When English Language Learners Write

Connecting Research to Practice, K8

Katharine Davies Samway

HEINEMANN Portsmouth, NH

Heinemann A division of Reed Elsevier Inc. 361 Hanover Street Portsmouth, NH 038013912 www.heinemann.com Offices and agents throughout the world 2006 by Katharine Davies Samway All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer, who may quote brief passages in a review. The author and publisher wish to thank those who have generously given permission to reprint borrowed material: Figures 1.1 and 1.2: from Hayes, John R. (2000). A New Framework for Understanding Cognition and Affect in Writing. In Perspectives on Writing: Research, Theory, and Practice, Roselmina Indrisano & James R. Squire, Editors. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Chapter 1, 644. Reprinted with permission. Figures 2.2 and 2.3: from Language Stories & Literacy Lessons by J. Harste, V. Woodward, and C. Burke. Copyright 1984. Published by Heinemann, a division of Reed Elsevier, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Figures 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8: from Hoyt, L. (1993). How Do They Learn to Read and Write? Literacy Instruction in a Refugee Camp. In K. Davies Samway & D. McKeon (Eds.), Common Threads of Practice: Teaching English to Children Around the World. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, pp. 7276. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Figures 2.11 and 2.12: from Taylor, D. M. Writing and Reading Literature in a Second Language. In Workshop 2: Beyond the Basal, edited by Nancie Atwell. Copyright 1990 by Heinemann. Published by Heinemann, a division of Reed Elsevier, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Figure 2.13: from Heald-Taylor, G. (1986). Writing Development of One ESL Student. In Whole Language Strategies for ESL Students, ed. G. Heald-Taylor. Toronto, Canada: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, pp. 5055. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Figures 3.1 and 3.2: from Serna, I., and Hudelson, S. Emergent Spanish Literacy in a Whole Language Bilingual Classroom. In At-Risk Students: Portraits, Policies, Programs and Practices, ed. by R. Donmoyer and R. Kos. Copyright 1993. Published by State University of New York Press. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Figures 4.1 and 4.2: from Turn up the Volume and Sing Along with Pedro by Mary Jane Nations. Copyright 1990 by Mary Jane Nations. Reprinted by permission of the author. Figure 7.1: from McCarthey, S. J., Garca, G. E., Lpez-Velsquez, A. M., Lin, S., and Guo, Y.-H. (2004). Understanding Writing Contexts for English Language Learners. In Research in the Teaching of English, 38 (4), 351394. Copyright 2004 by the National Council of Teachers of English. Reprinted with permission. Figure 7.6: from Smith, K., Espinosa, C., Aragon, E., Osorio, R., and Ulloa, N. (2004). Reconceptualizing Writing Workshop in a Dual Language Program. Reprinted by permission.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Samway, Katharine Davies. When English language learners write : connecting research to practice, K8 / Katharine Davies Samway. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0325006334 (alk. paper) 1. English languageStudy and teaching (Elementary)Foreign speakers. 2. English language Study and teaching (Middle school)Foreign speakers. 3. English languageStudy and teachingResearch. 4. English languageComposition and exercisesResearch. 5. Children LanguageResearch. I. Title. PE1128.A2S26 2006 808'.04280712 dc22 2005030150

Editor: Lois Bridges Production coordinator: Elizabeth Valway Production service: Denise A. Botelho Cover design: Lisa Fowler About the cover: Cover photograph of Jon David V., a fourth grader at Runn Elementary School in Donna, Texas Cover photograph: Julie Farias Composition: Argosy Publishing Manufacturing: Louise Richardson Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 09 08 07 06 RRD 1 2 3 4 5

Contents

Acknowledgments Introduction Chapter 1: A Brief History of Writing Research Writing Research: A Focus on the Product Beginning to Focus on the Cognitive Processes Involved When Writing Writing Research: Focus on the Writer/Writing Processes A Social-Behavioral View of the Writing Process A Sociocognitive Model of Writing The Intersection of Writing, Sociocultural Factors, and Politics Writing Research: What Now? Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing Chapter 2: Core Research About the Writing of Children Who Are ELLs What Does the Term Writing Refer To? Young Childrens Awareness of Functions of Print Oral Language/Writing Connections English Language Learners Can Write Before Orally Mastering the English Language ELL Children Can Express Complex Thoughts and Emotions in Less Than Fluent English ELL Childrens Writing Is Developmental and Isnt Necessarily Linear Knowledge of Writing Conventions May Be Transferred from the L1 to English Being Taught to Write in the Native Language Is an Asset ELLs Can Write in Both the Native and Nonnative Languages Without Being Confused Similarities and Differences in Childrens Writing in English and Other Languages ELL Children Evaluating Writing Prior Literacy Experiences May Affect How ELLs Respond to New Literacy Experiences Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing

v vii 1 1 3 4 14 15 17 18 20 21 22 22 26 28 30 38 46 47 48 50 52 54 58

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Contents

Chapter 3: Sketches of English Language Learners Becoming Writers Cecilia and Diana: Writing Development of Bilingual Kindergarten and First Graders Alexis: A Struggling Second Grade Writer Roberto and Janice: Different Responses to Invitations to Write Authentically What Do These Sketches Tell Us About ELL Writers? Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing Chapter 4: Gender, Race, Ethnicity, Social Class, and Writing The Influence of Gender on Childrens Writing The Influence of Ethnicity and Race on Writing Social Class, Socioeconomic Status, and Writing Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing Chapter 5: Reading/Writing Connections Focusing on the Craft of Writing Neednt Destroy the Reading Experience Ways in Which Reading and Writing Are Connected The Influence of Reading on Writing Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing Chapter 6: Reflective Writing Incorporating Reflective Writing in the Classroom The Role of Reflective Writing in Language and Literacy Development Journals as a Record of Experiences Reflective Writing Supporting ELLs Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing Chapter 7: The Influence of the Environment on Childrens Writing One ESOL Teacher Who Established a Workshop Approach to Literacy Learning Influence of School and Community Writing Experiences on Children Influence of School Experiences on the Writing of ELLs: An International Perspective Influence of School Experiences on the Writing of ELLs in the United States Influence of the Environment on Children Writing Bilingually What Do ELLs Need to Become Successful Writers? What Type of Writing Program Is Best for ELLs? Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing Revisiting the Survey References Childrens and Young Adult Literature Index

61 61 66 74 77 77 79 81 84 94 100 101 102 103 109 122 125 125 138 138 139 148 150 151 152 155 157 163 167 169 177 178 180 191 192

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Acknowledgments

I have had the extreme good fortune over the past two decades to have had stimulating conversations about teaching writing with many classroom and ESOL (English to Speakers of Other Language) teachers throughout the country. I value the many visits I have made to their classrooms, often for extended periods of time. Especially big thank yous go to Laura Alvarez, Susan Atencio, Angie Barra, Laurel Cress, Yolanda Dandridge, Audrey Fong, Joan Hagan, Michael Hagan, Jen Klem, Denise Leograndis, Kathy Maloney, Jennifer Jones-Martinez, Kathy Morgan, Mary Pippitt, Sonny Kim, Rachel Rothman, Barbara Schmidt, Choji Schroeder, Lydia Stack, Dorothy Taylor, Pam Webber, Gail Whang, Bernadette Whitman, Beverly Wilkin, and Siu-Mui Woo. They welcomed me into their classrooms, where I learned a great deal from observing them at work, from working with their students, and from the many rich conversations we have had. Other teachers have been very generous in bringing samples of their students writing (and, sometimes, their own writing) for us to talk about, including Teresa Brandes, Sonia Davis, Leila Karzian-Banos, Maya Goetz, Heather Juhl, and Mingming Zhang. I value those occasions, also. My interest in the writing processes of English language learners was fostered many years ago by two fine researchers and friends, Sarah Hudelson and Carole Urza. With their example to guide me and their long-distance support to sustain me, I first embarked on research into the writing processes of English language learners (ELLs). Theirs has been a long-standing gift that I continue to treasure. I knew that writing a book like this would involve an incredible amount of library and Internet searching. I couldnt have completed the book without the very able assistance of Melinda Nettles, who located and tracked down references with good humor, patience, and ingenuity. I have also appreciated her emails inquiring about the book long after she had ended her stint as a research assistant. Those notes of encouragement did just that, and were a true gift. I am also very grateful to Lorene Sisson and Sue Kendall, librarians at my university, who were very helpful in navigating various research search tools and in locating research articles. An editor can make a huge difference to a writer, and I feel very lucky to have been working with Lois Bridges all these months. She has a gift for coming into the foreground at just the right time and with just the right advice. I am also indebted to

Acknowledgments

Karen York for her invaluable assistance in getting permissions to reproduce some of the figures in the book. In addition, I am grateful for the considerable expertise that Denise Botelho, Amy Rowe, and Elizabeth Valway brought to turning my manuscript into this book. Lucinda (Cindy) Pease-Alvarez is a wonderful friend and colleague, whom I met when I moved from western New York State to Oakland, California. We have worked together now for almost twenty years, years that I value beyond description. With regard to this book, I am particularly grateful for her careful, thoughtful and informed reading of draft chapters, and for steering me to some invaluable research and resources. Her friendship and the many stimulating conversations we have had over the years about literacy, language, English language learners, mandates, policies, and teaching continue to sustain me. Tom Samway has been a constant support. He, more than anyone, knows how important this book is to me and how long I have been planning and working on it, and he has supported me from long before I ever wrote a word. If I hadnt heeded his queries about my progress, I may never have completed the bookas many people know, it can be easier to locate and read articles and books than it is to write, even when one finds writing satisfying.

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Introduction

When educators refer to English language learners (ELLs) and writing, it is not uncommon to hear deficit views and myths, including the following: They cant write. They have writing problems. They are reluctant writers. They need to be taught the skills of writing before being asked to write independently.

It is true that the writing of anyone who is new to a language is likely to be different from that of native speakers. Also, the nonnative writer may find it more daunting to write in the nonnative language than the native language. However, with time and stimulating, purposeful writing experiences, ELLs can become effective writers, as much of the research reported on later in the book illustrates. We are fortunate to have many excellent professional books that address the teaching of writing to K8 children (e.g., Anderson 2000; Atwell 1998; Avery 1993, 2002; Calkins 1986, 1994; Fletcher 1996a, 1996b; Harvey 1998; Heard 1989; Portalupi and Fletcher 2001; Ray 1999, 2001) and, although they focus on Englishspeaking children, many of us who teach ELLs have found them to be very useful and inspiring. In contrast with these books, my book is an attempt to fill a gap, to explore writing research on ELLs, and to make connections from this body of research to the practice of teaching writing to ELLs. I hope that this book supports the many educators (preservice and practicing teachers, administrators, teacher educators, and others) who would like ELL students to have a positive experience with writing, while becoming more skilled, effective writers. I hope my book will contribute to helping ensure that all learners, particularly ELL students, have positive, stimulating, and satisfying school-based experiences with writing.

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Introduction

An Overview of the Rest of the Book

We have at our disposal considerable research by university-based researchers as well as classroom teachers that has yielded tremendous knowledge about writing and writing processes. In the remaining chapters, the following topics will be explored: A historical overview of writing research, including a move from looking at only the product (the writing itself), to investigating learners writing processes and the intersection of sociocultural factors and writing (Chapter 1). Core research about the writing of ELLs, including young childrens awareness of print, oral language/writing connections, what ELLs can do as writers before they become fluent in English, and the role of the native language in their writing development (Chapter 2). An in-depth look at the writing development of five ELLs that illustrates key understandings about the writing and writing processes of ELLs (Chapter 3). Ways in which gender, race, ethnicity, and social class intersect with writing, including how literacy practices in nonmainstream cultures may be overlooked and misunderstood by teachers from the dominant culture (Chapter 4). How reading and writing are interconnected processes, how what children read influences their writing, and ways of fostering reading/writing connections (Chapter 5). Reflective writing (e.g., logs and dialogue journals), including how reflective writing supports ELLs and ways of incorporating it into the classroom (Chapter 6). How the environment in which ELLs are placed affects their writing, including the impact of adult expectations, the influence of school-based writing experiences, the role of a bilingual environment, and current developments in writing pedagogy (Chapter 7).

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6
Reflective Writing

Dear people, Im not a number Im a person.

Clara, First Grade Writer

How can a snake hold a cupcake on his head. Thats silly.

Phuong, First Grade Writer

A few years ago, while I was sitting in a hospital room outside of Newcastle, England, where my mother was dying from bronco-pneumonia, I discovered a writing function that I had never considered. In the quiet of the night, when I sat by her bedside and was not holding her hand, I wrote. Not to solve problems, not to make lists, not to write articles, chapters, stories, or poetry, but to soothe myself. I knew that she was dying, though none of the medical personnel actually said that (they simply said she was very poorly), and I found it very soothing to write about the moment, and my increasingly vivid memories of Mum from when I was just a child to earlier in the year when I had made another visit under more positive circumstances. It was soothing to write in my spiral-bound notebook as I listened to Mums increasingly shallow breathing. Sometimes I sat quietly with my sister and niece, sometimes I was alone with my mother. When on my own, I felt an urge to talk to Mum, to let her know how much I loved and appreciated her, but decided that it was likely more calming for her if I were quiet. So when I was not holding her hand, I wrote.

Incorporating Reflective Writing in the Classroom

Written reflection is the opportunity to use writing to think about, clarify, explain, and internalize information, experiences, insights, beliefs, and learning processes. It is an important path on the road to knowledge. As written reflection can be enormously helpful to the academic and affective development of students, it is important that children have opportunities to engage in this kind of writing. This is particularly true

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for ELLs, as reflective writing is typically first draft writing and the presence of written mistakes is very normal, but isnt the focus of attention or instruction; instead, the content of the message is paramount. Reflective writing can also provide teachers with insights into a multitude of important issues, including students understanding of content (e.g., when they explain magnetism or long division in science and math logs, respectively), their opinions about class activities and class dynamics (e.g., when responding to a questionnaire about the effectiveness of peer conferences in writing workshop), life experiences (e.g., in open-ended journals) and their learning processes (e.g., when writing a letter to readers in which they describe their writing goals, struggles, and accomplishments in the process of writing a published collection of poems, or an essay, nonfiction picture book, or memoir).

Different Forms of Written Reflection

Written reflection comes in many forms and serves many purposes. See Figure 61 for an overview of different types of written reflection, and the purposes and features of each one. Written reflection can provide students with opportunities to clarify thinking, identify and solve problems, prepare for learning experiences, record knowledge and learning processes, share knowledge, foster interpersonal communication, and build community. Also, this type of writing can provide teachers with important assessment data. A discussion of some of the most frequently occurring forms of reflective writing follows. Logs and Journals One of the best-known forms is the individual log or journal, in which students reflect on their learning and learning processes, comment on their reactions to events and experiences, and ask questions. For example, students in Angie Barras newcomer ESOL class responded in writing to books. In Figure 62, one of her middle school students succinctly and incisively responded to a humorous Shel Silverstein poem, Memorizin Mo, about a person who memorized the dictionary, but wasnt very successful at finding a job or a partner. Sometimes, teachers introduce reflective writing as a means to address interpersonal conflicts. For example, when students in one of my sons sixth grade classes had arguments, the teacher would ask the students involved to independently write about what had occurred. The students then exchanged entries, read them, and responded to them in writing. Often, the act of writing clarified the genesis of the conflict and enabled students to resolve their differences with minimal intervention from the teacher. In a similar way, second grade teacher, Heather Juhl, introduced her students to a complaint book, in which individual class members wrote their names, the situations that were bothering them, and who was involved. Juhl then checked it each day to see if she needed to intervene (see Figure 63 for sample entries).

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Types of Written Reflection

Logs and Journals

Purpose
Provide important assessment data on an individual learner and/or an entire class (What do learners know/understand? What are learners confused about? What do I need to go over again/teach?) Provide learners with opportunities to clarify their thinking Provide learners with a record of their learning and learning processes

Features
Learners report and reflect on issues that they are studying, are interested in, or are dealing with (e.g., the outcome of a science experiment, family language patterns, interpersonal conflicts) and/or Learners focus on their learning processes (e.g., how they selected their independent reading books, which books influenced their published pieces of writing, how they figured out the answer to a math problem) Learners and/or the teacher may choose the subject and topic. If selected by the teacher, topics should be selected carefully, and written in an open-ended manner (e.g., Describe the steps you went through to research your history inquiry study versus Did your research plan work?) May be used on an ongoing basis or at the end of a unit of study Two or more people correspond in the journal (e.g., student-teacher, student-student) Content may be entirely open-ended or focused on a particular topic (e.g., What learners are learning in a given subject/class or what is being studied on a particular day) Staggering the handing in of journals can make the response to them more manageable for teachers Teacher responses should follow the lead of learners (e.g., in content), be substantive (versus interesting entry), and model content vocabulary and use of language

Dialogue Journals

Foster teacher/learner communication Provide learners with individualized mentoring Provide learners with an opportunity to reflect on their experiences, knowledge, and learning Provide teachers with assessment data

Figure 61. Types of Written Reflection (continues)

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Questionnaires and Interviews

Assess students knowledge of content, learning processes, and/or attitudes to a learning event (e.g., reactions to a speaker, feedback on the structure of a writing workshop)

Field Notes

Book Reviews

Idea Bookmarks

Support students in reporting and reflecting on issues that they are studying (e.g., the behavior of animals or language use in the community) Provide students with opportunities to reflect upon books, synthesize their responses to books, and make book recommendations to other readers (i.e., an authentic response to literature) Help learner prepare for book discussions

May be completed at the beginning and end of a unit of study in order to note changes over time Generally focused on content, processes, and attitudes/motivation Questionnaires require that learners can write Questionnaires may be followed up with a class or group discussion and/ or a brief individualized interview Content may be entirely open-ended or focused on a particular subject (e.g., a reading log) Learners report and reflect on events that they are studying (e.g., the behavior of an animal, family language patterns, the literacy development of a younger learner) Similar to the notes that ethnographers and anthropologists keep In order to distinguish between book reports and book reviews, learners need to be immersed in the book review genre Learners write concise, substantive reviews, which are then published so other learners can have access to them (e.g., in a class newsletter, on a bulletin board, via the Internet) On strips of paper divided up into boxes for comments, learners write words, quotes, questions, short comments or predictions that strike them as important, such as the following example

Figure 61 (continued). Types of Written Reflection

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Idea Bookmark Name: Angelina Title: The Great Gilly H Date: 10/7 I bet the next person would find a sticky surprise Pg. 3 Right here you can tell that Gilly is a different child Pg. 4 Gilly put her left hand on the door knob and the right hand on her hip . . . I think she was telling is Mrs. Trotter to bit it Pg. 8

Double-Entry Journal

Provide learners with opportunities to: Connect with a text and its content Clarify understanding Assess their learning over time Provide teachers with insights into learners thinking about and understanding of a topic being studied

Letters

Provide learners with authentic opportunities to reflect upon their experiences and learning and/or identify and solve problems

Learners keep a two-column journal/ log in a notebook In the left column, learners write words, phrases and longer quotes from the text that strike them as important, intriguing and/or confusing. In the right column, learners write thoughts about the responses to the entries in the left column Teacher can suggest a minimum number of entries (e.g., one per page of text or every two paragraphs with shorter texts). However, its important to keep it from becoming too prescriptive, and to focus on the importance of quality (i.e., thoughtful) entries Learners write to authors and/or experts about compelling issues or Learners write to others (e.g., peers) about problems they have identified and wish to solve or Learners write letters to readers of their pieces of writing, describing their writing goals and accomplishments

Figure 61 (continued). Types of Written Reflection

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Figure 62. Literature Journals: A Response to Memorizin Mo

Dialogue Journals When journals involve a written response, for example, from either another student or a teacher, they become dialogue journals. Dialogue journals can be open-ended (i.e., including any topics that students select, including personal experiences) or can be geared to a particular area of the curriculum, such as math or reading. Teacher-Student Dialogue Journals Sometimes, when teachers respond to their students dialogue journal entries, their comments are very cursory (e.g., Interesting, or Nice entry). However, in order to develop a true correspondence and mentor learners, we need to invest ourselves and make substantive and personally meaningful comments, as Chinese English bilingual teacher, Siu-Mui Woo, did when responding to Phuong, one of her first grade students. Phuong had reflected upon a book that her teacher had read to the class, Oh, A-Hunting We Will Go (Langstaff 1974), and her entry consisted of a question about the plausibility of the snake being able to put a cupcake on its head, as well as an evaluative statement (see Figure 64). Woo responded by acknowledging the childs insights and then offered an inference about the authors intention (It is silly but funny. I think the author intends to make this a silly book so people can laugh.).

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Kevin: Charles dont listen to Mr. Z.

Xavier: Billy not let me be his friend.

Figure 63. Reflective Writing: Complaint Book Entries

How can a snake hold

a cupcake on his head Thats silly.

Figure 64. Dialogue Journal Entry: Snake and Cupcake Entry

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When I visited this class, I also responded to some of the childrens dialogue journals, and it was clear to me that they were accustomed to having substantive written, book-based conversations with their teacher. For example, as Figure 65 shows, May wrote about the play, Rumpelstiltskin, which she had seen with her class and had enjoyed; however, she was critical of one aspect of the play, the baby not being real. I was intrigued by Mays comment and wondered how she knew the baby was a doll, and so I asked her about this in my written response. I moved over to read another childs journal entry, and after a few minutes, May sought me out to share her journal response, in which she explained that the lack of any movement had alerted her to the fact that the baby wasnt real. This type of reflective writing allowed all of the children to share their responses to literature with their teacher, something that would have been difficult to accomplish if left to the oral mode only. It also provided the teacher with insights into the childrens engagement with books, as well as their language development and cognitive processes. Student to Student Dialogue Journals Although teacher-student dialogue journals are most common, student to student journals can also be very effective. For example, fifth/sixth grade teacher, Gail Whang, introduced her immigrant students in a year-round school to corresponding with peers about books, which they did on the

I like and love the part where they marry and I love the baby but the baby is fake is not the real one.

Because I saw his hand cant move and his eyes is not move.

Figure 65. Dialogue Journal Entry: Rumpelstiltskin

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computer. In the following series of entries written just before a four-week break, Billy and Nan discuss the books they have read, make text-to-self connections, comment on the experience of corresponding across genders, and commiserate over a shared family experience, being made to help out at home (which they referred to as being used by their parents):
DEAR NAN: MANIAC MAGEE IS A VERY GOOD BOOK. I KNOW YOUR READING IT SO YOU MUST KNOW SOME THING ABOUT IT. I LIKED IT BECAUSE IT REMINDED ME ALOT OF THINGS LIKE WHEN MAGEES AUNT AND UNCLE WAS ARGUEING. THATS WHAT MY AUNT UNCLE WAS DOING TO BECAUSE OF MY LITTLE BROTHER. ANY WAY DID YOU LIKE IT? IF YOU DID CAN YOU TELL ME WHAT YOU LIKE ABOUT THE BOOK TOO? IT AMAZED ME WHAN MAGEE RAN AWAY FROM HIS AUNT AND UNCLE BECAUSE I WAS GOING TO RUN AWAY FROM HOME TOO! WELL I HAVE NOTHING ELSE TO SAY SO HOPE YOUR RESPONSE TO ME QUICKLY?!..... SINCERELY BILLY DEAR BILLY, THANKS FOR YOUR LETTER. I DID LIKE THE BOOK ALOT. IT MADE ME THINK OF THE TIMES I WANTED TO RUN AWAY FROM HOME. I THOUGHT IT WAS GROSS HOW MANIAC ATE WHAT THE ANIMAL ATE. HOW DID YOU FEEL ABOUT MANIAC? HAVE YOU EVER FELT YOU HAD TO RUN AWAY, BUT WAS SCARED? I DID. IT WAS WHEN I WAS STILL 9 OR 10 YEARS OLD. MY MOM KEPT ON USING ME. I WANTED TO GO OUT AND PLAY AND SHE STILL WOULD USE ME. I DIDNT LIKE IT ONE BIT. THATS ALL I HAVE TO WRITE FOR NOW. THANKS, NAN DEAR NAN, THANKS FOR WRITING BACK SO QUICKLY! I THOUGHT MANIAC MAGEE WAS DUMP (DUMB) TO RUN AWAY FROM HOME, BUT IT WAS RIGHT DOUGH (THOUGH). THERE WAS ONE TIME I WAS GOING TO RUN AWAY FROM HOM BECAUSE MY PRARENTS WAS USEING ME TOO! I WONDER WHAT BOOK YOUR READING NEXT. I WANT TO KNOW BECAUSE I MIGHT GET THE SAME BOOK AS YOU. AND IT WILL BE BORING IF WE RESPOND BACK TOGETHER IN THE SAME BOOK LIKE WE DID ON MANIAC MAGEE. AT FRIST I THOUGHT IT WILL BE DESAISTER BEING PARTNERS WITH YOU. BUT IT IS VERY FUN NOW THAT WE ARE

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RESPONDING TO EACH OTHER A FEW TIMES. I KIND OF LIKE WORKING WITH YOU. SINCERELY BILLY DEAR BILLY, I KNOW WHAT YOU MEAN. I THOUGHT THAT WRITING TO A BOY WOULD BE A TOTAL DISASTER. BUT I GUESS WE WERE BOTH WRONG. BUT I GUESS I STILL FEEL UNCOMFORTABLE WRITING AND RESPODING TO A BOY. WHEN I FIRST HEARD OF THE IDEA, I THOUGHT MRS. WHANG WAS GOING TO LET THE BOYS WRITE TO BOYS. RIGHT NOW I AM READING FREEDOM TRAIN. IT IS GOOD SO FAR.

Questionnaires and Interviews Teachers with whom I have worked often find questionnaires to be very helpful in assessing students learning and knowledge about, for example, writing. At the end of the school year, fourth grade teacher, Sonny Kim, used a variation of a questionnaire when he asked his students to evaluate their writing, select the two pieces of writing that they thought were best, and explain their thinking. He asked his students to respond to the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Why did you select this piece? What do you see as the strengths in this piece? If you could work on this further, what would you do? What have you learned to do as a writer? What should next years teacher know about you as a writer?

Students began going through their folders, glancing at their stapled drafts and final copies. After a while, I moved around the classroom, checking in with individual students, asking them why they had selected these particular pieces. The most common reasons students gave for selecting pieces were grounded in the effort they put into the writing, themes interesting them, and/or topics being personally meaningful. For example, Felicity selected a poem she had written, My Dream 2000, because she wanted everyone to know I cared about the world. Everyone should have peace. Way back, whites and blacks didnt like each other. Cameron selected her biography about the San Francisco Bay Area Indians, the Miwoks, because of the effort involved. She said, I had to do a lot of work (research). I did my best effort. I really worked hard on it. I took some time out from DEAR time to write it. These written reflections allowed the children to process a years worth of writing and evaluate its relative worth; it also provided Kim with valuable insights into his students writing processes. Questionnaires can also provide important insights into students reactions to particular aspects of school. For example, Whang and I discovered through a ques-

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tionnaire that asked questions such as, What did you like best about literature study circles? and What did you like least about literature study circles? that her fifth/ sixth grade students did not like having to write regularly in reading journals, and they overwhelmingly advised us to drop the daily literature journal. (When we had time to respond, they liked the journals and were engaged, but when there was no response, they saw it as busy work, and were much less happy.) As a consequence of this feedback, Whang altered the expectationsthe students prepared for the discussions with idea bookmarks, and instead of writing regularly in the reading journals, they wrote a single entry for each book finished, so that they would have a record of their reading. Interviews can supplement questionnaires in valuable ways. For example, after children have written responses to questionnaire prompts, I read them and, if I am confused or have additional questions, I briefly interview students to clarify their messages and gain additional information and insights into their thinking. Idea Bookmarks Idea bookmarks serve a similar purpose to double-entry journals, which are most frequently found in secondary English classes, in that they invite succinct responses to literature. Whangs students used Idea Bookmarks extensively in preparation for literature study circles (Samway and Whang 1996); in fact, one student, Angelina, designed double-entry bookmarks as she found this tool to be particularly helpful to her (see Figure 66). On these bookmarks, students commented on parts of the book that had resonated with them, expressed opinions, identified terms that confused them, raised questions, made predictions, and made text-to-self, text-to-text, and text-to-world connections. Some students referred often to their bookmarks in the literature study circle discussions, as if to jog their memories, whereas other students, including Angelina, rarely read them when discussing the book. It was as if the writing had prepared her for the discussions and she no longer needed them as a visual prompt. Letters In schools, children are frequently taught how to write letters, but it often resembles an exercise, rather than an authentic opportunity to communicate ones thoughts and feelings to others. In Jennifer Jones-Martinezs bilingual primary classroom one semester, most of the students had been very unhappy about the high-stakes, standardized reading test that they had just taken. After the class had expressed their concerns, Jones-Martinez suggested that they write to the test designers, which some of the children did, including Clara (see Figure 67). In her letter, Claras voice is palpable as she berates the test designers (pepol/people) for how the test doesnt tell them much about her or what she has been learning in school. Through letters, these students had an opportunity to reflect on their test-taking experiences and convey to the test designers their reservations about a system that they essentially considered an invalid

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Figure 66. Reflective Writing: Angelinas Idea Bookmarks

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Dear people, Im not a number Im a person. If you invite me I do not care because youll know me and my friends work together. Ill show you my book. Ill show you my butterfly. Ill show you my friends. Ill show you my bees. Ill show you my best best things.

Figure 67. Claras Letter to Test Designer

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measure of their knowledge (e.g., Clara knew about bees and butterflies, which the class had been studying) and interpersonal skills (she was able to work collaboratively with her peers and make friends). Regrettably, the test designers did not respond to the letters that the children wrote.

The Role of Reflective Writing in Language and Literacy Development

Reflective writing can serve many purposes, including affective, pragmatic, intellectual, and academic. It is known to improve writing fluency, stimulate cognitive growth, reinforce learning, and foster problem-solving skills. In the 1980s and 1990s, reflective writing became increasingly popular with teachers as they heard about the power of journaling on learners, and how it can support learning about language and literacy processes, about concepts in a particular subject, about oneself and others, and about the world at large (e.g., Atwell 1985, 1987; DArcy 1987; Hall and Robinson 1994; Kooy and Wells 1996; Parsons 1994; Peyton and Reed 1990; Samway and Taylor 1993a, 1993b; Staton 1980, 1985, 1987; Taylor 1990; Wollman-Bonilla 1989, 1991). Toby Fulwilers 1987 edited volume, The Journal Book, captures the broad scope and potential of journals, dialogue journals, learning logs, and other forms of reflective writing across the grades, for primary-aged children to adults, and across a wide range of content areas, from literacy and literature to history, music, mathematics, physics, sociology, geography, and the arts. Although journaling is typically found in mainstream K 12 and university classrooms, teachers have also used journals to build relationships with parents (e.g., Finnegan 1997), to enhance the learning of students with special needs (e.g., Staton 1985), and in university teacher preparation programs (e.g., Gannon 2001).

Journals as a Record of Experiences

Journals can provide a record of experiences, which the writer and others have access to later when reflecting upon an experience. For example, when Marjorie Faulstich Orellana, Jennifer Reynolds, Lisa Dorner, and Mara Meza (2003) investigated the interpreting work that Spanish/English bilingual children did for their immigrant families, journals generated important data. In the journals, the children recorded their experiences as the interpreters or language brokers of written texts for their families. The children translated a range of genres, including letters, forms, advertisements, labels, news, and reference materials; sometimes the texts that the children translated were very convoluted and full of bureaucratic language, and the children and their family members co-constructed the texts meanings. Through the journals that the children wrote in, the researchers gained insights into the collaborative nature of the translating that the children did and how they felt about it (e.g., although they sometimes found the task tedious, they felt a great

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sense of accomplishment that they could help family members). The researchers comment that, when translating, the children had and were viewed by others as having considerable expertise, not an experience they typically encountered in school.

Reflective Writing Supporting ELLs

Reflective writing has been found to be very beneficial to ELLs, both those living in countries where English is not the dominant language and those living in Englishspeaking countries.

Reading Response Journals in an English as a Foreign Language Setting

Emma Rous (1993) used reading response journals when she worked with thirteenand fourteen-year-old English as a foreign language (EFL) students one summer in Estonia. She took suitcases of paperback novels and picture books and, after giving a brief book talk on each book, invited students to select books to read for about an hour at home each day; the students also wrote journal entries on what they had read. Rous found that the students who responded best were those who had been able to personally connect with the content of the books. Sometimes, this was because the books addressed topics about which they were relatively unfamiliar, such as Hiroshima. Other students identified with the plight of oppressed people, such as Native Americans. Still other students connected with a book that reminded them of a personal experience. For example, Kaidi had longed for a puppy and read Where the Red Fern Grows (Rawls 1974). She loved the book, and wrote: Billy is infected with puppy love . . . I like this book because I have had also such disease. When I read this book, I live with Billy and remember my stories, when I was ten years old. Through the books and the reading response journals, these EFL students were able to develop their fluency in English.

Role of the Teacher in Dialogue Journals with ELLs

In a study investigating the role of the interactive strategies employed by a sixth grade teacher, Mrs. Reed, on the participation of her ELL students in dialogue journals, Joy Kreeft Peyton and Mulugetta Seyoum (1989) found that the teacher assumed a supportive and co-participant role in her interactions. For example, she was more likely to respond to topics initiated by the students, rather than initiating her own. Also, rather than responding with cheerleading types of comments (e.g., interesting entry) or with questions intended to elicit more writing, the teacher contributed substantive, on-target information and opinions. Also, the teachers questions were authentic and grounded in the students comments, as the following excerpt from an interaction with Claudia illustrates (320, 322).

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