taken that no glazed surfaces touch each other and that nothing comes in contact with any part of the ware which will touch the glaze and spoil it. It is impossible with some kinds of ware to avoid a slight spoiling of the glaze, but the damage is reduced to a minimum by the use of pointed supports
Glost Firing.
^The ware
saggers
(p. 122),
FINE
EARTHENWARE
129
termed spurs or of other supports with sharp edges, which are known by a variety of terms, such as dumps, stilts, thimbles, saddles, etc. By the use of these apphances the articles can be placed very close together, yet without touching, and the defects caused by the supports in contact with the glaze are so smail that they can scarcely be observed unless one is looking for them. They may be seen at the bottom (inside) many basins, and near the edge of the underside of plates and saucers, about three small points in each case showing where the supports have been placed. Where the price paid for the ware is sufficiently high it may usually be made without appreciable defects caused by supports, but the avoidance of their use with ordinary ware would enable so few pieces to be placed in the kiln that it would make the cost of burning the ware prohibitive. Great care is necessary to place the ware in those parts of the oven where they will be suitably heated. The white ware should be placed in the outer ring
(p. 122) together with some of the less sensitive colours such as black and brown the b\ilk of the printed ware should be placed in the second ring and intermediate between the centre of the oven and the circumference. Ware decorated with pink, purple and mauve colours must be fired in the cooler parts of the oven as they are very sensitive to overheating blue, green and yellow ware may be placed rather higher, as they afe less sensitive. This variation in the heating power of various parts of the oven is often regarded as a defect by patentees, but in reality it is essential to the manufacturer of earthenware, as he is thus able to burn various colours in the same oven, which he could not do if the oven were heated imiformly throughout. This is one reason why the use of down-draught ovens
; ;
130

little
and tunnel-kilns has made such
progress
in
earthenware manufacture. The temperature in the cooler parts of an earthenware glost oven is usually about 1,040 to 1,100 C. (1,904 to 2,012 F.), but the heating is regulated to suit the glaze employed. The oven must be heated moderately rapidly, yet not so quickly as to spoil the ware too slow a heating tends to dull the glaze. The cooling should be rapid at first, but slow as soon as the glaze has solidified, so as to obtain a high gloss with very little risk of cracked ware. The glazed ware, after removal from the cool oven, is carefully sorted according to its quality and whether Any it is finished or requires to be further decorated. roughness on the ware may be removed by grinding or polishing, and some of the defects may be removed by over-glaze decoration, but when all possible care is taken a notable proportion of the ware will be found to be
;
damaged and
Over-glaze
practically useless.
Decoration.
Many
is
colours,
if
otherwise
inapplicable, can be used on pottery to the glazed ware.
they are applied
The reason
simple,
namely the
temperature at which over-glaze colours can be fired may be regulated to suit the colours, whereas in under-glaze work the glaze has to be considered. As over-glaze decoration is usually burned at a very low temperature (usually below 900 C. or l,650o F.) it may be rapidly passed through the kiln and this method of decoration therefore affords a simple and relatively inexpensive method of producing large quantities of decorated
work
in a short time.
is
The
great
drawback
of over-
glaze decoration
the ease with which it is removed by the abrasion to which it is subjected when the this is quite unavoidable and largely ware is in use
;
limits
the use of this method to cheap ware and to
FINE EARTHENWARE
that
131
used solely for ornamental purposes. Gilded almost always made by applying the gilt overglaze and the rapidity with which this part of the decoration is " washed off " cups and saucers is well known to all housekeepers. Over-glaze colours are, like those used in other branches of pottery, made primarily of metallic oxides (p. 97) which are mixed with a flux such as
ware
is
Red Lead
Borax
Flint
:
3 2
1
lbs.
lbs.
lb.
The colour and flux are fritted together (p. 126), and the fused mass is afterwards ground to a fine powder. Sometimes the flux is fritted alone and is only mixed with the colour during the grinding process. The proportion of colour and flux must be adjusted to suit the temperature at which the enamel kiln is worked and also the amount of gloss required in the ware the greater the gloss required the larger must be the
;
proportion of flux. Over-glaze colours are

or
applied
colours
either
by
printing
being mixed with fat oil, or printer's oil, as the case may be, but sometimes a process known as dusting or ground laying is This consists in covering the part of the article used. to be decorated with a specially prepared oil and applying powdered colour with cotton wool or mixing it with the oil and applying it through a sprayer.
painting
(p.
125),
the
Metallic Effects, including gilding, are apphed b}' using the metal or a suitable substitute ground up with oil or some suitable adhesive and painting the mixture
on to the ware. The metallic parts will appear dull when they come from the kiln, but may be burnished by rubbing them with a suitable tool. Some preparations of gold are now largely used which give a bright
Bycotirlesyof
Messrs.
W.
T.
Copeland&Sons.
Fig. 28
ENAMEL KILN
FINE EARTHENWARE
gilt in
133
the kiln and so avoid the necessity of burnishing
they reduce the cost of gilding by enabling thinner coating of gold to be used. Lustrous effects are obtained in a similar manner, but some of them are due to accidental reduction of the oxides by the oven gases or by the use of special reducing
incidental!}'
much
agents.
tion
kiln
Placing and Firing. The ware with over-glaze decorais placed in iron baskets or on shelves in the enamel
(Fig.
;
when necessary, it is supported in a 28) manner to under-glaze ware, though much of it is placed as shown in the illustration. The firing of a kiln containing over -glazed ware is usually checked by observing the appearance of trials
similar
printed wath rose colour (purple of Cassius) the tint of
which
is
changed with increasing temperature.
This
somewhat crude method is still preferred by potters to a direct measurement of the temperature by pyrometers or other instruments. The use of gas for firing these kilns is much better than that of a coal fire, and equally
simple to manipulate.
kiln
it is
If the
gas
is
made
close to the
much cheaper than
coal gas,
and does not
any more trouble than ordinary coal firing, enables a far more uniform temperature to be maintained. The use of a small tunnel-kiln for this
involve
whilst
it
many advantages over the older type of enamel kiln and is much cheaper to use (p. 122). The ware draun from the enamel kiln must again be examined and sorted, after which it is usually ready for sale. If highly decorated with many colours, however, it may be necessary to paint each separately and to pass the article through the kiln after each colour has been applied. Thus, ware with a design in six colours may have to pass six times through the kiln before it
purpose has
is
completed.
CHAPTER XVI
PORCELAIN
The manufacture
of porcelain has
been carried on since
the earhest days of which there is any record, more particularly among the Chinese and Japanese. Porcelain differs from other kinds of pottery in consisting of a body of translucent nature which is made by
extensive vitrification of the material. It thus resembles glass, though the composition is more complex and
the fusion of the materials less complete than in the

loss of
Complete fusion would necessarily result in the shape of the article and so must be avoided. There are numerous kinds of porcelain, and the literature connected with them is very extensive hence
latter.
;
in the present
volume
it
must
suffice to state the chief
characteristics of those porcelains
which are of commercial importance at the present time and to omit
reference to those of merely antiquarian interest.
Hard Paste Porcelain
is
made
largely on the ConIt consists of
tinent, but not in Great Britain.^
a mix-
ture of china clay (kaolin) and felspar or other flux,
and any other ingredients being so arranged as to produce a translucent mass at the temperature at which the kiln is fired, this being usually about 1,400 C. (2,550 F.). The body is always prepared in the form of a slip (p. 60), and the articles are shaped in much the same manner as those made of earthenware (Chap. XV), though porcelain is so much
the proportions of these
In consequence of a Government grant, a hard paste porcemade exclusively from British materials has been made successfully at the Pottery School, Stoke, on a semi-commercial scale. Several manufacturers are now attempting to manufacture it in order to compete with the Continental product.
^
lain
134
PORCELAIN'
less plastic
135
pulating
(a dull
it.
that greater 5are has to be taken in maniThe ware is first fired to about 800^ C.
it
red heat) in order to convert
into biscuit
and
decorated and glazed in a similar manner to earthenware (q.v.), but as the glaze is fired at 1,300 to 1,400'' C. (2,550 R). it is peculiarly difficult to find colours which can be apphed under-glaze to hard porcelain. Hence, hard porcelain is usually glazed on a plain white body, the glaze consisting essentially of felspar with sufiicient whiting, china clay and flint to make it adhere well to the body and to form a sufficiently glossy glaze. The colours are then apphed on top of the glaze (over -glaze, seep .131), but are usually burned at a somewhat higher temperature than is customary for earthenware manufacture. Vitreous Porcelain is the basis of much French ware it forms a glassy mass when in the kiln and is extremely difficult to manipulate on account of its great tendency to distortion. It bears a much closer resemblance to a glaze than to clay ware, having a large proportion of frit in its composition. China Ware or Bone Porcelain is the principal porcelain manufactured in Great Britain. Its essential ingredients are china clay, Cornish stone and bone ash, the latter material being made by burning the bones of oxen. China ware varies greatly in composition, but a typical one consists of
it
make
porous
after this
it is
Bone Ash
China Clay Cornish Stone
.35 lbs. .28 lbs. .37 lbs.
These materials are converted into slips (though occasionally they are weighed out in the dry state and
then converted into a single slip) and a series of cakes The ware is made (p. 62) is obtained by filter-pressing. in a similar manner to earthenware, the glaze being of a
lo(1465E)
136
and requiring a much lower temperature for burning than does the body. The biscuit is usually burned at about 1,250 C. (2,282 F.) and the
similar character
glaze at 1,050 C. to 1,100 C. (1,920 2,012 F.).
The
decoration
brilliant
is
usually under-glaze
(p. 131),
(p.
125) with over -glaze
for special colours
the colouring being more
than with hard porcelain.
By
courtesy of
Messrs.
2 he n'orcesier Porcelain Co.
Fig. 29
TURNING PORCELAIN WARE
The
it
properties of china ware are such
as
to
all
make
kinds,
excellent in every respect for table ware of
and although it is sometimes stated that it is more liable to show scratches from knives and forks than does hard porcelain, yet its lesser brittleness and the greater variety of the colours obtainable largely compensate for any doubtful difference in this respect.
Parian
Ware
biscuit state,
is a kind of porcelain which, in the bears a close resemblance to the finest
Parian statuary marble.
It
is
made by mixing one
PORCELAIN
137
part of china clay with two parts of felspar, other ingredients being sometimes added to increase the If Parian ware plasticity or whiteness of the ware. is glazed with a glaze similar to that used for china
ware
it corresponds very closely to some of the ancient Chinese porcelains and to the Continental hard paste
porcelains.
Chemical Porcelain closely resembles hard paste and Parian ware, but is glazed ^vith a leadless felspathic glaze. It is chiefly distinguished by it ability to resist the action of chemicals and sudden changes in temperature, and until recently was manufactured alipost exclusively on the Continent. The porcelain evaporating dishes and crucibles used in chemical analysis were formerly imported wholly from Germany. Since the war, they have been manufactured successfiilly in Worcester, though the British articles have a somewhat different composition. Electrical Porcelain is used for the manufacture of insulators, etc. It is similar in many respects to the hard porcelain, but is usually made from less pure materials, a considerable proportion of plastic clay being used to facilitate the manufacture of articles of specially complex shape. As many of the pieces made of electrical porcelain have to be provided with screws or other attachments which enable them to fit into other pieces of apparatus it is necessary that they should be made with great accuracy and of a material which will not shrink unduly in the burning. For providing the maximum electrical resistance the material used must approach very closely the composition and characteristics of hard porcelain, but for less important work stoneware (p. 106) or a material consisting chiefly
of steatite
is
largely employed.
CHAPTER XVII
REFRACTORY GOODS
materials used for furnace linings and for other purposes where great resistance to heat is required are
The
termed refractory, though this word is used somewhat loosely. In the strict sense, a refractory article is one which" will not lose its shape by partial fusion
when heated
to a temperature of 1,580 C. (2,786 F.),^ the heating being at a slow rate and with an ample supply of air. In actual use, the goods required to Jê " refractory " must also resist the cutting action of dust
in the flues, the effect of flames
impinging on them, the
crushing action of any load to which they may be subjected, and usually they must not be destroyed by unavoidable changes in temperature or by the corrosive action of the contents of the ^furnaces. It will be
readily understood that an article, such as a firebrick,
which
may
tioned above
indicate
be quite refractory in the strict sense menmay not be so when the term is used to
in
use.
It
is,
durability
therefore,
of
the
greatest importance that such terms should be used in
a limited sense or that their use should be supplemented by some indication of what they are intended to mean.
The
chief
refractory articles
are
furnace and kiln
linings (usually
raw material
distillation
glass, crucibles
made of firebricks or blocks or of the rammed into position), retorts for the
pots used for melting
of coal or metals,
Materials.
^The
and
scorifiers or roasting dishes.
chief materials used for refractory
goods are the

^
fireclays
found in association with

is
coal,
The temperature stated become customary on account
an arbitrary one which has
of its convenience.
138
REFRACTORY GOODS
though
with
for special purposes these are
139
china
clay
silica (particularly
sometimes mixed and other materials. The use of in the form of ganister) is also extend-
ing as a convenient material for the manufacture of

firebricks,
and where specially high temperatures are under conditions requiring an alkaline material, it is customary to employ magnesia which has been burned at an extremely high temperature. Chrome iron ore is used where a strictly neutral material
prevalent
required.
is
Graphite
is
also used extensively.
The fireclays manner similar
are plastic
and may be worked
in a
to other clays, so that they do not

Sihca, magnesia
of plasticity
and and can only be made into bricks or other simple forms by the addition of a bond in the case of silica this is usually hme for magnesia a lightly burned magnesia serves the same purpose, whilst the use of tar is customary for
need anj' detailed description here.
chrome iron ore are void

;
bricks of a neutral nature.

Firebricks. WTien made of fireclay, bricks are produced by grinding the clay, screening it (p. 51) and then tempering it with water as described in Chapter VIII. Firebricks are usually made by hand as described on p. 71 they are dried on a hot floor (p. 85) and burned in kilns with horizontal or down-draught or in
;
a continous kiln (p. 87). Firebricks require to be burned at a temperature much higher than is used for not burn them for which the bricks are to be used should regulate their treatment in the kilns, firebricks to be used at the temperature of melting steel being burned at or above that temperature, whilst those for a boiler flue may be satisfactory if burned 300 C. (540 F.) lower. The appearance of a firebrick gives but little indication of its value, in fact a
as
building bricks, though
many makers do
The purpose
much
as
is
desirable.
140

is
clean-looking firebrick
sufficiently
burned to be
heat.
usually one which has not been reliable, and a dark coloured,
nvill
apparently scorched brick

affected
probably be
much
less
by the
The only true
test of the value
of firebricks is by actual use, though much may be done by various measurements of their shrinkage or expansion at various high temperatures.
Silica
Bricks are
made by
grinding
silica
rock to
sand, mixing with lime and water and moulding the paste as described on p. 71. The bricks are dried and burned like fire-clay bricks, but differ from the latter
because silica bricks expand when heated in the kiln. If heated for a long time at a sufficiently high temperaFor ture further expansion may largely be prevented. this reason it is necessary to burn silica bricks at a higher temperature than that at which they are to be used. Magnesia Bricks (often termed " magnesite bricks ")
are
made by burning magnesite
until
it vitrifies^
grinding
the product and mixing it with lightly burned magnesia (or other bond) and water so as to form a paste (p. v54). This is placed in hydraulic presses and made into bricks which are dried very cautiously and are fired to vitrification (about 1,580C or 2,876F or even higher). Until
it was not considered practicable to burn the bricks at so high a temperature, and the kilns were Intermittent not heated above 1,410C or 2,570F. coal-fired kilns are almost invariably used in this country, but in Austria, where the largest quantities
quite recently
magnesia bricks were made before 1916, gas-fired and are far more efficient, but require a large and regular output. Chrome Bricks are made of chrome iron ore, the
of
kilns are chiefly used,
crushed particles being united with tar or with lime, the latter being used as described in the manufacture
of silica bricks.
REFRACTORY GOODS
Properties
firebricks
is
141
requisite
in
of
Firebricks.
The
chief
that they shall prove durable
when used
under the conditions prevaihng in the varioiis furnaces and kilns in which they are employed. For this, they must be highly refractory, that is, resistant to a high temperature, and at the same time they must not be unduly attacked by the materials with which they are brought into contact. They must also remain unaffected by sudden changes in temperature such as are unavoidable in the ordinary manipulation of a furnace
or kiln.
The
refractoriness
of the
bricks
is
largely
dependent on that of the raw materials from which they are made, it being an invariable fact that the bricks cannot be so resistant to heat as are the raw materials
considered quite separately. The acrion of the material with which the bricks come in contact may be purely physical, such as the abrasive action of the solid contents of the furnace rubbing the surfaces of the bricks
;
be due to the cutting action of the gases in the furnace, and, above all, it may be due to the corrosive action of the dust from the fuel or the slagging action of the contents of the furnace. Most slags are highly
it
may
basic in character,
and these combine with the

silica in
fire-
bricks
fusible
made
of clay or sihca, the base in the slag uniting
with the acid clay or
the bricks and forming
compounds, which
result in the destruction of
such bricks. As this corrosion is due to a chemical action it can only be avoided by using firebricks made of a neutral or basic material with which the basic contents of the furnace can have no chemical reaction. Hence, for the most basic charges, the furnaces should be lined with magnesia or chromite bricks, the latter being usually too costly for this purpose. It is not always necessary to line a furnace throughout with the same kind of bricks indeed it is usually better
;
142
to

in the lower part
employ basic (magnesia) bricks
where the action of the slag is strongest and firebricks made of clay in the upper parts where the conditions are entirely different. As magnesia and fireclay or silica bricks react on each other when heated constantly to very high temperatures a course or layer of neutral (chromite) bricks should be built between them. For regenerators, annealing furnaces, and heating arrangements, other than those used for smelting metals,
it is
necessary to pay the closest attention to the con-
and to select bricks which will best withstand those conditions. It not infrequently happens that mere resistance to high temperature is less important than ability to withstand sudden changes in temperature or resistance to crushing under a heavy load. It is seldom that good firebricks fail on account of insufficient resistance to heat (refractoriness) their destruction is usually brought about by corrosion, sudden heating or coohng, abrasion or some other condition dependent on the furnace and largely to be overcome by the use of bricks with appropriate qualities other than mere refractoriness. In other words, it is a great mistake for purchasers of firebricks to rather should lay the chief stress on refractoriness they consider the other properties required and lay the chief stress on these. Blocks. For some parts of furnaces it is necessary to use large blocks of special shape. These are usually
ditions prevailing
;
made
of fireclay or other refractory material in pre-
cisely the
are burned at the
same manner as terra-cptta (p. 98) but they same temperature as firebricks, viz.,
somewhat above the highest temperature to which they are likely to be exposed when in use. This is necessary in order that they may not shrink or expand
unduly under the condition to which they are exposed.
REFRACTORY GOODS
143
of
Unless this precaution is taken, the change in vohime the blocks may endanger the whole structure of which they form a part. In the manufacture of illuminating gas Retorts. from coal and in the distillation of zinc and some other materials it is necessary to use retorts. These are
made of a refractory material, which are closed one end and a door at the other they also have an outlet through which the volatile material may pass away. These retorts must be impervious to gases and must be capable of rapid heating and cooling. They are usually made of fireclay with which a considerable proportion of burned fireclay {grog) has been mixed so as to produce a material of coarse texture, the surfaces of which are made of finer and, therefore, denser material. By this means a material is produced which meets the requirements of the users of retorts, the chief difficulty being to adapt it to meet the peculiar local conditions which obtain in certain works. Retorts are made on special tubular drums, a small portion being built at a time and allowed to become stiff before a further portion is added. The method of manufacture is similar to that of terra-cotta (Chap. XII), but is much slower on account of the size of the retorts. The smaller retorts are often made in a machine similar to those used for drain-pipes (p. 107) one end being afterwards closed by fitting a slab of clay to it. Wlien completed, the retorts are kept in shghtly warmed rooms where they are protected from draughts
vessels,
at
dry. This requires some weeks, and it shortened much without serious risk of cracking the retorts. Sometimes the retorts are glazed internally with a felspathic glaze before being sent to the kiln this glaze tends to make them shghtly more impervious at first, though it very soon
until
quite
cannot
be
144
cracks
and peels away with the repeated heatings and coolings. Retorts, like firebricks, require to be burned at a higher temperature than that at which they are to be used, so that they may not become
It will generally be sufficient if they burned at 1,300 C. or 2,372 F. ^When materials have to be melted in Crucibles. comparatively small quantities the operation is usually carried out in crucibles. These vessels must, therefore, be made of a material with sufficient refractoriness and at the same time sufficient resistance to the corrosion caused by the contents and enough strength to enable the crucible with its contents to be handled readily with crucible tongs. Crucibles can be heated genth^ and steadily, but they are necessarily cooled very rapidly, the crucible being withdrawn from the furnace and its contents poured out rapidly. To enable it to withstand these sudden changes in temperature
distorted in shape.
are
the addition of graphite or plumbago
is
frequently
;
made
to the clays used in manufacturing the crucible
which heat can pass through the walls of the crucible, and at the same time enables it to be heated and cooled with great rapidity. Crucibles are usually made of a mixture of several fireclays, as these produce better results than when only one clay is used. In addition to the clays a proportion of burned fireclay (grog) or sand is sometimes
this addition increases the rate at
added, and, for plumbago crucibles, graphite is also added, as stated above. The materials are carefully reduced to powder, mixed with water to form a stiff paste and then mixed with great care and thoroughness, as uniformity of texture is of very great importance. The paste is made into the required shape either by throwing (p. 102) or, more commonly, by one of the methods of moulding used in the manufacture of earthenware
REFRACTORY GOODS
145
(Chap. XVI). The crucibles are dried very carefully and are afterwards burned if they are to be sent a long distance, but if they are to be used in the works in which they are made a very common practice they are " biurned " by placing them in the furnace in which they will be used and heating them very carefully.
the crucible is red hot it may be used by putting a portion of the material to be melted, the charge and the crucible then both being heated at the same time. The temperature to which crucibles are heated in order to facilitate their transport is seldom above a bright red heat, the precise temperature being a matter of small importance so long as the crucibles are made sufficiently hard and strong to stand moderately rough
When
in
usage.
The durability of crucibles depends largely on the for some purposes purposes for which they are used for others a crucible may be used forty times or more each fresh charge requires a new crucible. Hence, it is impossible to state what should be the beha\aour of a crucible unless its use is kno\STi. Glass-House Pots are a specially large form of crucrible used for melting together sand, lime, salt cake, and other materials used in the manufacture of glass. They require to be of large capacity and must be made of highly refractory fireclay to which some grog has been added, the mode of manufacture consisting in building up the paste into the desired shape by hand, with or without the use of a wooden mould. Owing to the large size of the pots they can only be made piecemeal, the height being increased about 6 in. per day. The drying of glass-house pots must be carried out very slowly, six months or more being usually required if the drying is hurried, the pots are almost certain to crack. The pots are burned in single, intermittent
;
146
kilns to a temperature just sufficient to make them durable in transport ; the final heating is given in the glass-maker's furnace just before the pots are used. The materials used for making glass are highly corrosive in their action on clay, so that the pots must be made of fireclay and grog of such properties that they will withstand the high temperature of the glassfurnace and at the same time will not be unduly corroded by the glass materials. Hence, the pots must be made of a clay rich in alumina, the particles being carefully graded as to size so as to give a porous interior and a fine exterior surface to the pot. The loss caused by the accidental breakage of a pot when in use is so serious to the glass manufacturer that the manufacture of the pots is limited to firms of good reputation in this branch of clayworking.
Qtiite recently, large crucibles, retorts
have been made by a process
of casting,
skill,
more
rapid,
requires
far
less
and glass-pots which is much and produces
more uniform and better quality than those made as described in the preceding pages. The introduction of this method is very slow as the loss which the user experiences when working with a faulty vessel makes him unwilling to accept any drastic changes in the method of manufacture.
vessels of a
For further
details
respecting the manufacture of
refractory materials the reader should see one of the
books mentioned on
p. 158.
CHAPTER
XVIII
PORTLAND CEMENT
the
Although few people realise it, Portland cement, and many natural cements which are allied to it, are aU
some
clay products, and are composed essentially of
form of clay which has been heated with some compound of lime. Hence, as clays are alumino-silicic acids, this group of cements is composed of various lime There have been many investigaalumino-silicates.
tions as to the true nature of Portland cements,
some
of
these studies being rendered quite abortive because the

investigators did not clays
know
;
suf&cient of the nature of
and clay compounds others appeared to show that Portland cement is a complex mixture of aluminates and silicates of lime, and it is only quite recently
it has been definitely recognised that the true composition of Portland cements is that of a lime alumino-silicate, as stated above. Some investigators have used the term alite to represent these aluminosilicates, and this term is very convenient, but is misleading unless it is clearly understood that it relates to a group of alumino-silicates of similar yet by no means identical composition and not to a single substance common to all Portland cements. It is the failure to recognise this distinction which has made it
that
so difficult for many investigators to conclusions from their experiments.
draw
correct
Once it is clearly understood that the Portland cements are definite compounds of clays and hme it is comparatively easy to understand their properties and the manner in which they are prepared it is also
;
147
148
easy to understand why clays of diiferent natures produce cements of slightly diiferent characteristics. Materials. ^The raw materials used in the manufacture of Portland cements are of two groups the first
and include clays, shales and clayey rocks. The second group consists of basic materials such as chalky limestone and other naturally occurring lime compounds which produce lime when heated to a sufficiently high temperature. Between these two groups is a third consisting of mixtures of the materials in both the first and second groups, such
consists
of acid
materials
mixtures being known as marls, clayey limestones or limey clays according to the relative proportions of lime and clay which they contain. The materials in this third group include those natural mixtures which pro-
duce a cement of medium quality when the material is heated to a sufficiently high temperature, such cements being known as Natural Cements. They are not so valuable as true Portland cements, because the natural mixtures are seldom so accurately proportioned as the artificial mixtures from which true Portland cement is made. Manufacture. ^There are two distinct methods of making Portland cement, known as the " wet " and " dry " processes respectively some firms also use a " combination of the two which they term the " semi-drj'
process.
In the wet process the clay and chalk are treated in a wash mill and are there mixed in suitable proportions, sufficient water being added to make a thin shp or slurry (see p. 60). The slurry is run through a fine grating into another mill or tank where it is tested in order to ensure it containing the correct proportion of chalk and clay. The solid matter is then allowed to settle and the clear water is run off, the thick paste
PORTLAND CEMENT
149
being allowed to become stiff enough to walk upon. This paste is then cut up into cakes or lumps and is passed through a mixer in order to make it uniform in composition after this it is dried on a hot floor heated by waste gases from the kiln. The dry lumps of material are fed into the kiln and are burned imtil they \itrify, the semi-fused mass or clinker being afterwards ground so as to form the Portland cement. In the dry process, the shales or other indurated clay and hmestone are dried and are then crushed to fine powder in ball mills which consist of a rotating cyhnder partly filled with flint pebbles or steel balls. These balls fall on the material as the cylinder revolves and thereby crush it to powder, the latter escaping through holes in the fiat ends of the mill. It is usually necessary to pass this somewhat coarse powder into a second longer mill, termed a tube mill, in which the reduction to fine powder is completed. The raw meal thus produced is placed in silos or storage bins in order that it may be tested and its composition adjusted if necessary. The material is withdrawn from the bins as required, mixed thoroughly in a trough mixer and is then taken to the kiln and burned to chnker, the chnker being afterwards crushed to a fine powder, which forms the cement. There is a great difference in opinion as to the relative merits of the wet and dry processes in some cases either may be used equally well, in others the fact that one of the materials to be used requires crushing makes it essential to use part of the " dry " process and generally makes it desirable to use it throughout. Many of the argimients which have been published concerning both processes are entirely imreliable, and the present practice is to rely more on the natiue of the materials than on any supposed advantage in either
;
;
150
process.
In either case, thorough mixing of the finely divided materials is essential, and no pains should be spared to secure this.
The kilns used for burning the clinker are now almost invariably of the rotary type,^ as they are much more economical in labour and fuel than were the older
types of kiln, though the product obtained from the latter was equally as good in quality when the same methods of preparation were used. The rotary kiln
(Fig, 30) consists of a slightly sloping cylinder
60 to
110 ft. in length and about 6 ft. in diameter, which is rotated slowly whilst in use. The raw meal is fed in at the upper end and the fuel is introduced at the lower one. Hence the material gradually increases in
it
temperature in emerges from

of the clinker
is
its
it
passage through the kiln, and when the clinker is white hot. The cooling
effected
by passing
similar, but
much
shorter, tube, through
a current of air on its way ment simultaneously heats the air and cools the clinker so that the air is in an excellent condition for burning the fuel. The fuel used is finely ground coal dust, injected with a current of hot air, producing a long and intensely hot flame of great heating power. It is necessary that the material should be uniformly heated, as under-burned clinker is of small value, and a little of it may easily spoil a large batch of cement.
is difficult, so that if care is taken that the clinker has been heated to at least 1,410 C, there will be little liability to errors in burning. The clinker produced is of a dark grey colour it is extremely hard and full of minute pores. To make it useful it must be ground to an extremely fine powder in a tube mill or in some other form of fine grinding-mill > Shaft-kilns are becoming increasingly popular and are much cheaper to instal and maintain.
through another which is passed This arrangeto the kiln.

it
Over-burning
all
II
(146511)
152

of dust will occur.
It is usual to
and to add about 1 per cent, of gypsum this treatment extends the time taken in setting when the cement is mixed with water and thus makes it more useful, as rotary kiln cement which has not been so treated sets almost instantaneously. The clinker must be ground so finely that not more than 3 per cent, of it will remain on a sieve with 76 holes per linear inch, and not more than 18 per cent, on a sieve with 180 holes per linear inch, the test being conducted on 4 oz. of material shaken on the sieve for fifteen minutes. This test and others relating to the characteristics of Portland Cement are contained in the British Standard Specification which is adopted by all official bodies and by many architects
into the grinding-mill
;
in which httle loss blow a little steam
in the British
Empire when ordering cement. The ground cement is stored in silos, and is put into bags holding 100 lbs. each when required for use. The manufacture to be profitable must be carried out on a very large scale, as the process must be worked continuously day and night. Hence, the prospectuses issued by some company promoters with respect to small works
and are based on ignorance of the conditions required. In competition with modern firms it is practically impossible to sell cement of inferior quality, so that the industry is entirely unsuited to a man with only a moderate
for this industry are quite misleading
amount
cement
of capital.
Properties.
is
The
it
essential
shall,
property
of
Portland
suitable
that
when mixed with a
proportion of water, form a paste which sets rapidly to a hard mass, producing a good cement, the hardness of which increases at a satisfactory rate with the progress of time. These properties are checked in the British standard specification by imposing limits on the
PORTLAND CEMENT
153
time required for setting, and on the tensile strength of the cement when freshly made, and after seven and twenty-eight days respectively, though the test on Various tests freshly-made cement is seldom used. are also imposed in which an attempt is made to age the cement artificially by boiling it in water, etc. Many tests of Portland cement fail because they are apphed to
the neat cement, whereas they really ought to be applied to a mixture of sand and gravel or other aggreis used for some stnictural purpose. done, the results of the tests are far more comparable with the behaviour of structures in which cement is used, and curious anomalies such as a mixture of cement and sand giving a higher tensile strength than the same cement when used alone are avoided.
gate
such
as
When
this
is
a material made by mixing sand and gravel with water and Portland cement so as to form a pasty mass which gradually hardens and forms an artificial stone of great durability. Its great advantage consists in the ease with which it may be used in the erection of massive structures in locahties where stone would be far too costly and would take too long to prepare. Concrete is commonly spoken of as consisting of three ingredients (i) Water, (ii) Cement, and (iii) Aggregate. The last-named term includes any sand and coarse material which may be used, the
Concrete.
is
Concrete
cement.
by those of the Aggregates are formed of stone, gravel, pebbles, slag, and a variety of other materials of a stony nature. The particles of aggregate are relatively coarse, pieces as large as hens' eggs being commonly used for foundations and walls, the smaller particles being used for finer work, paving blocks, walls, etc. The proportions of aggregate, cement and water required for concrete depends on a variety of factors.
particles
of aggregate being united
154
including the size of the particles in the aggregate,
the purpose for which the concrete is to be used and the size of the blocks or other articles to be made. It is,
therefore, impossible to give details within the limits
of the present volume, and the reader desiring them should consult one of the books mentioned on page 158. Reinforced Concrete is concrete which is so arranged as to surround a skeleton of steel work, the latter being in the form of bars of special shape, wire netting or perforated sheet. Plain concrete has a remarkable degree of resistance to compression, but is relatively weak under tension this weakness is entirely avoided by the use of reinforcement, a very small proportion The use of of steel being required for the purpose. reinforced concrete has therefore rapidly extended
;
during recent years, and it is now employed in the construction of a great variety of buildings, bridges, foundations and other structures. Great ingenuity is
frequently exercised in the shaping and arrangement of the reinforcing metal in order to reduce the amount required to a minimum whilst still retaining ample
strength to resist all probable stressess. A new and apparently important use of reinforced
concrete
is in the construction of vessels of this material. barges and similar vessels up to 200 tons capacity have been in use for two years, and a concrete vessel of 5,000 tons capacity was launched in the United States
Many
in
May,
1918.
CHAPTER XIX
ULTRAMARINES AND OTHER CLAY PRODUCTS
is a considerable number of materials used for a variety of purposes in which clay is either the raw material from which the products are made or the commercial products are in themselves some form of It is clay, though not readily recognised as such. convenient to group the more important of these materials together in the present chapter.
There
Ultramarines are well-known pigments of a character^ which were formerly obtained from the blue mineral lapis lazuli, but are now prepared artificially. The artificial ultramarines are prepared by heating a mixture of china clay (p. 16), sulphur and carbonate of soda to a red heat and carefuUy washing the blue pigment until it is free from all impurities. The intense blue colour is characteristic of the material and is not due to a colouring substance as was at one in all probability, the colour is due to time supposed the relative arrangement of the atoms composing the ultramarine. The ultramarines form part of a large group of alumino-silicates containing sulphur in a peculiar state of combination ; these salts usually contain sodium as the predominant metal, and precisely similar compounds can be produced with silver, lead or zinc in place of the sodium, though these other compounds are not of commercial value as pigments. It is, therefore, important to remember that the ultramarines form a group of compounds and not merely
istically blue colour
;
Green, red and white ultramarines are known, but are of
insignificant
commercial value.
155
156
one particular chemical ; this explains differences in the colour and properties of ultramarines from different sources, and renders it possible to speak of green and white ultramarines without committing an error.
Ochre is a variety of clay containing a considerable proportion of iron oxide to which its colour is due. This iron oxide may or may not be in the free state in the better qualities of ochre it appears to be in the
;
form of an
easily
decomposed
alumino-silicate, the
composition of which is by no means understood. The yellow ochres are easily darkened and made into brown ochres by heating to redness this appears to decompose some of the iron compound setting iron oxide free. Some natural ochres appear to have been exposed to heat sufficiently to effect a partial decomposition in this manner such ochres contain a mixture of clay and iron oxide. In some cases, the proportion of free iron oxide is so large that the material bears a closer resemblance to iron ore than to ochreous clay. Various ochreous pigments imported from abroad are known bj'^ special names thus Lemnian earth is obtained in the Island of Stalimene Armenian hole is imported from Armenia sienna comes from the Italian town of that name, burnt sienna being the same material which has been heated to a dull red heat umber is an indurated ochre chiefly obtained from Cyprus, and after being heated to redness and carefully levigated, it is largely used under the term burnt timber as a pigment
; ;
and
oil-dryer.
variety of ochre
ball clays
is
also obtained in Dorset
by
washing
residues.
and
carefully retaining the coloured
carefully
For use as pigments, all these materials must be ground to an impalpable powder, after which they are treated with water to separate the coarser
ULTRAMARINES AND OTHER CLAY PRODUCTS

and
useless particles
157
fully dried
and
is
; the washed product is then caresometimes subjected to a further
grinding to ensure
Fuller's
its
being of the requisite fineness.
Earth and Lithomarge are natiu-ally occurring minerals which bear a close resemblance to china clay (p. 16) and for many commercial purposes the latter may be used to replace them often with advantage, as it is usually finer and more miiform in textm-e. True fuller's earth is devoid of plasticity and in this respect, it differs from china clay and hthomarge, but by heating china clay slightly it may be made increasingly
;
to resemble fuller's earth.

ler's
Both lithomarge and fulearth are used to remove grease from woollen cloths and as the basis of many toilet preparations.
The
their
and less plastic the materials and the greater power of absorbing or combining with grease, the better their quality this is often improved by hghtly
finer
;
baking the earth before use.
A SHORT LIST OF BOOKS ON CLAY AND CLAY PRODUCTS

Origin and Varieties of Clays. Brilish Clays, Shales and Sands. The Natural History of Clay. The Silicates. Winning and Preparation of Clays Clayworher's Handbook. Modern Brickmaking.
Treatise on Ceramic Industries.
Author.
A. B. Searle A. B. Searle
VV.
Publisher.
C. Griffin
& & &
Co., Ltd.
Cambridge Univ. Press

Constable
Co.
&
D. Asch
A. B. Searle A. B. Searle E. Bourry

E. Dobson & A. B. Searle A. B. Searle A. E. Brjwn
C. Griffin Co., Ltd. Scott, Greenwood
Brickmaking Bricks and Tiles.
Crosby, Lockwood
&Co.
Scott,
Modern Brickmaking.
Greenwood
Hand
Brickmaking.
Tiles.
Clayworker Press
Crosby, Lockwood
Co.
Tile-making Bricks and
Roofing Tile Manu/aclure. Treatise on Ceramic Industries.
E. Dobson & A. B. Searle E. L. Raes E. Bourry

P.
&
Maclaren
Scott,
Cassell
& Son
Co.
Greenwood
Terra-Cotta
Terra- Cotta Modelling.
Hasluck
&
&
Earthenware and Porcelain

Earthenware Manufacture. Treatise on Ceramic Industries. En'^lish Earthenware andSloncii'arc.
Porcelain.
E. Sandcman E. Bourry
Virtue
Co.
W. Burton W. Burton
A. B. Searle
A. B. Searle D. B. Butler B. E. Jones and others
Scott, Greenwood Cassell & C<). Cassell & Co.

C. Griffin
Refractory Materials
Refractory Materials.
&
Co., Ltd.
Portland Cement & Concrete

Cemenl, Concrete and Bricks. Portland Cement.
Reinforced Con'^relc.
Constable & Co. E. & F. Spon

Cassell
&
Co.
Kilns
Kilns and Kiln Building. A. B. Saarle
list
Clayworker Press
of books dealing with the claymaking industries The Clayworker's Handbook, by A. B. Searle is published in the Appendix to price 7s. 6d. Many of the books therein mentioned are in (C. Griffin & Co., Ltd.), French or German, the chief technical works in the English language being given, in the Table above.
Note.
Â fairly
complete
Much
additional information
Title.
may
also
be obtained from the following Journals

Publisher.
Street, Press, 43 Essex Strand, W.C. Shoe Lane, Sons, Ltd., Maclaren & 38 E.C. Broadway, 8 & Son, Scott, Greenwood Ludgate Hill, E.C.
The Brilish Clayworker,
Clayworker
The Brick
&
Pottery Trades' Journal.

Gazette.
The Pottery
158
INDEX
AccRiNGTON
clay, 23
Agricultural pipes, lOS Alite, 147 AUuvial clays, 6, 12 Alum shales, 27

in clays, 1 silicic acids, 1, 7, 8 Annealing furnaces, 142 Ark for mixing, 114 Armenian bole, 156
Burning bricks, 86 effect of on clay, 89

,
fine earthenware, 122 floor tiles, 96
over-glaze ware. 133

pipes, 108 roofing tiles, 95
Alumina Alumino
Bumovers, 68 Burnt sienna, 20, 156
Ball
clays, 6, 12, 14 mining, 34, 36

,
Cambrian clays, 3, 6 Capped ridge tile, 94

Carboniferous clays, 6 Casting pottery, 116
149 Basins, maJcing, 123 Batting clay. 118 Biscuit tiles, 96 ware, 124 Black ball clays, 14 Blue ball clavs, 14
mills,
Cement
,
clays, 6, 16
bricks. 89,
90
Blungers, 60, 112
Body, 65
Bone porcelain, 135 Books on clays and clay products, 158 Boring, 30
cUnker, 149 Portland, 147 Cements, natural, 148 Chalk, use of in bricks, 68 Chemical porcelain, 137 China clays, 12, 16 getting, 34, 45 ware, 135 Chinese porcelain, 137 Clay shales, 26 Clay-substance, 7 Clays, acid properties of, 9
,
Boulder clays, 4, 6, 15, 38 Breathing of iDricks, 91 Brick clays and earths, 6,

15
12,
origin of, 1 purification of, Cleaning clay, 43 Clot, 71, 75

. ,
I^rxk clays, quarrying, 34 washing, 46 Bricks. 66 clays used for, 66 colour of, 66 properties of, 90
, .
,
,
refractor^'.
15,
139
Buff bricks.
68
Club-end tile, 94 Coal measure clays, 4, 18 Coarse pottery, 102 Cobalt as whitener, 114 Colloidal nature of clays, 21 Colour of red bricks, 66 Colours for glazed tiles, 97 of bricks, 16. 23, 66
159
160
INDEX
bricks,
Common
68
Eocene
Concrete, 153 Consistency of tempered clay,
clays, 6 Essential substances of clays, 7
58 Continuous
Expanding
kiln, 87,
ridge-tile,
rolls,
94
88
Expression
77
Corfe Mullen clay, 23 Cornish stone. 111
Cornwall clays, 16
Corrosion of firebricks, 141 Corrosive chemicals, pottery for, 106 Crested ridge tile, 94 Cretaceous clays, 6 Crucibles, 138, 144 Crushing clay, 47 strength of bricks, 91 Cups, making, 119 Cutting table for bricks, 75, 76
Facing ware, 64 Fareham clay, 23

Feet of pots, making, 120 Felspar, 1, 17, 27
Fettling pipes, 108'
62 Fine earthenware. 111 Fineness of clay particles, 2

Filter press,
of clays, 11
Finishing ark, 115

Firebricks, 138, 139, 141 Fireclays, 6, 12, 18, 106 Fish-tail tile, 94 Flint in earthenware. 111
Decorating ware, 120

Devonshire clays, 14, 16 Diamond tile, 94 Digging clay, 35 Domestic earthenware, 111
Dorsetshire clays, 14 Down-draught kiln, 87 Drain pipes, 106, 107 Drift clays, 4, 15, 32 Dry process for cement, 149 Drying, 84, 95, 120
Floor
tiles,
95
Fluviatile clays, 6 Flux, 131 Formation of clays, 2 Foul clays, 15 French porcelain, 135 roofing tiles, 93
Frit, 128 kiln, 127 Frog in bricks,
Drying
clay, effect plasticity, 22

,
of
on
80 Frost on clay, action Fuller's earth, 157
of,
41
slips, 62,
115
Furnace
linings, 138, 141
" Duff " in clay, 38 Dust, pressing, 120

Dust-tiles, 96
Furnaces, clays for, 24 Fusion point of clays, 10, 14
Dusting ware, 131
Gable
tile,
94
Earthenware,
23, 111
Earths for bricks, 15 Eave tile, 94 Edge-runner mill, 48

Electrical porcelain, 137 Electro-osmosis of clay, 46 Enamel kiln, 132, 133
Canister, 6, 139 Gas, retorts for, 143 Geological position of various

clays, 6 Gilded ware, 131
Glacial clays, 4, 15, 32 Glass pots, for melting, 138
Glazed bricks, 68, 90, 92

terra-cotta, 100
tiles,
Encaustic tiles, 97 Engineering bricks, 90, 92 Engobe, 65
96
Glazes, 18
INDEX
Glazing coarse pottery', 104 earthenware, 126 with salt, 109 Granite, 6 Granular nature of clays, 1 Greensand clays, 6 Grinding clays, 47
Grizzles, 68 Grog. 22. 143
161
15 clay, 32 stock bricks. 68
Loams,
London
133
Lustrous effects on pottery,
Madeira
Making
Magnesia in
or Spanish clay, 27 bricks, 140

bricks,
tile,
94
use of, 52 Ground-laying on ware, 131

,
69
Marls, 15, 19
Hand-made
roofing
bricks, 71
tiles,
93
Metalhc effects on pottery, 131 Metamorphic clays, 6 Mica in clays, 17, 27
Handles, making, 120 Hard paste porcelain, 134 Haulage of clay, 36 Heat-resisting clays, 24
Mining
clays, 34
fireclays, 34 Miocene clays, 5
Mixing ark, 114

clays
Hip
94 Hydrolysis of clay, 42
tile,
and water,
53, 114
ModeUing, 99 Moulding, 71. 99, 117
Igneous
clays, 3,
Imper\'iousness of bricks, 91 Insulators, 137 Iron oxide in clays, 15, 18 sulphide in clays, 15, 18
Natural cements,
New
148 red-sandstone clays, 4
Ochre, 19, 156 Octagon hip-tile, 94

Oil-shales, 27
Jiggers, 118
Jolleys,
18 Jurassic clays, 6
1
Old red sandstone OUgocene clays. 6

Oolite clays,
clays. 4,
Kaolinite,
Kiki,
17, 19
frit, 127 Kilns for bricks, 87
4, 6 Ordovician clays, 6 Organic matter, in clays. 19 Ornament or grooved ridge

tile.
potter^', 122
94
Lamination
in bricks.
84
Lancashire clays, 32
Ovens, potter s. 122 Over-glaze decoration, 130 Oxidation of impurities

clays, 41
in
Land
pipes, 108 Lawns, 64, 114 Leadless glazes for bricks, 92 Lean clays, 15 Lenmian earth, 156 Liassic clays, 4, 6 Leicestershire clay, 23 Lime in clays, 24, 27 Limestone dust in clay, 38
Painting ware, 133

Pan-mill, 54
Pan-tiles, 93, 94
Parian ware, 136
Permian
Lithomarge, 157
clays, 4, 6 Picking clay, 43 Pipe clays, 12, 20 Pipes, making, 107
162
Placers, 124
INDEX
Regenerators, 142
Plain
tile,
94
Removing
ridge tile, 94 Plastic clay crushing, 47

clays, 15, 20
process, 73 process for bricks, 69 Plasticity defined, 20 increasing, 42, 59 reducing, 35 Plates, making, 118 Pleistocene clays, 6 Pliocene clays, 4 Plumbago crucibles, 144 Porcelain, 28. 134 clays, 16 Porosity in bricks, 9 92
cracks, 108 Reinforced concrete, 154 Re-pressing bricks, 81 Retorts, 138, 143 River-deposited clays, 12 Roasting dishes, 138 Rocks, clay-forming, 1 Roman tile, 94 Roofing tiles, 93 Rolled-ridge tile, 94 Round-end tile, 94 Ruabon clay, 23 Rustic bricks, 69
Saddle-back
tile,
94
Sagger marls, 26
Saggers, 96, 122 Salt-glazed ware, 10 Salt-glazing, 109
Portland cement, 147 Post tertiary clays, 6 Potash in clays, 27

Potter's ovens, 122 Potter's wheel, 102
Samples
of clay, collecting, 31
Pottery clays,
6, 12, 22 Pre-Cambrian clays, 6 Precautions in mining and quarrying, 38 Preparation of clay for brickmaking, 69 Presses for bricks, 81 Pressing ware, 117 Printing on earthenware, 125
Sand-faced bricks, 69 Sand, use in clay working, 35 Sanitary ware, 102 Saucers, making, 118
Scorifiers, 138 Screening clay, 51 Searching for clay,
30 Semi-dry process, 69,
70, 77
Sewage
Profile, 117
pipes, 108 Shales, 16, 26, 36 Shrinkage in burning, 90
Properties of cement, 152 Prospecting, 30
Pugging
clay,
53
Purifying clays, 43 Pyrite in clays, 15, 18
Shropshire clay, 23 Sienna, 20, 156 burnt, 156 Sifting slips, 64 Silica bricks, 140
,
Quarrying
clays, 34
Reading clay, 23 Red bricks, 15, 68, 89

burning, 89 burning clays, 23

,
in clays, 1, 19, 25 Siliceous clays, 27 Silurian clays, 3, 6 Sizes of bricks, standard, 92 Slags, action on bricks, 141 Slates, 3, 26 Slip kiln, 115
Slips, density of, 61
,
Refractoriness defined, 142 Refractory blocks, 142

clays, 24
drying, 62, 115
goods, 138
preparation uses of, 60
of,
60
INDEX
Slips, weight per pint, 61 Sockets on pipes, making, 107 Scda in clays, 24, 27
163
Trial pieces, use of, 90 Triassic clays, 4, 6 Trimming pipes, 108
Soft-mud machines 72
Sorting clay, 43 ware, 130, 133 Souring clay, 59
for bricks,
Trough-mixer, 56 True clay, 7
Tube
mill, 149
Tunnel dryers, 85
oven, 122 Turning, 116. 117, 136
Staffordshire clay, 23, 26, 36 engineering bricks, 90 Stains for pottery, 114 Standard specification for
Umber, 156
,
burnt, 156
cement, 152
35 Stiff-plastic process, 69, 78
of,
Under
Steam nawies, use
clays, 28 Under-glaze decoration, 125 Up-draught kiln, 87
Stones, removal of from clay. See Purifying clays Stoneware, 106 clays, 27, 106 Storing clay paste, 59
Valley
tile,
94
Varieties of clays, 7 Vitreous porcelain, 135

Vitrifiable clays, 28 Vitrification of clays,
14,
Strength of bricks, 91 Strike, 72 Strong clays, 15

Suffolk bricks, 68
27,
28,89
Cornish Stone, 111
Surface clays, 28
Washing
,
clay, 34, 44, 45
Tapestry
bricks, 69 Tempering clays, 53 Tender clays, 86
Water absorption by bricks, 92 effect of, on clay, 2 Wealden clays, 4, 6

Weathering
clay, 40
Terra-cotta, 98
clays, 28
Wedging clay, 53 Wedgwood's Jasper ware, 120
glazed, 100 Tertiary clays, 4, 6, 14 Testing clays, 32 Throwing, 102, 116

,
Wet
inches,
1 14 process for cement, 148
White
bricks, 68 Wire-cut bricks, 73
Tiles,
,
93
roofing
tiles,
93
clay used for, 95 Torridian slates, 3
Zinc, retorts
for,
143
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HuiuiuiiniiiiimiiiilnniusiK
I^J 1 J 1
^%
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l* ^^
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1^
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inunmncmmnnKiiiiiBmwi
(continued)
LEATHER: From
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the
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COTTON
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[MON COMMODITII

illustrations, charts, etc.,

TEA. By A. Ibbetson COFFEE. By B. B. Keable

GLASS AND GLASS MAKING.

SUGAR. By Geo. Martineau, C.B. By C. AiNswoRTii Mitchell,

B.Sn., F.I.C, F.C.S.

THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY.

WHEAT. By Andrew Millar RUBBER. By C. Beadle and H.

Digitized by tine Internet Arcliive

PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES

BRITISH CLAYS, SHALES,

REFRACTORY MATERIALS, THEIR MANUFACTURE AND USE

Bath, Melbourne and

Amen Corner. New York

Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman Sons, Ltd., London, Bath,

Melbourne and New York

like the others in this series,

at exhausting the subject with

does not aim On the

sufficient insight into the

own business. Few people, except

clay products were suddenly

irreplaceable, the loss

impossible, architecture would, in

and the most evident

would be absent. To know something

and certain clay

and the potter

entirely opposed to those required

by the manufacturer ultramarine, cement

for preparing the Index.

ORIGIN AND VARIETIES

THE WINNING OF CLAYS

PROSPECTING AND BORING MINING AND QUARRYING

PREPARING THE CLAY

MAKING ARTICLES OF CLAY

TERRA-COTTA COARSE POTTERY AND SANITARY

STONEWARE AND DRAIN-PIPES FINE EARTHENWARE

FIREBRICKS, FURNACE LININGS,

138 147 155 158 159

16. 17. 18.

.... .... ....

CLAYS AND CLAY PRODUCTS

THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF CLAYS

CLAYS AND CLAY PRODUCTS

briefly described as follows

in their originally flat of

CLAYS AND CLAY PRODUCTS

and formed what are known

THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF CLAYS

though these changes are

result of all these changes in the relative positions

on the next page, the most recently deposited being

CLAYS AND CLAY PRODUCTS

Table showing the Relative Geological Positions

.Brick earths, pottery clays,

so-called (brick clays).

Brick clays, fireclays,