Linear Wave Shaping: Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
PULSE AND DIGTAL CIRCUITS LAB 1

1. LINEAR WAVE SHAPING
Aim:
i) To design a low pass RC circuit for the given cutoff frequency and obtain its
frequency response.
ii) To observe the response of the designed low pass RC circuit for the given
square waveform for T<<RC,T=RC and T>>RC.
iii) To design a high pass RC circuit for the given cutoff frequency and obtain
its frequency response.
iv) To observe the response of the designed high pass RC circuit for the given
square waveform for T<<RC,T=RC and T>>RC.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Specifications Quantity
1K 1
Resistors
2.2K,16 K 1
Capacitors 0.01F 1
CRO 20MHz 1
Function generator 1MHz 1

Theory:
The process whereby the form of a non sinusoidal signal is altered by
transmission through a linear network is called linear wave shaping
An ideal low pass circuit is one that allows all the input frequencies below a
frequency called cutoff frequency f
c
and attenuates all those above this
frequency. For practical low pass circuit (Fig.1) cutoff is set to occur at a
frequency where the gain of the circuit falls by 3 dB from its maximum at very
high frequencies the capacitive reactance is very small, so the output is
almost equal to the input and hence the gain is equal to 1. Since circuit
attenuates low frequency signals and allows high frequency signals with little
or no attenuation, it is called a high pass circuit.

Circuit Diagram:
Low Pass RC Circuit :

High Pass RC Circuit :

Procedure:
A) Frequency response characteristics:

1 .Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1 and apply a sinusoidal signal of
amplitude of 2V p-p as input.
2. Vary the frequency of input signal in suitable steps 100 Hz to 1 MHz and note
down the p-p amplitude of output signal.
3. Obtain frequency response characteristics of the circuit by finding gain at each
frequency and plotting gain in dB vs frequency .
4.Find the cutoff frequency f
c
by noting the value of f at 3 dB down from the
maximum gain

B)Response of the circuit for different time constants:

Time constant of the circuit RC= 0.0198 ms
1. Apply a square wave of 2v p-p amplitude as input.
2. Adjust the time period of the waveform so that T>>RC, T=RC,T<<RC and
observe the output in each case.
3. Draw the input and output wave forms for different cases.

Sample readings
Low Pass RC Circuit
Input Voltage: V
i
=2 V
(p-p)

S.No
Frequency
(Hz)
O/P Voltage, V
o
(V)
Gain = 20log(Vo/Vi)
(dB)
1 100 2.0 0
2 200 2.0 0
3 500 2.0 0
4 1k
2.0 0
5 2k
2.0 0
6 3k
1.9 -0.445
7 4k
1.8 -0.915
8 5k
1.75 -1.159
9 6k
1.7 -1.46
10 7k
1.5 -1.498
11 8k
1.4 -3.09

High Pass RC Circuit:
S.No
Frequency
(Hz)
O/P Voltage, V
o
(V)
Gain = 20log(Vo/Vi)
(dB)
1 100Hz 0.2
-20
2 200Hz 0.4
-13.979
3 300Hz 0.6 -10.457
4 500Hz 0.9
-6.935
5 700Hz 1.2
-4.436
6 900Hz 1.4
-3.098
7 1KHz 1.5
-2.538
8 3KHz 1.8
-0.915
9 5KHz 2
0
10 7KHz 2
0
11 9KHz 2
0
12 10KHz 2
0
13 70KHz 2
0
14 100KHz 2
0
15 300KHz 2
0
16 500KHz 2
0
17 700KHz 2
0
18 1MHz 2
0

Model Graphs and Wave forms
Low Pass RC circuit frequency response:

High Pass RC circuit frequency response:

Low Pass RC circuit


High Pass RC Circuit

Precautions:
1. Connections should be made carefully.
2. Verify the circuit connections before giving supply.
3. Take readings without any parallax error.

Result:
RC low pass and high pass circuits are designed, frequency response and response at
different time constants is observed.
Inference:
At low frequencies the capacitor C behaves almost like a open circuit and output is equal
to input voltage. As the frequency increases the reactance of the capacitor increases and
C functions almost like a short circuit and output voltage is equal to zero.

Questions & Answers:
1. Define linear wave shaping?
Ans. The process where by the form of a non-sinusoidal signal is altered by transmission
through a linear network is called linear wave shaping.
2. When does the low pass circuit act as integrator?
Ans. When the time constant of an RC low-pass circuit is very large in comparison with
the time required for the input signal to make an appreciable change, the circuit
acts as an integrator.
3. When does the high pass circuit acts as a differentiator?
Ans. The high-pass RC circuit acts as a differentiator provided the RC constant of the
circuit is very small in comparison with that required for the input signal to make an
appreciable change.


2. NON LINEAR WAVE SHAPPING-CLIPPERS
Aim: To obtain the output and transfer characteristics of various diode clipper circuits.
Apparatus required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Resistors 1K 1
Diode 1N4007 1
CRO 20MHz 1
DC Regulated power
supply
0-30V,1A
1

Theory:
The basic action of a clipper circuit is to remove certain portions of the waveform,
above or below certain levels as per the requirements. Thus the circuits which are used
to clip off unwanted portion of the waveform, without distorting the remaining part of the
waveform are called clipper circuits or Clippers. The half wave rectifier is the best and
simplest type of clipper circuit which clips off the positive/negative portion of the input
signal. The clipper circuits are also called limiters or slicers.

Circuit diagrams:

Positive peak clipper with reference voltage, V=2V

Positive Base Clipper with Reference Voltage, V=2V

Negative Base Clipper with Reference Voltage,V=-2V

Negative peak clipper with reference voltage, V=-2v

Slicer Circuit:

Procedure:
1.Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram shown in Fig.1
Obtain a sine wave of constant amplitude 8 V p-p from function generator and apply as
input to the circuit.
2.Observe the output waveform and note down the amplitude at which clipping
occurs.
3.Draw the observed output waveforms.
4. To obtain the transfer characteristics apply dc voltage at input terminals and vary the
voltage insteps of 1V up to the voltage level more than the reference voltage and note
down the corresponding voltages at the output.
5. Plot the transfer characteristics between output and input voltages.
6. Repeat the steps 1 to 5 for all other circuits.

Sample Readings:
Positive peak clipper: Reference voltage, V=2v

S.No I/p voltage
(v)
O/p voltage
(v)
1 -6 -6
2 -5 -5
3 -4 -4
4 -3 -3
5 -2 -2
6 -1 -1
7 0 0
8 1 1
9 2 2
10 3 2.6
11 4 2.6
12 5 2.6
13 6 2.6

Positive base clipper: Reference voltage V= 2v

S.No I/p voltage(v) O/p voltage(v)
1 -6 1.6
2 -5 1.6
3 -4 1.6
4 -3 1.6
5 -2 1.6
6 -1 1.6
7 0 0
8 1 1.6
9 2 2
10 3 3
11 4 4
12 5 5
13 6 6

Negative base clipper: Reference voltage V=2v

S.No I/P voltage(v) O/Pvoltage(v)
1 -6 -6
2 -5 -5
3 -4 -4
4 -3 -3
5 -2 -1.6
6 -1 -1.6
7 0 -1.6
8 1 -1.6
9 2 -1.6
10 3 -1.6
11 4 -1.6
12 5 -1.6
13 6 -1.6
Negative peak clipper: Reference voltage V= 2v

Slicer Circuit:

S.No I/P voltage(v) O/P voltage(v)
1 -6 -2.6
2 -5 -2.6
3 -4 -2.6
4 -3 -2.6
5 -2 -2
6 -1 -1
7 0 0
8 1 1
9 2 2
10 3 3
11 4 4
12 5 5
13 6 6
S.No I/p voltage(v) O/p voltage(v)
1 -6 -2.6
2 -5 -2.6
3 -4 -2.6
4 -3 -2.6
5 -2 -2
6 -1 -1
7 0 0
8 1 1
9 2 2
10 3 2.6
11 4 2.6
12 5 2.6
13 6 2.6
Theoretical calculations:

Positive peak clipper:

V
r
=2v, V=0.6v
When the diode is forward biased V
o
=V
r
+ V = 2.6v
When the diode is reverse biased the V
o
=V
i

Positive base clipper:
V
r
=2v, V=0.6v
When the diode is forward biased Vo=Vr

V = 1.4v
When the diode is reverse biased V
o
=V
i
.

Negative base clipper:
V
r
=2v, V=0.6v
o
= -V
r
+ V = -1.4v
o
=V
i
.

Negative peak clipper:
V
r
=2v, V=0.6v
o
= -(V
r
+ V) =-2.6v
o
=V
i
.

Slicer:
When the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased V
o
= V
r
+ V
=2.6v
When the diode D2 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased V
o
=-(V
r
+ V)
=-2.6v
When the diodes D1 &D2 are reverse biased V
o
=V
i
.


Model wave forms and Transfer characteristics

Positive peak clipper: Reference voltage V=2v

Positive base clipper: Reference voltage V=2v

Negative base clipper: Reference voltage V=2v

Negative peak clipper: Reference voltage V=2v

Slicer Circuit:

Precautions:
2. Verify the circuit before giving supply.
Result:
Performance of different clipping circuits is observed and their transfer characteristics
are obtained.
Inference:
The clipper circuits clips off the some part of the waveform depend on the applied
reference voltage. Clipping circuits do not require energy storage elements these circuits
can also used as sine to square wave converter at low amplitude signals.
Question & Answers:
1.In the fig.1 if reference voltage is 0v then what will be the output?
Ans. If the reference voltage is 0v,then the whole positive peak is clipped off and only
the negative peak is appeared at the output.
2.What are the other names for the clippers?
Ans. Clippers are also called as amplitude limiters, slicers, voltage limiters.

3.NON LINEAR WAVE SHAPPING-CLAMPERS
Aim: To verify the output of different diode clamping circuits.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Resistors 10K 1
Capacitor 100uF, 100pF 1
Diode 1N4007 1
CRO 20MHz 1

Theory:
The circuits which are used to add a d.c level as per the requirement to the a.c signals
are called clamper circuits. Capacitor, diode, resistor are the three basic elements of a
clamper circuit. The clamper circuits are also called d.c restorer or d.c inserter circuits.
The clampers are classified as
1. Negative clampers
2. Positive clampers

Circuit Diagrams
Positive peak clamping to 0V :

Positive peak clamping to V
r
=2v

Negative peak clamping to V
r
=0v

Negative peak clamping to V
r
= -2v

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. Obtain a constant amplitude sine wave from function generator of 6 Vp-p, frequency of
1KHz and give the signal as input to the circuit.
3. Observe and draw the output waveform and note down the amplitude at which
clamping occurs.
4. Repeat the steps 1 to 3 for all circuits.
Model waveforms:
Positive peak clamping to 0V:

Positive peak clamping to V
r
=2V

Negative peak clamping to 0V

Negative peak clamping to Vr= -2V

Precautions:
2. Verify the circuit before giving supply.
Result:
Different clamping circuits are constructed and their performance is observed.
Inference:
In positive peak clamping, Positive peak of the sinusoidal waveform is clamped
to 0v when reference voltage is 0v, and clamped to 2v when reference voltage is
2v.That is the waveform is shifted to negative side. So we called this clamper as
negative clamper. In negative peak clamping, negative peak of the sinusoidal
waveform is clamped to 0v when reference voltage is 0v, and clamped to -2v when
reference voltage is -2v.That is the waveform is shifted to positive side. So we called
this clamper as positive clamper.

Question & Answers
1. What is a clamper?
Ans. Clamping circuits are circuits, which are used to clamp or fix the extremity of a
periodic wave form to some constant reference level .
2. Give some practical applications of clamper.
Ans. Horizontal section in TV to separate the sync signals, Voltage doubler circuits.
3. What is the purpose of shunt resistance in clamper?
Ans. If the amplitude of the input signal is decreased after the study state condition
has been reached, there is no path for the capacitor to discharge. To permit the
voltage across the capacitor to discharge. It is necessary to shunt a resistor across C, or
equivalently to shunt a resistor across diode..

4. TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
Aim: To obtain characteristics of a transistor as a switch.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Transistor BC 107 1
Diode 0A79 1
10K 2
Resistors
5.6K 2
Capacitor 100pF 1
CRO 20MHz(BW) 1
Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1

Theory:
Transistors are widely used in digital logic circuits and switching applications. In these
applications the voltage levels periodically alternate between a LOW and a HIGH
voltage, such as 0V and +5V. In switching circuits, a transistor is operated at cutoff for
the OFF condition, and in saturation for the ON condition. The active linear region is
passed through abruptly switching from cutoff to saturation or vice versa. In cutoff region,
both the transistor junctions between Emitter and Base and the junction between Base
and Collector are reverse biased and only the reverse current which is very small and
practically neglected, flows in the transistor. In saturation region both junctions are in
forward bias and the values of V
ce
(sat) and V
be
(sat) are small.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1.Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2.Obtain a constant amplitude square wave from function generator of 5V p-p and give
the signal as input to the circuit.
3.Observe the output waveform and note down its voltage amplitude levels.
4.Draw the input and output waveforms

Model graph:

Theoretical caliculations:
When Vi= +2.5v, the transistor goes into saturation region.
So V
O=
V
ce sat=
0.3V.
When V
i
=-2.5v, the transistor is in cutoff region so V
o
=Vcc=5v
Precautions:
2. Verify the circuit before giving supply voltage.
Result:
Switching characteristics of a transistor are observed.

Inference:
When both collector and emitter junctions of a transistor are reversed biased
transistor is in cutoff state and it acts as a open switch. When emitter junction forward
biased but collector junction is reversed biased , the transistor operates in the active
region and it act as an amplifier. When the both the emitter and collector junctions are
forward biased the transistor in saturation and it acts as closed switch.
Question & Answers:
1. What are the limitations of transistor switch?
Ans. Switching speed is low; collector to emitter saturation voltage is higher than the
FET saturation voltage.
2. What is the turn on time of a transistor?
Ans. When the voltage pulse is applied to the transistor, the sum of the time required
for the collector to change from zero to 10 percent of the maximum current (delay
time), and time required to rise from 10 to 90 percent of its saturation value (rise
time) is called turn-on time of a transistor.

5. STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
A Ai i m m: : To construct the basic and universal gates using discrete components and
verify truth table.
Apparatus required:

Name of the
Component/Equipment
Transistor BC 107 1
Diode IN4007 1
4.7K 2
Resistors
100K 1
LED - 1
Bread Board - 1

T Th he eo or r y y:
1. OR-GATE:
OR gate has two or more inputs and a single output and it operates in accordance with
the following definitions.
The output of an OR gate is high if one or more inputs are high. When all the inputs are
low then the output is low.
If two or more inputs are in high state then the diodes connected to these inputs conduct
and all other diodes remain reverse biased so the output will be high and OR function is
satisfied.
2. AND-GATE:
AND gate has two or more inputs and a single output and it operates in accordance with
the following definitions.
The output of an AND gate is high if all inputs are high.
If V
r
is chosen i.e. more positive than V
cd
then all diodes will be conducting upon a
coincidence and the output will be clamped at 1.
If Vr is equal to V
cd
then all diodes are cut-off and output will raise to the voltage V
r
if not
all inputs have same high value then the output of AND gate is equal to V
i
(min0).
3. NOT-GATE:
The NOT gate circuit has a single output and a single input and perform the operation of
negation in accordance with definition, the output of a NOT gate is high if the input is low
and the output is low or zero if the input is high or 1.
4. NOR-GATE:
A negation following on OR is called as NOT-OR gate NOR gate. As shown in figure if
Vo is applied as input signal to the diodes then both diodes are forward biased. Hence
no voltage is applied to emitter base junction and total current is passed through the LED
and it glows which indicates high or one state.
5. NAND-GATE:
The NAND gate can be implemented by placing a transistor NOT gate after the AND
gate circuit with diodes. These gates are called diode-transistor logic gates.
If Vo is applied to input of the diode then the diode D1 and D2 will be forward biased.
Hence no voltage applied across base-emitter junction and this junction goes into cut-off
region. Hence total current from source Vce will flow through LED and it flows which
indicate the one state or high state.

Circuit diagrams:
1. OR GATE

2.AND GATE

3. NOT GATE:


4. NOR GATE:

5. NAND GATE:

Truth tables:
1.AND GATE: 2. OR GATE:

3. NOT GATE: 4. NAND GATE

5. NOR GATE

A B Y=AB
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
A

0 1
1 0
A B

0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
A B

0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per diagram.
2. Apply 5v from RPS for logic 1and 0v for logic 0.
3. Measure the output voltage using digital multimeter and verify the truth table.
4. Repeat the same for all circuits.
Result:
Basic and universal gates are constructed using discrete components and their truth
tables are verified.
Inference:
Even in a large scale digital system, such as computer there are only a few basic
operations which must be performed these operations, to be sure ,may be repeated
very many times. The four circuits most commonly employed in such systems are
known as the OR ,AND,NOT and FLIP FLOP.
Question & Answers :
1. What are the universal gates? Why they are called universal gates?
Ans NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates, because using these two gates
we can realize all other logic gates.
2. What is the other name of the EX-NOR gate?
Ans. Equalence Gate

6. STUDY OF FLIP FLOPS
Aim: To verify truth tables of D and T flip-flops.
Apparatus required:

Name of the
Component/Equipment
IC 7476 - 1
IC 7404 - 1
Digital Trainer - 1

Theory:
Flip-flop is a digital circuit which is having a combinational circuit and a memory unit .so
the output of flip flop is depends upon the previous state of the outputs. This flip-flop
consists two outputs one is complemented of the other. These flip-flops are having very
much applications in digital circuitry.
Circuit diagrams:
D-Flip Flop:

D-Flip Flop Truth Table:
Input Previous state Present state
D Q
1

Q
1

0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
T -Flip Flop:

T-Flip Flop Truth Table:
Input Previous State Present State
T
Q
1

Q
1

0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1

Procedure:
D-Flip Flop
1. Place the required ICs on the bread board.

2. Connect V
cc
(Power Supply) and Ground to the corresponding pin
numbers of IC as shown in Appendix.

3. Connect the NOT gate 1& 2 terminals to 4 & 16 terminals of 7476 IC.
4. Apply input voltages 0 volts for logic 0 , 5 volts for logic 1.
5. Verify the truth table of D Flip Flop .
T-Flip Flop
1. Place the required ICs on the bread board.
2. Connect V
cc
(Power Supply) and Ground to the corresponding pin
numbers of IC as shown in Appendix.
3. Short the 4 & 16 terminals of 7476 IC.
4. Apply input voltages 0 volts for logic 0 , 5 volts for logic 1.
5. Verify the truth table of T Flip Flop

Result:
The operations and truth tables of D and T flip flops are observed.

Inference:
The most important property of the Flip Flop is that, on the account of the
interconnection ,the circuit may persist indefinitely in the state either Q1 is logic 1 or
logic 0 .Since the Flip Flop has two stable states it may be used to store one bit of
information.
Question &Answers:
1. What is the draw back of the JK-Flip Flop?
Ans. Race around condition is occurred.
2. What are the applications of D and T flip Flops?
Ans. Registers, counters, Memories, ROM


7. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Aim: To Observe the ON & OFF states of Transistor in an Astable Multivibrator.

Apparatus required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Transistor (BC 107) BC 107 2
3.9K 2
Resistors
100K 2
Capacitor 0.01F 2

Theory :.
An Astable Multivibrator has two quasi stable states and it keeps on switching
between these two states by itself . No external triggering signal is needed . The
astable multivibrator cannot remain indefinitely in any one of the two states .The
two amplifier stages of an astable multivibrator are regenerative across coupled by
capacitors. The astable multivibrator may be to generate a square wave of
period,1.38RC.

Circuit Diagram

Procedure :
1. Calculate the theoratical frequency of oscillations of the circuit.
2.Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
3 Observe the voltage wave forms at both collectors of two transistors
simultaneously.
4. Observe the voltage wave forms at each base simultaneously with
corresponding collector voltage.
5. Note down the values of wave forms carefully.
6. Compare the theoratical and practical values.

Calculations:
Theoritical Values :
RC= R
1
C
1
+ R
2
C
2
Time Period, T = 1.368RC
= 1.368x100x10
3
x0.01x10
-6
= 93 sec
= 0.093 m sec
Frequency, f = 1/T = 10.75kHz

Model waveforms :

Precautions :
2. Readings should be noted without parallax error.

Result :
The wave forms of astable multivibrator has been verified.

Inference :
The astable circuit has two states, both of which are quasi stable states.

1.Define stable state ?
Ans Stable state of a binary is one in which the voltages and currents satisfy the
kirchhoffs laws and are consistent with the device cheracteristics and in which,in
addition, the condition of the loop gain being less than unity is satisfied.
2.Define quasi stable state ?
Ans It is temporary state , after predefined time circuit comes to steady state.

8. BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Aim: To Observe the stable states voltages of Bistable Multivibrator.

Apparatus required:

Name of the
Component/Equipment
Transistor BC 107 2
2.2K 2
Resistors
12K 2

Theory:
The circuit diagram of a fixed bias bistable multivibrator using transistors. The output of
each amplifier is direct coupled to the input of the other amplifier. In one of the stable
states transistor Q
1
and Q
2
is off and in the other stable state. Q
1
is off and Q
2
is on even
though the circuit is symmetrical; it is not possible for the circuit to remain in a stable
state with both the transistors conducting simultaneously and caring equal currents. The
reason is that if we assume that both the transistors are biased equally and are carrying
equal currents i
1
and i
2
suppose there is a minute fluctuation in the current i
1
-let us say it
increases by a small amount .Then the voltage at the collector of q
1
decreases. This will
result in a decrease in voltage at the base of q
2
. So q
2
conducts less and i
2
decreases
and hence the potential at the collector of q
2
increases. This results in an increase in the
base potential of q1.So q
1
conducts still more and i
1
is further increased and the potential
at the collector of q
1
is further decreased, and so on . So the current i
1
keeps on
increasing and the current i
2
keeps on decreasing till q
1
goes in to saturation and q
2
goes
in to cut-off. This action takes place because of the regenerative feed back incorporated
into the circuit and will occur only if the loop gain is greater than one.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Verify the stable state by measuring the voltages at two collectors by using
multimeter.
3. Note down the corresponding base voltages of the same state (say state-1).
4. To change the state, apply negative voltage (say-2v) to the base of on
transistor or positive voltage to the base of transistor (through proper
current limiting resistance).
5. Verify the state by measuring voltages at collector and also note down
voltages at each base.

Observations :
Sample Readings
Before Triggering
Q
1
(OFF) Q
1
(ON)
V
BE1
=0.03V V
BE2
=0.65V
V
CE1
=5.6V V
CE2
=0.03V
After Triggering
Q
1
(ON) Q
1
(OFF)
V
BE1
=0.65V V
BE2
=0.01V
V
CE1
=0.03V V
CE2
=5.6V
Precautions:
2. Note down the parameters carefully.
3. The supply voltage levels should not exceed the maximum rating of the transistor.

Inference:
The bistable circuit can exist in definitely in either of two stable states and which can be
induced to make an abrupt transsion from one state to other by means of external
excitation. So it can be used as memory element which can store one bit of data.

Result: The stable state voltages of a bistable multivibrator are observed.


1. What do you mean by a bistable circuit?
Ans. A bistable circuit is one which can exist indefinitely in either of two stable states and
which can be induced to make an abrupt transition from one state to the other by means
of external excitation.
2. What are the other names of a bistable multivibrator?
Ans. Ecless Jordan circuit, Trigger circuit, Scale-of-2, Toggle circuit, Flip flop, Binary.
3. What do you mean by triggering signal?
Ans. The triggering signal is employed to induce a transition from one state to other is
either a pulse of short duration of step voltage.


9. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Aim: To observe the stable state and quasi stable state voltages in monostable
multivibrator.

Apparatus Required:

Name of the
Component/Equipment
Transistor (BC 107)
2
1.5K 1
2.2K 2
68K 1
Resistors
1K 1
Capacitor 1F 2
Diode 0A79 1
CRO 20MHz 1
Regulated Power
Supply
0-30V, 1A
1

Theory:
A monostable multivibrator on the other hand compared to astable, bistable has only one
stable state, the other state being quasi stable state. Normally the multivibrator is in
stable state and when an externally triggering pulse is applied, it switches from the stable
to the quasi stable state. It remains in the quasi stable state for a short duration, but
automatically reverse switches back to its origional stable state without any triggering
pulse.The monostable multivibrator is also referred as one shot or uni vibrator since
only one triggering signal is required to reverse the original stable state. The duration of
quasi stable state is termed as delay time (or) pulse width (or) gate time.It is denoted
as t.

C
CCi
ii r
rr c
ccu
uui
ii t
tt D
DDi
ii a
aag
ggr
rr a
aam
mm:
::

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Verify the stable states of Q
1
and Q
2

3. Apply the square wave of 2v p-p , 1KHz signal to the trigger circuit.
4 Observe the wave forms at base of each transistor simultaneously.
5. Observe the wave forms at collectors of each transistors simultaneously.
6.. Note down the parameters carefully.
7 Note down the time period and compare it with theoretical values.
8. Plot wave forms of V
b1
, V
b2
,V
c1
& V
c2
with respect to time .

Model waveforms:

Calculations:

Theoretical Values:

Time Period, T = 0.693RC
= 0.693x68x10
3
x0.01x10
-6

= 47 sec
= 0.047 m sec
Frequency, f = 1/T = 21 kHz

Precautions:
2. Note down the parameters without parallax error.
3. The supply voltage levels should not exceed the maximum rating of the transistor.

Inference:
The output of the monostable multivibrator while it remains in the quasi stable state is a
pulse of duration t
1
whose value depends up on the circuit components. Hence
monostable multivibrator is called as a pulse generator.

Result:
Stable state and quasi stable state voltages in monostable multivibrator are observed
.
Question & Answers:
1. What are the other names of Mono Stable multivibrator ?
Ans.Uni vibrator, Gating circuit, Delay circuit, One shot.
2. Which type of triggering is used in mono stable multi vibrator ?
Ans. Unsymetrical Triggering is used in mono stable multi vibrator
3. Define transition time?
Ans. The time interval during which conduction transfers from one transistor to another
is called transition time.

10. SAMPLING GATES

Aim: To observe the output of a bidirectional sampling gate for given input of a sine
wave with a gating signal of square wave.

Apparatus Required:

Name of the
Component/Equipment
Transistor (BC 107) - 1
220K 1
Resistors
5.6 1
CRO 20MHz 1

Theory:
Sampling gate is a transmission network which transmits input wave form in a particular
interval of time only, and for remaining time output is zero. There are two types of
sampling gates. 1. Unidirectional sampling gates 2. Bidirectional sampling gates.
Unidirectional sampling gates are those which transmit signals of only one polarity.
Bidirectional sampling gates are those which transmit signals of both polarities When
gating signal is at its lower level transistor is well cutoff and output is Vcc. When gating
signal is at its higher level transistor goes into active region so input signal is sampled
and appears at output.

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Generate a control voltage Vc of 4V peak to peak voltage 1KHz and apply it to the
circuit.
3. Apply the input signal with a small peak to peak voltage.
4 Observe the output wave forms and Vc simultaneously and note down the
parameters of waveforms.
5.Plot the graph between V
s,
V
c
and output waveform with respect to time

Model wave forms:

Precautions:
1. Connections must be done carefully.
2. Observe the output waveforms with out parallax error

Result:
The performance of the sampling gate is observed.

Inference:
Sampling gates, also called linear gates transmission gates or selection circuits are
transmission circuits in which the output is an exact reproduction of the input during a
selected time interval and is zero otherwise. The time interval for transmission is
selected by an extremely impressed signal which is called the gating signal and usually
rectangular in wave shape.

Question & Answers:
1. What are the other names of sampling gates?
Ans. Linear gate ,tranmision gate.
2. What do you meant by pedestal?
Ans. Pedastal is the base voltage in the output on which the input siganal is
superimposed.
3. What are the applications of sampling gates?
Ans. Multiplexers, Sample &Hold circuit, digital to analog converter.

11.SCHMITT TRIGGER

Aim: To Generate a square wave from a given sine wave using Schmitt Trigger

Apparatus Required:

Theory:
Schmitt trigger is a bistable circuit and the existence of only two stable states results
form the fact that positive feedback is incorporated into the circuit and from the further
fact that the loop gain of the circuit is greater than unity. There are several ways to
adjust the loop gain. One way of adjusting the loop gain is by varying Rc1. Under
quiescent conditions Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON because it gets the required base drive
from Vcc through Rc1 and R1. So the output voltage is Vo=Vcc-Ic2Rc2 is at its lower
level. Untill then the output remains at its lower level.

Name of the
Component/Equipment
Values/Specifications Quantity
Transistor BC 107 2
100 1

6.8K 1
3.9K 1
2.7K 1
Resistors
2.2K 1
Capacitor 0.01F 1
CRO 20MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply 30V 1
Circuit diagram :

Procedure:
1 Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2 Apply a sine wave of peak to peak amplitude 10V, 1 KHz frequency wave as input to
the circuit.
3 Observe input and output waveforms simultaneously in channel 1 and channel 2 of
CRO.
4 Note down the input voltage levels at which output changes the voltage level.
5 Draw the graph between votage versus time of input and output signals.

Model Graph:

Precautions:
2. Readings should be noted carefully without any parallax error.

Result: Schmitt trigger is constructed and observed its performance.

Inference:
Schmitt trigger circuit is a emitter coupled bistable circuit, and existence of only
two stable states results from the fact that positive feedback is incorporated into the
circuit, and from the further fact that the loop gain of the circuit is greater than unity.
Question & Answers:
1. What is the other name of the Schmitt trigger?
Ans Emitter coupled Binary
2. What are the applications of the Schmitt trigger?
Ans Amplitude Comparator, Squaring circuit
3. Define the terms UTP & LTP?
Ans. UTP is defined as the input voltage at which Q1 starts conducting, LTP is
defined as the input voltage at which Q2 resumes conduction.
12. UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR

Aim: To obtain the characteristics of UJT Relaxation Oscillator.

Apparatus Required:

Name of the
Component/Equipment
UJT 2N 2646 1
220 1
68K 1 Resistors
120 1
0.1F 1
0.01F 1 Capacitor
0.001F 1
Diode 0A79 1
Inductor 130mH 1
CRO 20MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V),1A 1

Theory:
Many devices such as transistor,UJT, FET can be used as a switch. Here UJT is used as
a switch to obtain the sweep voltage. Capacitor C charges through the resistor,R
towards supply Voltage,V
bb
. As long as the capacitor voltage is less than peak
Voltage,V
p
, the emitter appears as an open circuit.
V
p
=V
bb
+ V
where, = stand off ratio of UJT,

V
= Cut in voltage of diode.

When the voltage V
o
exceeds voltage V
p
, the UJT fires. The Capacitor starts discharging
through R
1
+ R
b1
. Where, R
b1
is the internal base resistance. This process is repeated
until the power supply is available.

Circuit diagram:

Design equations:
Theoretical Calculations:
V
p
= V
+(R
1
/ R
1
R
2
)V
bb
=0.7+(120/120+220)10
=8.57V
1. When C=0.1F
T
c
=RC ln(V
bb
- V
v
/ V
bb
- V
p
)
=(68K) (0.1F) (12/12-8.57)
= 3.6ms
T
d
=R
1
C=(120)( 0.1)=12 sec.

2. When C=0.01F
T
c
=RC ln(V
bb
- V
v
/ V
bb
- V
p
)
=(68K) (0.01F) (12/12-8.5)
= 365s
T
d
=R
1
C=(120)( 0.01)=1.2 sec.
3. When C=0.001F
T
c
=RC ln(V
bb
- V
v
/ V
bb
- V
p
)
=(68K) (0.001F) (12/12-8.5)
= 36.5s
T
d
=R
1
C=(120)( 0.01)=0.12 sec

S.NO
Capacitance value
(F)
Theoretical time
period
Practical time
period
1 0.1 3.65 ms 3.6 ms
2 0.01 0.365 ms 0.32 ms
3 0.001 36.58s 40s

Procedure:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in figA.
2) Observe the voltage waveform across the capacitor,C.
3) Change the time constant by changing the capacitor values to 0.1F and 0.001 F
and observe the wave forms.
4) Note down the parameters, amplitude,charging and discharging periods of the wave
forms
5)Compare the theoretical and practical time periods.
6)Plot the graph between voltage across capacitor with respect to time

Model graph:

Precautions:
1.Connections should be given carefully.
2. Readings should be noted without parallox error.

Result:
Performance and construction of UJT Relaxation Oscillator is observed.

Inference:
Two separate power supplies one for active component and the other for linear network
must be used inorder to increase the linearity of the waveform.

1.What do you mean by a) voltage time base generator, b) a current time base
Generator.
Ans: Voltage time base generator:The electronic circuit which generates an output
voltagethat varies linearly with time.
Current time base generator:The electronic circuit which generates output current that
varies linearly with time.
2.What are the applications of time base generator?
Ans:CROs,Radar,television,time modulation,precise time measurements
3.What are the methods of generating a time base waveform?
Ans:Exponential charging,Constant current charging,Miller circuit,Bootstrap
circuit,compensating circuits.

13. BOOT STRAP SWEEP CIRCUIT
Aim: To observe the characteristics of a boot strap sweep circuit.

Apparatus Required:

Name of the
Component/Equipment
Transistor BC 107 2
220 1
1K 1
470 1
Resistors
10 1
100F 2
1F 1 Capacitor
0.001F 1
Diode 2N2222 1
CRO 20MHz 1
Regulated Power
Supply
(0-30V),1A
1

Theory:
Boot strap sweep generator is a technique used to generate a sweep with relatively less
slope error when compared to the exponential sweep. This is achieved by maintaining a
constant current through a resistor,by maintaing a constant voltage across it
In the circuit shown Q1 acts as a switch which should be opened to initiate the
sweep.Voltage across resistor is maintained constant (Vce) hence a constant current
(Vcc/r) will charge the capacitor C.Transistor Q2 will act as an amplifier with high input
impedance and voltage gain 1 (emitter follower) .Hence the same sweep which is
generated across C will also appear at the output.

Circuit diagram:

Design equations:
T
S
(max)=RC
Assume C and find R for given maximum sweep
Select R
b
to provide enough bias for switching transistor Q1
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Apply the square wave input to the circuit (which is generated in the module itself).
3. Observe the output wave form.
4. By varying the input frequency observe the variations in the output.
5. Note the maximum value of sweep and starting voltage.
6. Note the sweep time Ts.

Wave forms:

Result :
The characteristics of Boot strap sweep circuit are observed.

Inference:
The linearity of the voltage time base increases as gate width decreases.

1 .What are the other methods of sweep generator?
Ans:Exponential charging,Constant current charging, Miller sweep circuit, Comensating
networks,Inductor circuits
2. Compare bootstrap and miller sweep generator?
Ans:a)The Bootstrap circuit employes positive feedback where as Miller sweep
employes negative feedback
b) The Bootstrap circuit employes an emitter follower with unity voltage gain where
as Miller sweep employes an amplifier with very large voltage gain.

14. ATTENUATORS
Aim: To design an attenuator circuit and observe different types of compensations
for different values of capacitors.

Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Resistor 1k 2
Capacitor 0.1F, 0.01F, 1F 2
CRO 20MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply

(0-30)V,1A

1

Theory:
Attenuators are resistive networks, which are used to reduce the amplitude of the
input signal. The simple resistor combination if Fig.1 in the circuit diagram would
multiply the input signal by the ratio
2 1
2
R R
R
+
= independently of the frequency. If the
output of the attenuator is feeding a stage of amplification , the input capacitance C2
of the amplifier will be the stray capacitance shunting the resistor R2 of the attenuator
and the attenuator will be as shown in Figure. And the attenuation now is not
independent of frequency.

Circuit Diagram:

Simple Attenuator

Fig1
Compensated Attenuator:

Fig.2
Design Equations:
Thoeritical Calculations:
a)Perfect Compensation:
V
o
(0
+
)=V
i
C1/C1+C2
=5(0.1/0.1+0.1)
=2.5V
V
o
()=V
i
R1/R1+R2
=5(1/1+1)
=2.5V

b)Over Compensation:
V
o
(0
+
)=V
i
C1/C1+C2
=5(1/1+0.1)
=4.54V
V
o
()=V
i
R1/R1+R2
=5(1/1+1)
=2.5V
c)Under Compensation:
V
o
(0
+
)=V
i
C1/C1+C2
=5(0.01/0.01+0.1)
=0.45V
V
o
()=V
i
R1/R1+R2
=5(1/1+1)
=2.5V

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in figA.
2. Apply input voltage V
p-p
from the function generator to the circuit.
3. Observe the output wave form and note down the parameters
4. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in figB.
5. Apply input voltage V
p-p
from the function generator to the circuit.
6. Keep the value of C
1
= 0.1F constant.
7. Now keep the value of C
1
at 0.1F for perfect compensation, at 1F for over
compensation and at 0.01F for under compensation.
8. Observe the output waveforms for each case and note down the values of
V
o
( ) and V
o
(o
+
).
9. Compare the theoretical and practical values of each case.
10. Draw the graphs for perfect, over and under compensation network.

Model Graphs:
Perfect Compensation

Over Compensation


Under Compensation

Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. Observations should be done carefully.
Result:
The Attenuator circuit is designed and the different compensated attenuators are
observed.
Inference :
The Attenuator circuit is considered to be a purely resistive circuit.But in practice it is
not so.A distributed capacitance C2 shunting resistor R2 is also considered.The
effect of C2 distorts the wave shape of the input signal.

1.What is the purpose of C1
Ans:C1 is used to compensate the variations in the input voltage due to C2.

2.What is the condition for perfect compensation
Ans:R1C1=R2C2.

APPENDIX

Name of The Component

Specifications/Pin Diagrams
Transistor
(BC 107)

* operating point temp-65
o
to 200
o

* I
C
(max)= 0.2 Amp
* h
fe
(min) = 40
* h
fe
(max) = 450

I
c
2.0A(Pulsed)
V
ce
30V
P
DISS
300mW@T
C=
25C
T
STG
-65C to +150C
T
J -65C to +125C
Uni Junction Transistor
(2N2646)
JC

33C/W

Diodes

Type No 1N4001 1N4007
Max. Peak Inverse Volts 50 1000
Max RMS Supply Volts 35 700
Maximum Forward Voltage
@ 1Ampere, DC @ 75
0
C
1.1 Volts,Peak
Maximum Reverse DC Current
@PIV @ 25
0
C
10A
Maximum Dynamic Reverse Current
@PIV @75
0
C
30A,Average


IC 7476

IC 7404

REFERENCES:

1.Pulase and digital circuits- J.Milliman and H.Taub,McGraw-Hill
2.Solid State Pulse circuits-David A.Bell,PHI
3.Pulse and Digital Circuits-A.Anand Kumar,PHI
4.www.analog.com
5.www.datasheetarchive.com
6.www.ti.com

Linear Wave Shaping: Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

PULSE AND DIGTAL CIRCUITS LAB 1

where, = stand off ratio of UJT,

= Cut in voltage of diode.

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