Chap 8

V. Chan, MS, RD

Introduction
Minerals
Essential, noncaloric, inorganic 2 classifications
Major: (macrominerals) required in the diet in larger amounts (>5 g or >100 mg) Trace: (microminerals) required in the diet in smaller amounts (<5 g or <100 mg)

Water
Most indispensable nutrient Makes up about 60% of an adults body weight
Body composition of tissue vary
Tissue type Gender Age

Water: Roles
Excellent solvent & involved in chemical reactions
Dissolves a variety of substances

Transport substances Water soluble substances Maintain healthy blood volume Body temperature
Sweating Skin, major organ for water loss

Lubrication & cushion

Water Balance
Total amount of fluid in the body is kept in balance by body mechanisms Dehydration
From thirst to weakness Exhaustion & delirium Death

Water Intoxication
Dilution of bodys fluid Symptoms include headache, muscular weakness, loss of appetite, loss of concentration

Water gain Water Loss

Water Balance
Thirst mechanism (hypothalamus)
Increased concentration of salt and other dissolved substances in the blood A reduction in blood volume and blood pressure, such as during profuse sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, low fluid intake Dryness in mouth and throat

ADH signals the kidneys to retain water

Water Balance
Body gains fluids
Beverage consumption Foods with very high water content Metabolic water is a product of chemical reactions in the body (10-14%)

Water Balance
Body fluid losses Urination
Kidneys control how much water is reabsorbed Excess water is processed by the kidneys and excreted as urine. Insensible water is lost through the skin (sweat) or through the lungs during exhalation Significant loss: exercise, illnesses, injury, surgery, high altitude, diuretics

How Much Water Do I Need?

No specific recommendation Several factors come into play
Altitude -Temperature/ Humidity Activity Level -Health State Fiber intake

DRI (moderate environment & normal diet)

Men: 13 cups of fluid/ day Women: 9 cups of fluid/ day Provides about 80% of the bodys daily needs

Body Fluids & Minerals

Intracelluar Fluid
Within the cell 2/3 of body fluid

Extracellular Fluid
Outside the cell 1/3 of body fluid Interstitial fluid flows between cells Intravascular fluid is the water in the blood and lymph Plasma transports blood cells within arteries, veins, and capillaries

Body Fluids & Minerals

Electrolytes: compounds that dissociate in water to form ions (electrically charged particles)
Positive charge: sodium, potassium Negative charge: chloride, phosphorus

Predominant electrolytes
Extracellular fluid: sodium, chloride Intracellular fluid: potassium, phosphorus

Fluid & Electrolyte Balance

Electrolytes help regulate fluid balance
Water follows the movement of electrolytes, moving by osmosis to areas where the concentration of electrolytes is high. This allows for the controlled movement of fluids into and out of cells

Acid- Base Balance

Important to maintain proper acidity in the body H adds to acidity, lowering pH (<7) OH adds to bases, increasing pH (>7) Buffers: electrolytes/ minerals Kidneys & Lung help with pH balance
Carbon dioxide can turn into carbonic acid

The Major Minerals

Need: >100 milligrams or >5 grams/ day
Calcium Chloride Magnesium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Sulfate

Calcium
Most abundant mineral in the body Important role for body function/movement 99% stored in bones & teeth
Provides frame & holds body upright Serves as a calcium bank

Calcium in Bone & Tooth Formation

Calcium & phosphorus
Calcium phosphate salt crystallize to form the dense and hard material (hydroxyapatite)
Florapatite displaces hydroxal ions with fluoride Resist bone dismantling forces

Teeth formed very similarly

Hydroxyapatite crystals help create dentin to give strength to teeth

Calcium in Body Fluids

1% remaining calcium circulated in the blood Roles
Nerve & muscle function
Vascular contraction and Vasodilation Critical to maintain coordinated heartbeat

Help blood to clot Help maintain normal blood pressure Activates cellular enzymes

Blood calcium is tightly controlled

Does not fluctuate with changes in dietary intakes Uses bone tissue as a reservoir to maintain constant concentrations of calcium in blood, muscle & intercellular fluids
Intestine increase absorption of calcium from the intestine Bones release more calcium into the blood Kidneys prevent loss in the urine

Bone Loss
Bones continuously undergo remodeling
Constant reabsorbing & depositing of calcium into new bone (balance)

Some bone loss is apart of life as we age

Around age 30, the body no longer adds significantly to bone density
Between 12- 30, we reach our peak bone mass

After 40, bones begin to lose density (regardless of the calcium intake, but can slow down process)

Postmenopausal women are at risk for osteoporosis

Due to lack of estrogen production Men at risk, due to lack of androgen production

Other risk factors can increase risk for osteoporosis

Calcium Absorption
Adults absorb about 30% calcium ingested
Pregnant women absorb 50% calcium from milk Children & teens absorb 50- 60% calcium

Vitamin D

Calcium: How Much?

Adults
19 to 50: 1,000 mg/ day >51: 1,200 mg/ day UL: 2,500 mg/ day

Excessive calcium is wasted through excretion

Calcium Supplements
2 types
Carbonate
Most commonly available Absorbed most efficiently due to stomach acid Best taken with food Contains 40% of calcium

Citrate
Can be absorbed equally well with or without food Contains 20% of calcium

2 types: carbonate & citrate

Calcium carbonate most common

Adverse effects with high intake

Kidney stones, hyperparathyroidism

Calcium Food Sources

Dairy products Sardines with bones Salmon with bones Tofu Turnip greens Kale Broccoli Bok choy Fortified products

Phosphorus
2nd most abundant mineral in the body About 85% in the body is found combined with calcium in bones & teeth
Also in cells & tissue

Roles
Phosphorus salts are critical buffers Part of DNA & RNA, therefore essential for growth Assist in energy metabolism
ATP, energy currency of cells

Form parts of phospholipids Structure in some proteins

(Ex) casein in milk

Phosphorus Deficiencies/ Toxicities

Deficiency
Muscular weakness Bone pain Phytic acid

Toxicity
Can occur with kidney disease Can occur with too many vitamin D supplements Causes muscle spasms, convulsions

Phosphorus: How Much?

Adults: 700 mg/ day UL: Adults (19- 70) 4,000 mg/ day Food Sources
Liver Dairy products Sunflower seeds Salmon Chicken breast Navy beans

Magnesium
4th most abundant mineral in the body
More than 50% of total body magnesium: bone 1% found in the blood Remainder: inside cells of tissue & organs

Role:
Needed for more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body Involved in energy metabolism & protein synthesis Directly affects metabolism of potassium, calcium & vitamin D Keeps heart rhythm steady Immune function Help maintain normal muscle & nerve function
Calcium promotes contractions Magnesium relaxes muscles afterwards

Absorbed in the small intestine Excreted through the kidneys

Magnesium Deficiency/ Toxicity

Deficiency
Occurs due to inadequate intake, vomiting, diarrhea, alcoholism, protein malnutrition Can cause hallucinations
Often mistaken for mental illness or drunkenness

Rare in healthy people

Toxicity
Rare, but can be fatal (severe diarrhea, dehydration, acid- base imbalance) Only occurs with high intakes from non food sources (Ex: supplements or magnesium salts) Accidental poisoning can occur in children & adults

Magnesium
DRI
Men (19-30): 400 mg/ day Women (19-30): 310 mg/ day UL: 350 mg/ day

Food Sources
Whole wheat bread & Wheat Bran Steamed oysters -Halibut Pinto beans -Black beans Peanut butter -Nuts

Sodium
Roles
Fluid and electrolyte balance
Main ion used to maintain fluid volume outside cells

Associated with blood pressure and pH balance in the body Required for nerve impulse transmission Assists in the transport of certain nutrients (Ex: glucose) into body cells

Sodium Recommendations
DRI
Adults (19-50): 1500 mg/ day Adults (51-70): 1300 mg/ day Adults (71+): 1200 mg/day Recommend <2300 mg/day
Not recommended for the following groups to consume more than 1500 mg/ day
People aged 40+ African Americans -High Blood Pressure

Processed foods are high in sodium

High blood pressure from high sodium diets

Sodium: Too Little?

Hyponatremia Can occur in marathon runners with too much water, prolonged diarrhea, vomiting or sweating Body absorbs sodium freely Kidneys filter excess out of the blood & into the urine
Kidneys can retain sodium if the body was low

Sodium: Too Much?

Hypernatremia Can occur in patients with congestive heart failure or kidney disease
Results in high blood volume, edema, and high blood pressure

Sodium & Water Weight

High salted meal ingested Causes thirst Artificial water weight gain
Kidneys excrete extra water along with extra sodium (once water to sodium ratio is restored)

Low sodium
Must be replenished
Possibly loss from perfuse sweating, diarrhea, vomiting

Low sodium diets

Sodium & Blood Pressure

Connection between high intake of sodium & high blood pressure, heart disease & stroke (hypertensive related)

Benefits through diet

Read food labels
Sodium benzoate, monosodium glutamate (MSG), sodium nitrate, sodium ascorbate

DASH

Potassium
Positively charged ion, in the cell Roles:
Critical for heart function Maintain fluid & electrolytes Skeletal and smooth muscle contraction Muscular function Proper function of the digestive system

Potassium Deficiencies
Most common:
Electrolyte imbalance

Heart failure
Lead to death

Causes Medication Can occur with those living with kidney disease Links to kwashiorkor & eating disorders

Potassium Toxicity
Does not occur from high potassium foods Can occur from overconsumption of potassium salts (energy fitness shakes) or supplements Potassium Chloride Pills & salt subs Muscle weakness Vomiting Can be seen in diabetic ketoacidosis or those living with kidney disease Death

Potassium Recommendations
DRI
Adults: 4,700 mg/ day

Food sources:
Potatoes Banana Pinto Beans Acorn Squash Artichokes -Avocados -Strawberries

Chloride
Can form a poisonous gas Major anion of the extracellular fluids
With sodium With potassium

Maintain fluid & electrolyte balance Maintain acid- base balance Maintain stomach acidity

Chloride Deficiencies/ Toxicities

Deficiencies
Do not occur under normal circumstances Losses occur in heavy sweating, chronic diarrhea & vomiting

Toxicities
Cause vomiting Dehydration
Due to water deficiency

Chloride Recommendations
DRI
Adults (19-50): 2300 mg/ day Adults (51-70): 2000 mg/ day Adults (>70): 1800 mg/ day UL: 3600 mg/ day

Food Sources
Processed foods Milk Meats -Table Salt -Eggs

Sulfate
Oxidized form of sulfur Exist in many foods and water Roles:
Synthesizes sulfur containing compounds
Ex: cysteine Skin, hair, nails made of proteins with high sulfur content

Sulfate Deficiencies/ Toxicities

Deficiencies are unknown
Severe protein deficiency will cause a lack of sulfur containing amino acids

Toxicities
Too much sulfate in drinking water causes diarrhea
Damage the colon

Trace Minerals
Need: <100 milligrams or <5 grams/ day
Iodine Iron Zinc Selenium Fluoride Chromium Copper

Iodine
Turns into iodide in the GI tract Part of the thyroid hormone (thyroxine)
Helps regulates
body temperature Metabolic rate Reproduction & growth Blood cell production

Iodine Deficiencies/ Toxicities

Deficiencies
Thyroxine production decreases
May cause sluggishness and/ or weight gain

Goiter
Thyroid gland enlarged to trap iodine Occurs more often in S. America, Asia, Africa

Cretinism
During pregnancy Mental & physical retardation in infants

Toxicities
Enlarged thyroid glands
Growing fetus also at risk

Large amounts can be fatal

Iodine Recommendations
DRI
Adults: 150 micrograms/ day UL: 1100 micrograms/ day

Food Sources
Iodized salt
Sea salt

Seafood Bread Dairy products Plants grown in iodine rich soil

Animals consuming these plants

Iron
Composed of hemoglobin & myoglobin
Hemoglobin: O2 carrying (red blood cells)
About 2/3 of iron found in hemoglobin

Myoglobin: O2 holding (muscle cells)

Roles:
Hemoglobin carries O2 from lungs to tissue Myoglobin holds & stores O2 in muscles Iron in proteins that store iron are needed for future needs & transport iron in blood

Iron Absorption
Balance regulated through absorption
Iron is difficult to excrete in the body

Special proteins help absorb iron

Ferritin received iron from food & stores it in the small intestine Transferrin transfers iron to the rest of the body If the body doesnt need iron, it can be carried out when the intestinal cells shed & excreted in feces

Iron Absorption
Depends on the source (2 types)
Heme: iron containing part of hemoglobin & myoglobin
About 23% absorbed

Nonheme: dietary iron not associated with hemoglobin

About 2-20% absorbed

MFP Factor
Factor in meat, fish, poultry that promotes absorption of nonheme iron
Body absorb 18% in a mixed meal (Ex) Vitamin C

Iron Absorption
Some dietary factors inhibit iron absorption
Phytates
Found in plants (whole grains)

Oxalates
found in vegetables (beets, spinach), fruits (figs, blueberries), seeds & nuts, legumes, starches (sweet potato)

Tannins
Found in tea (black tea), coffee, wine Denatures proteins

Iron Deficiencies
Most common nutrient deficiency worldwide
Pica (geophagia & pagophagia)

Iron deficiency anemia Limits the cells oxygen & energy metabolism Groups most susceptible to deficiency
Women of childbearing age Menstruating females Pregnant females Low income families

Iron Toxicities
Iron overload (AKA hemochromatosis)
Excessive iron build up in the tissues Usually caused by a genetic disorder
Most common genetic disorder in the U.S.

Other causes of iron overload

Repeated blood transfusions Massive doses of iron supplements Rare metabolic disorders

Early symptoms Include

Fatigue, apathy, lethargy, mental depression or abdominal pain

Untreated, can lead to

Liver failure, bone damage, diabetes, heart failure, infections
Symptoms most severe in alcohol abusers

Iron Recommendations
DRI
Men: 8 mg/ day Women (19- 50): 18 mg/ day Women (51+): 8 mg/ day UL: 45 mg/ day

Food Sources
Clams -Beef Liver -Red meat Enriched cereals -Spinach Pinto Beans -Swiss Chard Parsley

Zinc
Versatile element, requires a cofactor All cells contain zinc, highest concentration are in muscle & bone Roles:
Strengthen defense against free radicals Assist in immune function & in growth and development Participate in synthesis, storage & release of insulin Essential to taste perception, wound healing, fetal development Help produce active form of vitamin A (retinal)

Zinc: Too Little?

Zinc deficiency is a substantial contributor to illness in developing countries
Not common in developed countries

Growth retardation Hinders digestion & absorption

Causing diarrhea, leading to malnutrition

Impairs immune response

Higher chances for infections
GI tract infections, leading to malnutrition

Chronic deficiencies cause damage to the central nervous system & brain Vitamin A deficiencies can occur

Zinc: Too Much?

Vomiting Diarrhea Headaches Exhaustion Loss of appetite High dosages of zinc can inhibit iron absorption
Vice versa

Zinc Recommendations
DRI
Men: 11 mg/ day Women: 8 mg/ day UL: 40 mg/ day

Food Sources
Highest in protein rich foods Enriched cereals Shellfish Legumes -Whole grains -Oysters -Yogurt

Selenium
Help protect the body against oxidative damage
Works as an antioxidant, combined with vitamin E

Helps with thyroid hormone convert to its active form Immune system needs selenium to work properly Research is still pending on connections between selenium & heart disease and selenium & cancer

Selenium Deficiencies/ Toxicities

Deficiencies
Muscle disorders with weakness & pain Specific type of heart disease Possible increase of free radicals in the body

Toxicities
Hair & nail loss Diarrhea Nerve abnormalities Garlic breath odor

Selenium Recommendations
DRI
Adults: 55 micrograms/ day UL: 400 micrograms/ day

Food Sources
Seafood Meat Whole grains Vegetables (depending on soil content) Nuts
Brazil nuts

Fluoride
Not essential, but beneficial Found in all soils, water supplies, plants & animals Ability to inhibit development of dental caries Trace amounts occur in the body Fluorapatite (from hydroxyapatite crystals)

Fluoride Deficiencies/ Toxicities

Deficiency
Dental decay

Toxicity
Fluorosis: teeth discoloration & pitting of enamel

Fluoride Recommendations
DRI
Men: 3.8 mg/ day Women: 3.1 mg/ day UL: 10 mg/ day

Sources
Drinking water (fluoridated)
Bottled water & Municipal bottled tap water

Tea Seafood

Chromium
Participates in CHO & lipid metabolism Chromium in foods vs industrial chromium Enhances insulin activity
Deficiency symptom: diabetes- like condition

Chromium Recommendations
DRI
Men: 35 micrograms/ day Women: 25 micrograms/ day

Food Sources
Meats (especially liver) Whole grains Brewers yeast Less in refined foods

Supplements
Advertised as a way to lose fat & build muscle No studies have found this to be true

Copper
Found in a variety of cells & tissue Help form hemoglobin & collagen Apart of several enzymes
Copper containing enzymes are all involved in reactions that consume O2 or O2 radicals

Help control free radical activity

Copper Deficiencies/ Toxicities

Deficiencies
Rare Bone abnormalities in children Impair immunity & blood flow through arteries in adults
Anemia

Excess zinc interferes with copper absorption

Toxicities
Excessive intake from supplements can cause liver damage

Copper Recommendations
DRI
Adults: 900 micrograms/ day UL: 10,000 micrograms/ day

Food Sources
Legumes Organ meats Seafood Nuts & seeds

Other Trace Minerals & Candidates

Molybdenum: function as part of several metal containing enzymes Manganese: acts as a cofactor for many enzymes that facilitate metabolism in CHO, lipids & amino acids Boron: influences activity of many enzymes & play a key role in bone health, brain activity & immune response

Other Trace Minerals & Candidates

Cobalt: B12 Nickel: important for healthy of body tissue
Deficiencies harm the liver & other organs

Silicon: involved in bone calcification in animals