REPORT FOR

COLLOQUIUM
ON THE TOPIC

FLOOD CONTROL
SUBMITTED BY

ABHISHEK KOUL 0909003

Department of Civil Engineering

DEEN BANDHU CHHOTU RAM UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, MURTHAL 131039

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land. The European Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows or breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries or may be due to accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an areal flood. Floods can also occur in rivers, when flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders.

Principal types and causes

Areal Floods often happen over flat or low-lying areas when the ground is saturated and water either cannot run off, or cannot run off quickly enough to stop accumulating. This may be later followed by a river flood as water moves away from the areal floodplain into local rivers and streams. Floods can occur if water accumulates across an impermeable surface (e.g. from rainfall) and cannot rapidly dissipate (i.e. gentle orientation or low evaporation). A series of storms moving over the same area can cause areal flash flooding. A muddy flood is produced by an accumulation of runoff generated on cropland. Sediments are then detached by runoff and carried as suspended matter or bed load. Muddy runoff is more likely detected when it reaches inhabited areas. Muddy floods are therefore a hill slope process, and confusion with mudflows produced by mass movements should be avoided. Riverine Slow kinds: Runoff from sustained rainfall or rapid snow melts exceeding the capacity of a river's channel. Causes include heavy rains from monsoons, hurricanes and tropical depressions, foreign winds and warm rain affecting snow pack. Unexpected drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice, or debris can cause slow flooding upstream of the obstruction. Fast kinds: include river flash floods resulting from convective precipitation (intense thunderstorms) or sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind a dam, landslide, or glacier. Dam-building beavers can flood low-lying urban and rural areas, often causing significant damage.

Estuarine Commonly caused by a combination of sea tidal surges caused by storm-force winds and high river stages due to heavy rain. Coastal Caused by severe sea storms, or as a result of another hazard (e.g. tsunami or hurricane). A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or an extra tropical cyclone, falls within this category. Catastrophic Caused by a significant and unexpected event e.g. dam breakage, or as a result of another hazard (e.g. earthquake or volcanic eruption) Human-induced Accidental damage by workmen to tunnels or pipes.

Effects
Primary effects Physical damage damage to structures, including bridges, buildings, sewerage systems, roadways, and canals. Secondary effects Water supplies Contamination of water. Clean drinking water will become scarce. Diseases Unhygienic conditions. Spread of water-borne diseases. Crops and food supplies Shortage of food crops can be caused due to loss of entire harvest. However, lowlands near rivers depend upon river silt deposited by floods in order to add nutrients to the local soil. Trees Non-tolerant species can die from suffocation. Transport Transport links destroyed, so hard to get emergency aid to those who need it.

Tertiary and long-term effects Economic economic hardship due to temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, food shortage leading to price increase, etc. Psychological flooding can be highly traumatic for individuals, in particular where deaths, serious injuries and loss of property occurs.

Flood Control
Flood Control is generally required for the following purposes: For the protection of the mankind residing in that particular area. For protection of particular infra structure like big towns, canal systems, roads and other installations at strategic locations. Flood control in flood plains for protection of precious agricultural lands.

NECESSITY OF FLOOD CONTROL PLAN

Whenever the catchment area and/or flood prone area to be considered is big or very important, and when the flood safety level is not balance between upstream and downstream portions of the river, it should have a flood control plan. A Flood Control Plan requires proper coordination with the other plans such as: - Irrigation development plan, - Road network/bridge plan, - Sabo plan - Environmental management plan.

Design Flood Frequency

Basically, all flood control projects must have a flood control plan. It is necessary to make a flood control plan based on the forecasted river phenomena which is likely to occur as a result of the discharges corresponding to the design flood frequencies. Design Flood Frequency is expressed by return period, i.e., the probability (expressed in years) where a flood of a target size/magnitude is likely to occur. The return period should be determined based on the size of catchment area, the degree of importance of the proposed project area and the economic viability of the project. Thus, it is necessary to determine the design flood discharge corresponding to the design flood frequency of the river. It is also necessary to consider the funds needed for the implementation of the proposed improvement works and the expected benefits.

Classification of Flood Control Plan

Flood control plan is classified according to its objective: 1. Master Plan 2. Flood Control Project Implementation Plan

Master Plan
The Master Plan explains the flood control policy, strategy, target flood magnitude and main works, etc. by river system. It is necessary to conduct wide range survey, investigation and analysis to formulate the flood control master plan. Since the implementation of each flood control project may affect other areas of the river basin, a long-term time frame for each of the projects identified in the Master Plan must be formulated to obtain optimum benefits of the projects.

Project Implementation Plan

The Flood Control Project Implementation Plan specifies the works selected from the Master Plan to be implemented considering the funds needed in the project implementation and benefits to be derived from the project. Implementation period of this plan is usually 5 to 10 years. Economic analysis shall be conducted to determine the scope of the Project Implementation Plan.

SURVEY AND INVESTIGATION

NECESSITY OF SURVEY AND INVESTIGATION The primary purpose of survey and investigation is to provide the basic data and information necessary for the subsequent flood control planning and design of river training structures and bank protection works. Data collection, analysis and utilization are basically important in making plan/design more appropriate. MASTER PLAN Topographic Information To understand the general profile of a river system, catchment area and flood prone area, the following maps are required: 1. Topographic map 2. Land use map 3. Geological map 4. Other available map from the related Local Government Units
In the absence of the appropriate maps for planning, aerial photography and topographic surveys should be undertaken. From the maps mentioned above, the following activities shall be conducted: 1. Delineate catchment area. 2. Classify the geological/geographical features of each sub catchment area. 3. Classify the existing vegetation by each sub-catchment area. 4. Identify the flood prone sites roughly.

5. Identify the cities and municipalities in the flood prone area. 6. Identify the important public facilities such as national road, provincial road, city hall, church and school, etc. within the flood prone area. 7. Classify the land use in flood prone area, such as commercial area, residential area, industrial area, agricultural area, etc. 8. Identify the changes in the river course and longitudinal profile.

General Information
Collect all information regarding land use, population, economic activities, future development plans, etc. within the catchment area and flood prone area. 1. Population by city / municipality 2. Increasing ratios of population by city 3. Statistics of commercial activities per year by region and city 4. Statistics of industrial product per year by region and city 5. Statistics of agricultural products per year by region and city 6. Long term and medium term development plan by region, city and municipality

Hydrological Data
Collect the following hydrologic data of the river basin: 1. Daily rainfall data of all gauging stations within and around the catchment area throughout the recording period. 2. Hourly rainfall data of all gauging stations within and around the catchment area during the duration of the flood. 3. Hyetographs of past typical floods on all synoptic rainfall gauging stations. 4. Data on the maximum water levels during peak floods at all water level gauging station. 5. Discharge measurement record for all water level gauging stations. 6. H-Q (Height-Discharge relationship) rating curve for all water levelgauging stations.

Field Survey and Investigation

Conduct field survey as follows: 1. River cross sections at typical sites. - Every 500 m to 1,000 m intervals along the stretches of river proposed for improvement. 2. Longitudinal profile. - Rough profile of the river to be taken from topographic map -Longitudinal profile taken from cross section survey 3. Identification of the riverbed material. -By segment features of the river

Conduct field investigation and interviews to get the following information. 1. The information/records of past floods. (Frequency, area, depth, duration of flooding) 2. Conditions of the existing river facilities. 3. History of flood control activities in the basin.

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION PLAN Topographic Survey

Considerations: 1. All the river improvement stretch should be covered. 2. The width of survey area shall be extended at least 50m beyond both banks.

Other considerations: 1. The overflow level of both banks should be identified and indicated on cross section profile. 2. The water level during the time of the survey (if any), should be indicated in the survey. 3. The ordinary water level during the rainy season should be indicated. 4. The deepest riverbed should be identified and indicated. 5. The average riverbed should be identified and indicated. 6. The information of land use behind the bank should be noted. 7. All elevations shall be reckoned from an established benchmark.

Longitudinal Profile Survey

The average riverbed profile/gradient shall be utilized in plotting the longitudinal profile. The stationing of cross section measurements shall be indicated in the longitudinal profile. In case, that there is an existing structure in the river (e.g.; bridge foundation/pier, groundsill etc.), it should be indicated/superimposed in the profile.

Material Survey
The type of materials of riverbank and water area shall be surveyed and indicated in the topographic map and cross section profiles in order to: - Determine the riverbed characteristics. - Determine the quality of riverbed materials. - Determine the relationship of the diameter of riverbed materials, riverbed gradient, etc. with the velocity of flow. - Classify the river segment based on the river morphology.

FLOOD CONTROL PLANNING

DETERMINATION OF DESIGN DISCHARGE

Ideal Determination Procedure

The ideal procedure in determining the design discharge is as follows: 1. Determine the safety level (Flood frequency). 2. Calculate the discharges corresponding to the flood frequency level. The output of this calculation is the target flood discharge of flood control. This target hydrograph is called Design Hydrograph and the peak of Design Hydrograph is called Design Discharge. This is defined as the Long Term Target Discharge in this sub-section. 3. Calculate the existing river flow capacities. 4. Discuss the alternative plans of discharge allotment The Long Term Target Discharge = (Increased river flow capacity) + (Peak cut off by dam and/or retarding basin). If the river flow capacity can be increased, the number of dam and/or its storage capacity can be reduced. 5. Estimate the rough cost of each alternative plan. 6. Determine the most appropriate plan

Actual Determination Procedure

The procedure mentioned in above is for the formulation of a long term flood control plan. It is very difficult and time consuming to construct so many dams for flood control purposes. So it should be considered to increase the river flow capacity as much as possible at first and what frequency of its capacity can be secured should be understood. If the improved rivers capacity is still inadequate, it means that the possibility of over flow is high, so, structures have to be designed based on over flow frequencies in that case. The target discharge of river flow capacity of improved river is defined as the Design Discharge. Ideal situation requires that the design discharge have to be planned and the amount of shortage from the Long Term Target Discharge have to be allocated to the peak cut of dams/retarding basin/flood diversion channel. Although the discharges corresponding to several frequency levels can be calculated and the Long Term Target Discharge is determined, it is unnecessary to plan the actual peak cut plan. Initially, the design discharge should be assessed considering the existing discharge capacity of each river, since the frequency levels of target flood for each river are different. The procedure of determination of design discharge is as follows: 1. Calculate the discharges corresponding to several flood frequency levels. 2. Calculate the existing river flow capacities on several control points. 3. Investigate the flood damages caused by past major floods and develop the relationship between flood discharge and flood damage. 4. Discuss the possibilities of river improvement. 5. Determine the preliminary river improvement plan. 6. Evaluate the cost to be incurred in the preliminary river improvement plan. 7. Determine the most appropriate plan.

Determination of Design Hydrograph

In case of calculation of discharge by Storage Function Method, the target typical rainfall pattern should be selected. The several cases of discharge shall be calculated for above typical rainfall patterns. Even if the input of rainfall on calculation is same, but the rainfall pattern is different, the peak discharge will also differ. If the flood control plan should be discussed on most safety level, the biggest output of calculation should be automatically the design discharge. The design hydrograph should be carefully selected from the above-calculated discharges since the maximum output may be sometimes extraordinary.

Calculated Discharges by Design Flood Frequencies

Previously, the design hydrograph is determined. As a preparation in determining the design discharge, several discharges must be calculated for comparison with the existing discharge capacity. The discharge shall be calculated at each control point and tributaries based on several return periods.

Discharge of Tributaries
The results of the discharge calculations for tributaries differ for each rainfall patterns. It should be noted that rainfall is sometimes unevenly distributed. It is therefore necessary to consider the most reasonable design discharge based on the output of calculation. However, in the absence of gauging stations, i.e., one station only is available, the same output may be used for calculating the design discharge. On the other hand, if the flood prone area affected by the tributary is very important, an individual tributary calculation should be made. The safety level of tributary is usually smaller than the main river because the catchment area of the tributary is smaller than that of the main river. The design discharge of tributary is determined in comparison to several outputs of all basin wide run off analysis and the individual calculation of tributary run off analysis.

Relation Between the Discharges of Main Rivers and Tributaries

Peak discharge of the main river and its tributary usually do not occur at the same time. In other words, the peak discharge of tributary and the main river occur at different times.

Relation Between the Discharges of Main River and Tributaries

Preliminary River Improvement Plan

Identify the most important flood prone area, then, verify/confirm the existing flow capacity (discharge). The preliminary flood frequency level shall be determined and the most important thing is to consider whether it is possible to realize the project, (e.g., land acquisition for new river width). Important points to be considered in the plan are the following: 1. Purpose of river improvement. 2. Degree of importance of the area to be protected. 3. Location of the area to be protected. So the real flood frequency and past flood damage have to be investigated. The preliminary river alignment shall be determined, which is the alignment of new banks (dikes) and preliminary design flood level shall also be determined.

Design Discharge
The design discharges shall be decided based on the results of evaluation of the preliminary improvement plan. If the width of river and/or the height of dike should be changed, all the plans for the river system should be reconsidered based on the effect on both upstream and downstream reaches. Finally, the design discharges on several control points, river alignment (bank alignment), longitudinal plan (design water level), cross-sectional plan, main structure shall be determined.

Damages Considered for Flood Control Projects

There are two classifications of damages that can be considered for flood control projects: 1. Flooding Damages Flooding damages consist of direct and indirect damages. - Direct damages within the flood prone area are estimated from damageable value of properties multiplied by damage ratio depending on the flooding condition. Damageable value of properties can be estimated as the unit assed value of properties by land classification (i.e. residential, commercial, agricultural) multiplied by the corresponding area, damage to infrastructure can be assumed as 50% of the damage to residential or commercial area. - Indirect damages including income loss and emergency costs due to flooding can be estimated as 5 to 50% of the total direct cost, which depends on the condition of flood prone area. 2. Bank Erosion Damages There are two types of bank erosion damages: a) due to continuous bank erosion b) due to river course change. - Continuous bank erosion damages are assumed to be the assessed value of damageable area based on the bank erosion rate.

- Damages to river course change are assumed to be the assessed value of properties within the areas enclosed by the existing and possible river course.

3. Intangible Damages Other than the flooding and bank erosion damages, there are intangible damages which badly affect the peoples social life and economic activities such as: - damages to peoples livelihood - damages to traffic and transportation - damages to business activities - loss of lives and injuries

Design Flood Level

Design Flood Level (DFL) means the high water level that corresponds to the Design Discharge. Basically, the DFL shall be set at about ground height along the river. For non-diked rivers, it should not be higher than the ground level. It should not be set above the experienced maximum flood level because it will induce problems on overflow flooding, tributary confluence, etc. As much as possible, river should be planned non-diked, because it allows the sufficient afflux of drainage from the hinterland into the river and the damage potential once overflow flooding takes place is minimal. On the other hand, if the floodwaters continue to rise, it induces a large pressure against the dike for diked rivers and its damage potential is great once the dike is broken.

Design Flood Level (DFL)

Flood Control and River Training Structures

Flood control is divided into following categories according to purpose: To increase the river discharge capacity To reduce or control the peak discharge of flood To prevent inland flooding To prevent bank collapse and harmful degradation of riverbed To prevent obstruction against river flow and/or maintain/conserve the good condition of the river in order to keep the flow uninterrupted.

To Increase River Flow Capacity

by dike/levee by widening of the waterway/river by dredging/excavation combination of the above

Flood Control by Flood Retaining Embankments ( Dikes or Levees)

Flood embankments are earth fill structures designed to contain high river levels. They are commonly grass-covered, but may need additional protection against erosion by swiftly flowing water, waves or overtopping. This is an old method practised by for protection of man and his property against floods. It is still the most expedient method of flood control specially when the meandering river regime is undisturbed and stable. The most significant drawbacks are reduction in storage capacity of flood plain and increase in heights of flood waves.

Alignment of flood retaining embankments

Because of meandering action of rivers, the flood retaining embankments should be placed nearly parallel to the meandering axis of the river at a fair distance from the meandering belt and it should be such as to minimize the danger of active parallel flow along the embankments in order to avoid erosion by migrating channels. The alignment also depends on the general topography, infrastructures of canal and road networks, concentration of population and the bearing capacity of soil, etc.

Height of flood retaining embankments

The height of a dike is based on the design flood level with a required freeboard added to it. Actually in many cases, the design flood level is not fixed, then the height of the dike is usually decided based on past maximum flood level and in consideration with the hinterland elevation. In this case, flood water levels should be calculated and consider the longitudinal gradient of provisional design flood level. For determination of the design discharge, the existing flow capacity should be calculated.

Freeboard
The freeboard of a dike is an allowance in height according to the design flood discharge. Basically, freeboard is a margin of the height that does not allow overflow against the design flood level. In general, the dike is made of earth and sand and is very weak to overflow. Therefore, it is provided with adequate freeboard in preparation for the temporary rises of the water level caused by wind and waves on the occasion of a flood, swell and hydraulic jump, etc.

Flood Control by widening of water way

Another method to increase the River flow capacity is to widen the total water way available. Water way is the distance between the two opposite ends of the river through which the water flows. If the total water way of a river is increased its flow capacity is also increased as water gets more area to flow over than before.

By Excavation/Dredging
Excavation is one of the methods to increase river flow capacity. It involves increasing the depth of the river. This can be done by excavating or removing the bottom layer of soil. Due to this, the overall depth of river is increased which helps to increase its flow capacity. In this process, weeds and water plants that grow in water are also removed which enhances its flow.

To increase the river flow capacity

To Reduce or Control Peak Discharge of flood

Dams are hydraulic structures constructed to control and/or conserve water. For purposes of flood control, dams are used to retard flood runoff and minimize the effect of sudden floods. In the design of these structures, the following are considered:

Location, Alignment and Selection of Types

1) In streams flowing between high rocky walls, a concrete overflow dam is recommended. 2) Low and rolling plains, an earthfill dam with separate spillway is recommended. 3) Rockfill dams are recommended in remote locations where cement and materials for an earthfill dam are not available. 4) For gravity dams these can be built on earth foundation, and their height in this case is limited to 20 metres. 5) Dams must be evaluated for earthquake loads and stresses. 6) Solid rock foundation has a high bearing capacity and resistance to erosion and seepage. 7) Gravel foundation, if well compacted are suitable for earthfill, rockfill and low gravity dams. This kind of foundation is often subject to water seepage at high rates and therefore needs special precautions to provide effective water cutoffs or seal.

Design Criteria Freeboard

The freeboard allowance for dams is based on a water surface level determined by assuming an arbitrary discharge that might result from a possible emergency. Usually, an encroachment on the freeboard provided for the designed maximum water surface level is allowed considering the design of an emergency spillway.

Height
1) Normally, the height of a dam is determined by the depth of water in the reservoir based on the design flood level plus an allowance for freeboard. 2) The required height of an earthfill dam is the distance from the foundation to the water surface in the reservoir when the spillway is discharging at design capacity, plus a freeboard allowance for windtide and wave action. 3) In fine-grained soils consolidation is less rapid, and it may be necessary to provide additional height of fill so that, after settlement, the earth embankment will be at the desired height.

Top width
1) The top width of an earthfill dam should be sufficient to keep the phreatic line, or upper surface of seepage, within the dam when the reservoir is full. 2) Top width should also be sufficient to withstand earthquake shock and wave action. 3) Top widths of low dams may be governed by secondary requirements such as minimum roadway widths. 4) A minimum width of 3 metres is usually required for maintenance.

Hydrograph of reduction of peak discharge

To prevent Inland Flooding

Floods are classified as: Overflow flood flood caused by overtopping of the riverbanks/dikes. Inland flooding flood caused by localized torrential rain which could not be drained by gravity due to the high water stage of the river.
Overflow flood could be prevented by: by dike/levee by widening of the waterway/river by dredging/excavation combination of the above

Inland flooding could be prevented by: Lateral improvement (Ex. storm drain, drainage main, open canals, ditches, etc.) Tributary improvement (Ex. branches of main river) Pumping station

Types of Flood

To Prevent Bank Collapse and Harmful Degradation of River Bed

By revetment By spur dike By change of waterway/ cut-off channel By groundsill (to prevent riverbed degradation)

By Revetment
Function of revetment is to protect the collapse of riverbank due to erosion, scouring and/or riverbed degradation.

Planning of Revetment
Main factor of bank erosion is river flow velocity. The external force of erosion depends on the velocity of river flow. Therefore the determination to provide revetment should be made depending on the river flow velocity, embankment material, topographical, morphological, and geological conditions of the riverbank and river flow direction, etc., with due consideration to the appropriate type of revetment suited to the existing site condition. On the other hand, revetment should be so design to withstand the lateral forces in case of high velocity flow, flow attack zone, weak geological condition of riverbank, and poor embankment materials.

Location and Alignment

Revetment should be planned at riverbanks in high velocity areas with consideration to the site condition (river flow direction, topography, geology, and embankment material). In case of sluggish stream area and budgetary limitation, priority of construction should be conducted on river bend or at stream attack part or drift stream part.

This is because the possibility of scour is very high on these locations comparing with other parts along the river system. Although the alignment of revetment depends on the channel plan or existing alignment of bank, bank alignment should be improved with revetment as smooth as possible particularly at bend areas.

Construction of Revetment at River Bend

Height Basically, the height of revetment is determined by setting it at the Design Flood Level (DFL). However, the revetment height should be designed up to the top of riverbank or crest of embankment because there is a possibility of occurrence of floodwaters to exceed the DFL or top of the bank. If the height of revetment is more than 5.0 meters, berm (banquette) must be provided and is so designed in order to separate the revetment into segments, as well as in consideration of site condition (geography and geology). Berm shall be at least 1.0 meter in width for maintenance purposes, patrolling the river and stability of the revetment. For a single-berm revetment, the berm is located just above the ordinary water level whenever possible.

Case when H < 5 meters

Case when H > 5 meters

Depth For a narrow river (less than 50 meters in width) the minimum depth of revetment foundation should be 1.0 meter below the deepest riverbed elevation of the original riverbed or design riverbed, because riverbed materials are subjected to erosion during flood times In case of a wide river (more than 50 meters in width), more than 1.0-meter depth of revetment foundation should be considered. If there is a tendency for riverbed degradation, the foundation has to be placed deeper than 1.0 meter.

Slope The slope of revetment should be gentle as much as possible to for stability purposes. Though standard slope is 2:1 horizontal and vertical, respectively, it depends on the natural slope of the ground before construction. For concrete revetment, a maximum slope of 0.3:1 shall be observed considering stability and the resulting residual hydraulic pressure.

Thickness The thickness of revetment is generally decided based on the existing flow velocity, sediment runoff whenever the latter exists or likely to occur in the proposed improvement stretch (topography and geological conditions, scouring, degradation, etc.), soil and groundwater pressure at the back of revetment and other associated factors. Minimum overall thickness should be 300 mm for all types of revetment, except for reinforced concrete type.

Prevention of Outflow of Backfill/Behind Material One of the main causes of caving in of soil particles behind the revetment is the flowing out of fine backfill materials through the joints of revetment. This phenomenon leads to the collapse of the revetment. In order to prevent the outflow of these fine materials, filter cloth, such as geo-textile is necessary to be laid behind the revetment. However, cost of procuring filter cloth should be considered in planning and design of the revetment. As alternative, gravel may be used instead.

without filter cloth and gravel

with filter cloth and gravel

By Spur Dike
Basic Concept Purposes of spur dike are as follows: 1) Prevent bank scouring by reducing the river flow velocity. 2) Redirect river flow away from the riverbank.

Types
Basically, spur dikes are grouped into permeable and impermeable/semi-permeable types, as described below: 1) Permeable Type Spur dike of this type is made of piles and frames, preferably in series. Its purpose is to reduce the river flow velocity at the immediate downstream of the spur dike and induce sedimentation. In cases where piles cannot be driven due to the presence of boulders on the riverbed, crib frame, skeleton works or concrete block type shall be used. 2) Impermeable/semi-permeable type This type of spur dike is made of wet masonry (impermeable) or concrete blocks and loose boulder (semi-permeable), preferably in series. Its purpose is to change the river flow direction away from the riverbank.

Alignment The alignment of spur dikes deflected towards the upstream, should have an angle between 10 to 15 with the line perpendicular to the riverbank at straight sections and 0 to 10 at flow attack zones. This type of alignment induces sedimentation at the foot/front of the riverbank immediately downstream that serves as protection for the toe of revetment and/or dike. The right angle spur dike is usually adopted because it gives the average effects.

Length
Length of spur dike is generally taken as 10% of the river width or less, but not to exceed 100m. Examination of the river flow capacity should be conducted in cases where length of spur dike is more than 10% of the river width (distance of left to right bank) or the spur dike is to be constructed in a narrow river, since this could affect the opposite bank and considerably reduce the river flow capacity.

Crest
The width of the crest of spur dike ranges from 1 meter to 2 meters. In case where the design flood level has been identified, the height of spur dike shall be fixed within 10% to 40% of the distance reckoned from the average riverbed to the design flood level. Otherwise, the height shall be 0.5 meter to 1.0 meter above the ordinary water level during rainy season.

Depth of Embedment
In case of the concrete and stone masonry type spur dike, a minimum embedment depth of 0.5 m is recommended. For the permeable type (i.e., pile-type, crib-type, etc.), an embedment depth of 2/3 the pile length is recommended.

By Change of Water Way

Floodway Cut Off Channel

Flood Way
Floodway is a channel branching somewhere along the existing river by excavating a new manmade waterway directly discharging into the sea, lake, or another main river, in order to avoid the drastic widening of the existing river or to shorten the extension of improvement. Since floods are going to be introduced in an area which is almost free from the damage of floods from the past, then comparative design must be employed for planning under the sufficient pursuit of economic warrant and safety as to the flood flow and with comprehensive discussion made on the following points: (1) The diverted floodwater of the design flood discharge to the floodway is generally decided by assuming several separation ratios to calculate the improvement costs, and by finding the combination to minimize the total of all the improvement costs for the main river and floodway. (2) Floodway should be constructed far away from a densely populated areas and sufficient attention should be observed such as preservation of natural environment, protection of cultural properties, land use consideration, present water use and so on. (3) The floodway should be decided whether it is to be made by means of natural diversion or by any structures. These structures should also be planned whether they are to be constructed at the main river, at the floodway itself or whatever it is envisioned to be more effective. (4) The designed floodway for flood diversion is not ordinarily used for low flow diversion in order to keep the water use of the main river especially during nonflood phase, but for other cases other than flood.

Cut Off Channel

Cut-off channel is a shortened waterway made by excavating new river course to correct/straight conspicuous meandering. Conspicuous meandering are river stretches with insufficient flow capacity where bank collapse is apparently inevitable. Countermeasure along the said meandering requires meticulous planning considering the behaviour of the river. On the other hand, significant maintenance is expected when flood control structures are constructed on the meander portion. In a river with stable riverbed in the state of meandering, the steep gradient is considered to break the stability, causing riverbed degradation to endanger structures because of increased velocity in the upper reach, and also causing the rise of riverbed because of deposition caused in the lower reach. For this reason, planning is not only confined at the cut off section, rather at the same time, it is necessary to consider the long stretch in the upper and lower reaches such as the improvement of riverbed gradient, alignment and cross section forms of the waterway. For this purpose, basic investigation must be made as to bed variations such as form of waterway, riverbed gradient, bed materials, river regime and the newly designed riverbed variation must be estimated to find the optimum design.

By Ground Sill
Basic Concept The groundsill plan will determine the necessary location, the height and form of the structure, direction, location, etc. in order to stabilize the riverbed. Purpose of groundsill is to fix the riverbed elevation in order to prevent riverbed degradation resulting to local scours under forces of turbulent flow during floods. The groundsill is classified into two types, drop structure type and sill type. It is constructed for the following purposes to stabilize the riverbed: 1. To moderate the bed slope, decreasing the scouring force of the river water, for stabilization of the riverbed in the upper reach (generally, with head). 2. To prevent turbulent flow, fixing the flow direction (mostly, with head). 3. To prevent scouring and drop of the riverbed (generally, without head)

The groundsill consists of the following components:

1) Main Structure

A Groundsill is classified into two types; Drop Structure Type (with head) and Sill Type (without head). Drop structure type is selected when there is an elevation difference between upstream and downstream. When there is small or no difference, Sill type is selected.

2) Apron Riverbed scouring protective structure, provided to prevent scouring which is caused by drop water.

3) Bed Protection a) Upstream Bed Protection Riverbed scouring protective structure, provided to prevent local scouring which is caused by increasing tractive force. At this portion, water level goes down, therefore flow velocity and tractive force increase. b)Downstream Bed Protection i. Bed protection (Hard type) : Riverbed scouring protective structure, provided from the water drop point after the point of hydraulic jump. In this section, super critical flow occurs. Usually this structure is made of concrete blocks. ii. Bed protection (Soft type) : Riverbed scouring protective structure, provided after the portion of hydraulic jump. Usually this structure is made of gabion mattress. 4) Approach Wall Slope protective structure, provided to prevent scouring just after the main structure. Usually this structure is considered from 5 m upstream side of the main structure to after the point of hydraulic jump and this structure shall be designed as retaining wall
5) Fish Way

Groundsill breaks the continuity of water flow upstream and downstream. It prevents the migration of fishes and other wildlife. When a groundsill is planned fish way shall be considered. 6) High Water Channel Protection High water channel protective structure, provided to prevent scouring caused by overflow from low water channel. This structure shall be considered in a compound cross-section river.

Drop structure type

Location and Alignment

When a stretch of river bed is scoured by the flow of river water, and then the foundation of structures , such as revetment comes out, the risk of flood damage increase and sometimes accompanied by intake difficulties. Groundsill is constructed where the river bed slope should be kept at stable state and the river bed height shall be kept high according to the plan. The portion with straight and parallel bank alignment is recommended. The plane form of a groundsill shall be linear as a general rule. The direction shall be at right angles to the direction of river flow in the lower reaches in principle, considering the direction of river flow on the occasion of flood flow.

Height
The groundsill is provided to stabilize the riverbed, but it creates the bigger problem as to the stability of the riverbed in the immediate lower reaches. In a river with considerable riverbed variation, the crest height must be decided in reference to the existing riverbed and future trends. In general, the crest height of a groundsill shall coincide with the design bed height, and the standard height shall be less than 2 m. Water level profile drops at the groundsill location accompanied by the sudden increase of flow velocity. This condition tends to lower the riverbed immediately upstream of the groundsill and should be considered in the determination of the crest height. Both ends of the groundsill body shall be anchored sufficiently in the dike or revetment. In the lower reach of the groundsill, an apron shall be properly provided according to necessity.

Flow at Upstream side of Drop Structure

Embedment and Foundtion

In a wide river, groundsill need not be embedded in the dike/revetment in order not to induce damage to the dike/revetment. In a narrow river especially with high velocity flow, embedment is necessary.

Embedment in the dike/revetment

The base of groundsill shall be placed on solid foundation. There are two types of foundation: spread type and pile type. When spread type is selected, the thickness of foundation shall be larger then 3 meters.

Countermeasures against bank collapse and harmful degradation of riverbed

To prevent obstruction against river flow and/or maintain/conserve the good condition of the river in order to keep the flow uninterrupted
By sabo works (for sediment control) By regular maintenance (channel excavation/dredging)

By sabo works (for sediment control)

SABO is a Japanese term that means erosion and sediment control works. The Japanese style of SABO erosion control works is more intensive than Western erosion control works. The term SABO is known internationally, and is used both in and outside Japan.

Sabo Works in Japan

Past Sabo Works for erosion and sediment hazard In the past, trees on mountain slopes were cut for firewood and building houses, other structures, shrines, and temples. Forests regenerated naturally after cutting. However, forests did not recover in weathered granite areas and erosion accelerated. Some regulations to prohibit forest clearance were then issued. Erosion control works, reforestation, and construction of SABO dams and check dams have been carried out. Slope surfaces were covered with trees that controlled surface erosion remarkably well. Contemporary Sabo Works By 1960, denuded mountains in Japan had been mostly covered with vegetation. Other large scale SABO works started, including erosion and sediment control works to prevent erosion on large landslide areas, and relatively high SABO dams to control sediment discharge from the landslide areas. Around 1970, debris flow hazards were recognized. These were triggered by heavy rainfall and destroyed many houses, jeopardizing human life. Closed-type SABO dams have been used to trap or control debris flows. Steel pipe open-type SABO dams have been constructed upstream of a closed-type SABO dam to check large rocks contained in debris flows. The steel pipe open-type SABO dams with narrow openings have been formally adopted as major debris flow control structures, because they do not change the natural condition of torrents, and because of their low maintenance. The concrete slit open-type SABO dams once constructed are not built now, because debris can flow through the slits. Existing slit SABO dams were improved by installing iron bars over the slits. At present, SABO works protect against not only surface erosion and sediment transport in mountain rivers, but also against shallow and deep-seated

landslides and snow avalanches. SABO works also protect against many volcanic hazards, including: (1) volcanic mud flows, a type of debris flow that occurs after ash fall from volcanic eruptions (2) lava flows (3) pyroclastic flows.

Concrete SABO dam (closed type)

Steel pipe SABO dam (open type) trapped large rocks of debris flow

Steel pipe SABO dam as downstream end structure of debris flow torrent.

Concrete slit SABO dam. Steel bars were installed at the slit after debris flow passed through the slit.