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RACTICAL HANDBOOKS
;

mis

THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL

AMMONIA REFRIGERATION.
A

WORK 07 REFERENCE FOR ENGINEERS

the

And others Employed in

Management

of loe

and Refrigeration

Machinery.

BY

ILTYD

I.

REDWOOD,
E.
:

ASSOC. M. AM. SOC. OF M.

M.

SOC

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY,

ENGLAND.

FIFTH THOUSAND

NEW YORK;

SPON

&

CHAMBERLAIN,

123

LIBERTY STREET.

LONDON:
E. & F. N.

SPON, LIMITED, 125 STRAND.

1904

Copyrighted by E. Copyrighted by

P.

Watson
\-

A:

Son, 1894.

Spm

Chamberlain.

PRESS OF WC ILROV

ft

BMMFT, 1J 7HAMKS

ST.. N. Y.

PREFACE.
THERE
interested

are
in

many

engineers

and others

refrigerating
to
all

machinery who
determine,
practical

have
that

felt

the want of a book of reference

will

enable them

with
pur-

sufficient

accuracy

for

poses,

what work

their

machines are doing

without resorting to laborious calculations; therefore a number of tables have been pre-

pared to meet this want, and a short treatise on the Theory and Practice of Refrigeration
incorporated therewith.

which have been calculated as accurately as possible, and have been checked by a gentleman of considerable
tables,
"

The

"

rxpert
to

experience,
all

cover

sufficiently

wide range of temperatures and pressures

meet

ordinary,

and a good

many

extraordinary, requirements.

ILTYD
BROOKLYN, February,
1895.

I.

REDWOOD.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

CHAPTER
BRITISH
Sri

I.

THERMAL UNIT MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT

3
<>K

TMT

OK HEAT

4
4 6

cmc HEAT
CIFIC

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ON SPE-

HEAT

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON SPECIFIC HEAT OK AMMONIA GAS 7 SPECIFIC HEAT OF AIR WITH CONSTANT PRESSURE 7 SPECIFIC HEAT OF AIR WITH CONSTANT VOLUME 9 10 LATENT 1 FAT .10 LATENT HEAT OF LIQUEFACTION n LATENT HEAT OK VAPORIZATION 12 LATENT HEAT OF WATER ABSOLUTE PRESSURE 13 ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE 13 16 ABSOLUTE ZERO 16 EFFECT OF PRESSURES <>N VOLUME OK CASKS.
. 1

....
.
.
.

ii.

Contents.

CHAPTER
THEORY OF REFRIGERATION
FREEZING BY COMPRESSED AIR FREEZING BY AMMONIA CHARACTERISTICS OF AMMONIA EXPLOSIVENESS TENDENCY OF THE GAS TO RISE
SOLUBILITY IN
26

II.

PAGE
18 19
21

22

23
. .

.24
24
25
25

WATER

ACTION ON COPPER

BEAUME AMMONIA ANHYDROUS AMMONIA

25

CHAPTER
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT CONSTRUCTION DETAILS THK
STUFKING-P.M.XKS

III.

26 27
<

.-MI-HI >^<>k

30
32 34
35

SPECIAL LUBRICATION OIL FOR LUBRICATION ANCE SPACE, ETC Sff-iioN AND DISCHARGE VAI.VKS EFFECT OF EXCESSIVE VAI.VK-I.IFT REGULATION OF VAi.vr-I.n--r
;

...

35
.

36

37
.

37

THK .SEPARATOR THK

<
1

42
42 43

\YokM

RECEIVER

Contents.

iii.

REFRIGERATOR OR BRINE TANK SIZE OF Pi IK AND AREA OF COOLING SURFACE EXPANSION VALVES WORKING DETAILS. CHARGING THE PLANT WITH
.

....

PAGE
44
45

46

AMMONIA

47

CHAPTER

V.
. .

AMMONIA TO BE GRADUALLY CHARGED JACKET-WATER FOR COMPRESSOR JACKET- WATER FOR SEPARATOR
.

49

....
. .
.

.52
53 53

CONDENSING WATER LESSENING THE COST FOR CONDENSING WATER QUANTITY OF CONDENSING WATER NECESSARY Loss DUE TO HEATING OF CONDENSED AMMONIA,
Loss

54
.

56
56 58

DUE

SUPERHEATING AMMONIA GAS

58

CHAPTER

VI.

EXCESS CONDENSING PRESSURE 59 CAUSE OF VARIATION IN EXCESS PRESSURES 60 OTHER CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT EXCESS PRESSURE, 62 USE OF CONDENSING PRESSURE IN DETERMINING Loss OF AMMONIA BY LEAKAGE 63 COOLING DIRECTLY BY AMMONIA . . .65
.

....
.

...
.

1JKINE

66 68

FREEZING POINT OF BRINE EFFECT OF COMPOSITION ON FREEZING POINT r OK SIKINC.IH ox FREEZING POINT UK P.RIXE Si 11 Alil.F.NKSS OF MAKING BRINE
I

68
.

....
.

69
70
71

iv.

Contents.

CHAPTER
SPECIFIC

VII.

PAGE

HEAT OP BRINE
.
.

73

REGULATION OF BRINE TEMPERATURE INDIRECT EFFECT OF CONDENSING WATER ON BRINK TEMPERATURE

73 77

CHAPTER
FICIENCY

VIII.

DIRECTIONS FOR DETERMINING REFRIGERATING EF-

EQUIVALENT OF A TON OF ICE 79 COMPRESSOR MEASUREMENT OF AMMONIA CIRCULATED 79 Loss IN WELL- JACKETED COMPRESSORS So Loss IN DOUBLE-ACTING COMPRESSORS .80 DISTRIBUTION OF MERCURY WELLS 81 EXAMINATION OF WORKING PARTS 86 NUMBER OF READINGS TO BE TAKEN 86
.

....
.

78

....
.

CHAPTER

IX.

DURATION OF TEST 87 INDICATOR DIAGRAMS 87 AMMONIA FIGURES. EFFECTUAL DISPLACEMENT 97 VOLUME OF GAS 97 AMMONIA CIRCULATED PER TWENTY-FOUR HOURS, 98 REFRIGERAIIM; EFFICIENCY 98 BRINE FIGURES. GALLONS CIRCULATED . 99 POUNDS CIRCULATED 100 100 DEGREES COOLED . 100 TOTAL DEGREES EXTRACTED
.

Contents.

v.

CHAPTER
Loss Loss

X.

PAGE

DUE TO HEATING OF LIQUID AMMONIA DUE TO HEATING OF AMMONIA GAS

.
.

101
.

103

CHAPTER
MACHINE

XI.

CALCULATION OF THE MAXIMUM CAPACITY OF A

106
. .

PREPARATION OF ANHYDROUS AMMONIA CONSTRUCTION OF APPARATUS .

.

107

.108
109

CONDENSER-WORM

WHY

STILL

is

WORKED UNDER PRESSURE

.no
in
101

BEST TEST FOR AMMONIA

WATER FROM SEPARATORS

LIME FOR DEHYDRATOR YIELD OF ANHYDROUS FROM 26 AMMONIA
.

in
112

INDEX

139

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page
Specific

Fig.
I.

Heat with Constant Pressure Determi-

nation
i\
3. 4.
5.

Absolute Zero Determination

....

8
14

Ammonia
"
Suction

Plant

.28
29
36 36

"
"

Discharge Valve
Separator

6.
7.

4
46* 47

8.
9.

10.
11.

Expansion Valve Mercury Well " "

Indicator

fe

Diagram
"

&4 88 89 90 91
Distilling Apparatus
. .

12.
13. 14.
15.

" " "

" "

Anhydrous Ammonia

115

TABLES.
Table
I.

Pge
Volume of Ammonia Gas
Yield, etc., of
at

High Temperatures,

51

II.

Anhydrous Ammonia from Am113

etc.,

monia Solutions
III.

Boiling Point, Latent Heat,

of Anhydrous
116, 117
is

Ammonia

IV. Temperature to which

by Compression
V.
VI.

....
Ammonia Gas
of

raised

Ii8tol22
at

Volume of One Pound

Ammonia Gas

Various Pressures and Temperatures,

Various Pressures and Temperatures,

122 to 130
at

Volume of One Pound of Ammonia da<

131 to 138

AMMONIA
REFRIGERATION.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
"compression" types of machines are now coming so generfreezing ally into use in large factories and manufacturing establishments where natural ice was

THE ammonia

formerly employed, that they are of necessity

placed directly or indirectly under the supervision of

men who, owing

to the comparative

newness of the subject of ammonia refrigeration in relation to the manufactures, can not
be expected to be thoroughly conversant with their theoretical and practical working.
In a great

many

instances engineers

who

have charge of these machines only run them by rule-of-thumb methods, and know-

Introductory Remarks.

ing nothing about the

are,
in

why and

the wherefore

event of the conditions being changed, unable to reason out what will rethe

sult

from the changed conditions, and what other changes ought to be made to counterbalance them.
It is

therefore with a view to giving those

connected with the running of ammonia refrigerating plants a

more

intelligent idea of

what they are doing thereby tending to make their work interesting instead of laborious

that this

Book has been

written.

CHAPTER
BEFORE
it

I.

tion

ammonia refrigerathat the different heat necessary terms, etc., that are used in regard to this
dealing with
is

subject
with.

should

and they

will therefore

be thoroughly understood, be explained forthprincipally

The terms with which we have

to deal are
(1) British
:

Thermal Unit.

Mechanical Equivalent of a Unit of Heat (3) Specific Heat. (4) Latent Heat. (5) Absolute Pressure.
(2) (6)

Absolute Temperature.

BRITISH

THERMAL
is

UNIT.

British thermal unit

the standard unit

of heat in this country, and represents the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one

pound weight of water one

Theoretical

and

Practical

the temperature of the degree Fahrenheit water being 32; on the other hand, it is the amount of heat given up by one pound

of water in cooling one degree Fahrenheit

(/. c.,

from 33

down

to 32).

MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF A UNIT OF

HEAT.
Joule found, by means of a suitably constructed agitator placed in water and actuated by a falling weight, that the amount of friction caused

by a weight of

Ib. falling

a dis-

tance of 772 feet, or a weight of 772 Ibs. falling a distance of I foot, was sufficient to

heat

Ib.

of water

Fahr.

Therefore, the

production of one British thermal unit of heat is equivalent to raising a weight of I Ib. 772 feet, or 772 Ibs. I foot, and consequently
the mechanical equivalent of a unit of heat is 772 foot-pounds, but 778 is now considered

more

correct.

SPECIFIC
Specific heat
is

HEAT
British ther-

the

number of

mal

units required to raise the temperature

iti

AV//v<;<

/w/W.

of one
stance

pound weight of any

i

particular sub-

Fahr.,

as the capacity heat.

expressed of different substances for

or

it

may be

Scientists have proved that a pound of water has a greater capacity for heat than a

pound of any other known substance, and

therefore water
is

taken as the standard of

specific heat at 32

comparison, and
is

its

Fahr.

unity.

Turpentine has a specific heat of 0.472 and from the specific heat of mercury is 0.0^3
;

these figures

it is
I

understood that to raise the

Ib.

temperature of 0.472 B. T. U.*

of turpentine
will

Fahr.

will

be required, while the

require

same weight of mercury

0.033 B- T. U. to raise
degree.
If 2 Ibs. of
its

only

temperature one
Fahr. are heated

water at 32

to

Fahr., or through 10, they will absorb x 10 x i. ooo Sp. Ht. =) 20 B. T. Ibs. (2 if 2 Ibs. of turpentine are heated but U's,

42

through the same number of degrees they

* British

Thermal

I nits

6
will

Theoretical

and
Ibs.

Practical

absorb only

(2

10

X 0.472

Sp.

Ht.

=)

9.44 B. T. U's.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ON SPECIFIC HEAT.

The
specific heat of substances varies with

varying conditions of temperature and pressure, and invariably increases with increase
of temperature or pressure. The variation in the specific heat of water at different temperatures is so small that it may be passed unnoticed, but in the cases of certain oils

and
min-

gases

it

is

considerable

for instance, a

eral oil that has a specific heat of 0.4503 at

at

Fahr. will have a specific heat of 0.4843 Fahr. Another point in regard to the specific heat of mineral oils is the fact

S$

120

that as the weight (specific gravity) of the oil " increases" the specific heat "decreases." Also,
cific

in

the

case

of

paraffin

waxes,

the

higher the melting point the lower the speheat.

Ammonia K
I-:CT

>.'uw.

7
\\

OF PRESSUKI OF

AMM

IM

SPECIFIC Hi GAS.

The effect of pressure on the specific heat ammonia gas is very marked, for whereas the specific heat is only 0.508 when th<
of
is

under a pressure of 28
it

Ibs.

or less on

he-

square inch,

is

raised to 0.532

when

the

pressure reaches 80 Ibs. or upwards. The specific heat of a gas when expansion

when mechanical work is pergreater than the specific heat of a gas that is not allowed to expand in other words, specific heat of a gas with constant
is

allowed and
is

formed

pressure is greater than the specific heat of a In order to ungas with constant volume. derstand this more clearly, -the following

explanation must be given

SPECIFIC

HEAT OF AIR WITH CONSTANT

PRESSURE.

Let Figure
-

represent a cylinder with a

sectional area of 144 square inches (one

Theoretical

and

Practical

square foot) tightly closed at both ends and fitted with a piston, B, that will move without
friction,
2,
is
1 1

and

let

the
if

piston

weigh

a perfect vacuum maintained in the space A, and if

6. 2 Ibs.

Now,
Ib.

contains

of air

(=

2.387 cubic
Fahr.,

feet) at a temperature of 32

the air will be under a pressure of

14.696 Ibs. per square inch, and will maintain the piston at a height of
12.387
to 33
feet.

If this air is

now

heated

Fahr.

thus raising

its

tem-

Fahr. its volume will perature i be increased, but the pressure will be exactly the same as before, because
the piston has risen to make room for the increased volume of the air.

According to Regnault's determinations, the amount of heat that would

be necessary to raise the temperature of the air i Fahr. under the above

would be 0.2379 B. T. U. Therefore the specific heat of air with constant pressure is 0.2379.
conditions,

Ammonia
SPECIFIC

Refrigeration.

9
CONST.\\I

HEAT OF AIR WITH

VOLUME.

In the

experiment

just cited, not

only was
i

amount of mechanical work was performed when the Now, by heating the air piston was raised. Fahr., its volume was increased (see page
i

the temperature of the air raised but, owing to its expansion, a certain

Fahr..

,6)

to

(l2 3 8 7
.

xg:|g=)
up
to

12.4.226
raised

cubic

feet,

therefore the piston

feet

was

from

12.387

12.41226

feet,

or

As already menthrough 0.02526 of a foot. tioned, the piston weighed 2,1 16.2 Ibs., therefore the

sion of the air

amount of work done by the expanwas 2,116.2 Ibs. X 0.02546,

height raised
is

known

As it 53.4552 foot-pounds. that the mechanical equivalent of

is

a unit of heat

772 foot-pounds,
that

it

is

seen

was required to work of raising thr mechanical the perform = -r was 0.06924 B. T. U. 53.4552 772 piston Therefore, if the air had been heated from
that the

amount of heat

32

up

to 33

Fahr. without being allowed

io
to

Theoretical

and

Practical

expand and perform mechanical work, the amount of heat that would have been necessary would have been (0.2379 0.06924 =)
;

0.16866 B. T. U.
air

hence the
is

specific heat of

with constant volume

0.16866.

LATENT HEAT.
Latent heat
is

heat that

is

hidden or

is

ab-

sorbed (without making itself apparent to the thermometer) when a solid passes to the liquid state, or a liquid to the gaseous state.

There are, therefore, two kinds of latent heat, one being the latent heat of liquefaction and the other the latent heat of vaporization.

LATENT HEAT OF LIQUEFACTION.

of ice at 32 Fahr. and i Ib. of water at 33 Fahr. are placed in separate vessels of exactly the same size and shape,
If
i

lb.

and these

vessels are put in a place that

is

from draughts and where the is stationary at, say, 50 Fahr., temperature
perfectly free

Ainnii>niii
will

Refrigeration.
ice will

it

be found that the

take about
to, say,

21 times as long to melt

and heat up

40

Fahr. as the water will take to heat up to

Now it is quite plain the same temperature. that if both vessels are exposed to exactly the same temperature, their contents must
each be absorbing heat at the same rate, and as the temperature of the water in rising from 33 to 40, or through seven degrees,
only required i-2ist of the time that the ice took, the ice must have absorbed (7X21)

147

Fahr., but only 8

(32

to

40)

of this

had been registered by the thermometer, and therefore 139 Fhr. had become latent or hidden. Of course this is but a crude method of determining latent heat, and accurate determinations have fixed 142.4 as the latent
heat of
ice.

LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION.

an open vessel it will be found that the temperature can not be raised above 212 Fahr. No matter how
If

water

is

heated

in

long the heat

may be

applied the tempera-

12
ture
will
is

Theoretical

and

Practical

remain

stationary,

although

the

water

The

constantly receiving additional heat. heat thus hidden in the water is called

the latent heat of vaporization, and if I Ib. of steam at 212 Fahr. were passed through a condenser and converted into I Ib. of

water at 212

Fahr.

it

would be found

that,

although the condensation of the steam to water had not affected the temperature sufficiently to

be noticeable by the thermometer,

the condenser would have absorbed 966 B. T. U's, or sufficient heat to have raised the

temperature of over 60 Fahr. up to 212

6*/

Ibs.

of water from

Fahr.
is

The

latent heat of vaporization of water

therefore 966.

LATENT HEAT OF WATER.

It is

thus seen that to convert

Ib.

of ice

at

32

Fahr.
requir
to

into

Ib.

of steam at 212

Fahr.

Ice at 32
:lt

water

Bl
:it

Qt)

32

to \\atrr

212

142.4 iSo.O

Wale

:it)

966.0
15.

1,288.4

T. U's;

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

13

or the amount of heat that would reduce

about 2*4

Ibs.

of cast-iron or about 9
state.

Ibs.

of

silver to the

molten

In making a great many calculations in regard to heat it is necessary to make use of absolute pressures and temperatures.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE.
Absolute pressure is pounds per square inch above a vacuum, and, as steam gauges are adjusted so that the O, or zero mark,
represents the atmospheric pressure, it is necessary to add 14.7 Ibs. to the guage pressure, in order to convert it into absolute
pressure.

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE.
In regard to absolute temperature Experi-

ments have proved that all pure, dry gases expand very nearly to the same extent for equal increments of heat, and it therefore matters little what gas is taken for the purpose of explaining the principle on which the basis for absolute temperatures has been
determined.

Theoretical
'

and

Practical

ends,

Let Fig. 2 be a cylinder closed at both and having a cross sectional area of
(i
1

144 square inches

of about
8 inches,

square foot), a depth and a piston, B, capable

Fig.

of moving without friction. It must now be that the contains cubic C I space supposed foot of air at a temperature of 32 Fahr., and that the piston, B, is weighted so as to exert

ti

Refrigeration.

15

a pressure of 14.7 Ibs. on the square inch, while a perfect vacuum is maintained in A. the contents of
Fahr.,

Regnault's experiments have proved that if C are now heated to 212

or through 180 Fahr. (/. <-., 212 32), the piston and its load will be raised 0.367 foot, or to D, and the cubic foot of air
will

be increased-

in

volume

to

1.367 cubic

feet

we start again with the temperature at Fahr. and the piston at E, and extract in32 stead of add 1 80 Fahr. of heat (i. r., cool down
If

the contents of
will

to

148

descend the same distance that

Fahr.), the piston it rose

when
Fahr.

or to F.

the air was heated, namely, 0.367 foot, The extraction of another 180

by cooling down the contents of C

to

328 Fahr, would cause the piston to again descend another 0.367 foot, or to G, and to
cause the piston to descend to (and thus in contract the air C to, theoretically speaking, nothing),

would necessitate the

-

air beini;

cooled

down

490.4

Fahr.

below 32

Fahr. or to 458.4

Fahr. below zero.

Theoretical

and

Practical

ABSOLUTE ZERO.
Absolute zero
absolute
is

458.4
is

Fahr., and an

temperature

the

absolute

zero

temperature, plus the ordinary thermometer The absolute temperature of a gas reading.

490.4 (458.4 + 32), and if the were o Fahr. the absolute temtemperature would be 458.4, while if the temperperature ature were 32 the absolute temperature would be 426.4 (= 458.4 32).
at 32

Fahr.

is

With the

aid of this

easy to understand

how

knowledge it is now the volume of gases

is
t

at different temperatures

computed by the
,

formula v

=V

458.4 458.4

+ +^
1

in

which

V=
=

Volume

of the gas at the original

temperature, T. v volume of the gas at the

perature,
t.

new tem-

:.(.T

<>F

PRESSURES ON VOLUME OF
GASES,
of gases
also

The volume
pressure,

is

altered

by
the

and,

according to

Marriotte,

Ammonia
volume of any gas
pressure
stant.

Refrigeration
varies

17

inversely as the

the
:

Thus

temperature remaining conone cubic foot of air at 10 Ibs.

absolute pressure on the square inch, if subjected to an absolute pressure of 100 Ibs., will be reduced in volume to (i cubic foot X 10
Ibs.
-r-

100

Ibs.

=)

o.i cubic foot,

provided the

work of compressing is done without generBut it is known that when work ating heat. is done, heat is necessarily generated, and
if

the

cubic foot of air at 10

is

Ibs.
its

absolute

pressure of IOO

compressed

to i-ioth

volume

by being subjected
Ibs., its

temperature

to an absolute pressure will be raised to

about 810

Fahr. Therefore, in calculating the volume of a gas that has been subjected to pressure, it is necessary to take into consideration the changes in volume caused by both temperature and pressure together, and the general formula becomes
:

P
'

X
458-4

p
in

+T
v,

p and t, are the respective volumes, pressures and tempera-

which V, P and T, and

Theoretical

and

Practical

tures of the gas before

sion.

and

after

compres-

Thus,

if

cubic foot of air

at

20
is

Ibs.

Absolute Pressure

and 60
600

Fahr. temperature heated to

=V =P =T
=
t

Fahr. temperature

by being subjected
200
Ibs.
it

to

will

Absolute Pressure be reduced in volume to

Pres.

=p
:

Temp.

2O
I

cubic foot

458.4

+ 6OO = --~

0.2 cubic ft....

CHAPTER

II.

THEORY OF REFRIGERATI*

CARI-:

i.

study of the foregoing pages

ought

to have
:

made

the two following facts

quite plain
i.

In order to effect the expansion of a

Ammonia A
gas
2.
it is

"twit.

19

necessary that the gas should absorb

act of compressing a gas generates

heat.

The

heat.

FREEZING BY COMPRESSED AIR.

gas is re-expanded it same amount of heat absorbs the practically
If

compressed

that

was generated by compression, and the

gas
will

re-expanded

therefore

be

cooled

down

to

its

original

(/. c.,

temperature. ply absorb the heat necessary for its re-expansion from itself; but if, on the other hand,
the compressed gas is cooled down before it is allowed to re-expand, it is very evident
that
it

The gas

in this case will

before compression) sim-

will

not contain sufficient heat in

itself

expansion, and therefore it will have to extract the necessary heat from its surroundings, and by so doing it will produce the sensation of cold, although, strictly
to effect
its

own

speaking, cold can not be produced, as

negative condition.

it

is

2O

Theoretical a) id Practical

The

following example will

:

make

the fore-

going explanation plainer

I

lb.

of air at

14. 7 Ibs.

Abs. Pres.

and
if

60

Fahr.

no Ibs. Abs. Pres. compressed to have its temperature raised to.. 475 Fahr. This compressed air is now cooled 10.65 Fahr.
will

or through (475 65) As the specific heat of air is 0.238,

the number of thermal units that have been extracted from the com-

410

Fahr.

pressed

air are. ..(410

0.238)

97.58.

If this cool

compressed

air is

now

re-ex-

panded
14.7
U's.

to

its

Ibs., it

original absolute pressure of will have to absorb 97.58 B. T.

As
i

from

lb.

the extraction of 170 thermal units of water whose temperature is 60

Fahr. will convert the pound of water into a pound of ice, it is evident that if the I lb.

of above compressed air at a temperature of 65 Fahr. is expanded in a suitable appa4- 170=) 0.574 Fahr. temperature, the water will be converted into 0.574 lb. of ice

ratus surrounded

by (97.58

lb.

of water at 60

of 32

The above

Fahr. temperature. figures are only approximately

A HI won iti
correct,

.'ion.

21

and arc simply given

as an illustra-

tion of the theory of freezing

by compressing and re-expanding a gas (such as air) that is not liquefied by compression.

FREEZING BY AMMONIA.
In considering the theory of refrigeration by means of the liquefiable gas ammonia it will be seen that the great advantage of am-

monia over

air

lies

almost entirely

in

the

latent heat of vaporization.

Suppose i Ib. of ammonia gas at 20 Ibs. absolute pressure and 32 Fahr. is compressed to 110 Ibs. absolute pressure, its temperature
will

the compressed gas

its

If thereby be raised to 268.6 Fahr. Fahr. is cooled to 65 temperature will be lowered 203.6, and

this

number of degrees multiplied by the in this specific heat of ammonia gas (which
case
units
if

shows that 108.31 thermal is 0.532) have been extracted from the gas. But

instead of cooling the compressed gas to only 65 Fahr. it is cooled to 60 Fahr., it

will

be converted into a

liquid,

and as the

22
latent

Theoretical

and

Practical

heat of vaporization of
is

ammonia

at

nolbs. absolute pressure

lowing
will

517.23, the fol-

now be

the

number of thermal

Temperature of compressed was 268.6 and if cooled to 60 Fahr., gas

units extracted.

Fahr.

its

temperature

will

be lowered 208.6.

Degrees cooled

specific heat

110.97 T. U's.

Latent heat of vaporization

=517.23

"

Therefore

total

thermal units extracted

= 628.20

These figures show how the advantage deby the use of ammonia in the place of air lies in the comparative ease with which ammonia gas can be liquefied, thereby allowrived

ing of use being

vaporization.

made

of

its

latent heat of

CHARACTERISTICS OF AMMONIA.

Ammonia

is

a colorless, irrespirable gas,

It is feebly with the odor of hartshorn. combustible if mixed with a large proportion of air, and burns with a greenish-yellow

flame
of air

if
it

mixed with about twice

its

volume
It

explodes with some violence.

Ammonia
is

Refrigeration.

23

only a
air,
is

little

more than

half the

of

exceedingly soluble in water, and

has a very strong action on copper and its The characteristics of ammonia renalloys.
der

necessary that the following precaushould be observed in regard to the handling of it and in constructing an amit

tions

monia refrigerating

plant.

EXPLOSIVENESS.

Owing
is

to the explosiveness of the gas

it

any part of an apparatus should be thoroughly aired before a naked

important that

This precaution is light is brought near it. sometimes ridiculed by those who, through

good luck rather than good management, have never exploded any large volume of
the gas but the author has personal knowledge of a case where a man was thrown from
;

a scaffold by the violence of an explosion which took place when the man lowered a
lighted candle into a
tall

cylinder used
refrigeration

in

connection

with

ammonia

by

the absorption process.

24

Theoretical

and

Practical

TENDENCY OF THE GAS TO

RISE.
bursts,

When
keep
his

a pipe that conveys

to

ammonia
it

anybody who happens

ing his escape,

be near

should
effect-

head as low as possible while

because the gas being only half as heavy as air naturally rises as soon as it is liberated into the air if a man stood
;

erect he might possibly be

gas, while
if

overcome by the

many
bad

he stooped he would, in a great cases, escape without experiencing any

effects.

SOLUBILITY IN WATER.

As ammonia is exceedingly soluble in water (so much so that part of water will at 60 Fahr. absorb about 800 parts of the
I

" kill" the gas) the latter should be used to of considerable in the event any quangas

of strong ammonia solution being spilt. Also, in the case of a man going to the restity

cue of anybody who is overcome by the gas, he should first take the precaution of placing
a piece of waste or rag soaked with watei

Refrigeration.

25

over his nose and mouth before entering t heatmosphere that is impregnated with ammonia.

ACTION ON COPPER.

No part of an ammonia apparatus with which the ammonia is liable to come directly
contact must be constructed of copper or any of its alloys, such as brass, bronze, etc.,
in

as the parts containing that

metal

will

be

rapidly eaten away.

26

AMMONIA.

Commercial liquid ammonia, commonly known as " spirits of hartshorn," is a solution In the wholesale of ammonia gas in water.
trade
its
it

is

sold in large iron drums,

is

and as

as

usual strength "

26

Beaume',

it

is

known

26

ammonia."

ANHYDROUS AMMONIA.
The
monia
other commercial preparation of
is

amit

liquid

anhydrous ammonia, and

26

Theoretical

and

Practical

must not be confounded with the ordinary The difference between liquid 26 ammonia. the two is that the liquid anhydrous (from the Greek vdor meaning without water)

ammonia

is

the
to

compressed monia, as we

pure, dry, ammonia gas a liquid, while the 26 amhave already seen, is a solution

of the gas in water.

CHAPTER

III.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT.
USERS
of

ammonia
in

refrigerating machines

arrange their plant

suits their special

a manner that best

requirements or accommo-

but wherever it is practicable the whole of the plant should be as compact

dations
;

as

possible,

so that

the possibility of loss

of refrigerating effect due to the absorption of heat by long connections from the sur-

rounding atmosphere

may be

reduced to a

minimum.

Ammonia Rtfliberation.
Figs. 3
.MI

2J

and 4 show the principal parts of

ammonia plant, arranged so that the following explanation can be easily followed and understood
:

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT.

working order the anhydrous ammonia is contained in the receiver, E, and the bottom two or three coils of the condenser; and being under a gauge pressure of, say, 120 Ibs., it flows through the pipe F and the manifold G to the expanthe plant
is

When

in

liquid

sion valves, H. sion valves, the

Passing through the expanammonia traverses a series

of pipes or coils which are surrounded by brine in the refrigerator, I, and terminate in
the manifold K, that leads to the suction of

the compressor, A. The suction of the compressor maintains a gauge pressure of, say, 28 Ibs. in these series of pipes, and thereby
relieves the

ammonia of
it

as soon as

high pressure passes the expansion valves.

its

Directly the liquid anhydrous periences this relief of pressure

ammonia exit commences

28

Theoretical

and

Practical

Refrigeration.

29

3O

Theoretical

and

Practical

to boil, or vaporize, tracts heat

and in so doing it exfrom the brine, which latter could

be cooled down to the boiling point of the ammonia due to a suction pressure of 28 Ibs.,
namely, to 14
Fahr.

By

the time the

am-

monia reaches the manifold K it has been and therefore passes off in the gaseous state, and entering the compressor by the pipe L it is compressed and
entirely vaporized,

then discharged through the pipe B into the separator, C, where any of the oil (used for
lubricating the compressor) or other foreign matters that are mechanically carried for-

ward by the gas are separated, and the gas then enters the condenser, D, where it is
again liquefied and, running

down
the

into the

recommences scribed movements.

receiver,

E,

above -de-

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS COMPRESSOR.

Owing
to the heat that
is

THE

generated during

the compression of ammonia gas it is necessary that the compressor shall be surrounded,

ti

.'/<>//.

31

or jacketed, with water, so as to prevent the overheating of the cylinder, etc., and undue
abrasion of the rubbing surfaces. The horizontal type of compressor is usually jacketed

from end to end, but the heads are not

ficially cooled.

arti-

A,

Fig. 3,

is

a half-sectional end view of a

horizontal compressor.
jacket,
b,

The

cylinder, a,

and

together with the gas passages,

and
is

g, in Fig. 4, are cast in

one piece, which

bolted to the engine frame, G. The passage g supplies the two suction valves, d and

while the discharge valves, e and /, connect with the passage f. The jacket is supplied with water by the pipe /, the water filling up
k,

and overflowing through r. The cylinder heads, i /, which contain the valves, ports and passages leading to f and g, are
the space
//

held in place by the bolts, s. In the vertical type of compressor the water-jacket is built so that the water not

only surrounds the compressor cylinder but

also

entirely
its

submerges the cylinder head

and

valves

The

relative

efficiency

of

the two types of compressors will be com-

32

Theoretical

and

Practical

under the heading " Indicator Diagrams."

pared

STUFFING-BOXES.

refrigerating plant is in the of the compressor. The stufstuffing-boxes in some of vertical the fing-boxes types of compressors are packed with lead or babbitt-

One of the ammonia in a

principal

sources of loss of

metal rings cut with a bevel, so that when

they are subjected to pressure every alternate one hugs the piston-rod, while the
others are pressed tightly against the inner surface of the stuffing-box, thus forming a

smooth working packing. In the which is only single-acton the packing does not the ing, pressure exceed 28 Ibs. on the square inch, while with the horizontal compressor, which is doubleacting, the pressure may reach and even
tight yet
vertical compressor,

exceed 165
ture

Ibs.,

according to the temperawater.

of the

condensing

For

this

reason it is necessary that the packing for stuffing-boxes in a horizontal compressor

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

33

The depth is stuffing-box shall be deep. usually 1 2 inches, and the annular space bebox
tween the piston-rod and the inside of the It requires a is about of an inch. considerable amount of attention which is

more or

less

pressure, but packing that

proportional to the condensing more especially to the kind of

is used, and it is with a sense of the benefit that the user will derive that

SelSense," "Oarlock's," and " den's packings are recommended as being specially suitable (if used conjointly) for hori-

"Common

"

zontal compressor stuffing-boxes. The most combination to this satisfactory way employ

packing

box

to a

mon

to, first of all, pack the stuffinginches with Comdepth of 5 to 5 Sense packing then, having placed the
is

perforated ring in position, half fill the rest of the box with Oarlock's packing and finish off with Selden's packing.

The packing should be driven tightly home, piece by piece, and then the gland should be screwed on only hand-tight, so as to aJlow the packing room to expand and fill the spaces without undue pressure. If the

34
packing

Theoretical

and

Practical

is forced into the stuffing-box by means of the gland, and is not allowed room to expand, it will last but a very short time, and give trouble as long as it

does

last.

SPECIAL LUBRICATION.

The hot ammonia gas under high

will cut

through the best packing

if

in

pressure a very
is

short time

a liberal supply of

oil

not

forced into the stuffing-box at intervals of an hour or so. To effect the thorough lubrication of the packing
shall
it is

necessary that a hole

be tapped

in the centre (longitudinally)

of the stuffing-box, which is then connected by a i^-inch pipe with a small hand force-

two portions by a perforated iron ring, which ring is directly opposite the above-men-

pump.

The packing

is

divided

into

tioned hole, so that ered by the pump it

when
is

the

oil

is

deliv-

the perforations to side of the ring.

distributed through the packing on either

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

35

OIL FOR LUBRICATION.

On

no account must any animal or vege-

table oils be used for lubricating the compressor, because as soon as any of these oils

come

in contact with the

ammonia they

will

form soaps that will give endless trouble and Nothing but a mineral oil of annoyance. high viscosity and guaranteed purity should
be used.

CLEARANCE SPACE,
It is

ETC.

very essential that there shall be no unnecessary spaces, such as screw-slots, deep
ports, etc.,

on the inside of the compressor and the clearance space between the cylinder, piston and cylinder head should not exceed If attention is i-32d to 3-64ths of an inch.
not paid to these particulars too much gas will remain in the cylinder after the piston has completed its stroke, and the re-expansion of this clearance-space gas as the piston

greatly diminish of the cylinder. capacity

recedes

will

the

working

36

Theoretical

and

Practical

SUCTION AND DISCHARGE VALVES.

The
5,

suction and discharge ports are closed

by poppet

The discharge valve, Fig. valves. screws into the outside of the cylinder
a,

head, and the spring,

presses the valve

v
Fig.

Fig.

The

against the seat on the inside of the head. suction- valve, Fig. 6, screws into both
the outside

and inside of the cylinder head, and the gas in G, Figs. 3 and 4, passes in

An>iiii<i A

noil.

37

through the holes,

cylinder.

a,

in its
b, is

The
c.

spring,

passage to the held in its place

by the

nut,

EFFECT OF EXCESSIVE VALVE-LIFT.

The
lift

of the valves
it

is

of very great im-

portance, as

materially affects the refriger-

If the lift is too ating effect of a machine. great the valve will not act with sufficient

quickness, and especially is this so in the case of high-speed compressors, in which

an additional
effect in

valve-lift of

of an inch will

cause a diminution of one ton refrigerating

24 hours.

REGULATION OF VALVE-LIFT.
of the discharge valve is regulated by the plug, b, against which the valve-stem strikes, the distance between the striking
lift

The

surfaces being regulated by the thickness of gasket, c. In the case of the suction- valve.

38
the
lift

TJicorctical
is

and

Practical

regulated

by means of an iron

sleeve around the valve-stem against which the nut. r. strikes when the valve opens.

CHAPTER

IV.

THE SEPARATOR.
OWING to the large volume of oil that is, or should be, used for lubricating the stuffing-box of the compressor, it is evident that
a considerable quantity of it must pass into the cylinder and be carried through the disIf charge valves by the ammonia gas. oil were allowed to pass into the conden

this

would soon find its way into the rest of the apparatus, and would cause trouble by choktherefore, ing up the expansion valves, etc. with a view to obviating this annoyance, a
;

separator

interposed pressor and condenser.

is

separator

is

between the comThe x usual form of an iron cylinder about IS inches

ti

J\

'ion.

39

in

diameter and from

8 to

36 inches high.

by a connection on one side ami leaves by a connection on the The connections are usually opposite side. or inches from the top, and the gas coin4 3
Tin-

ammonia gas

enters

in- in contact with the side of the cylinder is frerd of the most of its oil and passes on to

the condenser, while the

oil

falls

to the bot-

tom of the

separator.

This and most other

forms of separators are very imperfect, for the reason that they are not supplied with
sufficient

contact-surface
cool.

and are not kept

it

sufficiently

The gas when

is

passes

through the separator

ature, say
oil

at a high temper-

JocP Fahr., and consequently the

suspension
is

held

in

exceedingly limped

and

light in weight,

tendency to author would, therefore, advise the construction of a separator on the principle shown
in
its

and has not any great The separate from the gas.

Fig.

7.

The
F.

cast-iron cylinder,
outlet, F, opposite

inlet.

and

A, with one an-

cast in

its cover, B, and contact piates, C, one piece, and these are arranged so that when the gas impinges on them it is

other, has

4o

Theoretical

and

Practical

Fig. VII

....:..J

:....!

SECTION THRO.

X. Y.

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

41

distributed over a large surface and is forced against the side of the cylinder in its zigzag The oil in striking passage from K to F.

against these division plates will separate from the gas far more readily than if it

meets with no obstruction, but even with the

aid of the contact plates the separator will not effect a perfect separation unless the oil
is

rendered more viscous so as to increase

tendency to adhere to the plates, etc. This can be easily accomplished by making use of the water-jacket, D, which will keep
its

the separator cold enough to make the oil The botseparate and fall to the bottom.

tom of the separator may be connected with

the compressor so that the separated
oil

may
is

be used over again

of
little

but this connection

or no use with double-acting compressors, because pieces of packing, etc., that

find their

way from

the stuffing-box into the

compressor and thence into the separator will soon choke it up. The separ; tor should be periodically cleaned, the cover, B, and
plates, C,

being raised by the ring, G, after

the water has been run off from the jacket

42

Theoretical
I.

and

Practical

by the cock,

On

no account must the

look down, because the gas will then impinge on the oil lying in the
inlet to the separator

bottom, and will be likely to become more contaminated with, rather than freed of, the
oil.

THE CONDENSER.
The shape of
tent
:

the condenser tank affects

the efficiency of the condenser to

it

some ex-

should be deep and narrow rather than long and shallow, so that there may be

as great a distance as possible between the more or less warm water on the surface and

the cold water that

is

admitted at the botis

tom.
the

Another important point

water
is

to see that

properly distributed

when

it

enters the bottom of the condenser,

and not
in

allowed to

all

run

in

at

one point, as

the case of a discharge through an open-end

pipe.

CONDENSER-WORM.
The condenser-worm or piping through which the ammonia passes should consist of

A in HWH id A

if ion.

43
1

about one-third of 2-inch, one-third of 1 /This inch, and one-third of i-inch pipe.
gradual decrease in the size of the pipe will gi\v tar less "excessive" condensing pressure
than

when

the gas passes from a manifold

into a series of three or four separate one-

inch worms.

of the gas in passing through a 2-inch pipe is less than when the gas passes through a number of pipes
friction

The

whose aggregate areas are equal to a 2 -inch Another point is, it is quite unnecespipe. sary to have the same cross-sectional area for
the exit as for the inlet pipe, because the volume of the liquid anhydrous ammonia

passing through the exit is only about i-7$th of the volume of the gas that passes through
the inlet pipe.

RECEIVER.

The
4
Ibs.

receiver should be capable of holding

of liquid anhydrous

ammonia

for

every

capacity of the ma chine. That is to say, if the machine has a maximum capacity of 65 tons of ice in 24

24-hour-ton

maximum

44
hours,

Theoretical

and

Practical

the

receiver

should
Ibs.

holding 65 X 4

260

be capable of of liquid anhy-

drous ammonia.

REFRIGERATOR OR BRINE TANK.

The arrangement
frigerator
is

different

of the piping in the refrom that in the conto Fig. 3

it

denser.

By

referring

will

be

seen that the liquid ammonia entering the series of piping at the manifold G descends

by the vertical pipes, T, and then passes upward through the coils, U, before it is taken into the suction manifold K. The
object of arranging the piping in this way c to insure the i thorough vaporization of the
liquid

cooled
point

ammonia when the brine has become down to a point near to the boiling of the ammonia due to any given suc-

tion pressure, and the vaporization is thoroughly effected because any liquid ammonia

that does not vaporize will not pass upwards, and therefore the gaseous or vapori /.(.< ammonia has to bubble through it, and the
1
;

q-ii(l

thereby absorbs sufficient heat from

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

45

the gaseous ammonia to effect the vaporizaIf the liquid ammonia tion of the whole.

passed

in at

the higher and out at the lower

extremity, as in the case of an ordinary condenser-worm, a large quantity of the am-

monia would pass through

as the

in the liquid form,

warmer, or gaseous portion, would not

be brought so intimately in contact with it. The refrigerator should be thoroughly insu-

and for this purpose it should be surrounded by a wooden jacket so that there is a space of about 3 to 6 inches between the refrigerator and the inside of the jacket, and this space should be filled with mineral-wool,
lated,

charcoal, sawdust, or

any other good non-

conductor.

Sl/K

nK

Pli'K

AND AREA OF
SURFACE.
and

COOI.l\t.

The
the

size of pipe

total cooling surface

exposed

to the brine very materially affect

economical running of a refrigerating plant, and practical results have demonstrated without

doubt that

coils,

or worms,

made

of 2-inch pipe are far more econom-

46
ical in

Theoretical

and

Practical

regard to the use of steam, etc., than i -inch The total length of piping in pipe. contact with the brine should be sufficient

to give a

mean

cooling surface of 50 to 55

square
pacity.

feet

per 24-hour-ton

maximum

ca-

EXPANSION VALVES.
The expansion valves are of the spindle type as shown in Fig. 8, and should be made of the best quality of cast-iron.

Fig. VIII

ii

Refrigeration.

47

A
by

Manifold when number of valves are connected

1

flanges,

I ..

1'..

and

D=

Inlet

= Flange connecting valve with coil in refrigerator. F = Needle-Valve. G = Plug to simplify cleaning passages in case of
E
stoppage.

and Outlet Passages.

WORKING

DETAILS. CHARGING THE PLANT WITH AMMONIA.

In order to charge a new or at any rate an empty plant with ammonia it is first of This is done all necessary to expel the air.

48

Theoretical
all

and

Practical

by opening

the valves and cocks with the

exception of O, P, and S, which latter are tightly closed, and allowing the compressor
to

exhaust the
until

L,

and discharge

N,

I, K, and through the open cock the combination vacuum-pressure

air

from D, E, F, G,

it

gauge connected to the suction, of the compressor shows that the engine is not capable
of exhausting the apparatus any further the cock N and valve are then closed and
;

O opened. The drum of anhydrous ammonia (if an anhydrous ammonia

the valve

generating apparatus is not included in the plant) is now connected with the cock S,

which

latter

is

then

opened
the

to

allow the

compressor the drum.

cock S
is

to

transfer

ammonia from

the plant is charged the closed and the valves arc then

When

opened

sufficiently to allow the

compressor

to maintain the suction pressure correspond-

ing to the required brine temperature, which will be alluded to later.

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

49

CHAPTER
THE

V.

AMMONIA TO BE GRADUALLY CHARGED.

be charged with more than 60 per cent, of its full complement of ammonia at its first charging beplant

should

not

it is impossible to exhaust the whole of the air from the plant by means of the compressor, and the only way to get entirely

cause

rid of the air

effected

This is by displacement. cautiously opening the cock once or twice a day and allowing the air
is

by very

same time taking every precaution to prevent undue loss of ammonia. After the air has been displaced a fresh quantity of ammonia is pumped into the
to escape, at the

plant in the manner above described, and the next day the same operation is gone

through again,
days, the
full

until at the

end

of,

say, six

complement of ammonia has been charged. In this manner the whole

of the air
slight
loss
is

effectually expelled with but a of ammonia. An experienced

tell

man

can easily

from the general condi-

5O
tions

Theoretical

and

Practical

cient

and working of the plant when suffiammonia has been charged but as the uninitiated might experience some difficulty
;

in ascertaining

whether the plant was

the following

suffi-

ciently charged,

method has

been formulated for calculating the quantity

that constitutes a full charge. the maximum capacity of plant is Suppose 65 tons of ice per 24 hours, and that the sizes

of

ammonia

of the different parts are as follows

Connection from

CAPAC-

Compressor
rator.

to

Sepa-....B

2 in.

10

ft.

Separator

C
^

24"
1

"

[41.1

Containing ling

Ammonia >nia
Condenseras gas

..!

" 2800

Worm.

Containing ing

Ammonia nia
as liquid. id.

>
)

D a ..i',
E
24

700

Receiver

"

3
18.3

Connection from Receiver

to Refrigerator Manifold for Expansion

>
\

Valve,
Refrigerating Piping
1

A.

t'

4
2

" 6000

Connection from
Refrigerator to
^

K &

Compressor

Refrigeration.

The
monia
sure
of,

parts
in

15,

C,

and

I)

will

contain

am-

the gaseous state at a gau

say, 120 Ibs.

and average temperature

F,

of 80

Fahr.
parts

The
liquid

D2

K,

and

will

contain

anhydrous ammonia.

The parts T, U, K, and L will contain gaseous ammonia at a gauge pressure of 28 Ibs.
and an average temperature of
I

Fahr.

TABLE

I.

52

Theoretical

and

Practical

From

Tables

I.

and

V.

it

will

be seen

gases at the above pressures and temperatures of 1 20 Ibs. and 80 Fahr. and 28 Ibs. and 15 Fahr.
are respectively 2.490 and 10.763 cubic feet per pound of ammonia therefore the amount
;

that the volumes of the

ammonia

of

ammonia
D
1
,

required to charge the plant

is

B, C, and

=
L

(41.1

-j-

2.49)

Da

E,

F.andG

=(18.3X38.66*)
=(100.3^-10.763)

16^ Ibs. " 707^

T, U, K, and

9^

Total, 733 }i Ibs.

JACKET-WATER FOR COMPRESSOR.

The amount of jacket-water necessary for the compressor varies according to the conWith a low condensing densing pressure.
pressure say 90 to 105 Ibs. gauge pressure 10 to 15 gallons of water per hour per 24hour ton refrigerating effect will usually be

found ample, but when the condensing pressure reaches, say, 140 to 150 Ibs., the amount of water will have to be increased to about
Weight of a cubic
foot of liquid

anhydrous ammonia.

53

45 to 50 gallons per hour per 24-hour ton

refrigerating effect

JACKET- WATER FOR SEPARATOR.

The amount

of water used

in

the separa-

tor jacket should be as large as possible,

and

so that the water

may

not be wasted or be-

come

expensive, the overflow-pipe, H, should be continued down midway into the condenser, where the water should be distributed

and used along with the condensing water that is admitted at the bottom of the condenser.

CONDENSING WATER.
the pressure against which the compressor has to work is regulated almost en-

As

by the temperature of the condensed ammonia, it is obvious that the lower the temperature of the condensed ammonia, the greater the saving in the wear and tear of the engine, in the use of steam and contirely

sequently the consumption of coal, will be. The quantity and the temperature of the

54

Theoretical

and

Practical

condensing water are, therefore, points that The manufacneed careful consideration.
turer
for

has to use the city water-supply condensing purposes can not, under or-

who

dinary circumstances, economically cool the ammonia to a lower temperature than 55 to 60 Fahr. during the winter months, and
Fahr. during the summer months, should he increase his supply of because, water sufficiently to reduce the temperature

65

to 75

of the ammonia, say

10

below the above

figures, he would at once incur an extra expense that would not be warranted by the

resulting

increase

in

the

refrigerating

effi-

ciency of the plant.

diture

can,

however,
is

This increased expenbe overcome if the

following plan

adopted:

LESSENING THE COST FOR COKDI :\>i\<; WATER,

Instead of supplying the steam-boilers in establishment with the whole of their

the

water direct from the main, the author advises

arrangements being made to draw the

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

55

boiler water-supply from the overflow of the

ammonia condenser, then making up the deficiency from that source by drawing from This method of working would the main.
every respect, because in the first place, the water in passing through the condenser will receive a certain amount of

be beneficial

in

heat

which

is
is,

distinctly

boiler-water

an advantage, as or should be, heated before

Secondly, if the whole entering the boiler. or a part of the water required for the boilers is taken from the ammonia-condenser over-

condensing the ammonia is reduced to nil, because the boilers practically have to be supplied with water, and the fact
flow, the cost of

necessary supply has been preused for condensing purposes in no viously increases the cost after the first cost of way
that
that

putting up the system of piping for conveying the water has been paid for. Thirdly, the effect of the use of a superabundance of

condensing water will be a reduction of, at least, 30 to 40 Ibs. per square inch in the condensing pressure and a corresponding
saving
in

steam.

56

Theoretical

and

Practical

QUANTITY OF CONDENSING WATER

NECESSARY.
If the

temperature of the water supplied

is 5 5

to the condenser

to

60 Fahr., and the

temperature of the overflow or outlet water is 85 to 90 Fahr., the quantity of water that

be required will be about 0.9 gallons per but if the minute per 24-hour ton of ice of the overflow were only 70 temperature
will
;

to

75
to

Fahr.

(the

inlet

temperature being

55

60), the quantity of water that would

be necessary would be about 2^ gallons per minute per 24-hour ton of ice. This reduction of fifteen degrees in the temperature of the overflow means a reduction of 30 to 40

the condensing pressure, and if the ammonia leaves the condenser at the temIbs.

in

perature of the inlet water, a

will
result.

minimum
in

con-

densing pressure and large saving

steam

Loss

DUE TO HEATING OF CONDENSED

AMMM\.
very weak point and very surprising oversight in the management of a great num-

One

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

57

her of refrigerating plants is the fact that, although manufacturers often go to a deal
the

of expense in order to condense and cool ammonia to the lowest possible tempera-

ture,

they entirely ignore the importance of making arrangements to maintain that low

temperature until the ammonia reaches the The receiver, and a considerrefrigerator.
not the whole, of the piping through which the anhydrous ammonia has to pass on its way to the refrigerator are, as
able length,
if

a
is

rule, situated in

the engine-room

which

not usually the coolest of places and the temperature of the ammonia is consequently
5, 10, 15, or even 20 degrees the at which it left the temperature (above before it reaches the refrigerator; condenser)

often raised

and as these
perature

to

mean a

loss of

20 degrees gain from J^ to

in
i

tem-

J^ ton

refrigerating effect per 24 hours, on a 65 -ton machine, it seems as though it would be ad-

vantageous to have the receiver and piping covered with a cheap non-conducting material,
fits

so as to take

full

advantage of the bene-

resulting from a liberal water-supply to

58

Theoretical

and

Practical

the condenser, and thus prevent an unnecessary waste.

Loss DUE.
might be advisable to here refer to another source of needless loss which has even a greater effect on the refrigerating efficiency
It

of a machine than the case just considered.

SUPERHEATING AMMONIA GAS.

It is

the loss incurred

in the

by the ammonia gas

transit

absorbing heat

from the

re-

Some people frigerator to the compressor. it is absurd to go to any expense that argue
purpose of preventing that gas from absorbing heat, as it is heated up, any way, as soon as it enters the compressor. Others,
for the

again, consider that any heat absorbed by the gas simply means that a few more ther-

mal units
gas

will
it

have to be extracted from the

If passes into the condenser. these people would just take time to think, they would at once see that the higher the

when

temperature of the gas

is

before

it

enters

Ammonia

Rt frige rat ion.

59

the compressor the greater the volume of a given weight must be, and therefore the

compressor, although circulating or pumping same volume, will not circulate so great a weight and as the refrigerating efficiency
the
;

of a machine

is

of

ammonia

circulated,

proportional to the weight it is obvious that the

it

higher the temperature of the gas before

enters the compressor, the smaller the refrigerating efficiency of the machine will be,

cases.

the suction pressure being the same in both The effect of covering the ammonia

pipes is more particularly dealt with under the heading " Directions for Determining
Refrigerating Efficiency."

CHAPTER
THE

VI.

EXCESS CONDENSING PRESSURE.

condensing pressure, when the appaworking, is always greater than the theoretical. This "excess" pressure is due almost entirely to the confining of the highly
ratus
is

60

Theoretical

and

Practical
in the

heated gaseous ammonia

more or

less

limited space of the coils of the condenser, and varies greatly according to circumstances.

When

running at a low suction

pressure, say atmospheric pressure, the excess condensing pressure should not be over
5 to 10 Ibs., but when running with a suctiongauge pressure of 20 to 28 Ibs. the excess pressure will vary from 40 to 60 Ibs.

CAUSE OF VARIATION
PRESSURES.

IN

EXCESS

The
28
Ibs.

reason

why

there

is

ation in the excess pressure

such a large variis obvious with

:

comsuction-gauge pressure, pressor is pumping a three times greater weight of gas than it would pump if the gas were under only an atmospheric pressure,
the

and therefore the condenser

a greater extent
latter
in

is

crowded
in
if

to

the former than

the

case.
is

It

may

be argued that

the

compressor

forcing into the condenser a three times greater weight of ammonia in

Ammonia
one case than same time

Refrigeration.

61

in another, the
will

condenser at

the

pansion

be relieved by the exvalves of a three times greater

weight of liquid ammonia, and one will thus It is, of course, counterbalance the other.
true that the weight of liquid ammonia passing the expansion valves will be the same

ammonia gas entering the condenser from the compressor; but as the volume of a given weight of the gas at conas the weight of

densing temperature and pressure is about 75 times greater than the volume of the

same weight of
that
if

liquid

ammonia,
in

it

is

plain

instead of

pumping

of gas into the condenser we amount three times, or to 225 volumes, the increased delivery from the condenser (by means of the expansion valves) of only two

75 volumes increase the

volumes

is

insignificant in

comparison with

the increased receipt from the compressor, and therefore the increase of excess con-

densing pressure

expected
pressure.

to

what might naturally be accompany increased suction

is

62

Theoretical

and

Practical

OTHER CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT

EXCESS PRESSURE.

No

table of the

excess condensing pres-

sures for various suction pressures

would be

of any practical use, because different makes of refrigerating plants give different results. The high speed (140 revolutions per minute)

horizontal compressor invariably gives

a greater excess pressure than the vertical compressor, which only has a speed of

from 40 to 60 revolutions per minute. The method of connecting the condenser piping
also
affects

the

excess pressure considera-

bly, and if four separate one-inch pipes, or worms, connected by manifolds are used, the excess pressure will be greater than if one

worm (starting at the top with two-inch piping and reducing to one-inch,
continuous
as
in previous pages) is used. the Also, higher the condensing pressure due to the temperature of the condensing

recommended

water the greater the excess pressure

be.

will

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

63

USE OF CONDENSING PRESSURE

IN

DE-

TERMINING Loss OF AMMONIA BY LEAKAGE.

the condensing pressure is one of the principal means by which the engineer can tell when the loss of ammonia by leakage has

As

amounted

to such a quantity as to render the

replenishing of the plant advisable, it is very necessary that the man in charge, if inexperienced, should record

a book the temper-

ature of the condensed

at its point of exit from the condenser, and the suction and condensing pressures, every two or three

ammonia

hours.

If these figures are

thoroughly

mem-

orized and the engineer started with a plant that was fully charged with ammonia he

ought to be

able, at the

end of a month or

two, to tell by looking at the suction-pressure gauge, and the temperature of the condensed ammonia whether the condensing

For expressure was what it should be. the has been ample, suppose running plant for two or three months with an average
condensing temperature of 60

Fahr, con-

64
densing

Theoretical

and

Practical

pressure of 120 Ibs. and suction pressure of 25 Ibs., and that during the next three months the condensing pressure

gradually

fell

to

1 1

5 Ibs.,

while the condens-

ing temperature and suction pressure were still 60 Fahr. and 25 Ibs. respectively; it would be plain that neither the condensing

temperature nor the suction pressure could account for this falling off in the condensing pressure because they have not altered, and
therefore
it

in the condensing caused loss or leakage of ampressure by monia is due to the increased condenser
tion.

ammonia The diminution

obvious that the quantity of can alone account for this alterais

space resulting from the leakage, thereby allowing the gas a greater length of worm
in

which to condense and assume the liquid

form, thus lessening the

"crowding" of the

hot compressed gas.

When
or 10

Ibs.

the condensing pressure falls off 5 the plant should be re-charged

with sufficient

ammonia

to restore the nor-

mal condensing pressure.

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

65

COOLING DIRECTLY BY AMMONIA

It is very seldom that ammonia can be used directly for freezing purposes, and in nearly all cases it is used indirectly with

brine as a
to using

medium.

ammonia

greatest drawback directly is the liability of

The

ammonia
etc.,

to leak through the fittings, joints, and as meats or other provisions would be rendered valueless as far as the market is concerned by such a leakage, it would be exceedingly risky and injudicious to cool a

warehouse directly by ammonia if the only object for so doing was to save the cost of But in buildthe brine portion of the plant. of would smell ammonia where a slight ings
not result in any pecuniary loss other than the value of the escaping ammonia, which latter if properly looked after will be ex-

ceedingly small

would certainly be advisIn this able to cool directly by ammonia. case the expansion valves would be in the building to be cooled, and the ammonia would be expanded in a system of piping hung up on the walls or otherwise conveit

66

Theoretical

and

Practical

niently arranged.
is

This method of working

decidedly the most economical, as it does away with the necessity of a refrigerator and
its

the steam

long series of piping, the brine pumps and required to run them, the brine

piping (4 to 5 inches in diameter) conveying the brine between the pumps, building to be
cooled,

and the refrigerator, and all the numerous fittings and valves in connection
therewith.

BRINE.
Brine
is

a solution of either

common

salt

(chloride of sodium), chloride of calcium, or chloride of magnesium in water. Brine made

of chloride of magnesium is undesirable, as it is liable to contain free acid, which above all other things is most objectionable, owing
to
its

action on metals

whereas

common

salt,

or the "commercial fused" chloride of cal-

cium, are both free from acid. Salt is usually sold by the bag, each bag containing about

200
ton.

Ibs.

and costing about 7oc., or $7.00 per Commercial fused chloride of calcium

Ammonia
is

Refrigerate

67

sold in iron drums, holding about

600

Ibs.

each,

common
will

and costs about $16.00 per ton. Cheap salt, such as may be obtained for 40
it

to 50 cents per bag, should not be used, as

be expensive

in the

long run, and noth-

ing but the purest and best salt should be Common salt for brine making bought.

should not contain more than 0.05 per cent, of insoluble matter (calculated on the dry
salt).

of account
instead of
insoluble

The percentage when the salt

matter

of moisture
is

is

only

bought by weight

by the bag, but the percentage of

is always of great imporunless there are special faciltance, because, ities for filtering the brine before it enters

the refrigerator or system of piping for cooling rooms, etc., it is obvious that if the per-

centage of insoluble matter is bulky, it will accumulate and eventually settle down in the bottom of the refrigerator and thereby

reduce the efficiency of the apparatus by

covering the piping, or
into the brine
it

is

liable to pass

pumps, and from thence to the brine piping for cooling the rooms, where
it

is

likely to lodge in fittings (return bends,

68

Theoretical

and

Practical

The use

elbows, etc.) and cause serious obstruction. of chloride of calcium does not do

away with the inconvenience liable to be caused by the presence of insoluble matter,
but for temperatures below
absolutely necessary that for the reason explained
it

Fahr.

it

is

should be used

in

paragraph on

"Effect of Composition on Freezing Point."

FREEZING POINT OF BRIM:.

Brines will only stand a certain degree of
cold without freezing, and the temperature to which brine can be cooled before it will

begin to freeze depends, firstly, on the composition of the brine, and secondly, on the
strength of the solution.

KI-TI-KT

OF COMPOSITION
POINT.

ON FREEZING

in

In illustration of the effect that a change the composition of the brine will have on

thr freezing point it is only necessary to state that whereas a solution of common salt can

Ammonia

Refrigeration*

69

7 Fahr., a solution of only be cooled to chloride of calcium can he cooled to 40

Fahr.

EFFECT OF STRENGTH ON FREEZING

POINT.
In

explaining
affects

the
the

way
freezing

in

which
of

the
the

strength solution a brine

point

be considered.

made of common If a weak solution

is

salt will

of com-

gradually cooled, ice will begin to separate out at about 28 Fahr., and this separation of ice with a proportional
salt

mon

in

water

concentration of the brine will continue

till

Fahr. is reached. the temperature of 7.5 At this point the brine will contain 24.24 per
cent, of salt,

and

if

further cooled will solidify

If, on the other hand, a saturated solution (at 60 Fahr.) of salt is cooled, salt will separate out, and the brine will weaken until the same temperature and de-

as a whole.

gree of concentration given above is reached, when the solution will become wholly solidified.

7O

Theoretical

and

Practical

SUITABLENESS OF THE BRIM

For
able
all

ordinary

purposes,
it is

such

as ice

manufacture, etc., highly improbthat a temperature below Fahr. 7 will be needed, the author would strongly
advise the use of a brine
salt.

where

made
it

of

common
easier

The

cost

is less

than one-half of that

is

of chloride of calcium, and

far

and more cleanly to handle, because chloride of calcium is highly deliquescent, and therefore a drum of it must be used as soon as
opened, otherwise moisture from the
cause
it

will

absorb so
it

much

air that

will

"run" and
brine
is

much annoyance not As we nave already seen,

weak or too

to mention loss.
if

the

either too
will

in take place and in the latter case of the chemical con-

strong, a separation the former case of ice,

stituent.

Now,
it

if

either of these separations

occurs

seriously affect the refrigerating efficiency of a plant, owing to the coating of the refrigerator coils or piping with
will

or chloride of calcium.

a bad conducting material such as ice, It is therefore of

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

*J\

the greatest importance that the gravity or strength of the brine should be carefully tried

every day, and any variation due to evaporation or other causes should be corrected at
once.

MAKING BRINE.
The
vessel

brine should be

made

in a separate

and
until

not be transferred to the refrigerits

ator

strength

has been

carefully

adjusted and the

dirt, etc.,

allowed sufficient
If the brine is
is first

time to

settle to

the bottom.
salt,

to be made from
in

placed the vessel and carefully measured, and then the requisite quantity of salt namely, 266.81
Ibr.*

the water

per 100 gallons of water

until

is

thrown

in

and the whole

manually

stirred either mechanically or

the

salt

is

dissolved.

The

strength of the brine should then be 22 Beaume. In the case of chloride of calcium
the strength can not be regulated to such a nicety as in the case of salt, because the
* oi
iin

These
isture

figures are for pure, dry salt, and therefore the percentage and insoluble matter contained in the salt used must be
for.

determined and allowed

72

Theoretical

and

Practical

material has to be placed in the vessel in more or less large lumps, and as these lumps
dissolve comparatively slowly at the ordinary temperature it is necessary to boil the water

with open steam. This operation, of course, increases the volume of the water first placed
in the vessel,

and as

this increase is

an un-

certain quantity (according to the size of the lumps and therefore the length of time they

take to dissolve) the strength has to be regulated entirely by the use of the hydrometer.
It is

wiser to

make

rather than too weak, as

the solution too strong it takes less time to

reduce the strength by adding water than it does to increase the strength by dissolving

more of the

chloride of calcium.

CHAPTER
IT
is

VII.

water for every 100

advisable to place only 6 gallons of Ibs. of chloride of cal-

cium

in the vessel to start with,

is

and

as

soon

as the solution

effected cold water should

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

73
until the

be added, small quantities at a time, strength is reduced to 20 Beaume.

SPECIFIC

HEAT OF

BRINE.

According
cific

to Professor Denton,* the spe-

heat of brine
:

made from common

Specific Heat.

salt is

as follows

Strength.

2oX Beaum6
2I)

0.818
0.786

"

The author finds that the specific heat of brine of 22 Beaume strength and made from
American
salt is 0.765.

REGULATION OF BRINE TEMPERATURE.

In places where the refrigerating work is regular and the temperature of the brine re-

turning to the

refrigerator

is

not liable to

vary many degrees, the regulation of the temperature of the outgoing brine is an easy matter; but where the return brine is sub*

Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,

Vol. XII.,

page

384.

74

Theoretical

and

Practical

jected to large variations in temperature the regulation of the outgoing brine temperature
In the requires a great deal of attention. former case the expansion valves are regulated so that the engine maintains a suction

pressure equivalent to a boiling-point (of the anhydrous ammonia) of about i5Fahr. lower

than the brine temperature required. For in a brine instance, ice-making temperature
of 25
Fahr. would be the most economical,

and 15 lower than that, namely, 10 Fahr., would be the temperature at which the ammonia should boil. By referring to Table
III.

(page

1 1

6)

it

will

be seen that a suctionIbs.

is

gauge pressure of 23.85

equivalent to an ammonia boiling-point of 10 Fahr., and therefore the expansion valves would need

be regulated so that the engine ran with a suction-gauge pressure of, say, 23^ Ibs. If a building has to be cooled and maintained
to
at

of about

a temperature of zero, a brine temperature 10 Fahr. will be necessary, and

25 Fahr.) will be 15 lower than that (= the required boiling-point of the ammonia, and Table III. shows that a suction-gauge

Ammonia
pressure
of
1.47

Refrigeration.

75
to

Ibs.

corresponds

that

boiling-point.

In both these cases the ex-

pansion valves will need little or no attention after they have once been properly regubut it will now be shown that if we lated
;

have a quantity of hot

oil

that has to be

cooled a certain number of degrees Fahrenheit in a given length of time, it is necessary

that the expansion valves shall be frequently attended to in order to obtain the desired
results.

For example

50,000 Ibs. of oil at a temperature o" iooc Fahr. have to be cooled to

20

80

Fahr. or through Fahrenheit degrees in

oil is

24 hours, and the specific heat of the

0.750.

In this case the

number of thermal
oil

units to

be extracted from the

0.750) 3,000,000. is capable of circulating 43,200 cubic feet of ammonia gas per 24 hours, and the ex-

are (50,000 X 80 X Now, if the compressor

pansion valves are regulated to give, at the commencement, a brine temperature of 15 Fahr., the refrigerating efficiency will be only
2,497,000 thermal units per 24 hours, and
it

76

Theoretical

and

Practical

will therefore take

about

29^
if

hours to cool

the expansion valves are regulated so that for the first six hours the brine temperature will be 32 Fahr.
oil

the

to

20

Fahr.

But

and during the next

12 hours 25
15

Fahr.,

and

the remaining six hours

Fahr., the re:

frigerating efficiency will be, approximately

First

6 hours
12

882, ooo

Next
Last

" "

1,542,000

624,000

Thermal " "

units.

Total,

3,048,000 Thermal units,

or 48,000 thermal units more than are theoretically required, and 551,000 thermal units

more than could be extracted by

with,

starting

24 hours, the refinal brine quired temperature of 15 Fahr. This great difference in the results is due to
for

and maintaining

the simple fact that the refrigerating efficiency of a plant is proportional to the weight of

anhydrous ammonia
if

circulated,
is

and therefore
circulated at

a large weight of ammonia

the the

commencement, when
oil
is

the temperature of

high,

reduced as the

oil

and that weight is gradually becomes cooled, it is cvi-

Ammonia
dent that the
if

Refrigeration.

77

oil will

be cooled quicker than

the smaller weight, or that necessary for the final temperature, is circulated throughOf course, out the whole of the operation.
to regulate the exso as to cause the three sudvalves pansion den drops in temperature as in the above
it

would not be advisable

example
sake

where

it

was done

for simplicity's

but the valves should rather be graduso that the minimum brine temclosed, ally perature required will be reached about six

hours before the material that

will

is

being cooled

be required.

INDIRECT EFFECT OF CONDENSING ON BRINE TEMPERATURE.

If the

WATER

used

in

supply and temperature of the water the condenser is irregular the expan-

sion valves will need constant attention (no

matter what the nature of the refrigerating work may be), because any irregularities in
the condensing water will cause changes in If the supply lesthe condensing pressure.
sens in quantity the temperature of the con-

78
denser

l^hcorcticdl

and

Practical
rise

will,

of course,

and cause an

increase of pressure. The natural result of increased pressure will be a larger delivery of ammonia forced through the expansion
valves,

and the suction pressure

It
is

will in turn

also be increased.

to

counterbalance

therefore necessary increase of condensing

pressure by a proportional closing down of the expansion valves, and decrease in the

condensing pressure by opening the expansion valves.

CHAPTER
DIRECTIONS FOR

VIII.

DETKK.MIMXG

REFR1G-

KKATINc; KFI ICIKXCY.

BEFORE going

into the details of deter-

mining the efficiency of a refrigerating plant it is necessary that one or two points in connection therewith should be explained.

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

79
ICE.

EQUIVALENT OF A TON OF
The

equivalent of a ton of ice is 284,000 British thermal units, or the amount of heat
that

would be necessary
of ice at 32

to

convert a ton

(2,000 Ibs.) of water at 32

Fahr., into a ton Fahr., or, conversely, it is the

amount of heat

that must be extracted from

a ton of water at 32 Fahr. in order to convert it into a ton of ice at 32 Fahr.

COMPRESSOR MEASUREMENT OF AMMONIA

CIRCULATED.
Professor Denton's determinations *
that

show

when

the

the latter pressor it is and so rarefied as to cause the compressor full of gas to weigh upwards of 25 per cent,
if the gas remained at the of the entrance while the comtemperature

ammonia gas enters heated by the walls of

the com-

less

than

it

would

pressor

filled.

* Transactions of the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers,

Vol. XII.

80

Theoretical

and

Practical

Loss IN WELL-JACKETED COMPRESSORS.

The make

of machine with which Denton

experimented was the Consolidated Ice Machine Company's, and the actual loss in the

pumping
to the

efficiency of the

compressors due

above cause was

2 1.4 per cent.

The

compressors (including gas passages, valves,

etc.) in this

make of machine

are exception-

ally well arranged for receiving the fullest possible benefit from the jacket-water, and

therefore the loss of

reduced to a minimum.

pumping efficiency is Where compressors

are not so efficiently jacketed, the loss by superheating will vary from 21 2 to 25 per

cent.

LOSS IN DOUBLE-ACTING COMPRESSORS.

allowance of 30 per cent, for loss by superheating is necessary in the case of
double-acting compressors when the gas enters the compressor through the heads and
the heads are not jacketed. Before the efficiency of a plant can be determined it is necessary that the compressor

An

Ammonia
should be
fitted

Refrigeration.

with an indicator, the engine and brine pumps with stroke counters, and
that

mercury wells should be placed

viz.
:

at the

following points,

DISTRIBUTION OF MERCURY WELLS.

(i) On the discharge pipe, near its point of outlet from the compressor. (i) On the ammonia discharge pipe from the condenser immediately at its point of
exit.

(3)

In the

ammonia supply manifold

of the

refrigerator.

or discharge In the ammonia suction manifold of the refrigerator. imme(5) In the ammonia suction pipe diately at its point of entry to the com(4)

pressor.

In the return brine pipe, just where discharges into the refrigerator.
(6)

it

brine pipe from (7) In the brine discharge the refrigerator. In cases where the pipes are horizontal and of sufficient diameter the mercury well

82

Theoretical

and

Practical
in Fig. 9, in

should be constructed as

which

is

the pipe, the temperature of the con-

Fig. IX

tents of
well,

which

made

is required B is the mercury of iron tubing and fitted in the

;

ti

Rcfriginitwn.

83

The mercury, pipe by means of a bushing. C, fills the well about three-quarters full,
and
in
it

the

thermometer, D,

is

held

by

the cork, E.

When the pipes are vertical, or cf too small a diameter, the mercury well should
be made as follows (Fig. 10):

The wooden
is

carefully

fitted

block, P, having a cavity, C, to the pipe, A, and seits

curely fastened in

D, D.

is

filled

place by the iron bands three-quarters full with

mercury, and the thermometer, E, having been introduced and secured in its place by
the cork, F, the whole
felt

wrapped in hairany possibility of the atmosphere having any effect upon the
is

so

as to entirely prevent

temperature of the mercury.

portion of the pipe with which the mercury comes in contact should be thor-

The

oughly scraped, so as to present a perfectly bright and clear surface, before the wooden
block
is

fastened in

its

place.
little

The

judicious application of a

soft
will

putty to touching surface of the

wood

84

TJicorctical

and

Practical

make

the joint between the

wood and pipe

perfectly tight

and

efficient.

Fig. 10.

The most convenient form of thermometer

is

one with a cylindrical bulb

1%

to

Ammonia
inch long
;

Refrigeration.

85

the diameter of the thermometer

should be about 5-16 to of an inch. The graduations should start at a point 3 inches ibove the top of the bulb and should be

Plan Thro'

XV

y& of an inch apart, and each graduation should represent one degree. With the use of such a thermometer a reading of onetenth of a degree may be easily and accurately

made.

86

Theoretical

and

Practical

EXAMINATION OF WORKING PARTS.

Having carefully examined the pistons and valves of the brine pumps and compressor,
and
the accuracy of the pressure a number of tabulated forms should gauges, be drawn up ready to receive the readings of the different instruments as they are
verified

taken.

NUMBER OF READINGS TO BE TAKI

a plant is doing " steady temperature" work, such as cooling warehouses or

Where

making

artificial

ice,

readings of

all

the

dif-

need not be taken more but where the than once every half- hour range in temperature of the material to be
ferent instruments
;

readings should be taken of an hour. Diagrams of the every quarter steam cylinder and the compressor should

cooled

is

large,

be taken every three hours.

Ammonia

Refrigeration*

87

CHAPTER

IX.

DURATION OF TEST
FOR steady work, the test should last for twelve hours, and in large range of temperature work the test should last for twenty-four hours, or, at any rate, until the final temperatures agree as closely as possible with those at the start.

INDICATOR DIAGRAMS.
In order to check the brine figures a very careful examination of the indicator diagrams of the compressor must be made, as it is only by the aid of these diagrams that an accurate

computation of the volume of ammonia culated can be made.

Fig.
1 1

cir-

represents the working of a doublehorizontal compressor running at 140 acting The gauge pressure revolutions per minute.
in

the suction discharge pipes of the

com-

88
pressor

Theoretical

and

Practical

when

respectively, 10

the diagram was taken were, Ibs. and 140 Ibs. As the

diagram shows that the suction pressure in the compressor was only 5 Ibs. and the condensing pressure was 150 Ibs., it is very evident, in the first place, that both the suction and discharge valves were too small and did
GAUGE PRESSURES
CONDENSING ---140 SUCTION 10 REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE - 140

not admit of the free passage of the

ammo-

nia gas. Secondly, as the suction prein the compressor was only 5 Ibs. the com-

pressor was not

pumping

or circulating as

much ammonia
sented.

as the

gauge pressure repre-

This diagram also shows that the had performed 30 per cent of its forengine

A mmonia
stroke before

Refrigeration.
cent, of
its

89
return
re-

ward stroke and 25 per

the

pressure due to the

expansion of the clearance space gas was the presreduced to the suction pressure
this

sure at which the valves would open. case the pumping capacity of

In
the

compressor was, therefore, only

GAUGE PRESSURES
CONDENSING SUCTION 1 REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE
137 10 140

72 *^

per

ATMOSPHERIC LINE

FIG. XII.

cent, of the piston displacement per revolution.

working of the same had been engine the was Although engine running enlarged. at the same speed as before 140 revolutions per minute the condensing pressure in the
Fig.
1

2 represents the

after the discharge valves

90

Theoretical
this

and

Practical

compressor was

time the same as indi-

cated by the gauge on the discharge pipe, showing that the engine had no "excess"
to work against, and therefore a The diagram saving in steam was effected. that the suction valves again shows, however, were too small for a speed of 140 revolu-

pressure

GAUGE PRESSURES REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE

120

ATMOSPHERIC LINE

FIG. XIII.

,ions per minute, and, also, that the pumping capacity of the compressor was only 72 j4 per cent, of the piston displacement.

the diagram taken from the same engine when running at the rate of only 20 revolutions per minute. From it we see that
Fig.
1

is

the suction valves of the compressor are de^

a Refrigeration.
eel

91

for that rate of speed,

previous rates were beyond the capacity of the valves. comFig. 14 was a diagram taken from a

and that the of 140 revolutions per minute

pound single-acting vertical compressor running at 40 revolutions per minute, with a suction and condensing gauge pressure of,
GAUGE PRESSURES 'CONDENSING ---1*7 10 ) SUCTION REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE - 40

92

Theoretical

and

Practical

culated per 24 hours, and from those figures we will be better able to realize the importance of this portion of the subject.

For

simplicity's sake

we

will

suppose the

temperature of the gas entering the comThe pressor was o Fahr. in all four cases.
cubical displacement of the piston in the case of the horizontal compressor was 1.30 cubic feet per revolution, and in the case of vertical

compressor 4.00 cubic

feet

per revolu-

tion.

140 revolutions per minute X 1.3 = 182 cubic feet per minute = 262,080 cubic feet per 24 hours.

The

indicator

diagram shows that 27.5

of this was lost owing to re-expansion of the gas, and we have seen under

per cent,

sub-heading

"

Loss

in

Double-acting

Com-

pressors," that 30 per cent, also has, in this case, to be deducted, and therefore the effectual displacement
cent.)
is (

30 per

cent.)

(262,080

27.5 per 133,005 cubic feet

per 24 hours.

The
was
5

suction pressure
Ibs.

in

the

compressor
Ibs.

(i.e.,

19.7, say,

19^

absolute

Ammonia
pressure).

Refrigeration.

93

By Table
of

that

Ib.

ammonia gas

V. (page 125) we see at o Fahr. and

absolute pressure 14.828 cubic feet therefore the effectual displacement of 8,970 Ibs. of ammonia 133,005 cubic feet

19^"
;

Ibs.

circulated per 24 hours. 120 revolutions per minute

1.3

cubic feet per minute

156
feet

224,640 cubic

per 24 hours.

Taking 72.5 per

then deducting 30

cent, of this

amount, and

per cent, of the remainder,

we have an
per 24 hours.

efficiency of 114,004 cubic feet

The
was 10
of

suction
Ibs.

pressure
Ibs.

in

the

compressor

gas at o Fahr. and 24^ Ibs. 1 absolute pressure 1.794 cubic feet therefore the effectual displacement of 114,004

By Table ammonia

absolute pressure). (= 24)^ V. (page 127) we see that i Ib.

cubic feet

= 9,666

Ibs.

of

ammonia

circulated

per 24 hours. In the cases of diagrams

and

12,

where

the engine was running at a speed of 140 revolutions per minute, the pounds of ammonia circulated were only 8,970 as against

94

Theoretical

and

Practical

9,666 when the engine speed was only 120 revolutions per minute. This increase of

ammonia per 24 with the smaller consumphours, together tion of steam (owing to the diminution in the
696
Ibs. in

the circulation of

speed of the engine) is due entirely to sufficient time being allowed the ammonia gas
in its

passage through the suction valves to maintain its suction pressure of 10 Ibs., at
I

Ib. of ammonia gas only cubic feet. If the piston occupies 11.794 traveled quicker than the above speed it sucked the gas instead of allowing it to

which pressure

follow

by
II

its

own
12)
5

reduced the pressure to

pressure, and thereby (in the cases of diaIbs.,

grams
i

and

at

which pressure

ammonia gas occupies 14.828 cubic feet, and the pumping capacity of the compressor, as far as the weight of ammonia cirIb.

of

culated

is

concerned,

is

40 revolutions per minute X 4

feet

thereby reduced. = 160 cubic

feet

per minute

230,400 cubic

per 24

hours.

99 per
cubic

cent, of this

feet,

amount equals 228,096 and, as in the case of a thoroughly-

A in won

iii

Rt-frigcnitiiw.

95

jacketed single-acting compressor, 21.4 per cent, instead of 30 per cent, has to be deducted.
case
is

The

effectual displacement

in thiL

179,283 cubic feet per 24 hours. have already seen that I Ib. of ammonia gas at o Fahr. and 10 Ibs. (= 24^ Ibs. absolute pressure) = 11.794 cubic feet, and

We

therefore

the
Ibs.

available

15,201 hours.

179,283

cubic

feet

of

ammonia

circulated per 24

The

actual capacity of this vertical

is

com-

230,400 cubic feet per 24 hours as pressor against 224,640 in the case of the horizontal compressor when diagram 13 was taken, or
an excess of only 5,760 cubic feet per 24 hours. Yet the increase in the amount of

ammonia
which
5,760

circulated
Ibs.
if

amounted

to (15,201

9,666) 5,535

of

figures,

allowance
excess

ammonia per 24 hours, is made for the

capacity,

cubic

feet
Ibs.

are

re-

duced to 5,042

of 5,042 Ibs. in culated is almost

that

This enormous increase the weight of ammonia cirentirely

due

to the

fact

the

head of

water-jacket on the compressor the vertical compressor causes a

96

Theoretical

and

Practical

complete collapse of the clearance space gas, and thereby allows the suction-valves
to
its

open immediately the piston commences

return stroke.

Having ascertained the circulating capacity of our compressor we will now see what the freezing capacity of the plant is and how it
could be improved.

suppose that the mean results of 24-hour test were as follows

will
:

We

Gauge Pressure

*
\ (

ct

'

'

Discharge (Condensing).

Ammonia

"
<|

Suction
t

...
.

140103. Fahr.

Discharge

251 Fahr.

Temperature

at Discharge from Condenser, 62 at Refrig'ator Supply Manifold, 69

Fahr. Fahr. Fahr.

Fahr.

Discharge

"

Strength Revolutions of Compressor Engine per Minute

{(
1

Leaving Refrigerator Temperatures J Return |o Revolutions of Pump per Minute

^
i6j4

Q Fahf

40
22

Beaumi.
120

Diagram

represented the working of the

compressor while the

The compressor

was being made. piston displacement was 1.30

test

cubic feet per revolution. The displacement of the brine

pump

piston

was 0.8021 gallon per revolution.

A
AMMONIA

111

won iii

Refrigeration*

97

FIGURES.

Ki

I:<TUAL DIS-

PLACEMENT.
20 revolutions per minute X 224,640 156 cubic feet per minute This amount less cubic feet per 24 hours.

Compressor

1.3

162,864 cubic feet, and 30 per cent, deducted from that leaves 114,005 cubic feet effectual displacement per 24
27.5 per cent.

hours.

VOLUME OF
The gas
at a

GAS.

entered the compressor was temperature of 8 Fahr. and under a

as
it

gauge pressure of 10
lute pressure).

Ibs.

(=

24.7

Ibs.

abso.

see that
Ibs.

I Ib. gas at 24^ (24.75) absolute pressure and 8 Fahr. 12.013 cubic feet and at 24.5 Ibs. pressure and 8 1 2. 1 Fahr. Our pressure was 37 cubic feet.

By of ammonia

referring to Table

we

24.7 Ibs., or 0.05 Ibs. less than 24^, so, as there are 5, 5-100 difference between 24^

and 24*4, we divide the difference in the volume of the gas at those two pressures by

98

Theoretical

and

Practical

5 and add the quotient to the figures due to the pressure 24.75 Ibs. Thus
:

12.137

0.0248

= 12.0378
at 8

0.124; 12.013 cubic feet

= the

0.124
Ibs.

-;-

= 0.0248.
I

12.013

-f-

volume of

Ib.

of am-

monia gas

Fahr. and 24.7

absolute pressure.

AMMONIA CIRCULATED PER TWENTYFOUR HOURS.

displacement of the comwas 162,864 cubic feet, and as the pressor volume of one pound of the gas was 12.0378 cubic feet, the amount of ammonia circulated per 24 hours was (114,005 -f- 12.0378)
effectual

The

9,470

Ibs.

REFRIGERATING EFFICIENCY.

We
fi6)

see
that
Ibs.

by
the

referring to Table III. (page latent heat of ammonia at

is

9.86*

gauge pressure

561, therefore

=) 5,312,670 thermal units were absorbed by the ammonia in passing from

561

(9,470 X

the liquid to the gaseous state

*

(/. c.,

in

exto

For

all

practical

purposes

these

figures

are

near

enough

10

Ib*.

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

99

panding), but the average results of the test show that the ammonia entered the refrigerator at a temperature of 69 Fahr. and that it the gas left at a temperature of o Fahr.
;

was therefore cooled down from 69 to o, or through 69 degrees, and as the specific heat
of

ammonia

at suction pressures

is

0.508, as

already shown, it is evident (9,470 X 69 X = 331,942 thermal units were thus util.508)
cooling down the ammonia itself, and therefore, not being available for coolized
in

down the brine, they must be deducted from the 5,312,670 thermal units credited to
ing
the ammonia, thus leaving (5,312,670
331,-

942 =) 4,980,728

effective

thermal

units,
ice

or

(4,980,728 -r 284,800

=)

17.49 tons of

pei

24 hours.

BRINE FIGURES.
The
lution

GALLONS CIRCULATED.

capacity of the brine

pump

per revo-

and as it made 40 revolutions per minute, the volume of brine circulated was 0.7392 X 40 X 1440 = 42,578 gallons* per 24 hours.

was 0.7392

gallons,

American gallons (=

,ter).

oo

Theoretical

and

Practical

POUNDS CIRCULATED.
gravity of the brine was 22 Beaume, at that strength weighs 9.84 Ibs. number of pounds of brine the per gallon, circulated in the 24 hours was (42,578 X

The

and as brine

9-

84=)

41 8,967.

DEGREES COOLED.
The average temperatures
were
Return
:

of

the

brine

31
1

Fahr. Fahr. Fahr.

Outgoing

6^

Therefore the brine was cooled

TOTAL DEGREES EXTRACTED.

The
that
total

number
extracted
15.25

were

of degrees Fahrenheit from the brine were

=)

6,389,246.

AiHimi:a Refrigeration.

IOI

CHAPTER

X.

WE
cific

have shown previously that the spe-

Heaume brine is 0.765, therefore the number of thermal units extracted were (6,389,246 X 0.765 =) 4,887,773,
heat of 22

or (4,887,773 4- 284,800) 17.16 tons of ice These figures give 0.33 ton per 24 hours.

of ice per 24 hours less than we obtained from the ammonia figures. This is a result
that
tion

must always be looked

is

for,

as no insula-

perfectly non-conducting,

and the

air

surrounding the refrigerator, etc., is always cooled more or less according to circumstances. The heat imparted to the refrig-

way is a varying amount under not, ordinary circumstances, be accurately estimated. It will have been
erator, etc., in this

and can
noticed

in

the

average ammonia tempera-

tures that the liquid

anhydrous ammonia was

Fahr. up to 69 Fahr. in its from the condenser to the refrigerpassage will now see what ator supply manifold.

heated from 62

We

IO2
effect

Theoretical
this
rise

and

Practical

in

temperature had on the

capacity of the plant.

Loss DUE TO HEATING OF LIQUID

AMMONIA.

We
mal

have

just figured that 5,312,670 ther-

were absorbed by the ammonia in passing from the liquid to the gaseous state, and that 331,942 thermal units of that amount had to be deducted for loss due to
units

cooling the Fahr.

ammonia

itself

from 69 Fahr. to

Let

it

ture of

now be assumed that the temperathe liquid ammonia remained at its

:

condensing temperature of 62 Fahr. and our 9,470 (Ibs. of ammonia) X figures will be

62 X 0.508

298,267 thermal units required to cool the ammonia itself from 62 Fahr. to
therefore the
for

oFahr., and

number of

ther-

mal units available would be (5,312,670

or 17.61 tons of
ice

cooling

the brine
5,014,403,

298,267

=)

These per 24 hours. figures show that the seven degrees Fuhrcn-

Ammonia
heit that the

Refrigeration.

103
in its pas-

ammonia was heated

sage from the condenser to the refrigerator

represented a loss in the refrigerating effi1 7.49 =) o. 1 2, ciency of the plant of ( 1 7.6 1 or one-eighth of a ton of ice per 24 hours.

Loss DUE TO HEATING OF AMMONIA

GAS.
glance at the average figures again will also show that the ammonia gas in its passage from the refrigerator to the compressor the was heated eight degrees Fahrenheit
gas entering the compressor at a temperaTo determine what ture of 8 instead of o.

was the
it

lost refrigerating effect in this case

be necessary to calculate how many pounds of ammonia would have been circuwill

lated

of the

by the compressor had the temperature ammonia gas remained at o until it

Reference to Table
I

entered the compressor.

V. (page 127) shows that

Ib.

of

ammonia

and o Fahr. has a volume of 11.917 cubic feet, and at Fahr. 11.794 cubic feet; 24.75 Ibs. and o
gas at 24.5 Ibs. absolute pressure

IO4
therefore,
Ibs.,

Theoretical
at the

and

Practical

the volume of
1

would be

absolute pressure of 24,7 I Ib. of ammonia gas 1. 8186 cubic feet. The effectual

displacement of the compressor was 114,005

cubic feet per 24 hours, so the number of Ibs. of ammonia circulated would be (i 14,005
-:1

1.

8 1 86

=)
561,

latent heat of vaporization

The 9,646 per 24 hours. we have already

therefore

seen

(9,646 X 561 =) 5,411,406 thermal units would be absorbed by the ammonia. But the temperatures of

was

the

ammonia
69

at the

supply and discharge

manifolds
tively

of the

refrigerator

were respecto

and o

Fahr., and, consequently,

itself

as

the

ammonia

had

be

cooled

sixty-nine degrees, the available

number of

thermal units would be reduced to (5,411,^ - (9,646 X 69 X 0.508) =) 5,073,244, or 406

(573. 2 44^~ 284,800=)

24 hours, showing

17.81 tons of ice per that the loss due to the

superheating of the gas only eight degrees in its passage from the refrigerator to the

compressor amounted to (17.81 17.49=) 0.32 ton, or about one-third of a ton of ice
per 24 hours.

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

105

If the liquid anhydrous ammonia piping between the condenser and the refrigerator and the ammonia gas piping between the refrigerator and compressor had been covered

with a thoroughly non-conducting material, the refrigerating efficiency of the plant would

have been

9.

Fahr
cooled from 62
to

\ f

Thermal units. 5,4", 5,411,406

Ammonia
o
0.508)

Fahr. (9,646

62

X
303,810
'

"

Effective

Thermal Units

= 5,107,596

f ice or (5,107,596 -;- 284,800 =) 17.93 tons being an I 7'49=) increase of (17.93 '44 or nearly half a ton of ice per 24 hours.

As
been

fully discussed previously,

the question of condensing water has it is consid-

ered unnecessary to go further into figures in relation to this part of the subject.

106

Theoretical

and

Practical

CHAPTER

XI

CALCULATION OF THE MAXIMUM CAPACITY OF A MACHINE.

the capacity of a machine is proportional to the quantity of anhydrous ammonia
circulated,
it

As

is

evident that

if

the

ammonia

valves are regulated so as to give a brine temperature of o Fahr., the refrigerating

efficiency expressed in tons of ice will not

be

justed

nearly so great as when the valves are adFahr. brine temperature. for a 28 The amount of anhydrous ammonia circulated at the former temperature would only be one-half the weight circulated at the latter temperature.

temperature were above 28 would be incapable of doing practhat is, the temtical refrigerating work be too high to freeze water perature would
If the brine
it

Fahr.

sufficiently

quick

to

be

of

any

practical

value.

Ammonia

Rcfrigcnifiou.
is

107
there-

Twenty-eight degrees Fahrenheit

u!ul in

fore the highest practical brine temperature,

order to maintain that the

Fahr., which
latter

ammonia
tempera-

must
ture

boil at 14
is

obtained by regulating the ammonia valves so that a suction-gauge pressure of

28^

Ibs. is

maintained.

Therefore, in calculating the maximum capacity of a machine we must figure upon the

suction-gauge pressure being 28^ Ibs. and the suction temperature, say, 20 Fahr. at the
point where the gas enters the compressor.

PREPARATION OF ANHYDROUS AMMONIA.

The
principal parts of the apparatus neces-

sary for the production of

nia from 26
(1)

anhydrous ammo:

ammonia

are

An

iron cylinder

(still)

about 2

feet in

diameter by 3 feet deep.

(2) An iron cylinder (column) about inches in diameter by 2 feet high.

10

(3)

A tank

(condenser) about 3 feet in difeet deep.

ameter by 41^

io8
(4)

Theoretical

and

Practical

Two

iron cylinders (separators) about

feet high. iron vessel (dehydrator) about 3*4 feet long by 2 feet broad and 2 feet deep. (5)

10 inches in diameter by

5^

An

CONSTRUCTION OF APPARATUS.
apparatus should be of sufficient strength to withstand a pressure of 60 Ibs.

The

on the square ment is shown

inch.

Its

general arrange-

in section in Fig. 15, in

is

which
heated

is

the

still,

the contents of which

coil, a.
little

by the steam

The ammonia
B,

gas, to-

gether with a

water vapor, pass off

through b into the

column

and coming

in

contact with the plates c, the larger portion of the water separates and flows back into

by the pipe d, while the ammonia gas passes upwards through the holes e, and over to the
After leaving the condenser condenser, C, the gas passes through the two separators D, D (where the water condensed in C separates) into the dryer, E, where, coming in contact with lime placed on the perforated plates ./, it is rid of its last traces of moisture.

Ammonia
It is

Refrigeration.
/ into

109
the

then drawn through the pipe suction of the ammonia engine.

The

plates in

on, the iron rings

are separated by, and rest *. The head of the still

and bottom end-plate of B, together with the connections b and d may be conveniently
t

cast in one piece.

CONDENSER-WORM.

An
may

efficient

worm

for the

condenser, C,

be cheaply and easily made of heavy

lead pipe. It is advisable to place a cock or valve on the connection between B and C, so that

when the spent water is drawn from the still, the gas contained in the rest of the apparatus will not escape. However, it is not absohave a cock or valve at that point, because if the water is carefully run off no gas will escape. After the still, A, has been charged it is
lutely necessary to

slowly heated by the coil, ture of about 2 2 Fahr.

1

a, to

a temperathe gauge,

When

k, registers

25 to 30

Ibs.

pressure the valve

IIO

Theoretical

and

Practical

connecting / with the suction of the compressor (of the ammonia engine) is opened

and the engine run so as to maintain the pressure of 25 to 30 Ibs.

WHY

STILL

is

WORKED UNDER
still

PRESSURE.

The reason
pressure
is

for

running the

under a
still

to enable the contents of the

being heated up to, or slightly above, the normal boiling-point of water without althus driving off lowing the water to boil the whole of the ammonia, while only a

minimum
ized.

quantity of the water

is

vapor-

After the still has been heated for about an hour, a small quantity (about a teaspoonshould be drawn off and tested with ful)
acid litmus paper, and as soon as it ceases to turn the paper blue it may be understood that the contents of the
still

have been ex-

hausted of

ammonia and

that the charge is

"spent."

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

\ 1

BEST TEST FOR AMMONIA.

better
is

method
is

for

telling

when

the
in

charge
test the

spent,

to

have a small cock

the head of the

still, and, opening it slightly, escaping vapors with a piece of turIf the paper is turned brown, meric paper.

the

whole of the ammonia has not been

off,

driven

but

if

it

still

retains

its

yellow

thoroughly exhausted. The spent water is run off from the still by the cock g, and after the still has cooled
color the charge
is

down

it is

ready for re-charging.

WATER FROM SEPARATORS.

Very
little

water accumulates
if

in the

sepastill

the pressure in D, carefully watched, but the cocks

rators D,

the
//,

is

//

should

be cautiously opened (care being taken that no gas escapes) after about the fifth or sixth
distillation,

and

if

any water runs out

it

it

should be saved, as

will

be saturated with
to
in

ammonia

gas,

and therefore ought not

be
the

thrown away, but should be placed drum containing the 26 ammonia.

Theoretical

and

Practical

LIME FOR DEHYDRATOR.

The lime
sionally
in E!

should be examined occa-

by removing the hand-hole plate, F, and if it has slaked to any great extent the cover on E should be removed and the plates f taken out and replenished with newly burnt
lime broken in pieces about the size of a hen's egg. The lime should not be laid more

than one layer deep on each plate. The amount of 26 ammonia that has to be
distilled in

order to obtain a given quantity

of anhydrous ammonia can be determined by the use of Table II.

YIELD OF ANHYDROUS FROM 26 AMMONIA.

Let
to the " Per
it

be supposed that 50 gallons of anit

hydrous ammonia
table

Cent,

by

By referring seen, under the heading Volume," that 26 ammonia

is

are required.

contains 38.5 per cent, of anhydrous ammonia, therefore, as 50 gallons of anhydrous

ammonia

are required

it

will

be necessary

to

Ammonia
distill

Refrigeration.

113

(38.5

50:: 100)

130 gallons of 26

ammonia.
of course, always advisable to try the strength of the 26 ammonia, as it is liable
It
is,

TABLE
SOLUTION.

II.

1 1

Theoretical

and

Practical

when
be

calculating the quantity necessary to distilled to yield a given quantity of ancost of preparing

hydrous ammonia.

anhydrous ammovery small, and the " difference in the price between the home prepared" and the "commercial" anhydrous will very soon pay for the cost of the ap-

The

nia from 26

ammonia

is

paratus. In most

works were freezing plants are in use there are ample large-sized pip ng, small tanks or odd pieces of apparatus lying in disuse which could be easily fitted together on the principle of Fig. 15, and at a total
;

cost

of,

The
monia

say, $150. price of commercial anhydrous amthe price of is 44.88c. per lb., and

commercial 26

ammonia is 6c. per lb. Twenty-six degree ammonia contains 26.6 per cent, by weight of anhydrous ammonia, lb. therefore 3.76 Ibs. of 26 ammonia g ve
;

of anhydrous at a cost (irrespective of labor) of 22.56c.

A mmouia

Refrigeration.

Theoretical

and

Practical

TABLE
PRESSI-RE.

III.

.-/

nunonia Refrigeration.

117

TABLE
PRESSfRH.

III.- Continue.

lit

Theoretical

and

Practical

TABLE
t\

IV.

TEMPERATURE OF SUCTION

FAHR.

Ammonia

Refrigeration.
I

119

TABLE
M

Con tin

-,/.

120

Theoretical

and
IV.

Practical
Continued.

TABLE
fig

A mmouia
TA B L E
60
I

Rcfrigt -ration.

121

V.

Contin utd.

122

Theoretical

and
I

Practical
(
'i

TA B LE

V.

.-////

won i(

Refrigeration.

123

TABLE
15

V .-Continued.
i

POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH Ausoi.r

15 K

I'KI

SSURK.
16 X

16

16 %
Gas.

Volume

in Cubic Feet of

One Pound Weight of

124

Theoretical

and

Practical

TABLE V'.Continued.
jl

Refrigeration.

125

TABLE

V.

Continued.

"H

126

Theoretical

and

Practical

TA B L E
j

V. - ContinueJ.

A in awn

iii

Refrigeration.

\2J

128

Theoretical

ami
V.

Practical
Continued.

TABLE

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

129

TABLE
1,

V.

130

Theoretical

and
V.
I.N'CII

Practical

TABLE
,

SMI-ARK

Ammonia

Refrigeration.

132

Theoretical

and

Practical

A minonia

AV//7 <;v ration.

133

TABLE
g.

VI.

Continued.

u
3

134

Theoretical

and
VI.

Practical
Continual.

TABLE
f:
-

in

Refrigeration.

135

TABLE

VI.

0//////W.

136

Theoretical

and
VI.

Practical
Contin.

TABLE
1

A ininonia
TA B L E V
I
.

137

Eo
f

\>

38

Theoretical

and
VI.

Practical
Continued.

TABLE
ire

per.ni

Fahr.

o
Tern

A:n)>wnia J\fJ narration.

139

INDEX.

ABSOLUTE pressure
,,

.
.

1
!

temperature
ro

'.

3 -6

Air, specific heat of, by Regnault's determinations,

,,

,,
,,

under constant pressure with constant volume

.

,, theory of freezing by Ammonia, action of, on copper, etc.

.

,,

amount

,,

to be charged anhydrous, apparatus for preparing water from ,, >f

.

5
.

11$
ill

,,

cost of preparing
effect

"4

tf

,,

of pressure on specific . heat of

of
. .

-7
107
-

M
,,

,,

preparation yield of
.

"3
79 98

characteristics of

circulated

n
ft

etc. compressor, clearance space, . horizontal ,,

,,

35
31

lubrication

34. 35
.

measurements of gas
stuffing-boxes
. .

79
32

99

140
Ammonia compressor
,,
,, ,, ,,

Index.
PAGE
valves
vertical
.
.

36
31

condenser

42
56, 102, 105
.

condensed, loss due to heating,

cooling directly by difference between
gas, loss
,,
.

,,

65
.

,,
,, ,,

anhydrous and 26

25

due volume
(Table

to superheating . 58, 103, 105 at high of, temperatures

I.)
of,
.
. .

51
.

,,

,,

volume

at

high

-inpcrat
.

,,

plant,
,,
,,

(Tables V. and VI.) arrangement of

122
.

26

,,
,, ,, ,,

charging with ammonia

47, 49, 50
.

working
for

details
. .

t<_^t

.in
.

47
21

theory of freezing by

Boii.iM.-i'oivi of ammonia, tables

Brine
,,

choice of

figures for calculating capacity of plant

freezing-point of
,,
,,

making

..... .....
of,
.
. .

113, 116, 117

.66
.

70

99

.68,69

specific heat of

,, ,,
,,

strength of tank or refrigerator

,,

...
.

-69
44

area of piping in

-45
77
73, 75

temperature, affected by c<nden>ing water, . regulation of.

.

Hriti-h thermal unit

.....
refrigerating plant,

92

imum

cap.

106

Index.
Characteristics of

141
PAGE
. .

ammonia Charging an ammonia plant

.22
47, 49 to 51 66 to 72

Chloride of calcium brine

Chloride of magnesium brine
,,

...
. .
.

66

sodium
air,
.

.66
19 31

Compressed Compressor
,,

theory of freezing by
.

,, ,,
,,

clearance space. effect of well jacketing

effectual

35
.

-95
.

displacement of

indicator diagrams

,, ,, ,,

jacket- water loss in well-jacketed

....
.
.

97 88 to 91

.
.

.80

52

" 80 double-acting of ammonia circulated, measurements 79 ,, Condensed ammonia, loss due to heating, 56, 102, 105 Condenser water 53 effect on brine temperature ,, ,, 77
.

.....
....
. . . .

,, ,, ,,

,,

,, ,,

quantity necessary lessening cost of

56

-54
42

worm
.

Condensing pressure
,, ,, ,, ,,

-59
.

60 cause of variation in excess, determin'g loss of ammonia, 63 Constant pressure, specific heat of air under 7 volume, specific heat of air with ,, 9
use
of, in
.

Construction details of
,,

of anhydrous
paratus

ammonia plant ammonia generating

Cooling directly by ammonia from a high to a low temperature ,,

.

....
. . .
.

30

ap108, 115

65
.

75

. Copper, action of ammonia on Cost of preparing anhydrous ammonia

25
.

114

142
DEHYDRATOR, lime Details of ammonia
for

Index.
PAGE
.

.112
.

plant, construction

30

working
Determining refrigerating
,,

-47
.

efficiency of plant
,,

78

,,

by ammonia

figur

Diagrams, indicator, of compressor . Discharge valve Displacement of compressor, effectual

Distribution of mercury wells. Duration of tests of ammonia plants

.....
.
.

by brine

figures,

99
36 97
81

88 to 91
.

87

EFFECT
,,
,, ,,

of composition on freezing-point of brine, condensing water on brine temperature,

excessive valve-lift

68
77

...
.
.

37
7

,,

pressure on specific heat of ammonia, and temperature on volume of ,,

ammonia gas
,,

51, 122 to 132

,,

and temperature on volume of

,, ,,

. . ga^ strength on freezing-point of brine,

.16

well-jacketed compressors

Effectual displacement of compressors

Efficiency, refrigerating

Equivalent of a ton of ice unit of heat ,, ,,

Examination of working parts H condensing pressure

,,

,,

,,

Expansion

val\<

FORMULA

for calculating

Freezing-point of brine

.... ... .... .... .... ....

cause of variations
in,

volume of gases

143
PAGE

Freezing-point of brine affected by composition

,,

68 69

,,

,,

strength

GAS, ammonia, heated by compression, table of

,,
,,

118
7

specific heat of

volume of tables of volume of ,, ,, loss due to superheating ,, ,, Gases, formulae for calculating volume of
,,
. .

-97
.

51, 122
.

HEAT
,,
,,
,, ,, ,,

terms

......
.

103 16

3
10

latent, of
,,
,,

ammonia, table of
liquefaction
.

116, 117
.

vaporization

u
. .

,,

water

mechanical equivalent of
specific
,, ,,
.

,,
,,

....
.

.12
4

affected

by temperature and pressure,

.

of air
,,

,,

,, ,,

ammonia gas
brine
.

,, ,,

mercury
water

turpentine
,,

.... ....
. .

...
.
.

.7
7

4 6

-73
5 5
5

Horizontal compressor
ICE, equivalent of a ton of Indicator diagrams .
,,
,,

...
. .

31

79

87
.

used in calculating
plant
.

capacity of
.

92 to 95
52, 53

JACKET-WATER
,,

for
,,

compressor
separator

53

44

Joule's law

LATENT
,,
,,

heat

...... .....
. .

Index.

PAGE

4
10

heat of ammonia, table of

,, ,,

.
.

116, 117

liquefaction

vaporization

,,

,,

water
.

Lime
,,

....
.

10
.

I/
1 1 .

Loss due

for dehydrator to heating

,,

condensed ammonia
.

102, 105
103, 105

superheating ammonia gas

M \<- \Ksir M chloride brine Making brine

.
.

...
.

66
71

capacity of plant Measurement of ammonia circulated

.

Maximum

106

-79
.

Mechanical equivalent of a unit of heat

Mercury,
,, ,,

specific heat of

.
.
.

.5
8l 82 to 85

wells, distribution of
,,

how made

OIL
I'\<

for lubrication

....
.

35

KIN,; for stuffing-boxes

-33
.

Piping (or

worm)

for

condenser
. .

.
.

42

for refrigerator

-45
.

Preparation of anhydrous
Pressure, absolute
effect of,
.

ammonia
.

107

cost of
.
.

.114
.

13
6, 7, 16

on

specific heat

Refrigerating efficiency of a plant, to determine

....

43
.

78

98

145
Refrigerating efficiency,
Refrigerator
,,

....
maximum
.
.

.106
44
45 8

. piping, size and area Regnault's determination;, of specific heat Regulation of brine temperature

-73
.

,,

.suction

and discharge
.

valve-lift

37 66 to 71 38 to 40
1

SALT, and brine from

Separator
,,
. .

for

anhydrous ammonia

jacket-water for Specific heat of air ,,

,,
,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

... ... .....

ammonia
brine
.
.

distilling apparatus,

12

53

.... ....
.

4
7 7

73

effect

,,

of temperature and pressure on, of turpentine, mercury, anil water

.

6
5

Still
,,

for

anhydrous ammonia
,, ,,
.

108

Strength of brine
Stuffing-boxes
,,
,,

.....
.

worked under pressure,

.
.

no
32

.69
-33

packing

for

lubrication of

Suction and discharge valve>

Superheating ammonia gas, loss due to

TEMPERATURE,
,,

absolute

... ...
. .
.

-3

34 58

13, 16

Tests, calculation results of 24 hours

96

ammonia Testing an ammonia

for
,,

in
.

,,

plant (preliminaries) ,, (duration of test)

Si to 86
.

Theory of
,,

refrigeration
,,

...

87
18 19

by compressed

air

146
Theory of
refrigeration

Index.
PAGE

by ammonia
.

.
.

Turpentine, specific heat of

UNIT,
,,

British thermal

of heat, mechanical equivalent of

VALVKS, expansion
,, ,,

lift
,,

suction and discharge

Vertical compressor

.... .... ... ....

.

.5
3
.

21

46
7-,

regulation of

37
36
31

Volume of ammonia gas

,,
,,

calculated

by compressor
. .

,,

,,

displacement tables of .

97
16

51, 122
.

gases, formulae for calculating

for

WATER

compressor jacket condenser

,,

....
.

52
53

lessening cost of
quantity
effect of,
. . .

,,
,,

56
53

on brine temperatun
. .

separator

Water from separator of anhydrous ammonia

,,

distil-

ling apparatus . latent heat of

lie

heat of

Working

details of

ammonia

plant

Worm
Vn
i

for

condenser

D of anhydrous ammonia

ZERO, absolute

ABC
OF

THE STEAM ENGINE

With a
description of the

AUTOMATIC GOVERNOR.
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J. P.

LISK, M.E.,
Plates of Details.

And Six Large Folding

LIST OF PLATES.
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Side Elevation of High Speed Horizontal Steam Engine.
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of

II.

ill.

Drawing of Connecting Rod, and Piston High Speed Horizontal Steam Engine.

IV.

Detail of Piston

Valve, Eccentric Strap and Rod, Valve Stem Bracket, and Eccentric of High Speed Horizontal Steam Engine.

V.

VI.

Detail of Cross- Head, Cross- Head Slipper, Cross-Head Pin, Wrist Pin, Crank Pin, Smiting Box, etc., of High Speed Horizontal Steam Engine. Detail of Centrifugal Automatic Governor for High Speed Horizontal Steam Engine.

With

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Price,

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THE

FIREMAN'S GUIDE
A Handbook
BY KARL
on the Care of Boilers
P.

DAHLSTROM,

M.E.

CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS
I.

Firing and

Economy

of Fuel.
fire,

Precautions
fin-,

before and aftrr starting the

care of the

proper

firing, draft,

smoke, progress of

firing, fuel

on

the grate, cleaning out, cleaning grate bars ami a-h pan, dampers, firing into two or more furn;u -.
fuel, loss of heat.
II.

Feed and Water Line.

water
line,
1

Feeding, the v
I,

line, false

defective feeding appa..

formation of scale, ga float, safety plug, alarm whistle.

III.

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gauge, the

Low Water and Foaming

is

or Priming.

unions when water

low, foaming, priming.

IV. Steam Pressure. Steam _ V. Cleaning and Blowing Out.

boiler, to

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state of the boiler,

Cleaning the blowing

prevent acclir.

out, refilling the boiler.

VI. General Directions.

.

low

to

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when not

ih-rs

trimming
Index.

and

cleaning

on:

Summary

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THE CORLISS
BY JOHN
T.

OGIHK

HENTHORN.

AND
MANAGEMENT OF THE CORLISS ENGINE,
BY CHARLES D. THURBER.
Unijorm in One Volume.
C.fath

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Table of Contents.
CHAPTER I. Introductory and Historical; Steam JackCHAPTER II. Indicator Cards. CHAPTER III. Indicator Cards continued; the Governor. CHAPTER IV. Valve Gear and Eccentric; Valve Setting. CHAPTER V.
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Valve Setting continued, with diagrams of same; Table Steam Valve. CHAPTER VI. Valve Setting continued. CHAPTER VII. Lubrication with diagrams Discussion of the Air Pump for same. CHAPIER VIII. and its Management. CHAPTER IX. Care of Main Driving Gears; best Lubricator for same. CHAPTER X. Heating of Mills by Exhaust Steam. CHAPTER XL Engine Foundations; diagrams and templets for same CHAPTER XII Four.daiions continued Materials for sam?*, etc.
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HOW TO RUN
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Synopsis of Contents boiler, removing scale.

i

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THE SLIDE VALVE

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CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS:
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VI. VII.
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LUBRICANTS, OILS * AND * GREASES

Treated Theoretically and diving Practical Information Regarding Their

COMPOSITION, USES AND MANUFACTURE BY ILTYD I. REDWOOD

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION. Lubricants. THEORETICAL. Chapter I. Mineral Oils: American and Russian; Ivdrocarbons. Chapter II. Fatty
1

Vegetable Oils; Fish Oils. Chapter III. Mineral Lubricants: Graphite; Plumbago. Chapter IV. Greases: Compounded; " Set " or Axle " Boiled " or Cup. Chapter V. Tests of Oils: Mineral Oils. Fatty Oils. MANUFACTURE. Chapter VI. Mineral Oil LubriOils: Glycerides;
;

cants:

Compounded

Oils;

Debloomed

Oils.

Chapter VII. Greases: Compounded Greases; "Set" or Axle Greases; Boiled Greases; Engine Greases. Appendix. The Action of Oils on
Various Metals.
Index.
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8vo, cloth, $1.50.

THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL

Ammonia
By ILTYD

Refrigeration
I.

A Work ofKeferencefor olhert Employed in the Reference for Engineers Engitutrt and other Emfi
Machit Management tagement of Ice and Refrigeration Machinery,

KEDWOOD

CONTENTS
B. T. U. Mechanical Equivalent of a Unit of Heat. Specific Heat. Latent Heat. Theory of Refrigeration. Freezing, by Compressed Air. Ammonia. Characteristics of

Ammonia.

The Compressor.

Stutling-

Boxes. Lubrication.

Suction and Discharge Valves.

Separator. Condenser-Worm, Receiver. Refrigerator or Brine Tank. Size of Pipe and Area of Cooling Surface. Charging the Plant with Ammonia. J;

Water, for Compressor, for Separator. Quantitv of Condensing Water Necessary. Loss due to Heating of Condensed Ammonia. Cause of Variation in Excess Pressure. Use of Condensing Pressure in Cooling Dimining Loss of Ammonia by Freezing Point of Brine. Makrectly l>v Ammonia. ing Brine. Specific Heat of Brim-. Regulation of
I
>
1

Brine Temperature.

Indirect Effect

<

Water on Brine Temperature. Directions for Determining Refrigerating Efficiency. Equivalent of a Ton
of Ice. Compt-' isorement of lated. Well-Jacketed

Ammonia CircuCmpn-1

Double- Acting Compressors. Distribution of onrv Wells. Examination of Working Parti t-.r )iagram-. Ammonia Figures Effectual ^-placement. Volume of Gas. Ammonia Circulated per Twenty-Four Hour-. K<-:'ri'j-eratin^ Etficie: Figures Gallons Circulated, Pounds Circulated
1

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PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON

<3as
With Instructions

Engines
for Care

and Working

oi the

Same,

BYQ. L1ECKFELD,

C.E.

Translated with permission of the Author by

WITH A CHAPTER ON

OEOROB RICHMOND, M.B. OIL ENGINES

CONTENTS
Choosing ami installing a gas engine. The construction of good gas engines. Examination as to workmanship, running, economy. Reliability and Proper erection of a durability of gas engines. gas engine. Foundation. Arrangement for gas pipes. Rubber bag. Locking devices. Exhaust pipes. Air Srtting up g;:s engines. Brakes and their pipes. use in ascertaining the power of gas engines. Arrangement of a brake test. Distribution of heat in a gas engine. Attendance on gas engines. General remarks. Gas engine oil. Cylinder lubricators. Rules as to starting and stopping a gas engine. The cleaning of a gas engine. General observations and

The engine refuses specific examination for defects. to work. Non-starting of the engine. Too much Water in the exhaust pot. prr ure on the gas. Irregular running. Difficulty in starting the engine. Loss of power. Weak gas mixtures. Late ignition. Back tiring. Cracks in air inlet. Knocking and pounding inside of engine. Dangers and precautionary measure in handling gas engines. Precautions when opening gas valves, removing piston from cylinder, examining with light openings of gas engines. Dangers in starting, (.'leaning, putting on belts. Oil Engines. Gas engines with producer gas. Gasoline and oil engines. Concluding remarks.

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OIL ENGINES
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Including descriptions of American and English

KEROSENE OIL ENGINES.

By A. H.

GOUHMGHAM,

M.E.

Synopsis of Contents of Chapters :

Introductory, Classification, Vaporizers, Spray2. Design and ing and Ignition Devices, etc. Construction, Cylinders. Cranks, Shafts, Pistons.
i.

Rods, Fly-Wheels. Air and Exhaust Cams. Valves, etc Hearings. Engine Frames, Valve Mechanisms. Gearing, Oil Supply. Different Kinds if Faults and 3. Testing the Engine, Engines, etc. Remedies, etc. 4. Cooling Water Tanks. Exhaust Oil >ilencers, Starters. 5. Engine Driving Dynamo. Various Svstems. 6. Oil Engine Driving Air ComWater etc 7. Full Instructions for pressors. Pump Running Oil Engines. 8 Hints on Repairing Description of the Various English and American

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BY HAROLD COLLET.
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settling vessels, filtration, filters of different kinds, presses.

Drinking water

influence of hardness, sulphate of hard-

ness, magnesia, softening water, soft water, acid waters, lead in water. Testing water analysis, volumet ic tests, burettes for solutions, acid test, testing lime water, soda

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TABLE*.
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FOURTH EDITION
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:

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and proportional
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parts.

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Common

common

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Compound
l>i\i-i<.n,

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.-

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Index.

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By THOMAS
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and Used
and Young
A.I.M.E.

Practical jfandbook for Students

Electricians

EDITED BY PERCIVAL MARSHALL,

I.

II.

III.

Contents of Chapters The Theory of the Accumulator How to make a 4-Volt Pocket Accumulator. How to make a }2-Ampere-Hour Accumulator.
Types of Small Accumulators. How to Charge and Use Accumulators.
Applications of Small Accumulators, Electrical NovUseful Receipts. Glossary of Technical Terms.
Illustrations,

IV.

V.
VI.

elties, etc.

80 pages, 40

12mo,

cloth, 50c.

THE MAGNETO -TELEPHONE

ITS CONSTRUCTION,
Fitting Up and Adaptability to Every-Day Use

BY NORMAN HUGHES
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS
Some
electrical considerations
III.
:

I.

Introductory.

II.

Construction. V. Apparatus.

IV. Lines, Indoor Lines. Signalling Closed Batteries. Open Circuit Batteries. VI. Practical Operations. Circuit with Circuit Batteries. to Test the Magneto Bells and Lightning Arresters.
Line.

Push-Button Magneto
Bells.

Circuit.

How Two Stations

with

Battery Telephone. Battery Telephone Circuit. Three Instruments on one Line. VIII. General remarks. Index. Battery
VII.

80 pages, 23

illustrations,

12mo, cloth, $1.00.

In paper, 5Oc.

NEW

BOOK.

Latest American Practice.

El-ECTRIC

GAS LIGHTING
HOW TO INSTALL
ELECTRIC GAS IGNITING APPARATUS
INCLUDING THE

JUMP SPARK AND MULTIPLE SYSTEMS

FOR use
IN

HOUSES, CHURCHES, THEATRCS, HALLS, SCHOOLS, STORES, OR ANY LARGE BUILDING.

Also the care and Wiring and Repairs.
selection of suitable Batteries,

By H.
i.

S.

NORRIE.
:

(Author of Induction Coils and Coil Making.)

Contents of Chapters
Introduction.

Means

duction.

Induction Coils.

of producing Sparks, In2. Application of Induc-

Gas Lighting. Forms of burners used, pendant, rachct, stem, Welsbach, Automatic, Burners for Gasolene and Acetylene. 3 How to connect up apparatus. Wiring a house. Locating breaks or short circuits. Wiring in finished houses. General remarks. 4. Primary coils and safety devices. 5. How to wire
tion Coils to

and

fit

ngs.

up different systems for lighting of large build6. The selection of suitable batteries for gas

lighting, repairs, maintenance, etc.

VIII

zoz pages, 57 illustrations, diagrams

and

drawings.

I2mo

Cloth, sec.

VEST POCKET SERIES.

ACTUAL
SIZE.

Bound

in roan,

round corners, gilt edges in celluloid case,

50<x

Bound

in roan,

round corners, gilt ed^es,

in celluloid case, tOc.

Copies ntailtd }ost-paid on receipt tffrict.

INDUCTION COILS
AND-

COIL
Construction, Operation and Application.

By H.

S.

NORRIE.
A

Second edition, thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged, and including 25 new illustrations. good deal of the new matter is devoted to Medical Coils,

Bath

Coils,

Breakers,

Batteries,

Gas Engine and Spark X-Ray Work,

CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS.

Coils,

Contact

Electric

Gas

Lighting, and a chapter on Wireless Telegraphy.

Coil construction, full directions, sizes of wires, &c., &c. 2. Construction of different forms of contact breakers. 3. Insulating materials, cements, &c.
i.

4,

Construction of various kinds of condensers.

5.

7. Currents in Experiments. 6. Spectrum analysis 8. Rotating effects vacuo. 9. The application of n. 10. Batteries for coils, coils to gas lighting. Secondary Batteries. 12. Tesla and Hertz effects. 13. X-Rays and radiography. 14. Wireless telegraphy. Contents. Index.

290 pages, 79
*

Illus.
.

5x6X>

in.

I.O

II

S .00
I

AUTHORIZED REVISED EDITION,

1904.

Dynamo=Electric Machinery,
Vol.
I.

Continuous Current Machines.

By

S. P.

THOMPSON,

D.Sc., B.A.

CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS.
Introductory. Historical Notes. Physical Theory of Dynamo-Electric Machines. IV. Magnetic Principles and the Magnetic Pioperties of Iron. V. Forms of Field-Magneto. VI. Magnetic Calculation* as Applied to Dynamo Machines. VI Copper Calculations; Coil windings. VIII. Insulating Materials and their Properties. IX. Actions and Reactions in the Armature. X. Commutation; Conditions of Suppression of Sparking. XI. Elementary Theory of the Dynamo, Magneto, and Separately-Excited Machines. Self-Exciting Machines. XII. Characteristic Curves. XIII. The Theory of Armature Winding. XIV. Armature Construct XV. Mechanical Points in Design and Const motion.
I.

,11.

III.

XVI.

Commutators, Brushes and

Bm.sh-ll<>lders.

ire Drop. XVI 1. -Lo XVI II. The Desi ;n of Continuous-Current Dynamos. XIX. Analysis of Dynamo I) XX. Examples of Modern Dynamo* (Lighting and Traction V XXI. Dynamos for Electro-Metallurgy and Blectro-Plating. XXII. Arc-Lighting Dynamos and Rectifiers.

XXIII.

Sp.

chines, chines,

of Dynamos; Extra High Voltage MaSteam-Turbine Machines, Extra Low Speed M.i-

Exciters,

Maelr

XXIV.
XX\'
(

M,,' ir-General >rs

Double-Current Machines, Th,ir) Machines, Disk Dynamos. and B >sters.

.

-itinuous-Current Motors.
-itrollers

XXVI. -Regulators, R XXVII. Management and

Appendix Gauge.
I.

and

Starters.

&

II.

Testing of DvnaTables of B and S. and Standard Wire

996 pages, 573

Illus.,

4 colored and 32
$7.50.

!din-r plates,

8vo.. cloth.

THe BooK

U Want

THE CARE AND HANDLING OF

ELECTRIC PLANTS.
By

NORMAN

H.

SCHNEIDER.

intended as a practical handbook for electriand all who are interested in the operation of electric plants. The basis of the work were a number of notes and memoranda accumulated by the author during ten years of practical work, which have been revised, enlarged and brought up to date. The chapter on incandescent lamps is especially valuable, as this is a subject very little touched upon in other works.
is

This manual

cians, engineers' assistants

.;:.

nts

of

Chapters:
'2.

1.

rent.

Insulators, Conductors, Series

t-tc
.

Wiring,
Brush'

Dynamos

Fuses, Voltage, The Elcctrs and Multiple Conm and Motors, Var:

Management, Equalizers. Starting boxes. Sparking and Heating

Measuring Instruand how to use them; 4. The Storag< its Testing, Equipments, Fluids, various S and their working, etc.; 5. The Incandes.
-'..I
,

G
Pulleys, etc.;
1

The
I
:

!.'{

M.I :->.
t

il'.'.ixtraU-il

witli

i><>

original

drawings an

useful

Bound

in

limp leather, pocket size.

By

mail

i.oo

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

LIBRARY

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Under

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Pat.

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