Introduction To Gas Processing

Introduction to
Production Technology
Presenter: Ta Quoc Dung
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Process Overview
Chapter 3. Performance of Flowing Well
Chapter 4. Artificial Lifts
Chapter 5. Enhanced Oil Recovery
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Content 2

Learning Objectives
Having go through this course, students will be able to:
Describe the overview of Petroleum Production Technology
Describe the role of Production Engineer in a Petroleum
Operating Company.
Describe a production system and its facilities both onshore
and offshore.
Understand the concept of inflow performance, lift
performance and their integrated nature.
Understand the enhanced oil recovery process.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Learning Objectives 3

Chapter 1
Introduction
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 4

Content
1.1. Historical Background
1.2. Origin of Petroleum
1.3. Petroleum Production
1.4. Production Engineer
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Chapter 1 - Content 5

Historical Background
Oil has been used for many thousand years.
Initially, oil was collected from seepage or tar ponds.
6000 BC, thick gummy asphalt was used to waterproof
boats and heat home.
3000 BC, Egyptians used asphalt in the construction of the
pyramids, to grease the axles of the Pharaoh’s chariots, as
an embalming agent for mummies and in medicine.
500 BC, Chinese were using natural gas to boil water.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.1. Historical Background 6

Historical Background
1885, internal combustion engine was invented by Karl
Benz. Later, Gotlied Daimler improved on this invention.
1894, Rudolph Diesel created the engine bearing his name.
Since then, oil started to play a dominant role in the world.
Initially, gas was burned off or left in the ground. After
World War II, natural gas industry boom due to:
Welding techniques
Pipe rolling
Metallurgical advances
=> Construction of reliable long distance pipelines

The First Oil Wells
“Colonel” Edwin Drake’s well at

Titusville, Pennsylvania, marked the
start of the oil industry in 1859

The First Oil Wells
First wells were shallow, less than 50 meters in depth.
However, they could give quite large production, e.g. 4000
barrels per day for a single well.
Oil was collected in wooden tank, called “barrel”. Many
different sized barrels in the background. Current standard,
one barrel is 159 liters.

The First Oil Wells
Philips well
Woodford well 4000 bbl/d, Oct 1861
1500 bbl/d, July 1862

The First Oil Wells
Well “jungle” at
Spindletop, 1903

What is Petroleum?
Petra = Rock Oleum = Oil
Petroleum is a mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons

which may exist in the solid, liquid, or gaseous states,
depending upon the composition and conditions of pressure
and temperature to which it is subjected.
Gaseous = natural gas

Liquid = condensate, crude oil
Solid = asphalt, tar, bitumen
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.2. Origin of Petroleum 12

Petroleum Components

Origin of Petroleum
Origin of petroleum
Organic
Inorganic
Primary Requirements for Petroleum Reservoir

formation:
Organic life
Water for transportation
Tectonic activities

Type of Hydrocarbon Produced
Oil produced is classified by shrinkage, density or GOR.
Normally, high value oil has high API density.

Other Uses of Oil
Crude Oil Bottled Gas
Solvent for paint
Insecticides
Gasoline
Jet Fuel Medicines
Refinery Fuel Oil (home heating Synthetic Fibers
Fuel Oil (factories) Enamel
Diesel Oil Detergents
And others Weed Killers &
Fertilizers
Petrochemical Plastics
Plant Synthetic Rubber
Photographic Film
Candles
Waxed paper
Polish
Ointments & Creams
Roofing
Petroleum Products Protective Paints
Asphalt

Petroleum from Beginning to the End
Exploration Evaluation Drilling
Completion Production Separation
Treatment Transport Refining
Treatment Transport End Users
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.3. Petroleum Production 17

Key Areas in Production Technology
Production technology is both a diverse and complex area.
It is, possible to identify several key subject areas:
Well Productivity
Well Completion
Well Stimulation
Associated Production Problems
Remedial and Workover Techniques
Artificial Lift / Productivity Enhancement
Surface Processing
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.3. Production Technology 18

Production Technology Topics
WELL
WELL WELL
WELL
PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE COMPLETION
COMPLETION
PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION PRODUCTION SURFACE
SURFACE
ENHANCEMENT/
ENHANCEMENT/ PRODUCTION
TECHNOLOGY PROCESSING
PROCESSING
ARTIFICIAL
ARTIFICIALLIFT
LIFT TECHNOLOGY
STIMULATION
STIMULATION
PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION AND
ANDREMEDIAL
REMEDIAL
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS PROCESSES
PROCESSES
WELL
WELLMONITORING,
MONITORING,
DIAGNOSIS
DIAGNOSIS
AND
AND
WORKOVER
WORKOVER
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.3. Production Technology 19

Scope of Production Engineer
Production Engineer is responsible for the production
system.
The production system describes the entire production
process and includes the following principal components:
The Reservoir
The Wellbore
Production Conduit
Wellhead, Xmas Tree and Flow Lines
Treatment Facilities
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.4. Production Engineer 20

Elements of A Production Technology System
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.3. Petroleum Production 21

Role of Production Engineer
Production Engineer performs tasks to achieve optimum
performance from the production system.
To achieve this the technologist must understand:
Chemical and physical characteristics of the fluids.
System which will be utilised to control the efficient and safe
production/injection of fluids
The importance of the Production Chemistry and Flow

Assurance input has only recently been widely
acknowledged.

Contribution to Oil Company Operations
Contributes substantially, in particular to economic
performance and cash flow.
The overall incentive will be to maximise profitability.
The objectives of an oil company operation could be
classified as:
Maximising magnitude and accelerating cash flow.
Minimising cost/bbl, i.e. total cost minimisation may not be
recommended.

Cash flow
The overall objectives would ideally be to maximise both
cash flow and recoverable reserves. This would normally
require maintaining the well in an operational state to
achieve:
Maximum production rates
Maximum economic longevity
Minimum down time

Costs
In this category there would be both fixed and direct costs.
On this basis the production technologist would seek to:
Minimise capital costs
Minimise production costs
Minimise treatment costs
Minimise workover cost
Ensuring that the company’s operation are safe, efficient

and profitable.

Time Scale of Involvement
Specialist task teams to fields or groups of wells i.e. field
groups or asset teams.
Specialist groups or individual who provide specific
technical expertise.
This ensure that there is a forward looking and continuous
development perspective to field and well developments.
The production engineer is involved in the initial well design
and will have interest in the drilling operation from the time
that the reservoir is penetrated.

The inputs of production engineer will last throughout the
production life of the well, to its ultimate abandonment.
The production engineer will contribute to company
operations on a well from initial planning to abandonment.
The inputs in chronological order to the development and
the operation of the well are listed below.

Drilling
Casing string design.
Drilling fluid selection.
Completion
Design/installation of completion string.
Production
Monitoring well and completion performance.
Workover/re-completion
Diagnosis/recommendation/installation of new or improved production
systems.
Abandonment
Identify candidates and procedures.

Questions
1. Which company is producing oil the most in Vietnam?
What is its average day-rate?
2. Locate main oil and gas production fields in Vietnam?
3. Name some oil refinery projects in Vietnam?
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Chapter 1 - Questions 29

Chapter 2
Process Overview

Content
2.1. Production Systems
Onshore
Offshore
2.2. Production Facilities

Wellhead
Manifold/Gathering
Separator
Gas Compressor
Pipeline
Metering, Storage and Export Facilities
2.3. Utility Systems

Basic Process Scheme

Process Overview
Production Production Gas Compressor Metering and Export
Wellheads and Test Storage
LP HP Gas
Manifolds Meter Pig Gas
Launcher Pipeline
Pig Oil
Production Separators Launcher Pipeline
1-Stage Tanker
Loading
2-Stage
Crude Oil
Pump Meter
Water Treatment
Test Separator
Oil Storage
Drilling Utility Systems (selected)

Injection Injection Power Generation
Wells Manifolds Water injection

pump Instrument Air
Mud and Cementing
Potable Water
Gas injection
compressor
Firefighting
Systems
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Facilities HVAC 33

Oil and Gas Production
Oil and gas is produced in almost every part of the world.
Production from 100 bbl/day to 4000 bbl/day per well.
Depth of production from 20 m to 3000 m, and more.
Current trend of petroleum production:
Explore reservoirs at ultra high water depth.
Develop subsea production system.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 34

Production System
1. Onshore well 5. Floating, single point mooring

2. Fixed, multi platform 6. Storage/shuttle tanker
3. Fixed, self-contained platform 7. Floating, tension leg platform
4. Self-contained, concrete gravity platform 8. Subsea manifolds

Onshore
Production from a few tens barrels a day upward.
Worldwide, there are several millions oil and gas
production wells.
Production system:
sucker rod pump
(donkey pump).

Onshore
Heavy crude, tar sands and oil shales
have become economically extractible.
Heavy crude may need heating and
diluent.
Tar sands have lost their volatile
compounds and are strip mined or
could be extracted with steam.
These unconventional of reserves may

contain more than double the
hydrocarbons found in conventional
reservoirs.

Offshore
Facilities selected depending on:
Type of fluid: oil, gas or condensate.
Production rate.
Location of field and water depth.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Facilities 38

Offshore Production System

Type of Offshore Platform

Type of Offshore Platform (cont.)

Type of Offshore Platform (cont.)
1353 ft 1754 ft 4674 ft 5610 ft 6300 ft 4429 ft 7570 ft
(1991) (1998) (2004) (2004) (2003) (2005) (2004)

Shallow Water Complex
Water depth up to 100 m.
Several independent platforms with different parts of the
process and utilities linked with gangway bridges.
Individual platforms will be described as:
Wellhead Platform
Riser Platform
Processing Platform
Accommodations
Platform and Power
Generation Platform

Integrated Steel Jacket Platform

Gravity Base
Water depth: 100 – 500 m.
Concrete fixed structures
placed on the bottom, typically
with oil storage cells.
Large desk receive all parts of
the process and utilities.

Compliant Tower
Water depth 500 – 1000m.
Much like fixed platforms, consist of narrow tower attached
to a foundation on the seafloor and extending up to the
platform.
Compliant tower is quite flexible.

Compliant Tower
Moving a compliant tower

to a field.

Rig-up
Fixed platforms are built in
onshore bases.
Then they are towed to the
field by tugboats.
Platforms positioned and
connected to seafloor.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Facilities 48

Floating Production
All topside system are located on a floating structure.
Floaters:
FPSO - Floating Production, Storage and Offloading, 200-2000 m.
TLP – Tension Leg Platform, up to 2000 m.
SPAR – single tall floating cylinder hull, 300 – 3000 m.
Turrets are positioned by:

POSMOR (position mooring): chain connections to anchors.
DYNPOS (dynamic positioning): thrusters and propellers.

FPSO

FPSO with Tanker

TLP

TLP with subsea wells

SPAR

SPAR anatomy
1. Monocolumn Hull
2. Tendon Porches
3. Tendons
4. Foundation
5. Deck
6. Hull to Deck Transition
7. Riser Porch
8. Riser/Umbilical Pull Tubes
9. Moonpool
10.Production Risers
Subsea Production System
Typically used at 7000 ft depth or more.
Drilling and completion are performed from a surface rig.
Wells located on the sea floor.
Petroleum is extracted at the seafloor, then “tied-back” to
an existing production system by subsea pipeline and riser.

Subsea FPSO Development

Host Platform connected to several Subsea Fields

Main Process Section
An oil and gas production system consist of the main
following sections:
Wellhead
Manifold/Gathering
Separator
Gas compressor
Pipeline
Some optional facilities may be required

Heat exchanger
Scrubber and Reboiler
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 60

Wellhead
Located on top of the well, also called “The X-mas tree”.
Allow a number of operations relating to production and
workover. Workover refers to various technologies for
maintaining the well and improving production.
Control the flow of the well with a choke.
Two main type of wellheads:
Dry completion: conventional wellheads.
Subsea completion: subsea wellheads.

X-MAS TREE Wellhead
TUBING
HEAD
CASING HEAD

Wellhead (cont.)
A wellhead consists of three component:
Casing head: where casing are bolted or welded to casing
hanger.
Tubing head: used to position the tubing correctly in the
well.
X-mas tree
Master gate valve: high quality valve, not used to control flow.
Pressure gauge: may also fitted together with temperature gauge.
Wing valve: when shut in, tubing pressure can be read.
Swab valve: access to the well for wireline operations, etc…
Choke: made of high quality steel, used to control the flow.

Subsea Wellhead
Placed in subsea structure.
World deepest subsea production tree is 9000 ft of water.
Compact system, function similar to conventional wellhead.
Operated by ROV
(remote operated vehicle).

Subsea Wellhead (cont.)

History of Subsea Technology

ROV

Types of Choke
Principal surface system pressure loss occurred at choke.
Choke is designed to control the well flow rate and
pressure before fluid exposed to surface equipment.

Manifold/Gathering
Every individual well is brought in to the main production
facilities over a network of gathering pipelines and manifold
systems.
Manifolds allow to set up and control production of a “well
set” and utilize reservoir.
Manifolds can be placed on surface, on platform or on
seafloor, depending on the production system.

Manifolds
Manifolds Subsea manifolds

Separator
Production fluid of a well may consist of gas, oil, water,…
and must be separated and processed.
Separator form the heart of the production process.
When fluid fed into a separators:
Pressure is controlled and reduced in several stages
After a retention time, gas bubble out, water settle at the bottom and
oil stay in the middle.
There are 2 types of separator:

Gravity separators,
Centrifugal separators: in which the effect of gravity
is enhanced by spinning the fluids at a high velocity.

Gravity Separators
Working on the density difference between the phases be separated.
Cylindrical vessel up to 5m in diameter and 20m long.
Either 2-phase or 3-phase.
Normally mounted in a series of 2, 3, or even 4 separators.

3-phase Horizontal Gravity Separator

3-phase Vertical Gravity Separator
Tend to be larger
than a horizontal
separator for the
same separation
capacity due to
smaller interface
areas.

Gas Compressor
Gas from a pure natural gas wellhead might have sufficient
pressure to feed directly into a pipeline transport system.
Gas from separators has generally lost so much pressure
that it must be recompressed to be transported.
Typical gas compressor is turbine compressor, which
contains a type of fan that compresses and pumps the
natural gas through the pipeline.

Gas Compressor (cont.)
Compressor power is often delivered by gas turbines,
diesel engines or electric motor, depending on location and
power required.
Types of compressor:
Centrifugal compressor
Positive displacement reciprocating compressor.
Both compressor types are susceptible to damage by liquid

droplets, hence the presence of the liquid knockout
vessels prior to each compressor.

Simplified Processing Oil Facilities Scheme

Pipeline
Pipeline exists everywhere in a production system.
Many types of pipe and flowline are used in transportation
of oil and gas, diameters vary from 6” to 48” and more.
Due to oil and gas properties and harsh environment,
production pipeline has special construction and design.

Layers of a Production Line
1. Carcass 4. Tensile armour

5. Outer sheath
2. Inner liner
3. Pressure armour
Heat Exchanger
For a compressor operates in an efficient way, the
temperature of the gas should be low.
Heat should be conserved, e.g. by using cooling flood from
the gas train to reheat oil in the oil train.

Scrubber and Reboiler
Used to remove small fraction of liquid from the gas before it reaches the
compressor. Liquid droplets can erode the rotating blades if they enter the
compressor.

Metering
Several metering devices are used in every petroleum
production system to measure gas or oil properties as it
flows through the pipeline.
Metering stations allow operators to monitor and manage
the natural gas and oil flow without impeding its movement.
Typically, a metering installation consists of a number of
meter runs and associated prover loops so that the meter
accuracy can be tested and calibrated at regular intervals.
Oil metering Gas metering

Storage
Gas is usually not allowed to storage on platform.
Oil is often stored before loading on a vessel.
Offshore production facilities without a direct pipeline
connection rely on crude storage in the base or hull and
allow a shuttle tanker
to offload periodically.

A Base at Night

Export of Oil
The volume of oil being exported has to be measured to the
highest accuracy.
Pipeline requires regular cleaning to ensure its efficient
operation. A “pig” is usually used to remove settled sand,
wax deposit, stagnant water,…
Offshore, loading on tankers involve loading systems,
ranging from tanker jetties to sophisticated single point
mooring and loading systems that allow the tanker to dock
and load product even in bad weather.

Export - FPSO Offloading to a Tanker

Export of Gas
Gas has to pass several process and treatment before
exporting to customers, including:
Separation
Compression
NGL stabilization
Dehydration
Acid gas treating
These processes may repeat to improve the purity of gas

and control gas properties.

Gas Field Facilities

Export - Gas Transportation

Export - Gas Transportation (cont.)

Produced Water Treatment
Produced water, after separation and treatment, is normally disposed of
by injection into disposal wells, reinjection into the reservoir or pumping
to open pits where it is allowed to evaporate or drain.
In offshore operations, there are other sources of water that require
treatment before disposal:
Water used for washing / cleaning of equipment,
Sea spray and rain water,
Utility water previously used for heating and cooling duty,
Displacement water from crude oil storage systems and shuttle tankers.
At some offshore locations if the environmental regulations permit it, oil-
free water may simply be pumped into the ocean.

Produced Water Treatment (cont.)
Primary separation may be enhanced by:
1. Heating of the crude oil: to reduce viscosity.
2. Addition of demulsification chemicals: to alter the interfacial tension
between the oil droplets and the water.
3. Electrostatic separation: to further reduce the water content of
relatively dry oil. The water droplets suspended in the oil carry a small
electrical charge and by imposing the appropriate electrical field across
(part) of the settling region inside the separator, the settling rate of
water will increase. This method is not widely used but is occasionally
employed in conjunction with the more difficult to separate, typically
denser, crude oils.
After above methods, oil content in water is still about 500 – 2000 ppm.

Produced Water Treatment (cont.)
Further treatments are applied to reduce oil content down
to 40 ppm average, which is required by legistration in
many countries.
Many schemes have been developed to reduce this oil
content:
1. (Corrugated) Plate Interceptors
2. Flocculation / Coagulation
3. Flotation
4. Hydrocyclones
5. Coalescer Units
6. Centrifuges

(Corrugated) Plate Interceptors
Reducing the distance required for a droplet to migrate before it comes
into contact with other oil droplets and coalesces.

Flocculation / Coagulation
Uses a chemical (such as Ferrous Sulphate) which forms a voluminous
precipitate in contact with water, artificially increasing suspended liquid
size and their ability to coalesce.

Dispered Gas Flotation
Gas injected into the water and dispersed by a rapidly rotating impeller,
rising gas bubbles attaching themselves to the oil droplets.

Dissolved Gas Flotation
Gas dissolved in the water under high pressure. When pressure is rapidly
reduced - by passage of the water through a throttling valve - gas comes
out of solution in the form of many small bubbles (champagne bottle
effect).

Hydrocyclones
Standard device for cleaning oily water,
developed in the early 1990s.
Using centrifugal force to increase the
effect of gravity separation.

Coalescer Units
Provide a (usually oleophilic) surface on which the small
droplets of oil can collect, grow and eventually break free
and be removed for subsequent separation.
Can produce the lowest oil concentrations (5 ppm oil in
water has been achieved in ideal circumstances).

Centrifuges
The principle of enhanced gravitational force employed by
Hydrocyclones can be further extended by use of
centrifuges where an external electric motor is used to spin
the fluid at high velocity together with a suitably designed
internals to promote oil/water separation.

Modern Scheme for Clean Produced Water

Utility Systems
Utility systems are systems that does not handle the hydrocarbon process
flow, but provides some utility to the main process safety or residents.
1. Control and Safety Systems
1. Process Control Systems
2. Emergency Shutdown and Process Shutdown
3. Control and Safety Configuration
4. Fire and Gas Detector System
5. Telemetry
6. Condition Monitoring and Maintenance Support
7. Production Information Management System (PIMS)
8. Training Simulator
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.3. Utility Systems 102

Example of Process Control System

Utility Systems
2. Power Generation and Distribution
3. Flare and Atmospheric Ventilation
4. Instrument Air
5. HVAC (heat, ventilation, air conditioning system)
6. Water System
1. Portable water
2. Sea water
3. Ballast water
7. Chemical and Additives
8. Telecom

Questions
1. Which is more expensive, production onshore or offshore?
Why?
2. Why did the oil industry start drilling and production
offshore?
3. What are the main differences between oil production and
gas production?
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Chapter 2 - Question 105

Chapter 3
Performance of Flowing Well

Content
3.1. Production Wells
3.2. Well Productivity
3.3. IPR and VLP
3.4. Skin Factor
3.5. Two Phase Flow in Tubing

Production Wells
Production well is a
conduit between the
petroleum reservoir and
the surface.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 3.1. Production Wells 108

Types of Production Wells
There are 3 main types of production wells:
Oil well with associated gas
Natural gas wells: contain little or no oil
Condensate wells: contain natural gas and liquid condensate.
Condensate is a liquid hydrocarbon mixture that is often separated from

the natural gas during the processing.
Lifting equipment and well treatment are not necessary in

natural gas and condensate wells.
For oil wells, many types of artificial lifts may be installed,
particularly when reservoir pressure declines during
production.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 3.1. Production Wells 109

Well Productivity
The productivity of the system is dependent on the
pressure loss which occurs in:
The reservoir
The wellbore
The tubing string
The choke
The flow line
The separator
In natural flow conditions:

PR = ∆Psystem + Psep.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 3.2. Well Productivity 110

Well Productivity
For natural flow: PR = ∆ PRES + ∆ PTBG + PTH
Where: PTH = tubing head pressure
The pressure drop across the reservoir, the tubing and

choke are mostly rate dependant.
There could be limitations on the extent to which we can
optimise the dissipation of this energy. These are the
following:
Limited Reservoir Pressure
Minimum Surface Pressure

Limited Reservoir Pressure
If the reservoir pressure is limited, it may not be feasible to
achieve economic production rate from the well.
In such cases it may be necessary to use gas or water
injection for pressure maintenance or possibly system re-
pressurisation.
Alternatively, the use of some artificial lift technique to
offset some of the vertical lift pressure requirements,
allowing greater drawdown.

Minimum Surface Pressure
On arrival at the surface, the fluids are fed to a pipeline
through a choke and into a processing system.
In many cases the mixture will be “flashed” through a series
of sequential separators.
It will be necessary to have a minimum surface pressure
which will be based upon the required operating pressure.
Separator pressure will depend upon the physical difficulty
in separating the phases and pressure requirement for fluid
flow.

IPR and VLP
Minimisation of energy loss between these various areas
has a major bearing on the cost effectiveness of a well,
recovery factor, and production costs.
The pressure drop which occurs across the reservoir, ∆Pres,
is defined as the inflow performance relationship or IPR.
The pressure drop in lifting the fluids from the reservoir to
the surface, ∆PTBG, is known as the vertical lift
performance or VLP, or the tubing performance
relationship or TPR.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 3.3. IPR and VLP 114

IPR and VLP (cont.)
Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)
Single phase
Two phase
Vertical Lift Performance

Single phase
Two phase

IPR and VLP (cont.)

Production Performance
Production performance involves matching up the following
three aspects:
Inflow performance of formation fluid flow from formation to the
wellbore.
Vertical lift performance as the fluids flow up the tubing to surface.
Choke or bean performance as the fluids flow through the restriction
at surface.

Tubing Performance
The pressure loss in the tubing can be a significant
proportion of the total pressure loss. However its
calculation is complicated by the number of phases which
may be exist in the tubing.
It is possible to derive a mathematical expression which
describes fluid flow in a pipe by applying the principle of
conservation of energy.
The principle of the conservation of energy equates the
energy of fluid entering in and exiting from a control
volume.

Determining Bottom Hole Flowing Pressure
Use correlation
By metering or logging,
which is can not
operate regularly.

Fluid Flow Through Porous Media
The nature of the fluid flow
Time taken for the pressure change in the reservoir
Fluid migrate from one location to another
For any pressure changes in the reservoir, it might take
days, even years to manifest themselves in other parts of
the reservoir.
Therefore flow regime would not be steady state.
Darcy’s law could not be applied.
Time dependent variables should be examined.

Idealised Flow Pattern
They are:
Linear, Radial, Hemi-spherical and Spherical.
The most important cases are linear and radial models,
both used to describe the water encroachment from an
aquifer.
Radial model is used to describe the flow around the
wellbore.

Characterisation and Modelling of Flow Patterns
The actual flow patterns are usually complex, due to:

1. The shape of oil formations and aquifers are quite
irregular.
2. Permeability, porosity, saturation, etc are not
homogeneous.
3. Irregular well pattern through the payzone.
4. Difference in production rate from well to well.
5. Many wells do not fully penetrate the pay zone, or not fully
perforated.

Darcy’s Law
P1 L P2
Darcy’s law
Henry Darcy
P1 − P2 A (1803 – 1858)
Q=K
L µ
Q K P1 − P2 K ∆P
U= = =−
A µ L µ ∆L
Darcy’s Law
Definition
One Darcy is defined as the permeability which will permit a fluid of
one centipoise viscosity to flow at a linear velocity of one centimeter
per second for a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter.
Assumptions for use of Darcy’s Law

Steady flow
Laminar flow
Rock 100% saturated with one fluid
Fluid does not react with the rock
Rock is homogeneous and isotropic
Fluid is incompressible

Radial Flow for Incompressible Fluids
Reservoir is horizontal and of constant
thickness h.
Constant rock properties φ and K.
Single phase flow.
Reservoir is circular of radius re.
Well is located at the center of the
reservoir and is of radius rw.
Fluid is of constant viscosity µ.
The well is vertical and completed open
hole.

Characteristics of the Flow Regimes
Steady-State: the pressure and the rate distribution in the
reservoir remain constant with time.
Unsteady-State (Transient): the pressure and/or the rate
vary with time.
Semi-Steady State (Pseudo Steady-State): is a special
case of unsteady state which resembles steady-state flow.
It is always necessary to recognise whether a well or a
reservoir is nearest to one of the above states, as the
working equations are generally different.

Radial Flow for Incompressible Fluids
Two cases are of primary interest:
Steady state: the reservoir conditions does not change with
time.
Flow at r = re
Semi steady state or pseudo steady state: reservoir

conditions change with time, but dP/dr is fairly constant and
does not change with time.
No flow occurs across the outer boundary.
Fluid production of fluids must be compensated for by the
expansion of residual fluids in the reservoir.

Coping with Complexities
There are essentially two possibilities:
1. The drainage area of the well, reservoir or aquifer is
modelled fairly closely by subdividing the formation into
small blocks. This results in a complex series of equations
which are solved by numerical or semi-numerical methods.
2. The drained area is represented by a single block in such
a way that the global features are preserved.
Inhomogeneities are averaged out or substituted by a
simple pattern. Here the equations of flow can be solved
analytically.

Skin Factor
∆PSKIN
S=
qs µB
2πkh
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 3.4. Skin factor 129

Skin Factor
The actual drawdown across the reservoir when a skin exists,
∆Pactual, can be related to the ideal drawdown predicted from
radial flow theory ∆Pideal and the skin pressure drop ∆PSKIN by:
∆Pwf − actual = ∆Pwf −ideal + ∆PSKIN

[P − P
e wf − actual ] = [P − P
e wf − ideal ] + ∆P SKIN
[
∆PSKIN = Pwf −ideal − Pwf − actual ]
qs µB
∆PSKIN = .S
2πkh
qs µB
∆PSKIN = 141.2 .S In field units
kh
Skin Factor
We can simply add the ∆PSKIN to the radial flow expression
developed earlier e.g. for steady state flow of an
incompressible fluid, by adding in the skin pressure drop:
qs µB ⎡ ⎛ re ⎞ ⎤
Pe − Pwf − actual = 141.2 ⎢ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + S ⎥
kh ⎣ ⎝ rw ⎠ ⎦
Qs' T
∆PSKIN = 1422 .S For compressible fluids
kh

Flow Pattern
Flow in a tubing can be vertical, horizontal or inclined,
depending on the direction of that tubing.
Flow in tubing can be:
Single phase: simple
Multiphase: complicated, use experienced correlations.
Flow in tubing is affected by several factors:

Pressure
Temperature
Viscosity
Roughness
…
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 3.5. Flow Pattern 132

Multiphase Flow Pattern
Multiphase flow up the tubing

Multiphase Flow Pattern
Horizontal Multiphase flow

Practical Application for Multiphase Flow
Multiphase flow correlations could be used for:
Predict tubing head pressure at various rate
Predict flowing bottom hole pressure at various rate
Determine the PI of well
Select correct tubing sizes
Predict maximum flow rate
Predict when the well will die and hence time for artificial lift
Design artificial lift application.
The important variables are: tubing diameter, flow rate, gas

liquid ratio, viscosity, etc.

Chapter 4
Artificial Lifts

Content
4.1. Stages of Production
4.2. Artificial Lifts
Sucker Rod Pump
Hydraulic Jet Pumping
Electrical Submersible Pump
Hydraulic Piston Pumping
Progressive Cavity Pumping
Gas Lift
Plunger Lift

Stages of Production
Production of a well can be divided into 3 stages:
Primary recovery: original reservoir drive mechanism
Secondary recovery:
Reservoir pressure maintained by water, gas injection
Artificial lift
Enhanced recovery:
Hydraulic fracturing
Matrix Acidization
Acid Fracturing
Frac Packing
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 4.1. Stages of Production 138

Artificial Lifts
Artificial lift is required when a well will no longer flow or
when the production rate is too low to be economic.
Over 90% production well is applying artificial lift.
Artificial lifts include:
Submersible pump:
Gas lift
Plunger lift
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 4.2. Artificial Lifts 139

Artificial Lifts (cont.)
In details, artificial lifts include:
Sucker Rod Pump
Gas Lift
Electrical Submersible Pump
Hydraulic Piston Pumping
Progressive Cavity Pumping
Plunger Lift
Hydraulic Jet Pumping

Each artificial lift system has a preferred operating and
economic envelope influenced by factors such as:
Fluid gravity
GOR
Production rate
Sand production
Development factors such as well type, location and
availability of power/gas.

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 4.2. Artificial Lift 142

Sucker Rod Pump – Surface Equipment

Sucker Rod Pump

Gas Lift
Gas lift methods include:
Continuous Lift
Intermitten Lift

Gas Lift Valves
Two type of gas lift valve
Orifice Valve
Dummy Valve

Gas Lift Valves (cont.)
Orifice valve
Dummy valve

Gaslift Valve Installation

Gaslift Valve Retrieval

ESP

Chapter 5
Enhanced Oil Recovery

Content
5.1. Type of Well Stimulation
5.2. Enhanced Oil recovery

Well Stimulation
Why well stimulation is required?
Productivity of a well naturally arises fluids mobility and the

flow properties of the rock.
In some cases the degree of inter-connection of the pore
space may be very poor.
In such situations it may be beneficial to stimulate the
production capacity of the well.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 5.1. Type of Enhanced Oil Recovery 153
Well Stimulation
What are the objectives in stimulation?
Stimulation techniques are intended to:

Improve the degree of inter-connection between the pore space,
particularly for low permeability or vugular rocks
Remove or bypass impediments to flow, e.g. damage
Provide a large conductive hydraulic channel which will allow the
wellbore to communicate with a large area of the reservoir.
Well Stimulation
What are the techniques in stimulation?
In general, there are 4 principal techniques applied,

namely:
Propped Hydraulic Fracturing
Matrix Acidisation
Acid Fracturing
Frac Packing
Enhanced Oil Recovery
Whereby fluids are injected at a high rate and at a pressure
which exceeds the formation break down gradient of the
formation.
The rock will then fail mechanically producing a “crack”.
To prevent closure or healing of the fracture, it is propped
open by a granular material.
This techniques increases the effectiveness well bore
radius of the well.
GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 5.2. Enhanced Oil Recovery 156


Enhanced Oil Recovery (cont.)
Matrix Acidisation
This process is conducted at pressure below the formation
break down gradient.
It requires the injection of acid into the reservoir to either
dissolve the rock matrix and/or dissolve damage material
contaminants which has invaded the rock pore space.
The main objective of acidisation is to increase the
conductivity of the rock.

Acid Fracturing
Whereby acid injected at a pressure above the formation
break down gradient, creates a fracture.
The acid then etches flow channels on the surface of the
fracture which on closure will provide deep conductive flow
channels.

Frac Packing
Which is a shallow penetrating hydraulic fracture
propagated usually into a formation of moderate to high
permeability, and is subsequently propped open prior to
closure.
The process is used to reduce the near wellbore flow
induced stress, and in some cases can also limit/reduce
and production.

Review
Production Technology is a diverse and broad based
discipline, closely associated with the maintenance,
operation and management of wells.
It is critically important to the economic success of field
developments.
As a discipline it interfaces with drilling, geoscience,
reservoir engineers, as well as well intervention specialists.
It is a business driven responsibility but it based on an
integrated understanding of reservoir behavior and
engineering systems.

End of Lesson
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Performance of Flowing Wells
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Introduction to

Chapter 2. Process Overview

Chapter 3. Performance of Flowing Well

Chapter 4. Artificial Lifts

Chapter 5. Enhanced Oil Recovery

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  Content 2

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  Learning Objectives 3

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  4

1.1. Historical Background

1.2. Origin of Petroleum

1.3. Petroleum Production

1.4. Production Engineer

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  Chapter 1 - Content 5

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.1. Historical Background 6

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.1. Historical Background 7

“Colonel” Edwin Drake’s well at

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.1. Historical Background 8

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.1. Historical Background 9

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.1. Historical Background 10

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.1. Historical Background 11

Petroleum is a mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons

Gaseous = natural gas

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.2. Origin of Petroleum 12

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.2. Origin of Petroleum 13

 Primary Requirements for Petroleum Reservoir

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.2. Origin of Petroleum 14

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  15

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.2. Origin of Petroleum 16

Exploration Evaluation Drilling

Completion Production Separation

Treatment Transport Refining

Treatment Transport End Users

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.3. Petroleum Production 17

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.3. Production Technology 18

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.3. Production Technology 19

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.4. Production Engineer 20

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.3. Petroleum Production 21

 The importance of the Production Chemistry and Flow

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.4. Production Engineer 22

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.4. Production Engineer 23

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.4. Production Engineer 24

Ensuring that the company’s operation are safe, efficient

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.4. Production Engineer 25

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.4. Production Engineer 26

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.4. Production Engineer 27

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  1.4. Production Engineer 28

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  Chapter 1 - Questions 29

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  30

2.2. Production Facilities

2.3. Utility Systems

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  Chapter 2 - Content 31

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  32

Drilling Utility Systems (selected)

Wells Manifolds Water injection

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  2.1. Facilities HVAC 33

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  2.1. Production System 34

1. Onshore well 5. Floating, single point mooring

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  2.1. Production System 35

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology  2.1. Production System 36

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Content 2

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Learning Objectives 3

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 4

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Chapter 1 - Content 5

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.1. Historical Background 6

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.1. Historical Background 7

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.1. Historical Background 8

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.1. Historical Background 9

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.1. Historical Background 10

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.1. Historical Background 11

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.2. Origin of Petroleum 12

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.2. Origin of Petroleum 13

Primary Requirements for Petroleum Reservoir

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.2. Origin of Petroleum 14

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 15

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.2. Origin of Petroleum 16

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.3. Petroleum Production 17

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.3. Production Technology 18

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.3. Production Technology 19

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.4. Production Engineer 20

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.3. Petroleum Production 21

The importance of the Production Chemistry and Flow

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.4. Production Engineer 22

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.4. Production Engineer 23

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.4. Production Engineer 24

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.4. Production Engineer 25

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.4. Production Engineer 26

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.4. Production Engineer 27

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 1.4. Production Engineer 28

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Chapter 1 - Questions 29

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 30

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology Chapter 2 - Content 31

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 32

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Facilities HVAC 33

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 34

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 35

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 36

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 37

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Facilities 38

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 39

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 40

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 41

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 42

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 43

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 44

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 45

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 46

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 47

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Facilities 48

Turrets are positioned by:

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 49

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 50

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 51

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 52

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 53

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 54

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 56

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.1. Production System 57

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 59

Some optional facilities may be required

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 60

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 61

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 62

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 63

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 64

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 65

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 66

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 67

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 68

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 69

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 70

There are 2 types of separator:

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 71

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 72

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 73

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 74

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 75

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 76

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 77

GEOPET Introduction to Production Technology 2.2. Production Facilities 78