The Future of The English Language

The Future of English?
A guide to forecasting the popularity of the

English language in the 21st century
David Graddol
First published 1997

The British Council 1997, 2000
All Rights Reserved
This digital edition created by
The English Company (UK) Ltd
David Graddol hereby asserts and gives
notice of his right under section 77 of the UK Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identied as the author of
this work.
What is this book about?

This book is about the English language in
of the English language and concludes that
forecasting, identies the patterns which
the 21st century: about who will speak it

and for what purposes. It is a practical
the future is more complex and less

predictable than has usually been assumed.
underlie typical linguistic change and

describes the way large corporations have
brieng document, written for

educationists, politicians, managers
indeed any decision maker or planning
team with a professional interest in the
development of English worldwide.
The book has been commissioned by the

British Council to complement the many
texts already available about the teaching
and learning of English, the history and
used scenario planning as a strategy for

coping with unpredictable futures. Section
three outlines signicant global trends
which will shape the social and economic
world in the 21st century. Section four
discusses the impacts these trends are
The Future of English? takes stock of the
development of English and the diversity

of forms of English worldwide. It is
present, apparently unassailable, position of

English in the world and asks whether we
intended to stimulate constructive debate

about the future status of English which
can expect its status to remain unchanged

during the coming decades of
can inform policy developments both in

the British Council and other organisations
The last section summarises implications

for the English language and outlines ways
unprecedented social and economic global

change. The book explores the possible
concerned with the promotion of English

language teaching and learning.
in which we might reach a better

understanding of the status which English
long-term impact on English of

developments in communications
The book is divided into ve main
will hold in the 21st century world. This

concluding section also argues for a
technology, growing economic

globalisation and major demographic shifts.
The Future of English? examines the
complex mix of material and cultural
trends which will shape the global destiny
sections, each followed by a summary of

main points and references. The rst
section explains how English came to
reach its present position in the world.
Section two examines techniques of
already having on language and

communication in everyday life.
reassessment of the role played by British

providers of ELT goods and services in
promoting a global brand image for
Britain.
Overview
English is widely regarded as having become the global language but will it
retain its pre-eminence in the 21st century? The world in which it is used is in
the early stages of major social, economic and demographic transition.
Although English is unlikely to be displaced as the worlds most important
language, the future is more complex and less certain than some assume.
Why worry now?

Why worry now about the global future of the English
language? Is it not the first language of capitalism in a
world in which socialism and communism have largely
disappeared? Is it not the main language of international
commerce and trade in a world where these sectors seem
increasingly to drive the cultural and political? Has it not
more cultural resources, in the sense of works of literature, lms and television programmes, than any other
language? Is it not, as The Economist has described it,
impregnably established as the world standard
language: an intrinsic part of the global communications
revolution? (The Economist, 21 December 1996, p. 39)
Isnt it obvious, in other words, that the English
language will continue to grow in popularity and influence, without the need for special study or strategic
management?
The simple answer to all these questions is probably
yes. There is no imminent danger to the English
language, nor to its global popularity a fact which is
recognised by the majority of people who are professionally concerned with the English language worldwide
(Figure 1). The press release for the launch of the British
Councils English 2000 project in 1995 summarised the
position of English:
WWW
ENGLISH 2000
http://www.britcoun.org/
english/enge2000.htm
ENGLISH CO UK LTD
http://www.english.co.uk/
World-wide, there are over 1,400 million people living in

countries where English has ofcial status. One out of ve of
the worlds population speak English to some level of
competence. Demand from the other four fths is increasing. ... By the year 2000 it is estimated that over one billion
people will be learning English. English is the main
language of books, newspapers, airports and air-trafc control, international business and academic conferences,
science technology, diplomacy, sport, international competitions, pop music and advertising.
4,000
Fin de sicle
3,000
2,000
1,000
vie
w
N
o
ee
isa
gr
D
Ag
re
e
Figure 1 Will English remain

the worlds language?
Composite responses to the
British Councils English
2000 Global Consultation
Questionnaire
2 The Future of English?
The position of English as a world language may seem to

be so entrenched and secure that agonising over where
we are and where we are going might be regarded as
no more than a n de sicle indulgence. The end of the
19th century was characterised by much heart searching
over the state of society evident in social behaviour and
experimentation, fiction, scientific writing and legislative
reform prompted by a concern at the social consequences of the industrial revolution. How much greater
might be the mood of self-reection at the end of a
millennium, when the communications revolution and
economic globalisation seem to be destroying the reassuring geographical and linguistic basis of sovereignty and
national identity. How many titles of social and economics books include the word end or the prefix post:
The end of history, the post-industrial societies,
post-modernism, post-capitalism, post-feminism.
There is a general awareness of change, but no clear
vision of where it may all be leading. It seems we are not
yet living in a new era, but have fallen off the edge of an
old one.
A world in transition
But there are reasons why we ought to take stock and
reassess the place of English in the world. The future of
the English language may not be straightforward: celebratory statistics should be treated with caution.
This book examines some facts, trends and ideas
which may be uncomfortable to many native speakers.
For example, the economic dominance of OECD countries which has helped circulate English in the new
market economies of the world is being eroded as
Asian economies grow and become the source, rather
than the recipient, of cultural and economic ows.
Population statistics suggest that the populations of the
rich countries are ageing and that in the coming decades
young adults with disposable income will be found in
Asia and Latin America rather than in the US and
Europe. Educational trends in many countries suggest
that languages other than English are already providing
signicant competition in school curricula.
The Future of English? identies such signicant global
trends in economics, technology and culture which
may affect the learning and use of English internationally in the 21st century. We suggest that the close of the
20th century is a time of global transition and that a new
world order is emerging. The period of most rapid
change is likely to last about 20 years and can be expected to be an uncomfortable and at times traumatic
experience for many of the worlds citizens. During this
period, the conditions will be established for more settled
global relations which may stabilise about 2050. Hence
the next 20 years or so will be a critical time for the
English language and for those who depend upon it. The
patterns of usage and public attitudes to English which
develop during this period will have long-term implications for its future in the world.
In this book we argue that the global popularity of
English is in no immediate danger, but that it would be
foolhardy to imagine that its pre-eminent position as a
world language will not be challenged in some world
regions and domains of use as the economic, demographic and political shape of the world is transformed.
A language in transition
As the world is in transition, so the English language is

itself taking new forms. This, of course, has always been
true: English has changed substantially in the 1500 years
or so of its use, reecting patterns of contact with other
languages and the changing communication needs of
people. But in many parts of the world, as English is
taken into the fabric of social life, it acquires a momentum and vitality of its own, developing in ways which
reect local culture and languages, while diverging increasingly from the kind of English spoken in Britain or
North America.
English is also used for more purposes than ever
before. Everywhere it is at the leading edge of technological and scientic development, new thinking in
economics and management, new literatures and entertainment genres. These give rise to new vocabularies,
grammatical forms and ways of speaking and writing.
Nowhere is the effect of this expansion of English into
new domains seen more clearly than in communication
on the Internet and the development of net English.
But the language is, in another way, at a critical
moment in its global career: within a decade or so, the
number of people who speak English as a second
language will exceed the number of native speakers. The
The future of English will be more complex, more

demanding of understanding and more
challenging for the position of native-speaking
countries than has hitherto been supposed.
implications of this are likely to be far reaching: the
centre of authority regarding the language will shift from
native speakers as they become minority stakeholders in
the global resource. Their literature and television may
no longer provide the focal point of a global English
language culture, their teachers no longer form the
unchallenged authoritative models for learners.
Contradictory trends
Many of the trends that are documented here are not

simply driving forces whose impact and consequences
can be easily predicted. And in so far as they are understood they appear to be leading in contradictory directions tendencies to increasing use of English are
counterposed by others which lead to a reducing
enthusiasm for the language. On the one hand, the use
of English as a global lingua franca requires intelligibility
and the setting and maintenance of standards. On the
other hand, the increasing adoption of English as a
second language, where it takes on local forms, is leading
to fragmentation and diversity. No longer is it the case, if
it ever was, that English unies all who speak it.
These competing trends will give rise to a less predictable context within which the English language will be
learned and used. There is, therefore, no way of precisely predicting the future of English since its spread and
continued vitality is driven by such contradictory forces.
As David Crystal has commented:
There has never been a language so widely spread or spoken
by so many people as English. There are therefore no precedents to help us see what happens to a language when it
achieves genuine world status. (Crystal, 1997, p. 139)
The likelihood, as this book demonstrates, is that the

future for English will be a complex and plural one. The
language will grow in usage and variety, yet simultaneously diminish in relative global importance. We may
nd the hegemony of English replaced by an oligarchy
of languages, including Spanish and Chinese. To put it
in economic terms, the size of the global market for the
English language may increase in absolute terms, but its
market share will probably fall.
A new world era
According to many economists, cultural theorists and

political scientists, the new world order expected to
appear in the 21st century will represent a signicant
discontinuity with previous centuries. The Internet and
related information technologies, for example, may
upset the traditional patterns of communication upon
which institutional and national cultures have been built.
We have entered a period in which language and
communication will play a more central role than ever
before in economic, political and cultural life just at the
moment in history that a global language has emerged.
There are signs already of an associated shift of social
values which may have a signicant impact on the future
decision-making of organisations, governments and
consumers. Some commentators predict that, just as
environmental issues were once regarded as less important than the need for prot, so issues of social equity will
form a third bottom line in the global business environment. This suggests that those who promote the global
use of English will be burdened with new social responsibilities and may have to engage with a more complex
public agenda, including ethical issues relating to linguistic human rights.
Questioning the future

The Future of English? thus explores a range of topics with
a common theme: the changing world which affects our
use of language. Its primary purpose is to stimulate
informed debate about the global future of English and
the implications both for British providers of English
language services and the institutions and enterprises
with which they work overseas. For this reason, the book
aims to provide thought-provoking ideas rather than rm
predictions. It points to areas of uncertainty and doubt
where an understanding of local issues will be as valuable
as that of global trends. Many of the issues the book
addresses will be of interest to a wide range of people,
both specialists and professionals, but also members of
the general public. These issues raise such questions as:
Jurassic Park grossed $6m

in India in 1994. But in
what language?
p. 47
q How many people will speak English in the year

2050?
385 million people will

be employed in world
tourist services by 2006.
Will they all need
English?
p. 36
q What role will English play in their lives? Will they

enjoy the rich cultural resources the English language
offers or will they simply use English as a vehicular
language like a tool of their trade?
How many people will

speak English in 2050?
p. 27
q What effects will economic globalisation have on the

demand for English?
q Will the emergence of world regions encourage
lingua francas which challenge the position of
English?
q How does English help the economic modernisation
of newly industrialised countries?
What have been the

heroic failures of the past
in predicting the number
of English speakers?
p. 18
q Is the Internet the electronic agship of global

English?
q Will the growth of global satellite TV, such as CNN
and MTV, teach the worlds youth US English?
q Will the spread of English lead to over half of the
worlds languages becoming extinct?
q Is it true that the English language will prove to be a
vital resource and benet to Britain in the coming
century, giving it a key economic advantage over
European competitors?
Commentators vary greatly in attitudes towards, and
expectations of, global English. At one extreme, there is
an unproblematic assumption that the world will eventually speak English and that this will facilitate the cultural
and economic dominance of native-speaking countries
(especially the US). Such a view is challenged, however,
by the growing assertiveness of countries adopting
English as a second language that English is now their
language, through which they can express their own
values and identities, create their own intellectual property
and export goods and services to other countries.
The spread of English in recent years is, by any
criterion, a remarkable phenomenon. But the closer one
examines the historical causes and current trends, the
more it becomes apparent that the future of English will
be more complex, more demanding of understanding
and more challenging for the position of native-speaking
countries than has hitherto been supposed.
This book is neither triumphalist nor alarmist, but
seeks to chart some of the territory, to stimulate a more
informed debate which can, in turn, help all those concerned with the future of English prepare for the
signicant changes the 21st century will bring.
Book highlights
1 English and the international economy
4 A bilingual future
2 English and global culture
5 Social value shifts
The shifting patterns of trade and new working practices (such

as the growing prevalence of screen-based labour) which
follow globalisation are affecting the use of the English
language in complex ways. At present there is a considerable
increase in the numbers of people learning and using English,
but a closer examination of driving forces suggests that the
long-term growth of the learning of English is less secure than
might at rst appear.
As the number of people using English grows, so secondlanguage speakers are drawn towards the inner circle of
rst-language speakers and foreign-language speakers to the
outer circle of second-language speakers. During this status
migration, attitudes and needs in respect of the language will
change; the English language will diversify and other countries
will emerge to compete with the older, native-speaking
countries in both the English language-teaching industry and
in the global market for cultural resources and intellectual
property in English.
3 English as a leading-edge phenomenon
English is closely associated with the leading edge of global

scientic, technological, economic and cultural developments,
where it has been unrivalled in its inuence in the late 20th
century. But we cannot simply extrapolate from the last few
decades and assume this trend will continue unchanged. In
four key sectors, the present dominance of English can be
expected to give way to a wider mix of languages: rst, the
global audio-visual market and especially satellite TV; second,
the Internet and computer-based communication including
language-related and document handling software; third,
technology transfer and associated processes in economic
globalisation; fourth, foreign-language learning especially in
developing countries where growing regional trade may make
other languages of increasing economic importance.
There is a growing belief amongst language professionals that

the future will be a bilingual one, in which an increasing
proportion of the worlds population will be uent speakers of
more than one language. For the last few hundred years
English has been dominated by monolingual speakers
interests: there is little to help us understand what will happen
to English when the majority of the people and institutions
who use it do so as a second language.
The spread of English has been made more rapid in recent
years as a consequence of decisions and actions taken by
governments, institutions and individuals. This process has
been guided by a logic of economic rationalism. However,
signicant social value shifts may occur in public opinion,
making social equity as important a factor in public policy as
economic issues, and quality of life as important as income in
personal life choices. Such value shifts would foreground the
complex ethical issues associated with the world dominance of
a single language and cause a reassessment of the impact of
English on other cultures, national identities and educational
opportunities for the worlds non-English speaking citizens.
The economic argument for English may also be challenged as
developing countries make more careful evaluations of the
costs and benets of mass educational programmes in the
English language.
6 Need for scenario building
This book suggests that development work should be put in

hand towards the building and testing of scenarios which
encompass a range of possible futures for English in key areas.
A Delphi panel of experts (p. 23) in different regions of the
world could be invited to respond to the scenarios and help
establish local understandings of the changing role of English.
Such qualitative work should go hand-in-hand with the
collection of key statistics and trend data.
References
Crystal, D. (1997) English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
The Economist (1996) Language and Electronics: the coming global tongue. 21
December, pp. 379.
Further reading
There are many books now available which examine the social and linguistic
contexts in which English developed historically. The Future of English? has
been written to complement the following books in particular:
Press.
Graddol, D., Leith, D. and Swann, J. (1996) (eds) English: history, diversity and
change. London: Routledge/Open University.
Maybin, J. and Mercer, N. (1996) (eds) Using English: from conversation to canon.
London: Routledge/Open University.
Mercer, N. and Swann, J. (1996) (eds) Learning English: development and diversity.
London: Routledge/Open University.
Goodman, S. and Graddol, D. (1996) (eds) Redesigning English: new texts, new
identities. London: Routledge/Open University.
Sources
A composite list of sources for the tables and gures in this book can be found
on the inside back cover.
Note
All references to $ in this text are to US$. 1 billion = 1,000 million; 1 trillion =
1,000,000 million
English today
q The legacy of history

Britains colonial expansion established the pre-conditions for the
global use of English, taking the language from its island birthplace to
settlements around the world. The English language has grown up in
contact with many others, making it a hybrid language which can
rapidly evolve to meet new cultural and communicative needs.
q English in the 20th century

The story of English in the 20th century has been closely linked to
the rise of the US as a superpower that has spread the English
language alongside its economic, technological and cultural inuence.
In the same period, the international importance of other European
languages, especially French, has declined.
q Who speaks English?

There are three kinds of English speaker: those who speak it as a rst
language, those for whom it is a second or additional language and
those who learn it as a foreign language. Native speakers may feel the
language belongs to them, but it will be those who speak English as
a second or foreign language who will determine its world future.
q Language hierarchies
Languages are not equal in political or social status, particularly in
multilingual contexts. How does English relate to other languages in a
multilingual speakers reper toire? Why does someone use English
rather than a local language? What characteristic patterns are there in
the use of English by non-native speakers?
Looking at the past is an important step towards

understanding the future. Any serious study of English
in the 21st century must start by examining how
English came to be in its current state and spoken by
those who speak it. What factors have ensured the
spread of English? What does this process tell us
about the fate of languages in unique political and
cultural contexts? In what domains of knowledge has
English developed particular importance and how
recently?
English is remarkable for its diversity, its propensity to
change and be changed. This has resulted in both a
variety of forms of English, but also a diversity of
cultural contexts within which English is used in daily
life. The main areas of development in the use and
form of English will undoubtedly come from nonnative speakers. How many are there and where are
they located? And when and why do they use English
instead of their rst language? We need to be aware
of the different place that English has in the lives of
native speakers, second-language users and those
who learn it as a foreign language.
This section examines the development of English,
identies those languages which have historically
rivalled English as a world language and explains the
special place that English has in multilingual countries
and in the repertoires of multilingual speakers. By
showing how our present arose from the past, we will
be better equipped to speculate on what the future
might hold in store.
The legacy of history

Britains colonial expansion established the pre-conditions for the global use
of English, taking the language from its island birthplace to settlements
around the world. The English language has grown up in contact with many
others, making it a hybrid language which can rapidly evolve to meet new
cultural and communicative needs.
The colonial period

The English language has been associated with migration since its rst origins the language came into being
in the 5th century with patterns of people movement
and resettlement. But as a world language its history
began in the 17th century, most notably in the foundation of the American colonies. Many European powers
were similarly expanding: French, Dutch, Portuguese
and Spanish became established as colonial languages,
the latter two still important outside Europe in Latin
America. But in the 19th century the British empire,
with its distinctive mix of trade and cultural politics,
consolidated the world position of English, creating a
language on which the sun never sets.
The rise of the nation state

Is English the most
widely spoken language
in the world today?
p. 8
Will future language use
be shaped by time zone
rather than geography in
the 21st century?
p. 53
In Europe of the middle ages, power was distributed

between Church, sovereign and local barons, creating
multiple agencies of social control, government and land
management. Even in the 1500s, a monarch such as
Charles V ruled geographically dispersed parts of
Europe. But by the 17th and 18th centuries, the nation
state had emerged as a territorial basis for administration
and cultural identity. Yet language diversity was extensive and many language boundaries crossed the borders
of newly emerging states. Each nation state required
therefore an internal lingua franca, subject like other
instruments of state to central regulation, which could
act as a vehicle of governance and as an emblem of
national identity. National languages, not existing in
Europe prior to the creation of nation states, had to be
constructed. Consequently, the English language was
self-consciously expanded and reconstructed to serve the
purposes of a national language.
Profound cultural as well as political changes affected
the English language. Modern institutions of science
were founded, such as the Royal Society in Britain;
language was added to the scientic agenda and made
an object of study alongside investigations of the natural
world. New words and ways of writing in English were
developed. For a time, scholars and clerics who regularly
travelled across the boundaries of national languages
continued to use Latin as their lingua franca. But as
knowledge of Latin declined and the rise of merchant
and professional classes produced travellers unschooled
in Latin, people sought alternative means of international communication.
The idea of a national language being a requirement
for a nation state has remained a powerful one. The
20th century process of decolonisation created a drive to
establish new national languages which could provide an
integrated identity for multi-ethnic states set up on the
European model. Few countries were as bold as
Singapore, in adopting a multi-language formula which
reected the ethnic languages of the new state. Even in
India, Hindi is the sole national language and English
technically an associate. In some countries a new national language had to be created such as Bahasa
Malaysia which raised the status of Malay into a national
language in a way similar to the 17th century extension

of English in vocabulary and function.
Nation states are getting more plentiful there are
now over 180 states represented at the UN and one
consequence of the break-up of larger territories into
separate states has been the emergence of new national
languages. Simultaneously, the role of the nation state is
being weakened as economic globalisation, regional
trading blocs and new multilateral political afliations
limit national spheres of control. Nevertheless, the death
of the nation state is much exaggerated. National education systems, for example, play a major role in determining which languages in the world are taught and
learned. The role of nation states is changing but is by
no means abolished.
The emergence of national varieties
The attempt to x and ascertain the English language,

made in the 18th and 19th centuries, was never entirely
successful: the language has continued to adapt itself
swiftly to new circumstances and people. And it was not
just Britain which desired a national language from
English. Noah Websters proposed reforms of the
American spelling system, some of which give it a distinctive appearance in print, were intended explicitly to
create a national linguistic identity for the newly independent country:
The question now occurs; ought the Americans to retain
these faults which produce innumerable inconveniences in
the acquisition and use of the language, or ought they at
once to reform these abuses, and introduce order and regularity into the orthography of the American tongue? ... a
capital advantage of this reform ... would be, that it would
make a difference between the English orthography and the
American. ... a national language is a band of national
union. ... Let us seize the present moment, and establish a
national language as well as a national government.
(Webster, 1789)
There are an increasing number of national standards, including those related to the New Englishes
which have appeared in former colonial countries such
as Singapore. Each standard is supported (or soon may
be) by national dictionaries, grammars and style sheets.
Nevertheless, no central authority has ever existed,
either nationally or globally, which can regulate the
language.
A hybrid and exible language
English has always been an evolving language and

language contact has been an important driver of
change. First from Celtic and Latin, later from
Scandinavian and Norman French, more recently from
the many other languages spoken in the British colonies,
the English language has borrowed freely. Some analysts
see this hybridity and permeability of English as dening
features, allowing it to expand quickly into new domains
and explaining in part its success as a world language.
One of the few certainties associated with the future
of English is that it will continue to evolve, reecting and
constructing the changing roles and identities of its speakers. Yet we are now at a signicant point of evolution:
at the end of the 20th century, the close relationship that
has previously existed between language, territory and
cultural identity is being challenged by globalising forces.
The impact of such trends will shape the contexts in
which English is learned and used in the 21st century.
Seven ages of English

This page provides an overview of the history of English, from its birth in the 5th century to the present day
1 Pre-English period ( c. AD 450)
The origins of English are, for a language, surprisingly well documented. At the time of the Roman invasion c.55 BC, the indigenous
languages of Britain were Celtic, of which there were two main
branches (corresponding to modern Gaelic and Welsh). The
Romans made Latin an ofcial language of culture and government, probably resulting in many communities in Britain becoming bilingual Celtic-Latin. Garrisons of troops then arrived from
elsewhere in the Roman empire, particularly Gaul, another Celtic
area. In some points, the English language has repeated this early
history of Latin: it was brought into many countries in the 17th to
19th centuries as the language of a colonial power and made the
language of administration, spoken by a social elite, but not used
by the majority of the population. It served, moreover, as an international lingua franca amongst the elites of many countries. But
the use of Latin rapidly declined in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Will English share this fate?
2 Early Old English (c.450c.850)
The English language developed after the Anglo-Saxon invasion

c.449 AD, when the Romans left Britain and new settlers brought
Germanic dialects from mainland Europe. Latin was still an important written language because of the Church and many Latin
words were introduced into Old English during this early period,
but the language developed a new form: the rst English literary
texts appeared.
Gefeng a be feaxe (nalas for fhe mearn)
Gu-Geata leod Grendles modor;
brgd a beadwe heard, a he gebolgen ws,
feorhgenilan, t heo on et gebeah.
Beowulf seizes Grendels mother by the hair: a fragment

from the epic Old English poem composed c. 750
3 Later Old English (c.8501100)
This was a time of invasion and settlement from Scandinavia (the

Vikings) and a time of language change. In the north of England
dialects of English were extensively influenced by Scandinavian
languages. In the south, King Alfred, concerned about falling
educational standards, arranged for many Latin texts to be translated into English.
4 Middle English (c.11001450)
The Norman Conquest (1066) and rule brought about many linguistic changes. French, now the official language in England, affected English vocabulary and spelling. The grammar of English was
also radically transformed. Whereas Old English expressed grammatical relations through inections (word endings), Middle
English lost many inections and used word order to mark the
grammatical function of nouns. Educated people probably needed
to be trilingual in French, Latin and English. It was a ourishing
period for English literature. Writers included Geoffrey Chaucer,
whose language is beginning to look like modern English.
And preie God save the king, that is lord of this langage,
and alle that him feith berith and obeieth, everich in his
degre, the more and the lasse. But considere wel that I
ne usurpe not to have founden this werk of my labour
or of myn engyn.
5 Early Modern English (c.14501750)
This period spans the Renaissance, the Elizabethan era and

Shakespeare. It is the period when the nation states of Europe took
their modern form. The role of the Church and Latin declined. In
England, key institutions of science, such as the Royal Society,
were established and, by the end of the 17th century, theoreticians
like Isaac Newton were writing their discoveries in English rather
than Latin.
Britain grew commercially and acquired overseas colonies. English
was taken to the Americas (rst colony at Jamestown, Virginia
1607) and India (rst trading post at Surat 1614). With the rise of
printing (rst printed book in English 1473) English acquired a
stable typographic identity. Teaching English as a foreign language
began in the 16th century, rst in Holland and France.
A common writing: whereby two, although not
understanding one the others language, yet by the helpe
thereof, may communicate their minds one to another. ...
The harshness of the stile, I hope, will be corrected by
the readers ingenuity.
Preface to A Common Writing, Francis Lodwick, 1647
6 Modern English (c.17501950)
English had become a national language. Many attempts were

made to standardise and fix the language with dictionaries and
grammars (Johnsons Dictionary 1755, the Oxford English Dictionary
18581928). The industrial revolution triggered off a global
restructuring of work and leisure which made English the international language of advertising and consumerism. The telegraph was
patented in 1837, linking English-speaking communities around
the world and establishing English as the major language for wire
services. As Britain consolidated imperial power, English-medium
education was introduced in many parts of the world. The international use of French declined. The rst international series of
English language-teaching texts was published from Britain in 1938
and the worlds rst TV commercial was broadcast in the US in
1941. English emerged as the most popular working language for
transnational institutions.
7 Late Modern English (c.1950)
With Britains retreat from the empire, local and partially standardised varieties of English have emerged in newly independent
countries. ELT has become a major private-sector industry. In the
aftermath of World War II, the US became a global economic and
cultural presence, making American English the dominant world
variety. The rst geostationary communications satellites were
launched (Early Bird 1965) and the Internet was invented (US
1970s). A world market in audio-visual products was created and
soap operas such as Dallas circulated the globe. Worldwide English
language TV channels began (CNN International launched 1989).
Meanwhile, English has acquired new electronic forms, as the fragment of a textual interaction from a north European reector for
Internet Relay Chat shows:
Moonhoo joined (total 22)

<Moonhoo>
cam someone ping me please
<NorthBoy> action fires a harpoon at Moonhoo.
<Wiz09> whispers: U all dont sound to awfullly excited :(:(
<BigMix>
North the host is a geek though
<NorthBoy>
Moonhoo: youre lagged bigtime.
Prologue of A Treatise on the Astrolabe,

Geoffrey Chaucer, 1391
English in the 20th century

The story of English in the 20th century has been closely linked to the rise of
the US as a superpower that has spread the English language alongside its
economic, technological and cultural inuence. In the same period, the
international importance of other European languages, especially French, has
declined.
The rise of the US
Will the growth of the

Internet help maintain
the global inuence of
English?
p. 50
What effect will changing

patterns of trade have on
the use of English?
p. 33
By the end of the 19th century, Britain had established

the pre-conditions for English as a global language.
Communities of English speakers were settled around
the world and, along with them, patterns of trade and
communication. Yet the world position of English might
have declined with the empire, like the languages of
other European colonial powers, such as Portugal and
the Netherlands, had it not been for the dramatic rise of
the US in the 20th century as a world superpower.
There were, indeed, two other European linguistic
contenders which could have established themselves as
the global lingua franca French and German. Eco
(1995) suggests:
Had Hitler won World War II and had the USA been reduced to a confederation of banana republics, we would
probably today use German as a universal vehicular
language, and Japanese electronic rms would advertise
their products in Hong Kong airport duty-free shops
(Zollfreie Waren) in German. (Eco, 1995, p. 331)
This is probably a disingenuous idea: the US was

destined to be the most powerful of the industrialised
countries because of its own natural and human resources. The US is today the worlds third most populous
country with around 260 million inhabitants. Not surprising therefore that it now accounts for the greater
proportion of the total number of native English speakers. According to Table 1, which uses data generated
by the engco forecasting model (described more fully on
p. 64), only Chinese has more rst-language users. While
such league tables beg as many questions as they answer,
(and we will later discuss the serious problems attached
to statistics relating to language use) they do make
provocative reading Hindi, Spanish and Arabic are
close behind English, but how secure their place will be
in the 21st century is a matter of speculation.
Language
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Chinese
English
Hindi/Urdu
Spanish
Arabic
Portuguese
Russian
Bengali
Japanese
German
French
Italian
Malay
engco model
1,113
372
316
304
201
165
155
125
123
102
70
57
47
English acted as the vulgate of American power and of

Anglo-American technology and nance. ... In ways too
intricate, too diverse for socio-linguistics to formulate precisely, English and American-English seem to embody for
men and women throughout the world and particularly
for the young the feel of hope, of material advance, of
scientic and empirical procedures. The entire world-image
of mass consumption, of international exchange, of the
popular arts, of generational conict, of technocracy, is
permeated by American-English and English citations and
speech habits. (Steiner, 1975, p. 469)
Steiner captures the complex mix of the economic,

technological, political and cultural which is evident in
the international domains of English at the end of the
20th century. Those domains, listed in Table 2, are
discussed more fully later in the book. Here, we briey
examine how this situation arose in the second half of
the 20th century.
World institutions
After the war, several international agencies were established to help manage global reconstruction and future
governance. The key one has proved to be the United
Nations and its subsidiary organisations. Crystal (1997)
estimates that 85% of international organisations now
use English as one of their working languages, 49% use
French and fewer than 10% use Arabic, Spanish or
German. These gures probably underestimate the de
facto use of English in such organisations. The
International Association for Applied Linguistics, for
example, lists French as a working language (and is
known by a French acronym AILA), but English is used
almost exclusively in its publications and meetings. In
Europe, the hegemony of English even on paper is
surprisingly high. Crystal (1997) estimates 99% of
European organisations listed in a recent yearbook of
international associations cite English as a working
language, as opposed to 63% French and 40% German.
French is still the only real rival to English as a working language of world institutions, although the world
position of French has been in undoubted rapid decline
Ethnologue
1,123
322
236
266
202
170
288
189
125
98
72
63
47
Table 1 Major world languages in millions of rst-language

speakers according to the engco model and comparative
gures from the Ethnologue (Grimes, 1996)
For the spread of English, the aftermath of World

War II was decisive. American inuence was extended
around the world. As George Steiner has observed:
1 Working language of international

organisations and conferences
2 Scientific publication
3 International banking, economic affairs and trade
4 Advertising for global brands
5 Audio-visual cultural products (e.g. film, TV,
popular music)
6 International tourism
7 Tertiary education
8 International safety (e.g. airspeak, seaspeak)
9 International law
10 As a relay language in interpretation and
translation
11 Technology transfer
12 Internet communication
Table 2 Major international domains of English
It has all happened so quickly David Crystal in

English as a global language.
since World War II. Its use in international forums is

unlikely to disappear entirely, however, because it retains
a somewhat negative convenience in being not English,
particularly in Europe. It is the only alternative which
can be used in many international forums as a political
gesture of resistance to the hegemony of English. As a
delegate from Ireland once addressed the League of
Nations many years ago, explaining his use of French, I
cant speak my own language, and Ill be damned if Ill
speak English (cited in Large, 1985, p. 195).
Financial institutions
English has been spread as a world language not only via

political initiatives. Key nancial institutions have been
established in the 20th century, again after World War
II and with major American involvement. The
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank
were established after the Bretton Woods conference in
1944. Through the Marshall plan, the US became
closely involved in the post-war economic reconstruction
of Europe, Japan and other parts of the Asia Pacic
region. The Korean and later the Vietnamese war continued the process of spreading American inuence.
Cultural, economic and technological dependency on
America were soon a concern for nations across the
world. The Bretton Woods system has since played a
signicant role in regulating international economic relations and in introducing free-market regimes in countries
where control has been traditionally centralised. As
more countries have been rendered open to global
ows of nance, goods, knowledge and culture, so the
inuence of English has spread.
Scientic publishing
English is now the international currency of science and

technology. Yet it has not always been so. The renaissance of British science in the 17th century put Englishlanguage science publications, such as the Philosophical
Transactions instituted by the Royal Society 1665, at the
forefront of the world scientic community. But the position was soon lost to German, which became the dominant international language of science until World War
I. The growing role of the US then ensured that English
became, once again, the global language of experiment
and discovery.
Journals in many countries have shifted, since World
War II, from publishing in their national language to
publishing in English. Gibbs (1995) describes how the
Mexican medical journal Archivos de Investigacin Mdica
shifted to English: rst publishing abstracts in English,
then providing English translations of all articles, nally
hiring an American editor, accepting articles only in
English and changing its name to Archives of Medical
Research. This language shift is common elsewhere. A
study in the early 1980s showed nearly two-thirds of
publications of French scientists were in English. Viereck
(1996) describes how all contributions in 1950 to the
Zeitschrift fr Tierpsychologie were in German, but by 1984
95% were in English. The journal was renamed Ethology
two years later.
As might be expected, some disciplines have been
more affected by the English language than others.
Physics is the most globalised and anglophone, followed
a close second by other pure sciences. Table 3 shows the
percentage of German scholars in each eld reporting
English as their de facto working language in a study by
Skudlik (1992).
Japanese 5.1%
Russian 4.7%
Spanish 6.7%
Portuguese 4.5%
French 7.7%
Korean 4.4%
Italian 4.0%
German 11.8%
Dutch 2.4%
Chinese 13.3%
Swedish 1.6%
English 28%
Other 5.8%
Figure 2 The proportion of the worlds books annually published in each language. English is the
most widely used foreign language for book publication: over 60 countries publish titles in
English. Britain publishes more titles than any other country, thus generating more intellectual
property in the language than the US. Some UK publishers, however, adopt US English housestyles and this, together with the fact that print runs in North America are typically much
longer than in the UK, ensures that books published in US English receive a wider circulation
than those in British English. In the 21st century there is likely to be considerable growth in
English language publishing in countries where English is spoken as a second language
It is not just in scientic publishing, but in book

publication as a whole that English rules supreme.
Worldwide, English is the most popular language of
publication. Figure 2 shows the estimated proportion of
titles published in different languages in the early 1990s.
Unesco gures for book production show Britain
outstripping any other country in the world for the
number of titles published each year. In 1996, a remarkable 101,504 titles were published in Britain
(Independent, 25 February 1997, p. 11). Although there
are countries which publish more per head of the population and many countries which print more copies,
none publishes as many titles. Many of these books are
exported, or are themselves part of a globalised trade in
which books may be typeset in one country, printed in
another and sold in a third.
It is difcult to decide the relative cultural inuence
of huge numbers of copies of few titles available on the
one hand, against many titles printed in short runs on
the other. However, the statistics show the enormous
amount of intellectual property being produced in the
English language in an era where intellectual property is
becoming increasingly valuable.
English in the 21st century
The position of English in the world today is thus the

joint outcome of Britains colonial expansion and the
more recent activity of the US. Any substantial shift in
the role of the US in the world is likely to have an
impact on the use and attractiveness of the English
language amongst those for whom it is not a rst
language. Later, we will see how the economic dominance of the US is expected to decline, as economies in
Asia overtake it in size. The question remains whether
English has become so entrenched in the world that a
decline in the inuence of the US would harm it. Are its
cultural resources and intellectual property so extensive
that no other language can catch up? Or will other
languages come to rival English in their global importance, pushing English aside much in the same way as
Latin was abandoned as an international lingua franca
300 years ago?
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Psychology
Maths
Earth Sciences
Medical Science
Sociology
Philosophy
Forestry
Vet. Sciences
Economics
Sports Sciences
Linguistics
Education
Literature
History
Classics
Theology
Law
98%
83%
81%
81%
78%
76%
72%
72%
56%
55%
53%
48%
40%
35%
27%
23%
20%
17%
12%
8%
Table 3 Disciplines in
which German academics
claim English as their
working language
Who speaks English?

There are three kinds of English speaker: those who speak it as a rst
language, those for whom it is a second or additional language and those
who learn it as a foreign language. Native speakers may feel the language
belongs to them, but it will be those who speak English as a second or
foreign language who will determine its world future.
Three types of English speaker
EXPANDING
OUTER
INNER
320-380
150-300
100-1000
Figure 3 The three circles of

English according to Kachru
(1985) with estimates of
speaker numbers in millions
according to Crystal (1997)
Table 4 Native speakers of

English (in thousands)
incorporating estimates by
Crystal (1997)
(*indicates territories in
which English is used as an
L1, but where there is
greater L2 use or signicant
use of another language)
Antigua and Barbuda
Australia
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize*
Bermuda
Brunei*
Canada
Cayman Is
Gibraltar*
Grenada
There are three types of English speaker in the world

today, each with a different relationship with the
language. First-language (L1) speakers are those for
whom English is a rst and often only language.
These native speakers live, for the most part, in countries
in which the dominant culture is based around English.
These countries, however, are experiencing increasing
linguistic diversity as a result of immigration. Secondlanguage (L2) speakers have English as a second or additional language, placing English in a repertoire of
languages where each is used in different contexts.
Speakers here might use a local form of English, but may
also be uent in international varieties. The third group
of English speakers are the growing number of people
learning English as a foreign language (EFL).
Leith (1996) argues that the rst two kinds of Englishspeaking community result from different colonial
processes. He identies three kinds:
In the rst type, exemplied by America and Australia,
substantial settlement by rst-language speakers of English
displaced the precolonial population. In the second, typied
by Nigeria, sparser colonial settlements maintained the
precolonial population in subjection and allowed a proportion of them access to learning English as a second, or additional, language. There is yet a third type, exemplied by
the Caribbean islands of Barbados and Jamaica. Here a
precolonial population was replaced by a new labour from
elsewhere, principally West Africa. ... The long-term effect
of the slave trade on the development of the English
language is immense. It gave rise not only to black English
in the United States and the Caribbean, which has been an
important inuence on the speech of young English speakers worldwide, but it also provided the extraordinary
context of language contact which led to the formation of
English pidgins and creoles. (Leith, 1996, pp. 1812, 206)
Each colonial process had different linguistic consequences. The rst type created a diaspora of native speakers of English (US, Canada, South Africa, Australia,
New Zealand), with each settlement eventually establishing its own national variety of English. The second
(India, West Africa, East Africa) made English an elite
second language, frequently required for further education and government jobs.
The linguistic consequences of the third type were
complex, including the creation of new hybrid varieties
61
15,316
250
265
135
60
10
19,700
29
25
101
Guam*
Guyana
Hong Kong*
India*
Irish Republic
Jamaica
Liberia*
Malaysia*
Montserrat
Namibia*
New Zealand
56
700
125
320
3,334
2,400
60
375
11
13
3,396
Possible
language
shift
Possible
language
shift
375 million
L2 speakers
750 million
EFL speakers
375 million
L1 speakers
Figure 4 Showing the three circles of English as overlapping

makes it easier to see how the centre of gravity will shift
towards L2 speakers at the start of the 21st century
of English called creoles. Creoles have as their origin a

pidgin a reduced form of communication used
between speakers of mutually unintelligible languages
which becomes extended in vocabulary and grammar as
a result of being used as a mother tongue. Classication
of creole speakers is problematic. From a linguistic view,
there is merit in regarding creoles as distinct languages.
From a sociolinguistic view, it may be better to regard
creole speakers as belonging to the English-speaking
community, because of the emergence in several countries of a post-creole continuum: a range of language
varieties from standard English to fully edged creole.
Dividing English speakers into three groups is a timehonoured approach to language use and, though not
without its problems, is a useful starting point for understanding the pattern of English worldwide. These three
groups have become widely known (after Kachru, 1985)
as the inner circle, the outer circle and the expanding
circle (Figure 3). One of the drawbacks of this terminology is the way it locates the native speakers and nativespeaking countries at the centre of the global use of
English and, by implication, the source of models of
correctness, the best teachers and English-language
goods and services consumed by those in the periphery.
This model, however, will not be the most useful for
describing English usage in the next century. Those who
speak English alongside other languages will outnumber
rst-language speakers and, increasingly, will decide the
global future of the language. For that reason we retain
here the terminology of rst-language speaker (L1),
second-language speaker (L2) and speaker of English
as a foreign language (EFL). Figure 4 provides an alternative way of visualising these three communities.
Papua New Guinea*

Philippines*
Puerto Rico*
Sierra Leone*
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and Grenadines
Singapore*
South Africa*
Sri Lanka*
Suriname
120
15
110
450
39
29
111
300
3,600
10
258
Trinidad and Tobago

UK (England, Scotland,
N. Ireland, Wales*)
UK Islands
(Channel*, Man)
US*
Virgin Is (British)
Virgin Is (US)
Zambia*
Zimbabwe*
1,200
56,990
217
226,710
17
79
50
250
Those who speak English alongside other languages will

outnumber rst-language speakers and, increasingly, will
decide the global future of the language.
The rst-language countries
Using a tripartite division as a starting point for analysis,

we can nd English spoken as a rst language in over 30
territories (Table 4). Crystal (1997) calculates that worldwide there are a little over 377 million speakers of
English as a rst language, including creole. It is a gure
in line with other recent estimates and the gures generated by the engco model (Table 1, p. 8, see also p. 64).
The second-language areas
In the 19th century, it was common to refer to English as

the language of administration for one-third of the
worlds population. It is interesting to compare this
gure with Crystals present-day estimate (1997) that the
aggregated population of all countries in which English
has any special status (the total number of people
exposed to English), represents around one-third of the
worlds population. It is not surprising that the gures
are similar, since the more populous of the 75 or so
countries in which English has special status (Table 5)
are former colonies of Britain.
Competence in English among second-language
speakers, like that in EFL speakers, varies from nativelike uency to extremely poor, but whereas in EFL areas
English is used primarily for communication with speakers from other countries, in an L2 area English is used
for internal (intranational) communication.
Areas in which English is used extensively as a second
language usually develop a distinct variety of English
which reects other languages used alongside English.
Parts of the world where such varieties (New Englishes)
have emerged are the former colonial territories in
South Asia, South-east Asia, Africa and the Caribbean.
Although these local forms of English have their own
vitality and dynamic of change, there is often an underlying model of correctness to which formal usage orients,
reecting the variety of English used by the former colonial power. In the majority of countries this is British
(Figure 5), with some exceptions such as the Philippines
and Liberia, which orient to US English.
The foreign-language areas
The number of people learning English has in recent

years risen rapidly. This, in part, reects changes in
public policy, such as lowering the age at which English
is taught in schools. Like L2, the EFL category spans a
wide range of competence, from barely functional in
basic communication to near native uency. The main
distinction between a uent EFL speaker and an L2
speaker depends on whether English is used within the
speakers community (country, family) and thus forms
Australia*
Bahamas*
Bangladesh
Belize*
Bhutan
Botswana
Brunei
Cameroon
Canada*
Cook Is
Dominica
Fiji
Gambia
Ghana
Guam
Guyana*
2,084
25
3,100
30
60
620
104
6,600
6,000
2
12
160
33
1,153
92
30
Hong Kong
India
Irish Republic*
Jamaica*
Kenya
Kiribati
Lesotho
Liberia
Malawi
Malaysia
Malta
Marshall Is
Mauritius
Micronesia
Namibia
Nauru
American English
British English
British Isles
Canada
U.S.
W. Africa
Am. Samoa
Philippines (US)
S. Asia
Caribbean
S.E. Asia
E. Africa
Anglophone
S. Africa
Australia
AUSTRALASIA
PNG
Fiji
New Zealand
Figure 5 The branches of world English
part of the speakers identity repertoire. In the EFL

world there is, by denition, no local model of English,
though speakers English accents and patterns of error
may reect characteristics of their rst language.
Argentina
Belgium
Costa Rica
Denmark
Ethiopia
Honduras
Lebanon
Myanmar (Burma)
Nepal
Netherlands
Nicaragua
Norway
Panama
Somalia
Sudan
Surinam
Sweden
Switzerland
United Arab Emirates
Language shift
In many parts of the world there are ongoing shifts in

the status of English. These are largely undocumented
and unquantied, but will represent a signicant factor
in the global future of the language. In those countries
listed in Table 6, the use of English for intranational
communication is greatly increasing (such as in professional discourse or higher education). These countries
can be regarded as in the process of shifting towards L2
status. In existing L2 areas, a slight increase in the
proportion of the population speaking English (for
example, in India, Pakistan, Nigeria and the
Philippines), would signicantly increase the global total
of secondlanguage speakers.
In many L2 areas, there is a trend for professional
and middle classes who are bilingual in English (a
rapidly growing social group in developing countries) to
adopt English as the language of the home. English is
thus acquiring new rst-language speakers outside the
traditional native-speaking countries. Yet the number
of new second-language speakers probably greatly offsets
the children in L2 families who grow up as rst-language
speakers a trend shown graphically in Figure 4.
1,860
37,000
190
50
2,576
20
488
2,000
517
5,984
86
28
167
15
300
9,400
Nepal
New Zealand*
Nigeria
Northern Marianas
Pakistan
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Philippines
Puerto Rico
Rwanda
St Lucia*
Samoa (American)
Samoa (Western)
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Singapore
5,927
150
43,000
50
16,000
16,300
28,000
36,400
1,746
24
22
56
86
11
3,830
1,046
Table 6 Countries in
transition from EFL to L2
status
Table 5 (below)
Second-language speakers of
English (in thousands)
(*indicates a larger number
of L1 English speakers)
Solomon Is
South Africa
Sri Lanka
Surinam
Swaziland
Tanzania
Tonga
Tuvulu
Uganda
UK*
US*
US Virgin Is*
Vanuatu
Zambia
Zimbabwe
135
10,000
1,850
150
40
3,000
30
600
2,000
1,100
30,000
10
160
1,000
3,300
11
Language hierarchies
Languages are not equal in political or social status, particularly in
multilingual contexts. How does English relate to other languages in a
multilingual speakers repertoire? Why does someone use English rather than
a local language? What characteristic patterns are there in the use of English
by non-native speakers?
English and other languages

A large number of native speakers is probably a prerequisite for a language of wider communication, for
these speakers create a range of cultural resources (works
of literature, lms, news broadcasts) and pedagogic
materials (grammars, dictionaries, classroom materials)
and provide opportunities for engaging in interactions
which require knowledge of the language.
But a full understanding of the role of English in a
world where the majority of its speakers are not
rst-language speakers requires an understanding of how
English relates to the other languages which are used
alongside it. The European concept of bilingualism
reects an idea that each language has a natural geographical home and that a bilingual speaker is therefore
someone who can converse with monolingual speakers
from more than one country. The ideal bilingual speaker
is thus imagined to be someone who is like a monolingual in two languages at once. But many of the worlds
bilingual or multilingual speakers interact with other
multilinguals and use each of their languages for different purposes: English is not used simply as a default
language because it is the only language shared with
another speaker; it is often used because it is culturally
regarded as the appropriate language for a particular
communicative context.
Languages in multilingual areas are often hierarchically ordered in status. To the extent that such relationships are institutionalised, the hierarchy can be thought of
as applying to countries as much as to the repertoire of
individual speakers. Shown schematically in Figure 6 is a
language hierarchy for India, a complex multilingual
area where nearly 200 languages exist with differing
status. At the pyramid base are languages used within
the family and for interactions with close friends. Such
languages tend to be geographically based (or used by
migrant communities) and are the rst languages learned
by children. Higher up the pyramid are languages which
are found in more formal and public domains and which
National languages
HINDI, ENGLISH
Scheduled languages
HINDI, TELEGU, BENGALI, MARATHI, TAMIL

URDU, GUJRATI, KANNADA, MALAYALAM, ORIYA
PUNJABI, KASHMIRI, SINDHI, ASSAMESE, SANSKRIT
Languages with widespread currency

41 languages used for education
58 taught as school subjects
87 used in media
Local vernacular varieties

Over 190 recognised language varieties
1,652 'mother tongues' recorded in 1961 census
Figure 6 A language hierarchy for India
have greater territorial reach. For example, in the

second layer from the base will be languages which in
India form the medium of primary education, newspapers, radio broadcasts and local commerce. Above these
in the hierarchy will be languages used in ofcial administration, secondary education and so on to the highest
level, in which will be found the languages of wider and
international communication. The taper of the pyramid
reects the fact that fewer language varieties occupy this
position: greatest linguistic diversity is found at the base
amongst vernacular languages. Indeed, very few of the
worlds languages are used for ofcial administration and
in other public forums.
Not all speakers will be uent in language varieties at
the higher levels. The normal pattern of acquisition will
begin with those languages at the base. Many of the
worlds population never require the use of varieties at
the uppermost layer because they never nd themselves
in the communicative position which requires such
language. For example, an Indian from the state of
Kerala whose mother tongue is a tribal language may
also speak Tulu (2 million speakers) and the state
language Malayalam (33 million), or the neighbouring
state language of Kannada (44 million). If they know any
Hindi or English, it is likely to be their fourth or fth
language. However, more and more people in the world
will learn languages in the uppermost layer as a result of
improved education and changing patterns of communication in the world.
Although a simple pyramid gure captures something of the hierarchical relationship between language
varieties, it perhaps suggests too neat a pattern of
language use. For the majority of the worlds population,
a particular language will exist at more than one level
(for example, serve as a public language as well as a
language in the family), though where a language serves
different communicative functions in this way it usually
also takes a variety of forms. For example, the classic
sociolinguistic pyramid used to describe British English
(Trudgill, 1974, p. 41) shows a similarly layered structure
in which vernacular, informal varieties, often with strong
geographical basis, exist at the lowest layer, whilst at the
apex is a standard form of English, showing little regional variation and used for public and formal communication. All speakers can be expected to modify their
language to suit the communicative situation; even a
monolingual English speaker will adapt accent, vocabulary, grammar and rhetorical form to suit the context.
English and code-switching
Where English has a place alongside other languages in

a local language hierarchy, speakers will normally use
their rst language in different contexts from those in
which they use English. Whereas the rst language may
be a sign of solidarity or intimacy, English, in many
bilingual situations, carries overtones of social distance,
formality or ofcialdom. Where two speakers know both
languages, they may switch between the two as part of a
negotiation of their relationship. Indeed, they may
switch between languages within a single sentence. In
the following example a young job seeker comes into the
managers ofce in a Nairobi business. The young man
begins in English, but the manager insists on using
Swahili, thus denying the young mans negotiation of
the higher status associated with English (MyersScotton, 1989, p. 339). Bilingual speakers use codeswitching as a communicative resource, varying the mix
English is not used simply as a default language;

it is often used because it is culturally regarded as
the appropriate language for a particular
communicative context.
of the two languages, for example, Swahili and English,
in a way which only a member of the same speech
community can fully understand.
Young man: Mr Muchuki has sent me to you about the
job you put in the paper.
Manager:
Ulituma barua ya application? [DID
LETTER OF APPLICATION?]
YOU SEND A
Young man: Yes, I did. But he asked me to come to see

you today.
Manager: Ikiwa ulituma barua, nenda ungojee majibu.
Tutakuita uke kwa interview siku itakapoka. [IF YOUVE
WRITTEN A LETTER, THEN GO AND WAIT FOR A RESPONSE. WE WILL
CALL YOU FOR AN INTERVIEW WHEN THE LETTER ARRIVES]
Leo sina la suma kuliko hayo. [TODAY
ELSE TO SAY]
I HAVENT ANYTHING
Young man: Asante. Nitangoja majibu. [THANK

WAIT FOR THE RESPONSE]
YOU. I WILL
One of the global trends we identify later is the development of world regions composed of adjacent countries
with strong cultural, economic and political ties. As such
regions develop, so it is likely that new regional language
hierarchies will appear. The European Union, for
example, may be in the process of becoming a single
geolinguistic region like India (Figure 7). A survey in
1995 by the European Bureau of Lesser Used Languages
reported that 42% of EU citizens could communicate in
English, 31% in German and 29% in French (cited in
Crystal, 1997). Surveys of European satellite TV audiences (p. 46) conrm the widespread understanding of
English over 70% of viewers claim they can follow the
news in English and over 40% could do so in French or
German. (Sysfret, 1997, p. 37).
It is possible to conceptualise a world hierarchy, like
that outlined for Europe or India, (Figure 8), in which
English and French are at the apex, with the position of
French declining and English becoming more clearly the
global lingua franca. Later, we argue that English is also
steadily colonising lower layers in this hierarchy for
many of the worlds speakers, whereas the majority of
the worlds languages found at present only at the base
are likely to become extinct.
The big languages

ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN
National languages
DANISH, DUTCH, ENGLISH, FINNISH
FRENCH, GERMAN, GREEK, IRISH
ITALIAN, PORTUGUESE, SPANISH, SWEDISH
Non-native speaker interactions

English increasingly acts as a lingua franca between nonnative speakers. For example, if a German sales manager
conducts business in China, English is likely to be used.
Little research has been carried out on such interactions,
but they are likely to have characteristic features,
reecting complex patterns of politeness and strategies
for negotiating meaning cross-culturally. Firth (1996), for
example, analysed international telephone calls involving
two Danish trading companies and identied several
conversational strategies. The exchange below, between
a Dane (H) and a Syrian (B), shows one strategy which
he termed let it pass where one person does not
understand what has been said, but delays asking for
elucidation in the hope that the meaning will emerge as
talk progresses or else become redundant.
B: So I told him not to send the cheese after the blowing
in the customs. We dont want the order after the
cheese is blowing.
Will English become a

language for work, like a
coat worn at the ofce
but taken off at home?
p. 42
Will the spread of English

be responsible for the
extinction of thousands
of lesser used languages?
p. 38
H: I see, yes.
B: So I dont know what we can do with the order now.
What do you think we should do with this all blowing,
Mr Hansen?
H: Im not uh (pause). Blowing? What is this, too big or
what?
B: No, the cheese is bad Mr Hansen. It is like fermenting
in the customs cool rooms.
H: Ah, its gone off!
B: Yes, its gone off.
Experienced users of English as a foreign language may
acquire communicative skills which are different from
those of native speakers, reecting the more hazardous
contexts of communication in which they routinely nd
themselves. However, the strategies employed by nonnative speakers remains an under-researched area of
English usage, despite the fact that there may already be
more people who speak English as a foreign language
than the combined totals of those who speak it as a rst
and second language.
The big languages

ENGLISH FRENCH
Regional languages
(*languages of the United Nations)

ARABIC, CHINESE*, ENGLISH*
FRENCH*, GERMAN, RUSSIAN*
SPANISH*
National languages
Around 80 languages serve over 180 nation states
Officially recognised and supported

languages
Official languages within nation states
ALSATION, ASTURIAN, BASQUE, CATALAN, CORSICAN

FRISIAN, GALICIAN, LADIN, LUXEMBOURGISH
OCCITAN, SARDINIAN, SCOTS GAELIC, WELSH
Around 600 languages worldwide (Krauss, 1992)

(e.g. Marathi)
Vernacular varieties of indigenous EU communities
(and other safe languages)
Local vernacular languages
ALBANIAN, ARAGONESE, BRETON, CORNISH, FRANCO-PROVENCAL, FRIULIAN

KARELIAN, LALLANS, MACEDONIAN (GREECE), MANX, POLISH, ROMANY, SAMISH
CROAT, SLOVENE, SORBIAN, TURKISH, VLACH
The remainder of the world's 6,000+ languages
Figure 7 A language hierarchy for the European Union
Figure 8 The world language hierarchy
13
Summary
1 The development of the language
The English language has changed substantially in vocabulary

and grammatical form often as a result of contact with other
languages. This has created a hybrid language; vocabulary has
been borrowed from many sources and grammatical structure
has changed through contact with other languages. This may
cause problems for learners, but it also means that speakers of
many other languages can recognise features which are not too
dissimilar to characteristics of their own language. Although the
structural properties of English have not hindered the spread of
English, the spread of the language globally cannot be
attributed to intrinsic linguistic qualities.
2 The spread of English
There have been two main historical mechanisms for the spread
of English. First was the colonial expansion of Britain which
resulted in settlements of English speakers in many parts of the
world. This has provided a diasporic base for the language
which is probably a key factor in the adoption of a language as a
lingua franca. In the 20th century, the role of the US has been
more important than that of Britain and has helped ensure that
the language is not only at the forefront of scientic and
technical knowledge, but also leads consumer culture.
3 English and other languages
The majority of speakers of English already speak more than

one language. An important community for the future
development of English in the world is the outer circle of those
who speak it as a second language. English often plays a special
role in their lives and the fate of English in the world is likely to
be closely connected to how this role develops in future. English,
for example, is becoming used by many EFL and L2 speakers
for a wider range of communicative functions. This process, by
which English colonises the lower layers of the language
hierarchy in many countries, means that English may take over
some of the functions currently served by other languages in the
construction of social identity and the creation and maintenance
of social relationships.
4 A single, European, linguistic area
Western Europe is beginning to form a single multilingual area,

rather like India, where languages are hierarchically related in
status. As in India, there may be many who are monolingual in
a regional language, but those who speak one of the big
languages will have better access to material success. Other
world regions may develop in a similar way. This book focuses
particularly on emergent trends in Asia, but signicant
developments are likely to occur also in the Americas, in Russia
and in sub-Saharan Africa.
References
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Stevenson (ed) The German Language and the Real World: sociolinguistic, cultural and
pragmatic perspectives on contemporary German. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Crystal, D. (1995) Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
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Eco, U. (1995) The Search for the Perfect Language. Oxford: Blackwell.
Firth, A. (1996) Lingua Franca English and conversation analysis. Journal of
Pragmatics, April.
Gibbs, W.W. (1995) Lost science in the third world. Scientic American, August,
pp. 7683.
Grimes, B.F. (1996) (ed) Ethnologue: languages of the world. Dallas: Summer Institute
of Linguistics.
Hagen, S. (1993) (ed) Languages in European Business: a regional survey of small and
medium-sized companies. London: CILT.
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Industrirdet.
Kachru, B.B. (1985) Standards, codication and sociolinguistic realism: the
English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk and H.G. Widdowson (eds)
English in the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krauss, M. (1992) The worlds languages in crisis. Language, vol. 68, no. 1, pp.
79
Large, A. (1985) The Articial Language Movement. Oxford: Blackwell.
Leith, D. (1996) English colonial to postcolonial. In D. Graddol, D. Leith and
J. Swann (eds) English: history, diversity and change. London: Routledge.
McArthur, T. (1992) (ed) The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
McArthur, T. (1996) English in the world and in Europe. In R. Hartmann (ed)
The English Language in Europe. Oxford: Intellect.
Myers-Scotton, C. (1989) Code-switching with English: types of switching, types
of communities. World Englishes, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 33346.
Skudlik, S. (1992) The status of German as a language of science and the
importance of the English language for German-speaking scientists. In U.
Ammon and M. Hellinger (eds) Status Change of Languages. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Swinburne, J.K. (1983) The use of English as an international language of
science: a study of the publications and views of a group of French scientists.
The Incorporated Linguist, vol. 22, pp. 12932.
Steiner, G. (1975) After Babel: aspects of language and translation. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Strevens, P. (1992) English as an international language. In B.B. Kachru (ed)
The Other Tongue: English across cultures. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Sysfret, T. (1997) Trend setters. Cable and Satellite Europe, January, pp. 347
Trudgill, P. (1974) Sociolinguistics: an introduction. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Viereck, W. (1996) English in Europe: its nativisation and use as a lingua franca,
with special reference to German-speaking countries. In R. Hartmann (ed) The
English Language in Europe. Oxford: Intellect.
Webster, N. (1789) An essay on the necessity, advantages and practicability of
reforming the mode of spelling, and of rendering the orthography of words
correspondent to the pronunciation. Appendix to Dissertations on the English
Language. Extracts reprinted in T. Crowley (ed) Proper English: readings in
language, history and cultural identity. London: Routledge.
Forecasting
q Futurology
Futurology is one of the oldest of professions, judged with scepticism
and awe in equal measure. Although facts and gures are an important ingredient in forecasting, they need to be interpreted with care.
On these pages we outline some basic features of language change
and describe common problems with using statistics.
q Making sense of trends

One of the key skills in forecasting is being able to recognise an underlying trend and to understand how it might develop in the future.
Linguistic and social change rarely happen at a steady and predictable
rate. Here we discuss various hazards associated with the interpretation of trend data using examples relevant to the English language.
q Predictability or chaos?
The use of English worldwide can be regarded as a complex system
in which many factors interact in ways that are not easily predictable.
But recent advances in modelling the behaviour of complex systems
such as the weather could help us understand what patterns may
emerge in the global use of English.
q Scenario planning
How do forecasters in large companies cope with the uncertainty
that the future holds? Can the methods they employ be applied to
matters of culture and language as easily as to the price of oil?
Scenario building is one methodology used by strategists to put together known facts with imaginative ideas about the future.
History is littered with failures of prediction and there

is no reason to believe that attempts to predict
precisely what will happen to the English language will
fare any better.
It is, however, possible to understand something of
the ways in which languages evolve and how
individual speakers adapt their patterns of language
use. This gives us some useful indicators as to the
conditions under which change occurs, which kinds of
change are likely and which unlikely, the reasons why
linguistic change happen and the timescales that
different kinds of change require.
But many factors affecting the use of languages cannot
be predicted easily. Major upheavals war, civil
revolution and the breakup of nation states can
cause languages to take unexpected directions, as can
the vagaries of fashion amongst the global elite. Most
people have opinions, ambitions and anxieties about
the future, but few people know how to plan
strategically for such unpredictable events.
Strategic planning is not the same as prediction. This
section provides a guide to some of the techniques
used by strategists and planners to create
future-proof models and shows how they can be
applied to aspects of language change and global
trends in the use of the English language.
The section begins with the hazards of extrapolating
from current data, examines what insights chaos
theory used for weather forecasting has provided
into the behaviour of complex systems and ends with
a discussion of the scenario-building techniques used
by transnational companies to ensure their strategic
decisions on investment and management stay robust
against a range of possible futures.
15
Futurology
Futurology is one of the oldest of professions, judged with scepticism and
awe in equal measure. Although facts and gures are an important
ingredient in forecasting, they need to be interpreted with care. On these
pages we outline some basic features of language change and describe
common problems with using statistics.
Trend spotting
What effect will the

growth of third-world
cities have on the future
development of English?
p. 27
How much of the worlds

wealth will Asia control in
2050?
p. 29
Futurologists inhabit a frontierland between historical

facts and guesses about the future. Most of the practical
techniques of strategic planning used by large corporations employ some kind of mix of empirical evidence
together with the insight and judgement borne of practical experience. But getting the mix right is an extremely
difcult task. Identifying trends even in the present can
be remarkably problematic. And although statistical
information is a primary resource for the futurologist,
anyone trying to forecast the future of English will
encounter problems in locating and using statistics associated with relevant worldwide trend data (opposite).
English in the future, as in the past, will be subject to
three types of change. First, although different speakers,
communities or communicative domains may be affected differently, there will be changes to the language itself.
Certainly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar,
but also in the range of text types and genres which
employ English. Second, there will be changes in status.
English may acquire a different meaning and pattern of
usage among non-native speakers, or be used for a wider
range of social functions. Third, English will be affected
by quantitative changes, such as numbers of speakers, the
proportion of the worlds scientic journals published in
English, or the extent to which the English language is
used for computer-based communication.
Listed here are some broad principles of language
change. Identifying ways in which various changes are
taken up and spread from one community to another
may suggest areas where we need to seek further information. While the dynamics of language change are
likely to be different within the three communities of
English speaker we have already identied
rst-language speaker (L1), second-language speaker (L2)
and the speaker of English as a foreign language (EFL)
some general patterns can be observed.
How does language change?

q Some kinds of change occur quickly, others slowly. Fashions
in slang usage among native speakers, or the borrowing of words into another language, can develop in
months, not years. But the shift which occurs when a
community or family abandons one language and
begins to use another as a rst language is usually
intergenerational. Language shift often needs three
generations to take full effect, which means that there
may be initial signs now of long-term changes which
might take the greater part of another 100 years to
fully complete.
q Individuals act as agents of change as do governments and
institutions. Successful learning of English is known to
be closely associated with personal ambition and
attributes such as personality type. But language
change may also be imposed from outside or it may
result from a rational response to a change in circum16 The Future of English?
stances. A government policy decision, for example,

might change the status of English as the rst foreign
language taught in schools, or may encourage
English as a medium of university education. Or
market liberalisation might result in the establishment
of joint-venture companies, paying high salaries but
requiring English-language skills in their workforce.
q Innovation in language tends to diffuse through social networks.
It has often been observed that people who interact
together on a regular basis, who have common loyalties and identity and who like each other, tend to use
language in similar ways. Any change in the patterns
of communication or in the structure of social relationships in such networks is likely to lead to a change
in language use. The creation of new forms of social
network or new patterns of social afliation can also
be expected to alter the way that speech communities
are created and maintained. New communications
technology, such as the Internet for example, may be
encouraging the formation of new kinds of social
afliation and new discourse communities.
q Language change does not move across geographical territories in
a linear fashion. Linguistic innovations, such as new
pronunciations, tend to jump from one urban area to
another, across rural areas and across national
borders. In this respect they are similar to other
changes brought about by social contact through
urban settings such as fashions in clothing, or the
adoption of some new kind of consumer hardware.
The growth of large cities in Asia will lead to many
kinds of social change, including new patterns of
language use.
q Young people are important leaders of change. There has
long been recognised a so-called critical period in
early life when children seem able to learn languages
easily. But adolescence is perhaps an even more
important stage, where young people make the transition to a social life which is largely directed by
themselves, when they acquire new social networks
and identities and feel the requirement for appropriate language styles. They may take aspects of these
identities through to adulthood; others may be transitional teenage phenomena. An understanding of
which languages the next generation of teenagers will
be speaking and learning is an important step in
identifying future trends.
q Language change may follow change in material circumstances.
Language is often linked to particular social and
cultural practices. Rehousing schemes, shifts in
employment and increased wealth may all contribute
to rapid linguistic change. This particularly contributes to language loss such as the disuse of Gaelic in
north-eastern Scottish shing communities, or of
Aboriginal languages in Australia, in favour of
English.
q Social and geographical mobility cause language change.
People moving, whether as migrant labour to another
country, or even within the same country (especially
from rural areas to urban ones), take their language
with them, but also learn the language used in the
new home area. The more mobile a society, the more
open it will be to change.
Establishing and understanding the links between

those things which can and have been measured and
the use of the English language worldwide, is a
matter of theory building and testing.
Problems with statistics
1 Statistics rarely provide equivalent data
across the countries, sectors and years
surveyed. Often, like is not compared
with like, or key data is missing from
tables.
2 Statistical data is collected primarily by
national or international agencies. This
means that particular information, for
example about ows within transnational
corporations (TNCs), either is not collected or is not publicly available.
3 Statistics take time to collect, collate and
publish. There is typically a lead time of
about three years for the publication of
primary UN statistics. There is a further
lead time for studies which analyse and
interpret such gures. Thus books and
scholarly papers published at the end of
the 1990s draw on statistics from the
beginning of the decade by the time
decision makers read them the gures are
a decade out of date. Unfortunately, many
key developments affecting the use of
English have emerged in the last few years.
Take, for example, the growth of the
Internet, which seemed to reach a critical
mass outside the US only during 1996.
Somehow, futurology needs to be informed by an understanding of recent trends,
as well as by data collected within a longer
timeframe; it needs to be able to identify
new trends in the early stages.
4 Statistics are costly and futurologists tend
to be under-funded. Elsewhere in this
book we document a global shift towards

the information society: the world is information rich, but information has become a
traded commodity. The World Wide Web,
for example, provides a wonderful mechanism for disseminating the most recent data
and all the key international agencies
possess their own Web sites. But information is now too valuable to give out for free
and, increasingly, such agencies are expected to be self-nancing if not prot centres:
hence the most useful and recent data is
sold at market rates. A single report on the
demographics of the Internet might sell for
$1,500. Since futurology is an eclectic discipline, drawing together information from
scattered sources across many sectors, the
cost of access to a range of databases can
exceed the value of the information gained.
Furthermore, those institutions which
employ futurology typically do so in order
to help develop policy before major funding
is committed.
5 Very little comparative data exists for the
immediate sphere of our enquiry, the international use of English. Who truly knows
how many people are learning English
around the world? How could we reach
agreement on a method of estimating the
prociency of the millions of casual learners? How can we gather sensible gures of
English as a second language in countries
where the gathering of statistical information is difcult? How can we apply systematic
criteria when patterns of English use are so
q Languages in contact with each other cause change. Language

contact has long been recognised as a major engine
of change; a historical example is that of Danish and
English which led to a major shift in the vocabulary
and grammar of English. The increasing use of
English in many parts of the world affects both local
languages and English and is giving rise to new,
hybrid language varieties.
q Changes often occur rst in informal and casual language.
Since the majority of such language is spoken, change
is rarely documented in the early stages. For similar
reasons, language change occurs quickest among
rst- and second-language users, rather than among
speakers of English as a foreign language.
q New technology gives rise to language change. Technological
innovation may give rise to new modes of communication. The style of written text widely used in
electronic mail, for example, seems to share characteristics of spoken language. Technology may also
create new patterns of communication, perhaps by
providing cheap international telephone links, or it
may create new words needed to describe new
objects and social practices which arise around their
use.
divergent in a huge variety of contexts?

The lack of comparative data means that
futurologists have to make their own facts:
to put together what is known in an innovative manner and make informed estimates.
6 Interpretation of statistics needs qualitative work. There is a tendency to count
that which can be easily counted, but as
Peter Schwartz commented in a classic
book on strategic planning, we know the
numbers, we just dont know their
meaning (Schwartz, 1996, p. 118).
Establishing and understanding the links
between those things which can and have
been measured and the use of the English
language worldwide, is therefore a matter
of qualitative work, theory building and
testing. It may be necessary to carry out
small-scale studies, such as ethnographic
studies of employee behaviour, language
audits or focus-group studies of young
people. In this way we might better
understand the link, for example, between
the start-up of joint-venture companies in
developing economies and the demand
for English, or the relationship between
numbers of Internet users in a country and
the use of local languages in electronic
communities. A great deal of data then
becomes usable because we can understand the potential implications of the
statistics for the everyday use of English.
q The dynamics of L1, L2 and EFL change are very different.

Change in the number of people speaking English as
a rst language cannot happen rapidly: change in
speaker numbers will depend mainly on demographic
shifts, but populations in the English-speaking countries are fairly stable. The number of people using
English as a second language could change more
substantially over a generation or two. The EFL
community is potentially the most volatile: major
shifts in the number of people learning English
around the world could occur quickly within a
decade as a result of changing public policy in
developing countries or a change in public interest.
It will be clear that the key drivers of linguistic
change are both social and material in nature. Economic
developments, technological innovations, new social
networks or demographic shifts are all likely to give rise
to language change. We can also see that some kinds of
change extend over longer periods of time than others:
language shift may take 50100 years, while a signicant
change in the number of people learning English as a
foreign language can occur within a few years. Certain
age groups also play a more important role in instigating
and advancing change than others. The complex interaction between these factors means that it is perfectly
possible that there will be widespread shifts in the way
languages are used in the future.
17
Making sense of trends

One of the key skills in forecasting is being able to recognise an underlying
trend and to understand how it might develop in the future. Linguistic and
social change rarely happen at a steady and predictable rate. Here we
discuss various hazards associated with the interpretation of trend data
using examples relevant to the English language.
Simple projections
The rise of global English was foreseen in the 19th
century by many commentators in America and Europe.
Indeed, wild speculations began to circulate about the
growth of the number of English speakers in the coming
century, based on projections of current trends. Bailey
(1992) reviews some of these accounts:
The most extravagant projections were the most satisfying
to the anglophone community and, therefore, the most
popular. The Swiss botanist Alphonse de Candolle
(180693) turned his attention to the question in the early
1870s. ...
Now, judging by the increase which has taken place in the
present century, we may estimate the probable growth of
population as follows:
In England it doubles in fty years; therefore in a
century (in 1970) it will be 124,000,000. In the United
States, in Canada, in Australia, it doubles in twenty-ve;
therefore it will be 736,000,000. Probable total of the
English speaking race in 1970, 860,000,000.
(Bailey, 1992, p. 111)
As each speculation quickly became fact, ever larger

gures appeared, until projections of English speakers
for the year 2000 exceeded a billion. The reality (Table
4, p. 10) is that there are only about 375 million native
speakers of English. Clearly, the 19th century futurologists were not only misguided in their projections of
native speakers, they also failed to foresee that the
growth in second- and foreign-language speakers would
be a much more important phenomenon.
When assessing what will happen next, we often
assume that what is happening now will simply continue.
Thus the 19th century commentators imagined that
growth in the number of native speakers would follow a
straight-line progression. But most social changes do not
have a linear pattern. Rather, a change begins slowly,

gathers speed and then slows down. If you graphed such
a change against time, you would get an S-shaped curve.
Such a curve can represent changes within a language,
say of pronunciation, as well as larger scale changes such
as language shift.
As an example of change within a language,
Chambers and Trudgill (1980) show how in the north of
England many speakers still pronounce words like must
and butter with a [U] sound, not dissimilar to the general pronunciation in Shakespeares day. Gradually, such
speakers are adopting the RP pronunciation [^]. Not all
words are immediately affected, however. The change
diffuses through the vocabulary, following an S-curve
pattern. Figure 9 shows the way a new pronunciation
moves through the English vocabulary, picking up speed
as the majority of words become pronounced in the new
way and then slowing down when only a few, apparently
more resistant words remain.
The S-curve applies as much to grammatical change
as to change in pronunciation. For example, English
progressive verb forms such as I am coming as opposed
to I come began to develop slowly in Old English,
gathered speed in Shakespeares time and are now the
norm. Although this change in usage is levelling off, the
trend is still gradually extending to other kinds of verb.
Aitchison notes that mental-process verbs such as know
and want are also beginning to be used in the progressive form, as in utterances such as were certainly
hoping theyll be wanting to do it again (Aitchison, 1991,
p. 100). This example demonstrates how difcult it is
sometimes to recognise that a trend is still in progress
when it is in the slow sections of the curve.
Recognising trends
By the time we notice a change is in progress, it is

usually in its middle segment the period of most rapid
change. Then it is easy to assume that the trend will
continue indenitely at the same rate. But the S-curve
model suggests the assumption may be mistaken, for a
rapid change may shortly slow up. Some changes have a
natural end point when everyone who can change has
done so, when market penetration approaches 100%
and so on. But the end point in many cases is less certain
and dependent on a complex interaction of factors. For
example, an increase in numbers of children learning
100
Percentage singular concord
Percentage vocabulary affected
100
80
60
40
20
0
Time
Figure 9 Lexical diffusion of a sound change
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
Figure 10 Singular verbs used with collective noun subjects in

editorials in The Times
19th century futurologists failed to foresee that the

growth in second- and foreign-language speakers
would be a much more important phenomenon.
English at school is limited ultimately by the size of the

global school population. But in practice the limits are
lower; many countries lack qualied teachers or other
resources to make the teaching of English in primary
schools effective. However, if new methods of language
teaching were developed, or if there were a shift in
public-sector resources, then the end point would move
and a new S-shaped trajectory become established.
A futurologist ideally wishes to identify changes at the
beginning, but because so many changes start slowly, it is
difcult to know whether we are at the beginning of an
S-curve or just experiencing an insignicant, temporary
blip. It also means that if one is looking for evidence of
a particular change (such as the economy is picking up,
or house prices are rising again) then there will be a
tendency to recognise the start of the trend prematurely, whenever a temporary movement occurs in the
expected direction. But the start of unexpected changes
are likely to go unnoticed.
Long-term trends are rarely as consistent as Figure 9
suggests: a smooth progression uninterrupted by the
interfering variables of real life. Figure 10 shows a 20th
century change in the use of singular verbs where the
subject is a collective noun. Many writers in standard
English are in doubt as to whether they should write
sentences such as The team was in good form or The
team were in good form. A study reported by Bauer
(1994, p. 63) shows that writers of editorials in The Times
have been inconsistent. If you had started collecting data
in 1945, you would probably have assumed that the
ongoing trend would continue in this case towards
plural verbs with subjects such as government, or
team. If you collected data over a longer period you
would have found an underlying increase in the use of
singular verbs with collective noun subjects. The many
uctuations which move in the opposite direction were
caused, no doubt, by the fact that different writers were
responsible for the texts studied. Such noisy data is
common: it means that trend data needs to be collected
over a longer period of time and then averaged. This
should alert the cautious futurologist to the fact that local
perturbations may disguise a general trend.
When several trends interact
As we can see, there are two common reasons for mistaken forecasting: first, extrapolating in a linear fashion
125
from trend data gathered during the period of most

rapid change; second, failing to recognise an underlying
trend because of local or temporary variation. A third
common error arises when it is assumed that the trend
which is currently most visible will remain the dominant
factor in the future.
Figure 11 shows schematically the growth in Internet
usage in the US and elsewhere in the world. What starts
as the uppermost curve shows users in the US, where the
Internet started and where growth during the 1990s was
quickest. But the second, underlying curve shows the
likely growth elsewhere in the world, particularly in
Europe and Asia. If we examine the data in 1997, at rst
sight it appears that Internet usage is much higher in the
US and that growth here is quickest. By implication,
English would appear to be the most dominant language
of the Internet. But the rst trend will not continue to be
the main determinant. Internet usage began later in
Europe and elsewhere in the world and is now rapidly
gathering pace. By the year 2000, it is likely that users in
the US will be outnumbered by users elsewhere. In
Europe, Germany is expected to be the largest Internet
user. In other words, the proportion of the global
Internet population based in the US is expected to increase during 1997, but then begin to fall.
How much of the global

economy will be based
on language-intensive
service culture by 2050?
p. 35
How will the falling cost

of transatlantic calls affect
language use?
p. 31
Cyclical patterns
Sometimes, trends change direction in a cyclical but

predictable way. For example, many thousands of young
people visit Britain each year to enrol on English
language courses a demand that rises over summer.
Seasonal cycles like this must be taken into account
when assessing underlying trends (Figure 12). It may be
that other factors with cyclical patterns also vary trend
data the regular upturns and downturns in the economy of any country known as the business cycle.
During a recession, there will be fewer jobs in the tourist
industry or less opportunity for the kind of casual job
that language students often require to support themselves whilst taking courses.
Identifying trends is therefore of great help to planners and strategists, but generally they need to be interpreted with awareness and caution. The use of historical
trend data may be most helpful when combined with
other approaches, which we examine next.
Students visiting Britain to take

English language courses (thousands)
Number of Internet users (millions)
500
US
Rest of world
0
Jan
1997
2000
Figure 11 Projected increase in Internet users
Aug
Jan
Aug
Jan
Aug
Figure 12 Cyclical patterns in student enrolments on English

language courses in Britain
19
Predictability or chaos?
The use of English worldwide can be regarded as a complex system in
which many factors interact in ways that are not easily predictable. But
recent advances in modelling the behaviour of complex systems such as
the weather could help us understand what patterns may emerge in the
global use of English.
Using forecasting models

How do we assess such complex trends as are involved in
the study, use and evolution of English worldwide? The
traditional approach to forecasting requires all
signicant factors to be identied. A mathematical
model is then constructed which shows how these
inuence each other and produce the behaviour which is
of interest. Future demand for electric power, for
example, is usually forecast in this way (below).
Such methods might be applied to forecasting the
demand for English which is, after all, a little like electricity consumption in the way that demand is related to a
variety of economic and cultural factors. Each driver of
English would be identied, the reasons why it led to
demand for English understood and its own future behaviour modelled. Indeed, such forecasting techniques
based on demographic models which predict how many
children will be living where are used by governments
to anticipate the future need for teachers.
We draw on two forecasting models in this book to
analyse the future of English. The rst, which we refer to
as the Hooke model, was devised by the Australian
economist Gus Hooke. The model provides long-term
forecasts of the global economy, including the education
and training sector. It also provides projections of the
demand for different languages in education through to
the year 2050.
The second forecasting model, the engco model (see
p. 64) has been constructed by The English Company
(UK) Ltd to provide predictions of the global inuence
of key languages, such as English, Spanish and
Mandarin. Just as the electricity example requires data
from a weather forecasting model, so the Hooke and
engco models require input data from demographic and
economic forecasts in order to predict demand for
languages. The Hooke model takes account of environmental development, technical progress and technology
transfer. The engco model draws on UN demographic
projections and a model for regional language shift.
Forecasting electricity demand
Electricity generating companies need to forecast demand for power,

both in the short and long term. The pattern of power consumption is
an uneven one, but it contains many cyclical patterns such as a daily
cycle (night/day), a weekly cycle (weekend/weekday) and an annual
MWH (thousands)
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
Months
Figure 13 Monthly electricity consumption in Eastern Province,

Saudi Arabia 198690 (after Al-Zayer and Al-Ibrahim, 1996)
Forecasting L1 and L2 speakers

Of three linguistic communities which we identied
earlier (rst language, second language and EFL, p. 10),
it is the rst-language community which is most easily
forecast. Two main factors need to be considered: future
patterns of language shift and demographic trends
including birth rate, migration and so on. Figure 14
shows the projections made by the engco model for
young speakers of Malay in order to assess the likely role
of the language in South-east Asia in the 21st century.
The low line shows projections based on UN population forecasts. The high line includes potential language
shift during this period (both from the many smaller
languages spoken in the region, but also from Javanese).
The uppermost line shows, for comparison, the demographic projections for young English speakers globally.
This line does not include any allowance for language
shift which is much more difcult to estimate for English
than for Malay because of the number of countries
involved. It does, however, show how the demographic
curve for English is surprisingly bumpy, as baby
boomers themselves have children.
Forecasting the use of a second language is a similar,
but more complex process, more dependent on accurate
forecasting of language shift.
Forecasting EFL speakers
It is, however, the EFL community which will be of most

interest to many readers of this book. More complex
forecasting models, along the lines of the electricity
model, might be constructed to predict ELT demand in
certain sectors. For example, demand for the Business
English Certicate increased in Central China in the
mid 1990s. A forecasting model which took into account
the long-term plans to make the city of Wuhan a focus of
industrial development, based around joint-venture
companies, might have been able to predict demand for
different kinds of vocationally oriented English courses.
The development of such complex forecasting models
does help identify the key variables and bring together
relevant baseline statistics, but there is reason to believe
that a forecasting model is not the best approach to
understanding future EFL demand around the world.
The limits of deterministic models
There is a strong argument against attempting forecasts

in a sphere of life in which cultural and political factors
cycle (winter/summer) (below left). Superimposed on these may be a

long-term trend for increased consumption, reecting new housing or
industrial development, or short-term uctuations for example, when
in Britain there is a rush to switch on an electric kettle during an advertising break in a popular TV programme. A forecasting model would
thus need to take into account a huge number of variables related to
the physical environment, the economic cycle, cultural and demographic factors. Separate forecasting models are then required to provide
the data in each area known to affect demand for power: weather
forecasts would indicate temperature trends, TV schedules would indicate when the advertising breaks were due and so on. The complexity
of the operation not to say the hazards in using data which are already the output from another, possibly inaccurate, model can be
appreciated. And, having built the model, it might apply only to conditions in one region. In Britain, for example, high temperatures decrease
consumption of electricity: there is no need for heating. In Saudi Arabia
high temperatures lead to an increase: people switch on the air conditioning.
An apparently unstoppable trend towards global

English usage could change direction in the future as
the consequence of some surprisingly minor event.
A world in chaos
Forecasting is thus best suited to mechanistic systems

where certain driving forces, such as economic modernisation, are taken to have a predictable effect on a
dependent variable, such as the demand for English.
But the system which interrelates language use with
cultural, political, economic and technological factors
is not, as we have seen, a mechanistic one: it may display
some of the characteristics of what has become known as
a complex system.
The mathematical approach used to model such
complex systems is known as chaos theory. Chaos
theory can help in forecasting the future of English in
several ways. First, it provides a conceptual metaphor for
the behaviour of English as a complex system as the
outcome of many different effects, each of which could
be modelled, but whose complex interactions make
prediction unreliable. One of the rst applications of
chaos theory was in weather forecasting and this provides a useful analogy for English. As Roger Bowers,
addressing an English 2000 conference in Beijing (as
Assistant Director-General of the British Council),
suggested:
It is like one of those weather maps that we see on our televisions of the globe as viewed from above the earths
atmosphere with great swathes of cloud sweeping and
swirling around continents and across oceans. And here we
are at the epicentre of two such systems English spreading
across the world on a tide of functionality, Chinese on a tide
of common culture and ethnicity. (Bowers, 1996, p. 1)
Chaos theory tells us that, as in weather forecasting,

it may be possible to make short-term general predictions
with some success, but predictions of precise local conditions or long-term forecasts are likely to go badly wrong.
But the system that spreads English usage around the
world is not entirely a chaotic one the situation is in
Chaos theory
One of the central insights of chaos theory is that complex behaviour can result from
the interaction of simple forces. For example, the forces which act on a table-tennis
ball and which determine the direction of movement are relatively simple and can be
modelled. But when a number of balls are put together, so that they bounce off each
other, the result is sufciently unpredictable as to form the basis for choosing the
numbers in the British national lottery.
Chaos theory also explains why very small inuences can sometimes give rise to large
effects. The classic but somewhat fanciful metaphor is that of a buttery which aps
its wings in the Amazon and triggers a hurricane in the Pacic. In both cases, the
behaviour of the system is counter-intuitive: most people imagine that if we understand basic mechanisms we should be able to predict the overall behaviour of the
system. We also feel a small force should have a smaller effect than a large one.
Chaos theory suggests that both intuitions can be wrong.
some ways worse. Just as it would be foolish to regard it
as being a well-governed, mechanistic system, amenable
to traditional forecasting techniques, so it would be
equally foolish to imagine it is a wholly random affair. As
a recent futurological analysis of social behaviour in
Europe suggests:
The complex systems and worlds which are coming under
the spotlight share the unpredictability of chaotic systems,
but also demonstrate self-organisation, evolutionary innovation, creativity, and, as a result, far-from-equilibrium behaviour. Such characteristics mean that complex systems or
worlds are intrinsically uncertain and unplannable.
(Elkington and Trisoglio, 1996, p. 764)
As it is difcult to predict exactly what will happen

when a prevailing wind enters a local landscape, meets a
variety of obstructions and is channelled down valleys
and around buildings, so there is a similar global-local
dynamic with the spread of English. There may appear
to be a prevailing trend, but a countrys cultural, economic, political and linguistic conditions provide a local
human-built landscape across which winds of change
must ow. Thus there is a need for an understanding of
the dynamics of the overall system, but also a knowledge
and understanding of local conditions.
Perhaps the most important lesson provided by the
study of complex systems is the nding that apparently
stable states or trends can, without much warning,
become unstable. An apparently unstoppable trend
towards global English usage could change direction in
the future as the consequence of some surprisingly minor
event.
80
English
Numbers of speakers (millions)
are so salient. A forecasting model suggests that patterns

of English language usage will be determined by economic and technological developments which can be
measured and reduced to numbers. But of course,
English is used by people and institutions and is partly
regulated by governments. Real-life decisions are taken
for a variety of reasons. They are driven not simply by
instrumental motives such as economic improvement,
but also by less tangible, cultural and political processes,
such as those connected with the construction of personal and national identities.
Predictability would rely, at the very least, on individuals and institutions behaving in rational ways to
changed material circumstances and continuing to experience the same needs and motives and seeking the same
goals. This cannot be relied upon in the 21st century.
The rationality of the rush to English for economic
reasons is also far from uncontested: a variety of cultural
and political movements exist around the world promoting views which are directly or indirectly anti-English;
other regional languages may gain in political importance to national governments as patterns of trade and
political alliances change; there is widely believed to be a
changing attitude in the worlds public towards decisions
based on concerns with quality of life rather than simple
nancial benet. It may be that, in the longer term, an
alternative logic will guide peoples responses to economic and technological change. We explore this idea at
the end of the book.
60
40
20
(globally)
Malay (high)
Malay (low)
How do forecasts for

English native speakers
compare with those for
other world languages?
p. 26
Figure 14 Young native

speakers (aged 1524) of
English and Malay, 19502050,
from the engco model
The Malay low line is the low
estimate for Malay, based
simply on population change.
The high line is the higher
estimate obtained by taking
likely language shift into
account. The line for English
does not incorporate language
shift
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
21
Scenario planning
How do forecasters in large companies cope with the uncertainty that the
future holds? Can the methods they employ be applied to matters of culture
and language as easily as to the price of oil? Scenario building is one
methodology used by strategists to put together known facts with
imaginative ideas about the future.
Dealing with uncertainty
What value shifts among

young people might
affect the future of
English?
p. 48
WWW
DEMOS SERIOUS FUTURES
http://www.demos.co.uk
If all cultural and linguistic trends could be linked to

factors of relatively little uncertainty, such as economic
growth, population trends and technological innovation
areas where futures research has been conducted and
forecasting models developed then there would be little
problem in modelling the future of English in different
parts of the world. But where there is extensive uncertainty, a different approach is needed preferably, a
methodology which bridges the gap between the predictable and the unknown in a structured way, which
marries empirical data such as market intelligence with
intuition, experience and imagination.
The importance of process
Futurology is an ancient discipline whose practitioners

star gazers, palmists, tarot-card readers, geomancers and
diviners traditionally use some form of empirical data.
It is tempting to see corporate consultants as the modern
parallel, to whom large sums of money are paid to advise
companies how to manage the future. But fortune tellers
provide a valuable lesson. Their predictions are based on
two important mechanisms: rst, predictions typically
arise from interactions with the client who may give a
great deal of information often unwittingly to the
fortune teller. Second, through the same process, clients
are likely to offer their own interpretations and betray
their own fears and desires, providing the fortune teller
with the required information.
Fortune telling offers a mechanism for clients to
reect on what they already know; to see new
signicance in details and to confront fears and desires
about the future. After all, the client is the expert in
local knowledge and experience. The fortune teller acts
as a facilitator who provides a structure within which
knowledge can be married with hopes and anxieties and
thus lead to a clearer understanding of what might
happen, what is desired and what must be avoided.
This aspect of the technique has its analogy in corporate planning in the processual approach the idea
that a planning and learning process ensures a company
maintains an active and intelligent watch on its business
environment which is more important than a nished
plan. Van der Heijden (1996) retells an anecdote about a
group of Hungarian soldiers lost in the Alps and presumed dead, but who returned safely after some days. We
considered ourselves lost and waited for the end, but
then one of us found a map in his pocket ... and with the
map we found our bearings (p. 36). When their lieutenant examined the map he found it was of the Pyrenees
not the Alps. Van der Heijden comments:
the map had given them a reason to act. Accuracy did not
come into it. By taking some action the soldiers started to
obtain new feedback about their environment, and they
entered a new learning loop which gradually built up
their understanding and mental map. (Van der Heijden,
1996, p. 37)
The importance of a good story

Perhaps the most popular form of futurology is science
ction, which gathers together complex ideas about
science and society and communicates them in an engaging and persuasive narrative. Indeed, science ction has
perhaps had more inuence than any other genre in
forming public awareness of the effects of technology on
society. H.G. Wells, for example, author of science
fiction such as The Time Machine and idealist social
commentaries such as The Work, Wealth and Happiness of
Mankind, published a Utopian fictional history of the
world as written in the 22nd century, The Shape of Things
to Come, where he foresaw a triumphant future for global
English.
One of the unanticipated achievements of the twenty first
century was the rapid diffusion of Basic English as the
lingua franca of the world and the even more rapid modification, expansion and spread of English in its wake. ... This
convenience spread like wildfire after the first Conference of
Basra. It was made the official medium of communication
throughout the world by the Air and Sea Control, and by
2020 there was hardly anyone in the world who could not
talk and understand it. (Wells, 1933, pp. 418, 419)
Language is a common preoccupation in science

ction: the genre has probably explored the linguistic
future more extensively than any other mode of futures
research. Much science ction provides a narrative
structure through which we can conceptualise the future,
exploring possible social outcomes of technological
developments and asking what if? Arthur C. Clarke, for
example, famously speculated on satellite communications long before the rst satellite was launched.
Social and political forecasting
In the late 1960s and 70s several companies attempted

social forecasting. Among them, the General Electric
Company (GEC) instituted an in-house forecasting
service to guide strategic corporate planning. Its Business
Environment Studies unit was aware that economic and
technological forecasting would be insufcient to predict
the contexts in which the company would employ
labour, produce goods and market its products. The unit
therefore devised methods of sociopolitical forecasting.
One tool used was a chart (Figure 15) showing likely attitude shift over a 15 year period amongst the trend
setting segment of the population young, well educated, relatively afuent, committed. The commercial
rationale for the exploration of social trends was that:
Without a proper business response, societal expectations of
today become the political issues of tomorrow, legislated
requirements the next day, and litigated penalties the day
after that. (Wilson, 1982, p. 218)
This illustrates several features of social forecasting.

First, how long-term events can be predicted by hypothesising a chain of events and looking for precursors.
Second, how some sectors of the population are of particular interest to the futurologist. Third, that if trends can
be identied earlier, the more options are available for
action. Indeed, it may be possible to alter a chain of
events by intervening in the early stages. For this reason,
the best forecasts are often inaccurate their very existence may change the course of history.
Scenarios are not predictions. The point of scenarioplanning is to help us suspend our disbelief. Then we
can prepare for what we dont think is going to happen
Peter Schwartz in The Art of the Long View.
1970 1985
Scenario planning
Techniques of social forecasting were, by and large,
superseded by alternative techniques that are better able
to deal with social and political uncertainties. The
method now known as scenario planning brings
together ideas of social forecasting, the processual
approach and the envisioning of futures in narrative.
A scenario is a possible future. Scenario builders take
known facts and trends and build imaginatively on them,
providing a narrative account which links events and
explores possible chains of consequences. Scenarios were
rst developed as a strategic military-planning technique
after World War II and later adopted by large corporations such as Royal Dutch/Shell. The companys use of
scenarios was one of the rst signicant demonstrations
of the techniques utility when, in the 1970s, Shell
proved to be the only large oil corporation prepared for
the oil crisis.
In building a scenario for the future of English, the
language itself would be a central character; hero or
villain. Other characters might be institutions and
governments, or the driving forces identied in forecast
models. A scenario would allow motives, probable
actions, possible decisions, relationships between
characters to be explored and what if questions to be
asked. Peter Schwartz, who helped Shells scenario planning exercises, explains:
Scenarios are not predictions. It is simply not possible to
predict the future with certainty. ... Rather, scenarios are
vehicles for helping people learn. Unlike traditional business
forecasting or market research, they present alternative
images; they do not merely extrapolate the trends of the
present. ... The point of scenario-planning is to help us
suspend our disbelief in all the futures: to allow us to think
that any one of them might take place. Then we can
prepare for what we dont think is going to happen.
(Schwartz, 1996, pp. 6, 195)
Kees van der Heijden, another former member of

the Shell team, suggests that scenario planning is the best
methodology for dealing with mid-term futures when
there is much information to hand, but where key factors
may be unknown. In the long term, when too much is
unpredictable, there is little left but hope. In terms of
corporate strategy, hope might be said to be invested in
mission statements or corporate visions (Figure 16).
There is a clear management advantage in scenario
building. Scenarios provide a windtunnel where personal
or corporate strategies can be tested, weaknesses in
Hope
Scenario planning
Forecasting
Uncertainty
Predetermined
Short
term
Mid term
Long
term
Figure 16 Forecasting, scenario planning and hope
thinking highlighted, organi- War (military

sational obstacles accounted might)
for in management design, or
forward plans made robust Nationalism
against a range of possibilities. Federal
government
Scenarios also sensitise a
Public
planning team to recognise enterprise
early-warning signs which Organisation
otherwise might be missed. Uniformity/
Shell did not predict the oil conformity
crisis, but had tested their Independence
management
strategies
Sociability
against such an improbable
Materialism
context. When the crisis arri- Status quo/
ved, they were able to recog- permanence/
nise the signs faster than routine
competitors and already had Future
an organisational understan- planning
ding of the required course of Work
Authority
action for a rapid response.
Centralisation
Scenario planning is a Ideology/
exible methodology which dogma
can be adapted to organisat- Moral
ions and circumstances. One absolutes
recent project, using a scena- Economic
rio technique to explore efficiency
possible futures for European Means (esp.
technology)
transport and communications during the next 30 years, described the focus of the
enquiry in ways which could apply to language:
As a method of exploring the future scenarios are superior

to more rigorous forecasting methods such as statistical
extrapolation or mathematical models if the number of
factors to be considered and the degree of uncertainty about
the future is high. This clearly applies in the case of transport and communications. Transport and communications
are closely interrelated with almost all aspects of human life.
They are linked to social and economic developments, are
inuenced by technological innovations and are subject to
numerous political and institutional constraints. (Masser et
al., 1992, p. 4)
This project developed a variation of the classic

scenario-planning technique by employing the so-called
Delphi method: panels of experts from different countries were involved in both the construction of scenarios
and their evaluation. This, the authors claim, facilitated:
the process of converging initially different expert views
towards one or possibly a few dominant opinions. In addition, scenario writing as a group exercise has the potential of
generating awareness of factors and impacts which may not
have been identied through formal forecasting methods.
(Masser et al., 1992, p. 4)
2000
Peace
(economic
development)
Internationalism
State/ local
government
Private
enterprise
Individual
Pluralism
Interdependence
Privacy
Quality of life
Change/
flexibility/
innovation
Immediacy
Leisure
Participation
Decentralisation
Pragmatism/
nationality
Situation ethics
'Social justice'
Ends (goals)
Figure 15 A prole of social

values held by trend setters
created by GEC in 1970,
together with GECs
forecast of likely value shifts
during the following 15
years. This study was one of
the earliest to forecast a
trend away from values
based on economic
efciency towards those
based on social justice a
trend which other
researchers suggest has
since gathered momentum.
The dashed line for the year
2000 represents a
speculative assessment of
how social values have
shifted since the GEC study
There are many possible variants of scenario planning but most share an emphasis on alternatives and
possibilities. The technique is capable of bringing
together a variety of stakeholders: those in the eld with
local knowledge, at the centre in senior management
roles, people who have researched the issues, or those
who are most affected should the scenarios turn out to
be true. But scenario planning only really makes sense
when particular questions have been identied as requiring answers. There is little point in building a windtunnel if there is no vehicle to test.
23
Summary
1 Scarcity of relevant facts
There is a surprising scarcity of data which directly relates to the

development of global English, since there is no central
international authority which collects such information.
2 Variety of change
A wide range of change is occurring in the status and form of

English around the world. Some changes are relatively swift and
ephemeral (such as fashions in vocabulary), others are more
profound and long term (such as language shift in families).
3 The complex interplay of causes
We may be able to identify some of the apparent drivers of

change the circumstances which appear to encourage people
to learn English or to give up their parents language in favour
of English but the way such causes of change interact with
each other makes prediction of the direction and extent of
change extremely hazardous.
4 Some predictions are safe, others dangerous
An understanding of the nature of change helps identify what

kind of prediction is relatively safe and what is dangerous. The
growth and decline of native speakers of a language is a
relatively long-term change which can be monitored and to
some extent forecast. Changes in the number of people learning
English as a foreign language, however, may be surprisingly
volatile.
5 Scenario building
Scenario building is one approach to strategic management

which allows an understanding of the causes and patterns of
change to inform forward planning, even where there is
considerable uncertainty about what the future might hold.
Forecasting, in a narrow sense of building models which
predict future patterns of behaviour, is not the only form of
futurology.
References
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University Press.
Al-Zayer, J. and Al-Ibrahim, A.A. (1996) Modelling the impact of temperature
on electricity consumption in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. Journal of
Forecasting, vol. 15, pp. 97106.
Bailey, R.W. (1992) Images of English: a cultural history of the language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Bauer, L. (1994) Watching English Change. London: Longman.
Bowers, R. (1996) English in the world. In J. Hilton (ed) English in China: the
English 2000 Conference. Peking: British Council.
Chambers, J. and Trudgill, P. (1980) Dialectology. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Elkington, J. and Trisoglio, A. (1996) Developing realistic scenarios for the
environment: lessons from Brent Spar. Long Range Planning, vol. 29, no. 6, pp.
7629.
English 2000 (1995) Benchmarks Report: a study to establish systems to measure Britains
share of the global ELT market. Manchester: British Council.
Hooke, A. (1996) An Export-Oriented Approach to Regional Development. Unpublished
paper, Sydney.
Masser, I., Sviden, O. and Wegener, M. (1992) The Geography of Europes Futures.
London: Belhaven Press.
Schwartz, P. (1996) The Art of the Long View. New York: Doubleday.
Van der Heijden, K. (1996) Scenarios: the art of strategic conversation. Chichester:
John Wiley & Sons.
Wilson, I. (1982) Socio-political forecasting: the General Electric experience. In
B. Twiss (ed) Social Forecasting for Company Planning. London: Macmillan.
Wells, H.G. (1933) The Shape of Things to Come: the ultimate revolution. London:
Hutchinson.
Global trends
q Demography
How many people will there be in 2050? Where will they live? What
age will they be? Population projections exist for all the worlds
countries and answers to such demographic questions can help us
make broad predictions about a question at the heart of this study:
who will speak what languages in the 21st century?
q The world economy

The economic shape of the world is rapidly changing. The world as
a whole is getting richer, but the proportion of wealth created and
spent by the west will decrease markedly in the next few decades.
This will alter the relationship between the west and the rest of the
world especially Asia and will change the economic attractiveness
of other major languages.
q The role of technology

Advances in technology in the 19th century helped kick start the
long wave of economic growth which is yet to reach some parts of
the world. Technological change transforms the spaces in which we
work and live, but it is difcult to predict precisely how technology
will shape our future global patterns of language use.
q Globalisation
World economies and cultures are becoming increasingly interconnected and interdependent, politically, socially and technologically:
complexication, cross-border activity and process re-engineering
have been the buzz words of the 1990s. Here we examine the impact of economic globalisation on patterns of communication.
q The immaterial economy

The worlds output is getting lighter. Within a few decades, many
more people will be employed in the service industries which characterise economic globalisation. New forms of global teleworking
are emerging and an increased proportion of the value of goods is
produced through language-related activity.
q Cultural ows
Language has been regarded since the Renaissance in terms of territory. Statistics about language, culture and economy, collected by
international bodies, have been based on nation states, populations
of speakers and relative sizes of economies. But chaos theory suggests the concept of ow may be better suited to understanding
language in a borderless world.
q Global inequalities
As developing economies mature and per capita income rises, so
social and economic inequalities also seem to grow: prociency in
English may be one of the mechanisms for dividing those who have
access to wealth and information from those who dont. The global
spread of English may also be associated with decreased use of endangered languages.
There is much evidence economic, technological

and demographic that the world has now entered
a period of unprecedented and far-reaching change
of a kind which will transform societies and reshape
the traditional relations of economic, cultural and
political power between the west and the rest
which have led world events for several hundred
years.
It is coincidental that a new millennium should be
associated with the construction of a new world
order: the roots of the present period lie at least in
the industrial revolution which began in Europe and
in particular in Britain. It can be argued that its
starting point was even earlier in Renaissance
Europe which gave rise to the nation state and
national languages, to modern science and
institutional structures.
The fact that the world has reached a transformative
moment in a long historical process is remarkable
enough, but even more remarkable is the idea that
rapid change will not now be a permanent feature
of global life; rather it is a consequence of the
transition towards a new and more settled world
order, with quite different cultural, economic and
linguistic landscapes.
This section deals with key global trends, each of
which are now helping transform the need for
communication between the worlds peoples from
population shifts to economic globalisation; from the
invention of the Internet to the restructuring of
social inequality. It is these trends which will shape
the demand for English in the future, but they
interact in complex ways and may produce
unexpected cultural and political outcomes.
25
Demography
How many people will there be in 2050? Where will they live? What age will
they be? Population projections exist for all the worlds countries and answers
to such demographic questions can help us make broad predictions about a
question at the heart of this study: who will speak what languages in the
21st century?
engco model uses this approach as the basis of its projections: Figure 18 shows estimates based on UN demographic data for rst-language speakers of major world
languages from 1950 to 2050. Table 7 shows the possible
number of native speakers of a wider range of languages
in 2050.
However, population growth is slowing in European
countries: roughly equal percentages of the population
are under the age of 15 and over the age of 65 (The
Economist, 1996). Yet in non-OECD countries, the population is increasingly becoming younger. This global shift
in the location of young people will have signicant
linguistic consequences. Since young people are key
agents for language change and development, while
older people tend to be more stable in speech habits, we
can expect patterns of language change to be marked in
those countries of increasing youth: Africa, Asia and
South America. Of these, the last two regions are experiencing considerable social and economic change. This
combination of factors will make Asia and Latin
America potentially signicant regions of language
change in the next century.
12.5
10
7.5
World Population (billions)
Population growth
2.5
0
1500
1700
1900
2100
2300
Figure 17 World population

growth is expected to
stabilise at the end of the
21st century
WWW
UN DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
gopher://gopher.undp.org:70/
11/ungophers/popin
When looking to the future, few things are more predictable than population growth. Provided that current
trends of increased lifespan and fertility rates in developing countries continue, we can estimate from infants
born this year the numbers of their offspring in 2020 and
so on: the UN estimates the global population in 2150
will be 11.54 billion. Figure 17 shows the predicted
population growth worldwide to 2300. Charted, it shows
an S-curve rise (such as those described in section 2),
with rapid growth beginning about the time of the industrial revolution. As is the problem with S-curves, it is
difcult to determine the point at which rapid population increase will slow and stabilise, but the demographic
models used by the UN do expect stabilisation to take
place in the rst half of the next century.
Population trends differ greatly from country to
country, however. This in turn means that as the demographic shape of the world changes, so will the relative
status of different languages. Which languages then will
this growing number of people speak?
The languages people speak show two main
inuences: first, the speech community they are born
into, which for an increasing number of the worlds
population is a multilingual one; and second, the
languages people learn through life as a consequence of
education, employment, migration or increased social
mobility. The languages that people use in their everyday interactions do not change rapidly, unless a
speakers social circumstances quickly change.
Multilingual speakers may add languages during their
lifetime and they may nd that another becomes less
used. But major language shift, from one rst language
to another, is usually slow, taking place across generations. Hence, if we take into account current patterns of
language use amongst the young, including infants and
teenagers, we can make a fair prediction about patterns
of language use in 50 years time, with the proviso that
rapid social change may complicate the pattern. The
Language and migration
The English language arose as a fringe consequence of

large-scale people movement in northern and western
Europe, which not only changed the European linguistic
map but also led to the downfall of the Roman empire.
Migration has since shaped the development of English
across the world. During the 16th to 19th centuries, both
the slave trade and colonisation moved people and
languages: from Europe to the Americas, India, Africa
and Australia; from Africa to the Americas; and from
Oceania to Australia and New Zealand.
In the 20th century, patterns of immigration partially
reversed. As a consequence of decolonisation, many
families came to Britain from the Indian sub-continent
and the Caribbean, while immigration policies of
Australia encouraged migration from Asia rather than
from Britain and Europe. As a consequence, highly
multilingual cities have arisen in countries which imagined themselves to be predominantly monolingual
English speaking. Censuses of London schoolchildren,
for example, show that by the 1980s around 200 languages were spoken in the citys primary schools.
Yet the mass migrations of the 1990s between parts
of Africa have had little impact upon world varieties:
Chinese
1,000
What languages will be

spoken by global
teenagers in 2050?
p. 49
Hindi/Urdu
Spanish
500
English
Arabic
300
100
0
1950
Portuguese
Japanese
French
1970
1990
2010
2030
2050
Figure 18 Demographic estimates of rst-language speakers (in millions) for

some major languages according to the engco model
Percentage of US population
50
2050
1992
40
30
20
10
Total nonwhite
Hispanic
Black
Native Americans
Asians & Pacific
Islanders
Figure 19 How the ethnic composition of the US

population is expected to change
It is amongst professional groups that the use of

English is most prevalent and professional middle
class families are most likely to adopt English as the
language of the home.
Africa is one of the least-developed world regions economically and is least connected to global cultural systems.
This, of course, may change in the longer term. But it
appears that mass, long-distance migration is no longer a
substantial source of language shift, as the richer countries effectively close their doors.
There remain three kinds of migration which are
likely to have linguistic consequences in the 21st century.
First, migration from poorer countries on the fringes of
richer ones either permanently or as guest workers.
Second, migration across language boundaries within
economic blocs, such as the EU. Third, migration within
countries, mainly towards areas of economic growth.
The ow of economic migrants across borders into
richer countries seems to be ever increasing. It is estimated that 4% of the population of Mexico shifted to the
US between 1970 and 1990. In Europe in 1990, following the breach of the Berlin wall, roughly 1 million
people moved from Poland, East Germany and elsewhere to settle in West Germany. Layard et al. (1994)
suggest that this is the beginning of continued movement
from eastern Europe to the richer west, mirroring the
relationship between Mexico and the US.
If we focus on the next 15 years and think in terms of 3 per
cent, this would imply that at least 4 million non-Soviet
Eastern Europeans would wish to move to Western Europe
or the United States. (Layard et al., 1994, p. 12)
Such movements have unpredictable effects on

language use and often give rise to political tension. In
the US for example, immigration from other countries
may leave the white population barely in the majority
by 2050, according to estimates from the US Commerce
Departments Census Bureau (cited in McRae, 1994).
The population of Hispanic, Asian, Native American
and black Americans would grow as indicated in Figure
19. Some political groups in the US now suggest this will
threaten the hegemony of English. Certainly, demographic change is likely to alter the percentage of US citizens
who are rst-language English speakers and estimates of
global native English speakers in 2050 may be, as a
result, too high.
Increasingly, migration is taking place within countries. In developing countries, the most important trend is
likely to be migration to the cities from rural areas. The
Special Economic Zones of China, for example, will
experience greater pressure as these trading areas
develop. Migration to these zones is likely to lead to
wider usage of regional lingua francas, such as
Cantonese or Wu Chinese.
The growing middle classes
One of the most signicant social consequences of the

industrial revolution in Europe was the creation of an
educated middle class with social aspirations and
sufcient disposable income to help build a consumer
culture. Likewise, one of the signicant trends in Asia
and Latin America is a parallel expansion of the middle
classes: Schwartz and Leyden (1997, p. 126) suggest that
over 2 billion Asians will have made the transition into
the middle class by 2018. This demographic shift may
prove to be the most signicant factor of all in determining the fate of global English in the next century it is
amongst professional groups that the use of English is
most prevalent and professional middle-class families are
most likely to adopt English as the language of the home.
The language of cities

The future for an increasing number of the worlds
population will be an urban one: the UNDP suggests the
proportion of people living in towns and cities will be
over 50% by 2005 (UNDP, 1996). A far cry from the
start of the 16th century when only 5 European cities
had populations over 100,000 Constantinople, Naples,
Venice, Milan and Paris. By 1600 the number had
trebled. Between World War I and World War II, New
York became the rst city to grow beyond 10 million
inhabitants. The cities expected to be the largest by the
year 2000 are listed in Table 8.
The most rapid urbanisation, like population growth,
is taking place in the developing world. Between 1950
and 2000 some 1.4 billion more people will have become
city dwellers in the developing world. UN estimates for
1994 to 2025 show Asia achieving one of the largest
increases in urban growth some 20.7%. And in South
Asia alone, over the period 1960 to 2000, urban population is expected to have doubled.
Urbanisation is likely to have wide-reaching effects
on the worlds languages. Rural areas have been known
as linguistically conservative since 19th century
European dialect surveys hunted out elderly, rustic
peasants as informants about pure unadulterated
speech, untainted by the culture of the industrial revolution. There was considerable romanticism in these
projects, but also a recognition of the role that urban
areas play in cultural and linguistic change. As cosmopolitan centres they provide a focal point for in-migration
from different parts of a country and become important
zones of language contact and diversity; they give rise to
dense but interlinked social networks; they encourage
the growth of a middle class with disposable income who
become consumers of global material culture; they are
centres of social innovation and fashion. This is precisely
the kind of environment where social and cultural practices are transformed and where new language varieties
and speech habits emerge. Furthermore, new language
varieties emerging from large, densely populated cities
are usually economically and culturally signicant. In the
coming decades, the rapid urbanisation in the Shanghai
area of northern China, for example, may create a new
variety of Wu Chinese with not only a large number of
speakers but also powerful economic and cultural
support.
A good deal of sociolinguistic research has been carried out in urban centres but studies of new city developments are scarce. One recent British research project
examined the linguistic consequences of new-city development in the British town of Milton Keynes (situated
90 km north-west of London). Kerswill (1996) reports
that the accents of children had a great deal in common,
but did not follow those of their parents, nor that which
already existed in the area. A new dialect seemed to be
emerging amongst new-town adolescents. What we see
is possibly a sign of future changes in English: new towns
are perhaps in the vanguard of the dialect levelling
found in England as a whole (Kerswill, 1996, p. 299).
Urbanisation thus has important effects on language
demography. New languages emerge, others change,
some are lost. In the worlds cities the nexus for ows
of people, goods and ideas the spread of English will be
felt rst and most keenly; new patterns of English use will
arise amongst second-language speakers. But such cities
will also form the foundation for other, potentially rival,
lingua francas.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Chinese
Hindi/Urdu
English
Spanish
Arabic
Portuguese
Bengali
Russian
Japanese
German
Malay
French
1,384
556
508
486
482
248
229
132
108
91
80
76
Table 7 Estimates provided

by the engco model of
native-speaker numbers
for major world languages
in 2050 (millions)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mexico City
Tokyo-Yokohama
Sao Paulo
Shanghai
New York
Calcutta
Bombay
Beijing
Los Angeles
Jakarta
25.6
24.2
22.1
17.0
16.8
15.7
15.4
14.0
13.9
13.7
Table 8 The 10 largest

cities in the ye ar 2000
(population millions)
27
The world economy

The economic shape of the world is rapidly changing. The world as a whole
is getting richer, but the proportion of wealth created and spent by the west
will decrease markedly in the next few decades. This will alter the
relationship between the west and the rest of the world especially Asia
and will change the economic attractiveness of other major languages.
A richer, smaller world
WWW
WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION
http://www.wto.org
Since the industrial revolution, the worlds wealth has

been steadily increasing. A calculation of the total value
of goods and services created and supplied throughout
the world shows that in 1750 (converted to 1990 prices),
the Gross World Product (GWP) was around $50 billion.
By 1990, however, this was the size of the Malaysian
economy alone GWP had risen to $25 trillion. The
Hooke forecasting model suggests that by 2050 the
global economy will have grown a further tenfold to
$250 trillion. The relatively rapid growth in wealth has
led to the popular idea that economic growth is a permanent condition but in fact the growth of GWP seems to
be taking the form of an S-curve, beginning with the
industrial revolution and attening out in the next
century. This period of rapid growth the steep portion
of the curve we are now living in began in Britain and
Europe and may span eventually a period of 250 to 300
years.
GWP is now rising at an average annual 2.5%. Most
of the industrialised countries have experienced growth
rates around the global average, but elsewhere growth is
uneven. Some countries have experienced, like China,
an average annual growth of over 9% since 1985; the
economies of other countries, particularly those affected
by war or political upheaval, have shrunk. These uneven
growth rates reect the fact that economies of developing countries are gradually coming up to speed that
is, achieving productivity levels typical of developed
countries. This process is facilitated by technology and
skills transfer from richer countries, which have greatly
reduced the time required for a country to double its per
capita income. Whereas Britain took 58 years its
growth was generated by invention and innovation
countries benefiting from ows of knowledge, expertise
and technology transferred from the west have been able
to double their income in reducing timescales, as Figure
20 illustrates.
Turning the tables
As countries grow richer, the OECD countries will

become proportionally less important in the world economy. Figure 21 shows world distribution of wealth for
1990 and Figure 22 that projected for 2050 the time
when world growth is expected to stabilise. These gures
60
40
na
hi
C
re
sia
Ko
S.
il
ne
az
Br
do
In
an
Jap
20
Economic strength of languages
The shift in economic relations will have a profound, but

as yet poorly understood, effect on the popularity and
use of different languages. It is clear that a language
which is spoken by rich countries is more attractive to
learners than one which provides no access to personal
betterment or lucrative markets. Ammon (1995) puts
forward this argument in exploring the status of German
as an international language:
The language of an economically strong community is
attractive to learn because of its business potential.
Knowledge of the language potentially opens up the market
for producers to penetrate a market if they know the
language of the potential customer. (Ammon, 1995, p. 30)
One corroboration of the attractiveness of the

language of an economically strong country comes from
Coulmas (1992), who was able to show that the rise in
the number of students enrolling on courses worldwide
in Japanese as a foreign language closely mirrored a rise
in the value of the Japanese yen against the US dollar
during the period 1982 to 1989 (Coulmas, 1992, p. 78).
A relatively straightforward way of estimating the economic strength of a language is simply to rank the economies of the countries where native speakers live (Table
9). According to this we nd an international order for
the late 1980s (Ammon, 1995).
A slightly more sophisticated approach is to take into
account all countries in which a language is spoken and
allocate the GDP of each country proportionally to the
languages spoken there. The engco forecasting model
calculates a GLP (Gross Language Product) in this way
and produces gures for the major languages (Table 10).
The estimates differ from Ammons both because of the
different method of calculation and because the engco
model draws on GDP gures for 1994 the latest available in 1997.
Traded languages
Years to double per capita income
Figure 20 Length of time

taken to double per capita
income
group together those OECD countries which comprise

the worlds Big Three trading blocs North America,
the European Union and Japan. At the present time, the
vast proportion of the worlds wealth is produced by
these regions and circulates within them. As yet, the Big
Three blocs also possess most of the worlds management and technological expertise, scientic knowledge
and advanced industrial skills.
But the present period is a transitional time: we are
witnessing radically changing economic relationships
between countries and world regions. Transition over
the next 50 years will be uncomfortable in many ways,
particularly for the Big Three trading regions. As Gus
Hooke (1996) remarked, For those who dont like
change, best either to be born before 1800 or hang on to
about 2050. For those who love change, the ideal time to
be alive is 1995 to 2010.
Establishing a link between macro-economic factors and

language popularity is an attractive idea: there are more
statistics on the economy available, country by country,
than for any other sphere of human activity. But it is
insufcient to note that strong economies attract interest
in languages: we need to understand better how economic power encourages the use of particular languages.
Only then can we predict whether the relative shrinking
of English-speaking economies will lead to a reduction in
demand for English.
The shift in economic relations will have a profound,

but as yet poorly understood, effect on the popularity
and use of different languages.
This is a large question which cannot be answered

simply, but one approach is to analyse business transaction. It is notable that the volume of international trade
has been growing rapidly: between 1950 and 1994 world
trade multiplied 14 times while output rose only 5.5
times (World Trade Organisation, 1995). In other
words, an increasing proportion of wealth is created by
trade part of a general process of globalisation now
bringing world economies and cultures in ever-closer
union.
There is a general rule of thumb, probably existing
since the earliest days of international trading, that
selling must be carried out in the customers language
unless the commodity is in short supply or there is a
monopoly provider. The linguistic consequence of this is
that language popularity will follow markets: the
merchant speaks the customers language. In importexport terms, the language of the customer will tend to
dictate the process. Since most countries aim to balance
the value of imports and exports, at least roughly, then
the language effect should be reciprocal. Therefore it
might be argued that the world status of a language
depends less on GDP than on the extent to which its
native speakers trade their goods and services internationally. The engco model calculates languages related to
trade in an index of traded GLP (Table 11).
English in business
But international trade is often a complex, cross-border

business: goods are taken from one country, rened or
given added value by a second, sold to a third, repackaged, resold and so on. Such multilateral trade brings
with it greater reliance on lingua francas.
In Europe there is growing evidence that English has
become the major business lingua franca. A study
conducted in 1988 for the Danish Council of Trade and
Industry reported that English is used by Danish companies in over 80% of international business contacts and
communications (cited in Firth, 1996). A more recent
investigation in small and medium-sized businesses in
peripheral areas of Europe (Hagen, 1993) found that
although English is probably the most used language of
business across Europe, German is used extensively in
particular areas, especially for informal communication.
German is, understandably, in more widespread use than
English in European regions bordering on Germany,
thereby underlining a common misperception of English as
the sole lingua franca of international business. This is apparent in the Dutch and Danish samples, where German is
ahead of English in the use of oral-aural skills, though this
order is reversed for reading and writing. (Hagen, 1993, p.
14)
The use of German seems to be increasing in parts of

central and eastern Europe: a trend that may be
conrmed as more countries join the European Union.
Hagen (1993) suggests knowledge of one language is not
sufcient for a company to conduct business successfully
in Europe: a minimum level of linguistic competence for
a European company is the ability to perform in three:
namely, English, German and French (Hagen, 1993, p.
12). British companies seem least able to meet this criterion.
However, the use of German and French is almost
exclusively conned to trade within Europe: German
companies generally use English for trade outside the
European Union. This is apparent from recommendat-
Big Three 55%
Figure 21 Proportions of
world wealth in 1990
(total $25 trillion)
Asia 21%
Rest 24%
Rest 28%
Big Three 12%
Figure 22 Estimated shares

of world wealth in 2050
(total $250 trillion, average
world growth at 4%)
Asia 60%
ions made by German Chambers of Commerce to
members on which languages should be used for trade
with each country in the world (cited by Ammon, 1995).
English is recommended as the sole language for 64
countries. German is recommended as the exclusive
language of trade with only one other country Austria
though German is suggested as a co-language for up to
25 countries, including Holland, Denmark and those in
eastern Europe. French is recommended for 25 countries
and Spanish for 17. English is thus the preferred, but not
the sole, language of external trade for European countries. Japan and the US also use English widely for international trade.
The overall pattern seems to be that trade driven by
the Big Three encourages the use of English globally.
But as patterns of trade change, so patterns of language
use may change. The key to understanding the future of
business English will lie in the extent to which other
languages become important trade lingua francas for
internal trade within Asia and Latin America.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
English
4,271
Japanese
1,277
German
1,090
Russian
801
Spanish
738
French
669
Chinese
448
Arabic
359
Italian
302
Portuguese
234
Dutch
203
Hindi/Urdu 102
Indonesian
65
Danish
60
Greek
49
Table 9 Estimated economic

strength of languages
in $billion
(after Ammon, 1995)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
English
Japanese
German
Spanish
French
Chinese
Portuguese
Arabic
Russian
Hindi/Urdu
Italian
Malay
Bengali
7,815
4,240
2,455
1,789
1,557
985
611
408
363
114
111
79
32
Table 10 Estimates of Gross

Language Product (GLP) of
major languages in $billion
(engco model)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
English
2,338
German
1,196
French
803
Chinese
803
Japanese
700
Spanish
610
Italian
488
Portuguese
138
Malay
118
Arabic
85
Russian
73
Hindi/Urdu
25
Bengali
9
Table 11 Major languages by

traded GLP in $billion
(engco model)
29
The role of technology

Advances in technology in the 19th century helped kick start the long wave
of economic growth which is yet to reach some parts of the world.
Technological change transforms the spaces in which we work and live, but it
is difcult to predict exactly how technology will shape our future global
patterns of language use.
Technological past
English today has been shaped by the effects of the industrial revolution. As English became the worlds
language of discovery and as rapid advances were made
in materials science, engineering, manufacturing and
communications, new communicative functions were
required of the language. Industrial and communications
technology created legal, management and accounting
structures, each with different forms of information
giving. New, more complex communicative skills were
required by employees such as literacy skills while
the industrial economy gave rise to greater interaction
between institutions and the general public, mediated
through railway timetables, company accounts, instructions for household products and advertisements.
Typographic design expanded accordingly, as did the
range of written and spoken genres institutionalised in
English. Thus the information age began in the 19th
century, establishing many of the styles and conventions
we take for granted today.
Technology has indeed proved to be of profound
signicance to culture and language. Is there now a
revolutionary technology just around the corner which
will transform our use and expectations of language in
the way that the industrial revolution did?
Will English continue to
be closely associated
with leading-edge
technology?
p. 61
Figure 23 Languageengineering products

available for major languages
in the mid 1990s
Technological future
Forecasting key technologies of the future is an unreliable activity, as some heroic failures in the past demonstrate. An editorial in The Times, October 1903, predicted
that heavier-than-air flying machines were theoretically
impossible two months before the Wright brothers
launched their first plane. In 1876 the Western Union
a telegraph company decided not to take up the patent
on Bells telephone because they considered the device
to be inherently of no value to us. Western Union were
not Luddites: they were in business at the leading edge of
telecommunications technology. But even experts can
get it wrong.
It is unlikely that the world will be transformed by
some extraordinary invention in the next few decades.
New technology takes time to develop, be implemented
Arabic
Russian
Japanese
Computer languages
English and computers have seemed, for decades, to go

together. Computers and the programs which make
them useful were largely the invention of Englishspeaking countries. The hardware and software reected
the needs of the English language. The early systems for
text-based communication were unfriendly to accented
characters and almost impossible for languages using
non-roman writing systems, while computer operators
interacted with programs using instructions in English.
English will, no doubt, continue to be spread via software products and digitised intellectual property, but it
seems the days of language restriction are over. There
are, for example, Chinese versions of all major American
programs, including the Windows operating system and
Microsoft Word word processor. Interface design and onscreen help now make new software more easily and
rapidly customised for lesser used languages. Schools in
Wales, for example, are able to use software and operating systems in Welsh. This adaptability of recent software is a signicant characteristic. It has allowed new
technical vocabulary to develop in languages other than
English, while desktop publishing systems have made
possible short-run printing in minority writing systems.
The close linkage that once existed between computers
and English has been broken.
One of the most important computer-related technologies to emerge in recent decades with implications for
language use is, undoubtedly, the Internet, which we
discuss in detail later. The Internet illustrates the way
technologies have been converging: television, telephone, music and document transfer all share the same
distribution infrastructure. And new consumer technologies, such as multimedia computers and Web TV,
bring them together in the home, school and workplace.
Language engineering
Portuguese
Italian
Spanish
German
French
English
0
and then to have important transformative effects. Any

technology which is to have signicant social, economic
and linguistic effects in the near future will be already
known. David (1990) shows how the introduction of the
dynamo permitting commercial use of electricity
took, from the early 1880s, another 40 years to yield
significant productivity gains. Likewise, the building of
the first computers and development of high-level
computer languages in the 1940s only now have a significant impact on peoples work and leisure. The impact of
technology on everyday life is determined by the speed
of institutional and social change rather than by the
speed of technological invention and scientic discovery.
Joseph Schumpeter suggested in the 1930s that technological innovation affected the economy in a series of
long waves about 50 years apart. If we update his ideas,
to cover the period 1780 to 2080, this provides six long
waves each associated with a transformative technology
(Table 12). Based on this, we can see that major changes
in culture and language during the next few decades are
those connected with computers and communications.
200
400
600
Language engineering products available
800
Besides consumer applications software, such as word

processors and spreadsheets, there now exists a wide
range of software products designed for natural language
manipulation: parsing tools, abstracting and information
retrieval, speech recognition and automatic translation.
The majority of this research and development work is
carried out in the US, Europe and Japan. At present the
most advanced tools are based in English (Figure 23)
Any technology which is to have signicant social,

economic and linguistic effects in the near future will
be already known.
although other major languages such as Chinese

have recently become the focus of much research and
development by the US software industry.
Language professionals, however, have long been
sceptical of the ability of computer-based applications to
deal adequately with natural language. In the 1970s
most linguists were convinced of the impossibility of a
typewriter you could talk into it raised problems at so
many levels of linguistic processing that it was widely
regarded as no more than a dream of science ction.
And yet, only 20 years later, practical voice-transcription
software is used on desktop PCs. A similar scepticism is
now directed at automatic translation, but this overlooks
the fact that machine translation already plays a
signicant role in commercial and institutional life. And
it is English, sometimes in special form, which has emerged as a lingua franca for machines.
Yet globalisation requires the closer integration of
organisations which employ different working languages
while the increase in world trade has multiplied the need
for document translations of technical manuals, product
specications, patent applications, regulations governing
trade and so on. Such documents tend to be more predictable in content and style than, say, informal conversation and hence more amenable to manipulation by
machines. The current state-of-the-art is one in which
machines routinely help human translators, allowing
increased productivity, accuracy and standardisation.
But this close working relationship between humans and
machines is beginning to alter the language and the ways
in which texts are organised.
New, simplied forms of English have been constructed by many global engineering companies, such as
Caterpillar and Boeing, which are claimed to make
maintenance manuals more comprehensible to overseas
engineers. But the use of controlled English is also
intended to make automatic translation easier opening
up the possibility of humans writing in restricted forms of
English so that machines can translate documents into
restricted forms of target languages. The growing use of
English as a relay language, to permit translation from
any language to any other via English, will produce new
forms of language contact which may encourage the
convergence of other languages, at least in their controlled forms, with the semantic and syntactic structures of
English.
The death of distance
The impact of computers on society and language has

come about largely because of developments in the related eld of telecommunications.
Telecommunications technology is surprisingly old.
By the 1870s, the world was linked by the electric telegraph, along whose wires the English language owed.
The Victorian network was almost entirely owned and
Pre-1780s
1780s1840s
1840s1890s
1890s1930s
1930s1980s
1980s2030s
2030s2080s
Pre-industrial society
Steam power
Railways
Electric power
Cheap fuel/car/road haulage/air travel
Information technology (IT)
Biochemical engineering
(including genetic engineering
and nano-engineering)
Table 12 Seven ages of the technological economy
operated by British companies and London was the

relay centre for most of the worlds long-distance cables.
The social and commercial implications of the technology were widely debated and by the end of the 19th
century it had become a clich to wonder at the annihilation of space and time. Since then there have emerged
three related trends in telecommunications alongside
improved technology which have shaped global
patterns of communication and which may continue to
impact on language ow and use: liberalising regulatory
regimes allowing competition and reducing national
control, falling costs and the increasing one-to-one, or
point-to-point, nature of telecommunications.
500
400
300
200
100
Cheaper communications
Cost has been, traditionally, a major barrier to longdistance calls. But the cost of communication has lowered dramatically (Figure 24). Falling prices have resulted
from liberalisation of the market, huge increases in
demand and technological development. The rst transatlantic telephone cable, laid in 1956, allowed 36 simultaneous conversations; the latest undersea bre-optic link
is capable of carrying 600,000. Once the infrastructure is
in place, the cost of establishing an international call is
very close to zero; the cost of a call between the US and
Britain could fall, according to some commentators, to
the equivalent of present British local rates. And, if lines
between London and Glasgow are congested, the call
might be routed via the US, with no loss of prot to the
operator.
In 1997 Britain became the rst country to open up
its entire international phone trafc; nearly 50 companies applied for licences. The result is expected to be
enormous capacity and falling prices: London is expected to become the switching centre for the worlds telephone services (McRae,1996, p. 19).
1927 1935 1955 1970 1993

1928 1945 1963 1984 1996
Figure 24 Falling cost of

making a transatlantic
telephone call. Costs shown
are for a three minute call
LondonNew York at 1996
equivalent prices
(a fall from 486 to 30p)
One-to-one connection
Over the last few decades there has been a signicant

shift towards direct, point-to-point communications,
either person to person, or machine to machine.
Whereas in the early days of the telegraph, a communication needed to pass through the hands of many mediators and gatekeepers who were able to control the
quantity, speed and content of messages, now it is
possible for an individual to contact another directly,
across oceans and continents. This development is seen
in both the telephone and the Internet: a PC on the desk
of one executive or academic can connect directly to
another PC on some far-off desk to exchange data.
This shift towards a communication network rather
than a hierarchy allows dispersed discourse
communities to emerge, based on shared interests such
as hobbies, (gardening, exotic sh), criminality (terrorism, pornography) or support (ulcerative colitis sufferers, parents of children with Downs Syndrome).
Diasporic cultural and linguistic groups can share
concerns, ideas and decision making as never before.
Networks potentially change cultural and economic
landscapes, condensing distance and overcoming barriers to communication. And the interconnectedness of
cultural and decision-making systems, facilitated by oneto-one communication, has produced a complex system
capable of unpredictable cultural and economic shifts.
But communication patterns on such networks is largely
invisible to traditional statistical monitoring new trends
may take decision makers unawares.
31
Globalisation
World economies and cultures are becoming increasingly interconnected and
interdependent, politically, socially and technologically: complexication,
cross-border activity and process re-engineering have been the buzz words
of the 1990s. Here we examine the impact of economic globalisation on
patterns of communication.
Transnational ownership
200
150
100
50
ia
Am
As
tin
La
Am
th
Jap
pe
or
ro
Eu
an
Figure 25 Distribution of the

500 largest global
corporations by world
region
Global trade is no longer a matter of bilateral arrangements between nation states, or between organisations
economically rooted in nation states. Such is the
complex structure of business ownership, through joint
ventures and holding companies, that establishing any
simple national pattern of ownership of the major enterprises is difcult. And many of the worlds largest corporations can hardly even be called multinational; rather
they have become transnational. It has been calculated
that transnational corporations (TNCs) account for as
much as two-thirds of international trade in goods, while
50 of the 100 largest economies are said to be not nation
states but TNCs. The largest of the worlds TNCs are
involved in the energy and chemicals industries (oil,
pharmaceuticals) and the communications industry
(airlines, telecommunications, media). The majority are
headquartered in the Big Three trading blocs (Figure
25). And, at the present stage of global economic development, the international activities of TNCs are tending
to promote English.
Global distribution of labour
The rise of TNCs has supported a new, global distribution of labour: large corporations can shift production to
countries with a cheaper, less regulated workforce. If
production costs in one country become too great,
production can be shifted to another part of the world,
perhaps with tax incentives and subsidies to start up new
enterprises. Although some commentators see this as a
predatory, slash and burn activity on a global scale,
others regard it as an important and benign driver of
economic development in third-world countries.
Such shifts of production require in-ows of capital,

skills and technology, and are one means by which a
developing economy is helped to come up to speed in a
shorter timescale than the industrialised countries themselves required. This process promotes the English
language, as the box (below) explains.
Growing complexication
In February 1996, an oil tanker ran aground whilst

attempting to enter an oil terminal off the Welsh coast of
Britain, leading to a major oil spillage and environmental disaster. As journalists tried to establish who was to
blame, they uncovered an extraordinarily complex
transnational activity.
Built in Spain; owned by a Norwegian; registered in Cyprus;
managed from Glasgow; chartered by the French; crewed
by Russians; flying a Liberian flag; carrying an American
cargo; and pouring oil on to the Welsh coast (Headline,
Independent, 22 February 1996, p. 1)
One question raised by the tanker disaster was the

extent to which key members of the crew could understand the English instructions of the local pilot. Later
news reported the need to bring in a Chinese tug and the
problems of interpretation which resulted. Yet English is
supposedly the basis for Seaspeak the special English
used by deck officers as an international maritime
communication. Johnson (1994) has noted, however, how
changing job requirements have led to an increase in the
number of personnel who need English language skills:
Scarret (1987) has chronicled the recent trend towards the
demanning of ships and the de-skilling of those crew
members who remain; Kitchen (1993) has related this trend
to the incipient disappearance of the RO [radio officer]
from deep-sea ships, and goes on to note the opposition of
insurance underwriters to such a move. The current trend is
towards broad training courses, such as those provided in
the Netherlands which incorporate deck, engine room and
radio office skills, leading to the status of polyvalent maritime officer. It may well be that, as crews become less technically skilled in the maintenance of increasingly complex
Why economic development encourages English

1 Although an incoming company may not be headquartered
in an English-speaking country, it will typically establish a
joint venture with a local concern. Joint ventures (e.g. SinoSwiss and German) tend to adopt English as their lingua
franca, which promotes a local need for training in English.
Will economic
modernisation continue
to require English for
technology and skills
transfer?
p. 61
2 Establishment of joint ventures requires legal documents

and memoranda of understanding. International legal agreements are written in English because there exists international consensus about the meaning of terms, obligations and
rights. This activity may create a demand for specialist
English language training for lawyers the case in China
where new courses are being established.
3 A newly established company will be in most cases involved
in international trade importing raw materials and exporting nished goods. This will create a need for back-ofce
workers, sales and marketing staff with skills in English.
4 Technology transfer is closely associated with English,
largely because most transfer is sourced by a TNC who
either is English speaking or who uses English for external
trade. Technology transfer is not restricted to the enter-
prise itself, but may extend to associated infrastructure

expansion such as airports, railways and telecommunications. In central China, engineers in local steel factories learn
English so they can install and maintain plant bought from
Germany and Italy. The predominance of English in technology transfer reects the role of TNCs more than the fact
that much leading-edge technology derives from the US.
However, technology transfer to developing economies
tends not to be at a leading edge: keeping new technology
in Europe, North America and Japan helps the Big Three to
maintain a competitive edge despite high costs of labour.
5 Establishing joint ventures creates incoming demands from
international visitors who require supporting services, such
as hotels and tourist facilities. The staff of secondary enterprises also require training in English for these visitors.
6 Jobs in the new enterprises may be better paid and more
attractive than those in the public sector of a developing
economy. English qualications may become an entry
necessity, or have perceived value in access to jobs even if
the job itself does not require English.
Rather than a process which leads to uniformity and

homogeneity, globalisation seems to create new,
hybrid forms of culture, language and political
organisation.
shipboard equipment, they will all need greatly increased
skills in English, if only to be able to ask for help by radio,
and understand the reply! (Johnson, 1994, p. 90)
This illustrates two features of economic globalisation:

the transnational nature of ownership and management
and the increasing demand for exible labour.
Complexity of ownership is a necessary, but at rst sight
counter-intuitive, consequence of the concentration of
ownership. As TNCs become larger and their enterprises
global, new ventures involve considerable risk. No single
corporation can accept the risk, for example, of establishing a global satellite network. Instead, a TNC attempts
to spread the risk of large, single ventures through
cooperation with other large enterprises: they tend to
hunt in packs. Thus globalisation is not, as might be
expected, creating huge global monopolies. Rather, it is
creating global oligopolies: a small number of large
operators who display some of the features of a cartel.
Later, we will argue that world languages may be developing on similar lines: rather than English acquiring a
monopoly position as a world lingua franca, there may
emerge an oligopoly consisting of a group of major
languages, each with particular spheres of inuence.
Japan
Japan
Korea
Korea
Indonesia
Indonesia
France
English
speaker
Local language
speakers
English
speaker
France
Germany
Germany
US/UK
US/UK
Team member
Team member
Team member
Team member
Team member
Team member
New working practices
Globalisation has a signicant effect on labour practices.

The new global distribution of labour has led to a reduction of unskilled jobs in richer countries. But there has
also been greater pressure, as we have seen, for more
exible labour. This derives from the speed of corporate
and technological change workers must turn their
hands quickly to a wider variety of activities and retrain
regularly. This trend arising in all economic sectors
has led to a decreasing reliance on key communicators
and gatekeepers (in the case of maritime workers, the
radio officer) who possess specialist language skills.
Trends suggest there is a growing need for people in
various jobs to communicate with each other directly,
yet in the transnational activities of world trade, there is
less likelihood that they share the same language. As a
result, more people in a wider variety of jobs require a
greater competence in English. Figures 26 and 27 illustrate changes in patterns of communications now
arising in many industries. Case studies in section 4 show
how these changes may affect particular groups of
workers.
The global-local tension
Globalisation is probably the most signicant socioeconomic process affecting the world in the late 20th
century. Its effects are felt not only in the economy, but
also in politics and culture. It would be wrong, however,
to think of globalisation as primarily a neo-colonial
process whereby the capital and social values of rich
countries are imposed upon poorer ones. Discussions of
globalisation usually emphasise the importance of local
contexts, for globalisation creates patterns of interdependence and interconnection, where cultures and economies inuence each other rapidly, but in complex and
often unpredictable ways.
Rather than a process which leads to uniformity and
homogeneity, globalisation seems to create new, hybrid
forms of culture, language and political organisation: the
results of global inuences meeting local traditions,
values and social contexts.
Communications
with members of
other teams in
international lingua
franca
Team member
Team member
Team member
Communications
within local teams
in local language
Figure 26 (upper) English as an international

lingua franca: traditional import-export model
Figure 27 (lower) English as an international

lingua franca: post-modern/globalised model
Traditional international trade is associated with:
In a globalised model, English is associated with:
q Physical movement of goods;
q Services and knowledge-intensive industries;
q Interactions with all foreign countries

conducted in English;
q Working is dispersed employees do not

need to be in physical proximity;
q Key intermediaries (negotiators/ interpreters) with English language skills;
q All (or most) team members need English

language skills;
q Manufacture/business conducted in local

language;
q Local interactions may not be in English;
q Location of workers based on labour costs;

q Communications technology used to control
and monitor remote operations.
q Location of workers sensitive to available

skills/knowledge and communications infrastructure;
q Communications technology used to integrate work of dispersed teams.
33
The immaterial economy

The worlds output is getting lighter. Within a few decades, many more
people will be employed in the service industries which characterise
economic globalisation. New forms of global teleworking are emerging and
an increased proportion of the value of goods is produced through languagerelated activity.
The immaterial economy
WWW
BRITISH NATIONAL CORPUS
http://info.ox.ac.uk/bnc/
As a national economy matures, there is usually a trend

away from the primary sector (resources, agriculture)
and secondary sector (manufacturing and industry)
towards the tertiary sector, made up of service industries. It is the tertiary sector which is most language
intensive. Yet the developments in these activities are
under-recorded: many services are internal to large
enterprises and transnational corporations (TNCs),
where they remain invisible to standard statistics.
Manufactured goods, however, are clearly becoming
lighter and a higher proportion of the value of goods
relates to style, branded image or added value.
The fashionable talk is about the weightless or
dematerialized economy. As production has shifted from
steel, heavy copper wire and vacuum tubes to microprocessors, fine fibre-optic cables and transistors, and as services
have increased their share of the total, output has become
lighter and less visible. ... The average weight of a real
dollars worth of American exports is now less than half that
in 1970. (The World Economy Survey, The Economist, 28
September 1996, p. 43)
The immaterial economy is bolstered by a major

growth in the service sector and this trend is nowhere
clearer than in the US, where nearly 75% of the total
labour force was employed in services by 1995. Until
World War I the services and industrial sector grew
together, but afterwards services continued to grow as
industry declined (Figure 28).
According to the Hooke forecasting model, the services sector will, by 2050, account for 75% of Gross World
Product, as opposed to 50% in 1990 (Figure 29).
Services, however, includes many disparate activities,
from McDonalds to banking, from health to education.
Much of the economic activity associated with these
trends is difficult to measure or survey. The most complete economic statistics tend to be those prepared at a
80
70
Services
60
50
40
Industrial
30
20
10
0
Agriculture
1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 1995
Figure 28 US employment by sector
national level and associated with the movement of

tangible goods. Global movements of immaterial goods
and services, particularly involving transfers within
multinational corporations, tend not to be captured by
existing statistics.
This shift from manufacturing towards services is
visible in the English language itself. The word product
used to be associated almost exclusively with manufactured goods. Now it is used with rising frequency in
connection with services. A search through the British
National Corpus of English shows how the trend has
developed. For example, the British trade journal
Caterer & Hotelkeeper (5 September 1991) demonstrates
the trend in usage in an article about a new, computerised booking service for hotels:
Bravo will distribute UK Ltd worldwide, and give the
travelling public access to the total UK product, said
Bravo spokesman John Roussel. ... Essentially its an
electronic brochure, but it could be used to promote a
branded product, such as a hotel consortium or Agatha
Christie weekends. (British National Corpus)
The use of product reects the extent to which

services have become commodified: services are designed, packaged and marketed in ways similar to standardised manufactured products. Much of this involves
discursive activity. Advertising, marketing, promoting,
receiving clients and guests, servicing all these are activities reliant on language. The British linguist, Norman
Fairclough, has noted the extent to which language itself
the way ight attendants, receptionists or waiters talk
to clients has become a key part of the product offered to customers (Fairclough, 1994).
Teleworking
Teleworking the ability to work away from a central

ofce using telecommunications has been hailed for
decades as a major shift in working practices. The
change seems not to have come about in the direct way
predicted, although an increasing number of people
work at least part of the week at home. Jack Nilles, the
American who invented the term, anticipates the
number will grow to 200 million by 2016. AT&T now
has a telecommuting workforce of 35,000. However,
Nilles does not consider technology as the major determinant, but rather management culture: many people
could work from home with no more technology than a
telephone, but some employers remain resistant
(Financial Times, 8 January 1997, p. 6).
Yet new management trends and organisational
structures are certainly increasing the need for both
dispersed and remote workers. Major growth areas have
been telesales and support services. British Telecom, for
example, has a dispersed team of directory enquiry
operators working from home, but their work can be
monitored and coordinated by supervisors as easily as if
they were in a central ofce. Callers, meanwhile, are
unaware of an operators physical location.
The more business takes place over the international phone
lines, the more the common language of business will dominate. Of course English is an open standard anyone can
use it but this should be some advantage to Anglophone
countries. (McRae, Independent, 16 November 1996, p. 19)
There seems to be developing a new, global

English-speaking market in the knowledge-intensive
industries.
A study of EU workers showed that 20% of working

time was spent in handling documents. Since document
handling now involves word processing, email communications, database queries and information retrieval,
workers everywhere spend more time using computers.
One feature of the weightless economy is the extent to
which labour has become screen based. And such
screen-based labour is easily globalised using telecommunications technology.
The trend towards globalised screen-based labour
began with the sub-contracting of data-entry work from
the US to the Caribbean. Pearson and Mitter (1993)
describe a history of routine punching of computer cards
taking place in Jamaica from the 1970s:
One of the largest and earliest foreign owned companies
operating in the Caribbean is Caribbean Data Services, a
subsidiary of American Airlines, which operates data-entry
shops in Barbados and the Dominican Republic. ... A major
new facility, which came on stream in 1989 is the Jamaican
Digiport at Montego Bay, which was established for the
specic purpose of promoting off-shore teleworking both
data entry and other activities. (Pearson and Mitter, 1993)
Many other, large transnational companies whose

employees are involved primarily in screen-based labour
have distant and dispersed workers. The New York Life
Insurance Company is credited with establishing the rst
intelligent ofce work offshore, when it opened an
ofce in County Derry, in Ireland. Some US 0800 telephone numbers, offering telesales and support services,
are also routed to Ireland. Some London boroughs have
the administration and issue of parking tickets handled
in the north of Scotland. Swiss Air, Lufthansa and
British Airways have back ofces in India handling
accounting and ticketing queries. British Airways also
exploits timezone differences by switching European
telephone enquiries to their New York ofce at the end
of the British working day. Indian software engineers are
employed to reprogram US supermarket computers to
x the 2000 bug. British railway companies use an
Indian back ofce to process ticketing accounts of the
kind which allow travel on different sectors to be attributed to different service providers. A number of international construction and car companies have design units
based in Britain, from where architectural plans, design
drawings and engineering models are daily transmitted
to factories and construction sites on the other side of the
world.
Work which once had to be located close to clients or
other divisions of companies is now distributed across
the world to an extent that is remarkable. The new,
globally wired economy has become so signicant that
tax revenues, based on tangible transactions, are threatened, provoking serious discussion in recent years of
introducing a European bit tax on data ows to recover
lost revenue (Independent, 20 January 1997, p. 5).
But the motive of TNCs in relocating back ofces or
sub-contracting work to other countries is not simply a
search for cheaper and less-regulated labour. TNCs now
roam the world in search of skilled labour, especially for
work in the growing knowledge-intensive industries,
engaged in the production and manipulation of intellectual property. Employers require ever-higher levels of
skills and education in workers. There seems to be developing a new, global English-speaking market in the
knowledge-intensive industries. Intellectual property,
documents and speech are light: they can be shifted

around the world easily. English-speaking countries are
able to join this global business since many of the jobs
require a near native-speaker competence: foreignlanguage skills will rarely be sufcient. Those countries
in which English is a rst or second language have a
clear economic advantage.
Branding
Branding is one way in which value can be added to

material goods through immaterial means. The
construction of a brand image is primarily a semiotic
activity. Levis make jeans, but the value of these
garments is much greater than their intrinsic value as
manufactured cotton goods: the cultural associations of
buying and wearing Levis permits them to be sold at
premium prices.
The economic activities of clothing production allows
relatively unskilled labour to be employed in third-world
countries. A worker producing a T-shirt in the
Philippines, for example, may be paid one-thousandth of
the nal retail value of the goods. Companies such as
Nike, who have created a global market for their goods,
are well known for their propensity to shift manufacture
from country to country, in search of the cheapest
labour. The added value obtained through marketing,
however, is the result of activity in languages and places
other than those in which primary manufacture took
place. Even goods which have weight (like Coca-Cola),
when locally produced and sold, possess a brand image
and added value from a globalised activity.
Semiotic activity is more easily globalised than physical activities. Global branding requires centralised control of an image: technology allows the intellectual
property which is intrinsic to marketing (such as images,
slogans, video materials) to be moved more rapidly and
cheaply than physical goods. The growth of international franchising in the fast-food industry recognises this
fact: a branch of McDonalds may be established anywhere in the world using marketing images and reputations manufactured in the US.
Today, a greater number of goods and products have
become the objects of style and consumer culture.
Correspondingly, an increasing proportion of a
products worth is now semiotic. Whilst there is, as yet,
no means of attributing different quotients of productive
activity to different languages, it does seem that English
has become a primary language of design, advertising
and marketing. Software has become more important
than the hardware in the computer industry; film and
programme production more important than televisions
and satellites in the entertainment industry. It is a shift
not simply to services, but specically towards
knowledge-intensive industries.
Services
80
Goods
Resources
60
Percentage share
Screen-based labour
Will the British

brand of English play an
important role in the
21st century?
p. 57
Figure 29 Composition of
Gross World Product
19902050
40
20
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
35
Cultural ows
Language has been regarded since the Renaissance in terms of territory.
Statistics about language, culture and economy, collected by international
bodies, have been based on nation states, populations of speakers and
relative sizes of economies. But chaos theory suggests the concept of ow
may be better suited to understanding language in a borderless world.
A new direction?
Will the demand for

English in the world
continue to rise at its
present rate?
p. 60
WWW
WORLD AIR TRAFFIC FORECASTS
http://www.atag.org
TELEGEOGRAPHY INC
http://www.telegeography.com
We earlier suggested that it was possible to view global

English as a complex system. Chaos theory, the mathematical method of modelling the behaviour of complex
systems, is essentially a model of ow. Already used to
understand the turbulent behaviour of uid in pipes, or
the aerodynamics of aircraft wings, the idea of ow can
also be applied to language and culture.
The concept of globalisation includes the ideas both
of ow and counter-ow, producing a tension between
the global and local. The English language flows into
other languages, which adopt English words and phrases. English also colonises the space of other languages
by taking over certain communicative domains. But
local languages also inuence English, giving rise to new
hybrid language varieties in second-language-speaking
areas. If we examine communication patterns as ow we
might widen our focus to include the translation of books
or the dubbing of lms as they move from one language
to another, or of tourists moving from one city to
another, telephone calls and Internet data carrying
information and intellectual property from one part of
the world to another.
Although the modelling of culture in terms of ow is
still a poorly developed discipline, social scientists have
become more interested in viewing the world in such
ways rather than relying on static entities such as
cultures, nations and national economies. Appadurai
(1990) identies ve global ows in terms of metaphorical landscapes. These he terms ethnoscapes (people movement), technoscapes (technology transfer, technology
convergence), nancescapes (ows of capital and currency),
mediascapes (ows of audio-visual product but also the
images and narratives they convey) and ideoscapes (ows
of ideas and ideologies). Here we examine some of the
more measurable kinds of ow, to see what broad shifts
there might be as globalisation develops.
Flows of people
The ultimate drivers of language are the people who use

it. People move extensively: for business or education, as
tourists and pilgrims, as migrant workers and immigrants, as refugees and exiles, taking with them languages
and cultural values. Desire for physical mobility has
created further massive industries in transport and servi500000
International tourist arrivals (thousands)
Figure 30 Development of
world tourism 19501990
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
ces. The increase in people ow relates to other

signicant changes rise of world trade, shifts to services
requiring face-to-face contact, wider dispersal of families,
the emergence of new cultural diasporas, the operations
of transnational companies and the growing international trade in higher education.
Tourism is one well-documented form of people ow
which has had a signicant impact on the use of English.
Tourism is of increasing importance to the world economy: Figure 30 shows the development of world tourism
over a 40 year period. Some estimates suggest that over
10% of the worlds labour force is now employed in
travel and tourism-related activities, accounting for
nearly 10% of the worlds economy. These gures are
set to rise: projections are for 100 million new jobs in the
industry by 2006 (Sunday Business, 6 October 1996, p. 20).
Tourism has a ripple effect elsewhere in the economy: in
manufacturing, retailing, services and construction. And
more destinations are being sought such as China,
South Korea and Indonesia causing governments to
invest in the infrastructure which supports tourist trafc.
International travel has a globalising effect. People
are brought together, businesses and institutions form
relationships of interdependency and closer communication. And, more directly than many other kinds of ow,
international travel brings people from different
language backgrounds together, promoting the need to
learn a language in common. But there is also a growing
provision for a customers own language, as service industries nd they must compete on levels of service. Qantas
airline of Australia, for example, requires prociency
levels in priority languages from its staff. An indication
of trends in Asia is provided by a study published by the
Australian government which recently identied
Japanese, Mandarin, Cantonese, Korean and Thai as
possessing commercial signicance (Australian Language
and Literacy Council, 1994).
While there is little research that allows us to state
condently which languages will be encouraged through
what kinds of contact, we can assume that international
trafc within a single region will encourage the use of a
regional language, whereas trafc between two or more
world regions may encourage one of the world
languages, of which English is the most important.
However, while passengers moving between regions such
as the US to Asia may promote English, passengers from
Europe travelling to Latin America may expect to use
Portuguese.
One means to forecast linguistic ow is to examine
projected worldwide destinations and sources of passengers. Figures for international air travel in 2010 between
key regions suggests that major changes will occur in
Asia: a region that will by 2010 account for over half the
worlds total international air travel. Some 267 million
passengers (67% of Asian international arrivals) will be
moving within the Asia Pacic region; the majority of this
internal trafc will be travelling in a conduit opening
between the north-east and south-east. A major route is
further likely to develop between the hotspots of Taipei
and Hong Kong. By 2010 this alone may have trafc
equivalent to that of London and New York in 1993 (Air
Transport Action Group, 1993). The effects on language
are not easily predicted, but it seems likely that the
preponderance of ow between North-east and Southeast Asia particularly as it relates to business activity
will promote Mandarin as a regional lingua franca.
As communications infrastructures improve and

relative costs fall, more telephone conversations
around the world will be held in languages other
than English.
Communication ows
While sales of communications equipment switches,
bre-optic interfaces, modems, or handsets can be
measured in millions of units, it is the ow of communication between countries, via Internet or telephone,
which is of greater interest in terms of language.
International telephone calls are counted in minutes and
are recorded by the outgoing, billing service provider.
Worldwide in 1994 there were 53 billion minutes of
international telecommunications trafc (MiTTs) which
is expected to rise to 106 billion minutes by the year
2000. Figure 31 analyses the 48 most heavily used intercontinental ows in 1994 (as calculated by TeleGeography Inc.) according to the likely language of
communication. It shows English is the dominant
language of intercontinental communication, if only
because of the massive trafc between English-speaking
countries and other parts of the world.
The dominance of English in the telephone conversations of the world is unlikely to continue for long. In
developing economies the communications infrastructure is generally insufcient to meet demand. One gure,
often quoted, is teledensity: the proportion of households with telephones. While the US has the greatest
density of telephone lines nearly 95% of households
have a telephone in China, the penetration is only
3.4% (Wu, 1996). Even with a working telephone in
China, making a call at present is likely to be difcult:
Long distance circuits in south and central China are so
congested that only 15% of the calls dialled get through.
The completion rate is only about 60% (Wu, 1996, p.
703). Yet remarkable targets exist for Chinas massive
potential market: one telephone per urban household by
the year 2000; by 2010 a digital network to be in place
and telephone coverage of 25 per 100 people nationally
(Walker, Financial Times, 3 October 1995, p. 27).
Indonesia, likewise, is fast installing satellite capacity
alongside mobile-phone systems. Rising incomes, greater
demand for internal communications and a government
that in 1994 opened the industry to foreign investment
all promise a new infrastructure over which language
ows will be generated in the 21st century. Here, however, it is likely to be Bahasa Indonesia which benets a
language currently spoken as a rst language by less than
20% of the population but as a second language by
around 70%. A high proportion of the increased
communication ows within Indonesia and between
Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia is likely to be made
in the national language. Such contact may be one
factor in encouraging language shift towards
rst-language Malay usage in the next generation.
Falling telecommunications costs (p. 31) are transforming the relative distances between countries. Figure 32
illustrates the new telegeography by showing relative
teledistance of countries from Britain in 1997: North
America is closer than France which is about the same
distance from Britain as Australia. This shows how the
English-speaking countries have moved into close proximity. The changing shape of telegeography, brought
about both by technological developments and falling
costs will continue to reshape patterns of language ow
around the world. As communications infrastructures
improve and relative costs fall, more telephone conversations around the world will be held in languages other
than English.
French
English (Others)
English (French)
English (Japanese)
English (German)
English (Chinese)
English (Spanish)
English
0
Figure 31 Languages used in

intercontinental telephone
traffic in 1994 in millions of
MiTTs (minutes of
international
telecommunications trafc)
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Flows of nance
Large volumes of money ow daily across the world as

cash, foreign exchange, gold, investment and shares.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) has tended to ow
between members of the Big Three regions: the largest
ever ow of FDI from one country to another was
recorded in 1995 from Britain to the US. But TNCs
have also contributed to a major ow from the Big
Three towards Asia and Latin America, helping create
companies which themselves export: companies from
Brazil and India are now active worldwide in consumer
electronics, aircraft and hotel management.
But perhaps the most signicant ow in terms of
language is the increasing vortex of FDI which is occurring in Asia between Chinese business interests.
Overseas Chinese in South-east Asia account for a much
larger proportion of business than their numbers suggest:
In the Philippines, the overseas Chinese make up only 1%
of the countrys population but control over half of the stock
market. In Indonesia the proportions are 4% and 75%
respectively, in Malaysia 32% and 60%. In Thailand the
overseas Chinese account for at least half of the wealth.
Now they are pushing into Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia,
Myanmar (Burma) and, yes, mainland China, where they
account for about half the foreign direct investment.
According to one estimate, the 51m overseas Chinese control an economy worth $700 billion roughly the same size
as the 1.2 billion mainlanders. Their liquid wealth (cash,
gold, shares) may run to as much as $2.5 trillion. (The
Economist, 9 March 1996, p. 4)
Growing intraregional trade and nancial dealings

amongst Chinese-speaking business interests will undoubtedly strengthen the role of Mandarin or another
Chinese language such as Cantonese, shared by interlocutors as a rst language, as a regional lingua franca.
World cities
Despite growing urbanisation worldwide, some cities will

be more important nexus points than others for global
cultural, political and economic ows. Indeed, few cities
are likely to become world cities in this sense. Knox
(1995) suggests three cities are in the rst rank of a
global, urban hierarchy: London, New York and Tokyo.
It is in these cities that key decisions which drive globalisation are taken and through which the global elites pass:
Much of this change has been transacted and mediated
through world cities, the nodal points of the multiplicity of
linkages and interconnections that sustain the contemporary
world economy. (Knox, 1995, p. 234)
World cities provide headquarters for TNCs; they are

centres of nance, focal points for social and technological innovation and key transport points. London and
New York are likely to remain key world hubs through
which ideas, nance and people ow.
Britain
(national)
USA
Canada
Australia
France
Germany
Italy
15p
Greece
Singapore
Austria
Japan
20p
30p
Malaysia
Turkey
Morocco
Chile
40p
Hong Kong
Venezuela
Mexico
Poland
Russia
India
Nigeria
Brazil
50p
60p
Zimbabwe
Malawi
Thailand
Pakistan
Indonesia
Uruguay
Saudi Arabia
Uganda
70p
Tanzania
Iran
China
80p
90p
Bangladesh
Fiji
Iraq
100p
Antarctic
Chad
Myanmar
N Korea
Niger
Rwanda
Vietnam
110p
120p
Figure 32 Teledistance of
selected countries from
Britain in 1997
37
Global inequalities
As developing economies mature and per capita income rises, so social and
economic inequalities also seem to grow: prociency in English may be one
of the mechanisms for dividing those who have access to wealth and
information from those who dont. The global spread of English may also be
associated with decreased use of endangered languages.
English and social inequality

In many parts of the world, English is regarded as a
language of power, success and prestige:
WWW
FOUNDATION FOR
ENDANGERED LANGUAGES
http://www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/
Philosophy/CTLL/FEL/
ENDANGERED LANGUAGES
LISTSERV
http://carmen.murdoch.edu.au/lists/
endangered-languages-l/
ell-websites.html
ENDANGERED LANGUAGES FUND
http://sapir.ling.yale.edu/~elf/
index.html
LANGUAGE DISTRIBUTION
http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/
distribution.html
TERRALINGUA
http://cougar.ucdavis.edu/nas/terralin/h
ome.html
The global language can be seen to open doors, which fuels

a demand for English. This demand reects contemporary
power balances and the hope that mastery of English will
lead to the prosperity and glamorous hedonism that the
privileged in this world have access to and that is projected
in Hollywood lms, MTV videos, and ads for transnational
corporations. (Phillipson, 1996, p. 2)
If English brings wealth, is it also the case that those

who have no access to English are rendered poor? In
many countries English has become implicated in social
and economic mechanisms which structure inequality.
Whereas in the past poverty has been largely a matter of
geography, class, gender and ethnicity, now it may also
depend on access to the lingua franca of a global elite.
Responses to the English 2000 global consultation
questionnaire suggest that most English language
teaching professionals believe English is essential for
progress but do not think that learning the language
leads to negative social consequences:
2.11 English is essential for progress as it will provide the
main means of access to high-tech communication and
information over the next twenty-five years (95% agreed).
1.2 Competence in English encourages elitism and increases socio-economic inequalities (59% disagreed). (English
2000, 1995, pp. 55, 43)
However, some linguists in the developing world do

connect English with inequality:
English is backed by international groups which treat
English as an instrument of colonisation and as a commodity for trade ... It interprets skill migration as brightening
life chances, and it accentuates the divide between (1) rural
and urban, (2) the developing and the developed, and (3)
Figure 33 About half the

worlds languages are found in
the rapidly modernising Asia
Pacic region (highlighted).
The majority of these
languages will be lost in the
next century
elites and masses. It permits better education for a minuscule minority. At the same time, it inhibits interaction
between science and society and it inhibits the creation of
appropriate technology. (Pattanayak, 1996, p. 50)
Prociency in English is not merely an instrumental

affair it is too often used as a gatekeeping mechanism.
The lack of an examination certicate, or signs, even
trivial, that a writer or speaker is not a native or uent
speaker may be sufcient to bar access to certain jobs. It
also seems to be used as a screening mechanism for scholars submitting papers to international journals, which
are increasingly published in English. The editor of
Science recently commented:
If you see people making multiple mistakes in spelling,
syntax and semantics, you have to wonder whether when
they did their science they werent also making similar
errors of inattention. (Floyd E. Bloom, editor of Science, cited
in Gibbs, 1995, p. 80)
The role of English-medium education
In post-colonial countries, such as India and Malaysia,

English-medium education provides one of the mechanisms of distributing social and economic power.
English-medium education in such countries is often
seen by both parents and children as a means to economic success, but it has been argued that where teachers
are not fully procient in the English language and
where there is little use of English in the community the
aspirant language learner will be condemned to a
second-rate education. English-medium education is
thus accused of undermining attempts to improve educational provision and encouraging educational mediocrity
amongst aspirant, non-elite groups.
Hong Kong provides an example of the dilemma
facing many parents and, indeed, countries. Hong
Kongs former status as a British colony established
English as the language of the judicial and legislative
executive. Yet the 1991 census results show that while
29.4% of the population spoke English, only 2.2% did so
as their usual language; 88.7% spoke Cantonese and
another 10.3% spoke other Chinese dialects. Despite
this, English became the ofcial medium of instruction in
Hong Kong schools, meaning most of the population
had to study from a young age through a second or
foreign language. In practice, the language of the classroom became mixed code a mixture of Cantonese
and English.
It is widely believed in Hong Kong that this situation
helped the development of an elite group while giving a
poorer educational experience to the majority. Mixed
code meant many children failed to improve their
prociency in English yet compromised their learning of
other subjects. Long before the handover of Hong Kong
to the Peoples Republic of China, there was growing
support for the idea of using Chinese as a medium of
instruction, at least at primary level. A government
report explained the dilemma:
It is easier for students to learn through their mother tongue
and to continue their secondary education without a switch
to a second language. However if the aim of the education
system is to produce students with a high level of English
language prociency, then English medium instruction can
achieve that aim. Chinese medium instruction will not.
(Hong Kong Education Commission, 1995, p. 10)
Whereas in the past poverty has been largely a

matter of geography, class, gender and ethnicity,
now it may also depend on access to the lingua
franca of a global elite.
The local politics of English
The social consequences of English-medium education
often reects local political and cultural histories and
differing colonial legacies. In India, for example, English
has been accused of being associated with a social elite
wishing to maintain its privileged position. Pattanayak
suggests:
there is a parallel between English as a colonial imposition
supported by a segment of the elite and receiving a stiff
nationalist opposition, and, on the other hand, the current
elitist imposition acclaimed by a segment of the population
aspiring entry into the elitist privileges and opposed by a
larger segment of population. (Pattanayak, 1996, pp. 1501)
One of the reasons why English education is such a

sensitive matter in many countries is because the distribution of English prociency may affect the balance of
power between ethnic groups and for that reason be
subject to political management. Pennycook (1994)
argues that in Malaysia the adoption of Malay as a
national language was expected to benet the dominant
Malay community; when it was realised that continued
multilingual competence amongst the Chinese was contributing to their economic success, attitudes to the use of
English in tertiary education relaxed. Now public debate
suggests a lack of access to English education may disadvantage young Malays compared to their ethnic Chinese
counterparts. Such interaction of local cultural politics
with global trends can result in unpredictable political
enthusiasm for English.
The growing provision and encouragement of
English-medium education can upset the traditional
relations of social power in similar ways. A study of the
gender balance at university in Brunei Darussalam
(Jones, 1997) showed that more women than men are
graduating with science degrees and obtaining higher
grades. Men, on the other hand, form the majority for
literature courses. This reversal of the general trend in
gender relations is explained by the fact that science is
taught through English a subject in which, from early
secondary school, more Brunei girls than boys have
excelled whilst literature is taught through the medium
of Malay. This, as Jones points out, could have unpredictable long-term consequences, particularly in a Muslim
country: increasingly, the male dominated government
and professions in Brunei are having to make a choice
between employing well qualied women or poorly
qualified men (Jones, 1997).
English and endangered languages
One of the main linguistic issues facing the world in the

21st century is the extinction of a substantial proportion
of the worlds languages. Krauss (1992, p. 7), for
example, thought it plausible that the coming century
will see either the death or doom of 90% of mankinds
languages. Many endangered languages are in a region
of rapid economic growth, the Asia Pacic (Figure 33).
Figure 34 charts geographical distribution of languages.
This trend towards reduced linguistic diversity is the
outcome of global demographic and economic trends:
the local cultures and lifestyles which supported small
community languages are disappearing and their speakers are usually those with least political or cultural
power. Table 13 lists some endangered languages in
Indonesia, where there is likely to be a substantial shift
towards Bahasa Indonesia the national language in
the next few decades.
Africa 30%
Americas 15%
Europe 3%
Asia 33%
Pacific 19%
But it is not only the very small languages which are

likely to suffer from language shift. In Indonesia, the
larger languages such as Javanese (with around 85
million speakers) are also likely to suffer. As Tickoo
(1993) argued in connection with Kashmiri one of the
scheduled languages of India such sub-national
languages have to live in the shadow of larger languages
or, more truly, at the bottom of a hierarchy of
languages. There will be, in the 21st century, a major
shake-up of the global language hierarchy.
English is rarely the main, or direct cause of this
language loss, but its global high prole and its close
association with social and economic changes in developing countries are likely to make it a target for those
campaigning against the destruction of cultural diversity
which language extinction implies. It would not be
surprising if anti-English movements worldwide begin to
associate language loss with the rise of global English.
The new information poor
There is yet a further area in which English may be

identied with inequality that of communications technology. The Internet is not quite the global democratic
resource it is so often claimed to be. For those in developing countries, access to knowledge is a costly, problematic business and there is growing concern that
unequal access to information technologies will create
new distinctions between the information poor and the
information rich. For example, the trend for online scholarly journals, which circulate new research ndings
faster than traditional paper equivalents, may exacerbate
the difculty which researchers in poorer countries have
in gaining access to knowledge:
The huge danger is that the Internet might create a global
impoverished class that doesnt have access to information
systems, warns Martin Hall, an archeologist at the
University of Cape Town who often collaborates with researchers in other parts of Africa. In ve years we will be
dealing with mostly paperless journals. Right now many
African researchers depend on charity for their printed journals; paperless journals will be completely denied to these
scientists. (Gibbs, 1995, p. 83)
The pattern of unequal access is partly a colonial

legacy: information is piped around the globe by
bre-optic and co-axial cables along the same routes as
taken by the Victorian telegraph which linked the British
empire. Although satellite technology is extending information access, the areas of the world closest to the information superhighway are those which the telegraph rst
reached. Africa is notably poorly serviced, as are all locations any distance inland from maritime cables. Many
African universities have intermittent, fragile connections to electronic mail which their budgets scarcely
allow them to maintain. It is one reason why, even as
African economies develop, many students will have to
study overseas.
Figure 34 Geographic
distribution of the 6,703
living languages recorded by
Grimes (1996). Over 50% of
the worlds stock of
languages are found in the
Asia Pacic
Nusa Tenggara
ABUI
ADABE
ANAKALANGU
ATONI
Maluku
ALUNE
AMAHAI
AMBELAU
APUTAI
ASILULU
Sulawesi
ANDIO
ARALLE-TABULAHAN
Kalimantan
AHE
AMPANANG
AOHENG
Sumatra
ANDIO
ARALLE-TABULAHAN
Irian Jaya
ABUN
AGHU
AIRORAN
AMBAI
ANSUS
ANUS
ARANDAI
ARGUNI
AS
ASMAT, CASUARINA
COAST
ASMAT, CENTRAL
ASMAT, NORTH
ASMAT, YAOSAKOR
ATOHWAIM
AUYE
AWERA
AWYI
AWYU, MIARO
AWYU, NOHON
Table 13 Some Indonesian
languages beginning with
the letter A which have
small numbers of native
speakers and are likely to
be endangered
(based on Grimes, 1996)
39
Summary
1 Demographic trends
Demographic trends provide a basis for forecasting the likely

future populations of rst-language speakers for all the worlds
major languages. With further research and a better
understanding of the nature of language shift towards national
languages, it would be possible to develop similar forecasts for
second-language speakers.
2 A new order for the world economy
There is a marked shift in the balance of economic power in the

world which will transform the relative attractiveness to learners
of different languages. It is not just wealth, but the changing
way it is created which will have a profound effect on the need
for international languages. The transition to a weightless
economy increases the need for communication across national
borders. More people will need to acquire a higher prociency
in English.
3 Technology
Technological developments, such as the Internet, are changing

the way the worlds citizens communicate and the way
organisations operate. But the demography of the Internet is
changing rapidly and the experience of the last 10 years
provides no guide to the future. Languages other than English
are accounting for an increasing proportion of the trafc and
content of the Internet.
4 Global inequality
It is not just the pattern of wealth which is changing, but also

poverty which is being restructured. English plays an indirect
part in the restructuring of inequality around the world as well
as in the loss of smaller languages. The social and political
consequences of these processes are unpredictable: together they
present one of the many wild cards in long-term forecasting.
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November, p. 19.
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Impacts on English
q The workplace
Earlier we described how trends in technology, the global economy
and demography hold implications for our working lives. Here we
examine the implications of these trends for English language skills
required by the new globalised workforces.
q Education and training

English already shares the languages curriculum in Europe with
French, German and Spanish, alongside a variety of other languages
from Russian to Urdu. Is the same true of schools worldwide? And
what role will English play outside school? English-medium teaching
is permitting rapid internationalisation of higher education and adult
training.
q The global media

Not so long ago, the media industry was bound by the territorial limits of the nation state. Today, the media is an international industry,
competing to reach audiences with disposable incomes in every
world region. Is English required to reach these massive global audiences?
q Youth culture
The baby boom in the west gave rise to a demographic hump which
had profound consequences in public policy, the economy and culture. Now the baby boomers of the west are replaced by those in
the non-western world who may have different cultural orientations
and aspirations.
q Internet communication
Computer technology has transformed the way people interact
both locally and globally. Now we are at the edge of a new era of
personal and group communications. Will the Internet remain the
agship of global English? And if so, will it be English as we know it
today?
q Time and place

Discussions of globalisation emphasise the annihilation of time and
space brought about by new communications technology, but there
are some respects in which both will continue to be signicant factors shaping economic, political and cultural formations in the 21st
century.
Many of the general trends that are shaping our lives

can be, as we have seen, identied, monitored and
assessed using statistical surveys and forecasting
models.
But what of the less direct ways in which economic,
demographic and technological trends affect
peoples lives and, in particular, their everyday use of
language? There is virtually no context in human life
where language does not play an important part.
Whether in employment, at home with the family, or
enjoying oneself in leisure periods, language plays an
intimate role in constructing relationships and
identities as well as enabling people to get things
done.
Establishing the practical consequences of general
trends is an important part of social forecasting and
also the most problematic. It is a great deal easier to
play with numbers than to understand how they
might change the world. When we look more closely
at individual cases, we can see how global trends can
have many different, and contradictory, local effects.
Development by no means takes a straight line and
the existence of counter-trends and the different
ways in which global trends are accommodated and
reshaped by local conditions and cultures, makes
prediction hazardous.
The next section identies selected contexts where
patterns of language are changing and explores the
impact of the general trends identied in section 3.
41
The workplace
Earlier we described how trends in technology, the global economy and
demography hold implications for peoples working lives. Here we examine
the implications of these trends for English language skills required by the
new globalised workforces.
English in a globalised workplace

One of the signicant changes taking place in the organisation of the workplace today is a rethinking of the way
in which activities are carried out and the way they are
managed. The approach now experienced by many
people has become known as process re-engineering. It
is a process that leads to organisational changes such as
down-sizing,
management
delayering
and
out-sourcing of sub-processes formerly carried out inhouse. The nal result is usually fewer people directly
employed by the organisation, a management which is
less hierarchical and operational units that are dispersed,
each having greater autonomy to take decisions. Work is
now frequently arranged around teams who, instead of
passing a problem upstairs to a line manager, must
work out a solution themselves cooperatively.

Michael Hammer, a current guru of management change is
quoted as claiming Reengineering takes 40% of the labor
out of most processes. For middle managers it is even worse;
80% of them either have their jobs eliminated or cannot
adjust to a team-based organisation that requires them to be
more of a coach than a task-master. (Snyder, 1996, p. 10)
Process re-engineering is itself partly a result of the

shift in economic activity towards services and screenbased labour (p. 35) and of the globalisation of both
production and markets with the coordinated activities
of several companies and complex production implied in
global operations. Yet process re-engineering is not
experienced solely through transnational corporations.
Small to medium-sized enterprises and even a twoperson company are now affected. A small company, for
example, engaged in the intellectual property business,
can itself sub-contract work to other suppliers, use new
technology to work cooperatively with distant clients
and, with a World Wide Web page, develop a global
marketing strategy.
These new forms of corporate organisation and part-
Case Study 1 World Print in Hong Kong

Many books published for English-speaking markets,
particularly those printed in colour, are manufactured in
Hong Kong, where skilled labour is sufficiently cheap to
offset the higher cost and time delays incurred in shipping the stock back to the UK, Australia or North
America. One such book was the first in a series on the
English language (Graddol et al., 1996). Here we
examine the process by which this book came to be
printed in Hong Kong, through a print brokers called
World Print. The very term print broker hints at the
complex mediating and negotiating role which is a
necessary component of any international business.
Printing, although part of the media industry, is in many
ways like a classic import-export business. It involves
the bringing together of raw materials and the manufacture of a nished product. Like other manufacturing
enterprises it requires the physical movement of materials and all the bureacracy which goes with the international movement of goods. The chain of initial
negotiation was as follows:
1 In the UK, all staff concerned with the books
production (at the Open University and at
Routledge, the co-publisher) speak English. The
development and writing of the book require advanced native-speaker skills.
2 Routledge production staff discuss the print contract
with the British representative of World Print (RB).
RB is a native speaker who works from home in
Reading, using fax and telephone to communicate
with British publishers and the Hong Kong ofce.
These detailed negotiations are conducted between
native speakers.
3 RB discusses the contract with Peter Choy (PC)
the Hong Kong Director of World Print. PC is bilingual in English and Cantonese (the latter is his first
language). This stage is conducted in English and
largely by fax. The time-zone difference between
Hong Kong and Britain is 8 hours which means
that there is little overlap in working time. But

because RB is home based, he has greater exibility
in his hours of work. PC deals with contacts in other
countries France, Germany and Brazil also through
the medium of English.
4 PC negotiates a contract with a local printer using
Cantonese. The printer does not speak English
fluently but is sufficiently proficient to accept the
written contract in English. (This is necessary
because contract law in Hong Kong is based on
English.)
5 The printer instructs his shop-floor workers in
Cantonese. Few of them speak English.
This procedure has, until recently, been typical of many
international business deals. Key intermediaries like PC,
or interpreters supporting key negotiators, have supplied the bilingual skills necessary to permit communication between organisations which operate in different
languages. In the whole of this transaction, only one
person required a full bilingual competence.
Increasingly, PC is placing contracts with printers and
binders in mainland China, because of the rising cost of
labour in Hong Kong. He acts as a key intermediary
permitting British publishers, without knowledge of
Cantonese or Mandarin, to buy print services from
Chinese enterprises. Local enthusiasm for English may
be (temporarily) waning, as Peter Choy explains:
The contracts have to be written in English so we
communicate everything in English, even with the
Japanese. But I think things are changing. Years ago,
it was very important if you couldnt speak English
you werent able to get a job at all; if you didnt pass
your English subject, youd never get a job. But this
is changing here because Hong Kong is going back
to China, so more and more Hong Kong people are
willing to spend time learning Mandarin rather than
English.
English must service a range of corporate roles and

identities and must be usable for both team working
and service interactions. Not surprisingly, demands
on an employees competence in English are rising.
nership working have led to changes in the structure of
communication between workers within large enterprises. Work of all kinds require higher levels of direct
communication both within work teams and between
members of different teams. The change in communication pattern was shown schematically in Figures 26 and
27 (p. 33); below are two case studies, both in the publishing industry, which show how these patterns actually
affect the number of people who need English language
skills.
While more workers are expected to become
procient in English, changes in communication
patterns mean they also need a wider range of linguistic
abilities. Mercer (1996) distinguishes, for example,
between two types of working English. The rst kind is
the communication between other professionals and
workers within the same line of work. These people often
have specialised language needs, including a particular
vocabulary. This type of working English is not, as it is
sometimes portrayed, a single, monolithic variety like a
special dialect of English. Rather, such groups of workers
form a community within which a variety of styles and
levels of formality, all distinctive of the occupation, are
used: exchanges between supervisor and factory hand

may be different from those between middle and senior
management, but all may be said to belong to the same
discourse community.
The second type of working English relates to
communication with people who are not members of the
trade or profession themselves. This style of interaction is
a consequence both of the growth in service industries
and the numbers of employees now required to project a
corporate image in their dealings with the public. Many
employers indeed insist on particular ways of addressing
and talking to clients and customers, since this language
has become an integral part of the service offered.
Employees today, as a result of new working practices, have to adopt a wide variety of language styles. Thus
English must service a range of corporate roles and identities and must be usable for both team working and
service interactions. Not surprisingly, demands on an
employees competence in English are rising. Education
and training programmes are only just beginning to be
tailored to employment trends.
Will English give Britain

a special economic
advantage?
p. 57
Case Study 2 Singapore Straits Times

Australia is acquiring a great deal of English language
business from the growing economies of the Asia
Pacific, particularly in the knowledge-intensive
industries. The country has two immediate advantages;
it is in an adjacent time-zone and has native-speaking
English workers. The Singapore Straits Times newspaper
has established a sub-editing ofce in Sydney,
connected to Singapore by a leased bre-optic line.
From the base in Australia, editors take stories led by
journalists in Singapore for the next days paper, subedit them and prepare page layouts. Despite the
physical distance, the sub-editors work is as closely
integrated as if they were at an ofce in Singapore.
Their work is online and every key stroke passes
through the bre-optic link to Singapore. And when the
bromide is printed, from which the printing plate is
made, it emerges from a machine in the Singapore
ofce.
Teng Guan Khoo, the chef de bureau in Sydney,
explains the process and the rationale behind the move:
In late 1994 the Straits Times set up this sub-editing
ofce to provide subbing and layout services for the
Straits Times in Singapore. Now the work we do here is
purely for the Singapore Straits Times and our journalists edit the stories and design the pages and output
them in Singapore.
The Straits Times was on an expansion move and
they needed to hire subs for the plant and they
looked at India, Australia and maybe a bit of the
Philippines, but the company decided to come here,
because the company felt that Australia provided
the people with the language skills and journalistic
experience. India also provided those skills, but I
think the Indian infrastructure and technology wasnt
that up to date Australias telecommunications
facilities were much better. In considering the
Philippines we realised that they spoke American
English and because the Straits Times is a British

English newspaper we felt that the language, spelling
and turns of phrase were not suitable for the Straits
Times.
Our computers are linked to Singapore directly in
real time, we do not do processing offline, our
computers are on an optical-bre link to Singapore
for every second and all the stories we get up on
the system come from Singapore. In other words,
nothing is kept in Sydney. Our computers here are
behaving like computers in Singapore. It is like the
Sydney ofce is just another section, about 100
metres away from the Singapore headquarters. Its
like the guy next door there is no differentiation to
the computer.
There are advantages and disadvantages to the
time-zone difference. Working in Sydney we are
sometimes 2, sometimes 3 hours ahead of
Singapore. That is a disadvantage if we were doing
the late-night shift, which means we would have to
nish at 3.00 a.m. when it is only midnight in
Singapore. But if we do the early feature pages, it is
an advantage because it means that when we start
work at 10.00 a.m. it will be 7.00 a.m. in Singapore.
At that time the computers are very quiet, the
response from the system is very fast and we do not
hold anybody up. So the main computer in
Singapore is being used very efciently.
The Straits Times has traditionally hired sub-editors
from Australia to supplement its staff in Singapore,
because Singapore has a shortage of skilled labour
and Australia has a large pool of journalists who are
native speakers of English. Journalism requires a
good command of English because subs have to
check not only for grammar but also check for libel
and they are expected to write good headlines to
attract readers.
43
Education and training

English already shares the languages curriculum in Europe with French,
German and Spanish, alongside a variety of other languages from Russian to
Urdu. Is the same true of schools worldwide? And what role will English play
outside school? English-medium teaching is permitting rapid
internationalisation of higher education and adult training.
English in European schools
How will the world

hierarchy of languages
look in the 21st
century?
p. 59
English is currently the most widely studied foreign

language in the European Union (EU): Figure 35 shows
proportions of school students studying English against
other languages. It is a dominance unlikely to be challenged in the immediate future. The foreign language most
taught at primary age is English and, as part of wider
reforms, teaching of a rst foreign language is now
taking place earlier in a childs education. In Spain and
Italy, compulsory foreign-language teaching is being
phased in for students aged 8, while Greece and France
are experimentally phasing in such teaching at age 9
(Dickson and Cumming, 1996).
As yet there are no clear rivals to English. The position of French may seem secure, but over one-third of
pupils studying it as a foreign language are from Englishspeaking countries, where only a minority will ever use it
as an international language. Figure 35 is based on data
from the early 1990s. Since then the national curricula
in many EU countries have been restructured, resulting
in a rise in hours of modern-languages teaching and a
broader range of languages offered. The enlargement of
the EU itself, with association agreements with Poland,
the Czech and Slovak Republics, Hungary, Romania
and Bulgaria, has beneted not only English but perhaps
more particularly German, which is a popular second
foreign language in northern and eastern Europe.
English in schools worldwide

WWW
WORLD DATABASE OF DISTANCE
TAUGHT COURSES
http://www-icdl.open.ac.uk/icdl/
ICDLdb.htm
A recent study of foreign-language learning in 25 countries (Dickson and Cumming, 1996) shows English to be
the most popular modern language studied worldwide.
In the Russian Federation for example, 60% of
secondary school students take English, 25% German
and 15% French. English may remain the primary
choice, but there are four factors which might upset the
seemingly universal trend towards English as the rst
foreign language in the worlds schools.

First there is growing competition from other languages outside Europe. The Hooke model forecasts, primarily on economic grounds, that by 2010 the languages in
greatest demand by students will be: (1) English, (2)
Mandarin, (3) Spanish and (4) Indonesian. And, by
2050, Vietnam is projected to be the fourth largest Asian
economy outstripping Japan so it would not be
surprising if Vietnamese also emerged as an important
language for the regions schools.
Second, the education system in any multilingual
country must cater for several languages used within that
country. This may become a more sensitive factor as the
movement towards universal language rights including the right to a mother-tongue education grows
around the world. Third, regionalisation may encourage
the use of a non-English lingua franca for trading purposes. Greater use of Spanish in South America, for
example, may affect the popularity of English in Brazil,
just as interest in learning English in Hong Kong has
recently been affected by the perceived priority of
Mandarin. And fourth, a new political spirit of
neighbourliness may encourage the study of languages
from adjacent countries, rather than those from a different cultural and economic region.
Problems of teacher supply
A key problem preventing the effective take-up of

English in the worlds schools is that of teacher supply. If
a country like Thailand decides to introduce English
teaching at lower levels at primary age (as it has recently
done) a massive teacher-training programme is required:
there are simply too few primary teachers available with
the necessary language skills and those that do exist are
concentrated in urban areas. But even when teacher
education is effective, schools in developing economies
have difculty in maintaining teaching staff. Teachers
acquiring prociency in English may gravitate to betterpaid jobs at secondary level. And secondary teachers
with good English prociency may seek jobs in the
tertiary sector. Tertiary teachers, whose salaries lag
behind their fellow graduates in private enterprise, will
tend to leave their public-sector employment. There is
thus a churning effect which prevents the achievement
of adequate teaching of English at primary level.
Case Study 3 Internationalisation of education in Malaysia

Malaysia is traditionally thought of as a recipient of
English language and educational services from Britain
and other parts of the developed world. It sends many
students abroad for study and Malaysian universities
have extensive twinning agreements with universities
in North America, Britain and Australia which provide
accreditation for degree programmes taught on
Malaysian campuses. Malaysia intends, however, to use
its recent expansion of English-medium education to
become a regional exporter of educational goods and
services. Here are three examples.
1 An early learning kit, designed to help pre-school
children learn to read in English, has been so
successful that the Malaysian developers have
decided to export it to countries like Thailand,
Taiwan, Hong Kong and Indonesia. (New Sunday
Times, 30 March 1997, p. 41)
2 In 1994, the Malaysian government established a

Bachelor of Business Management programme in
Uzbekistan. The Uzbek students, used to studying in
Uzbek or Russian, required an intensive business
English programme to help them follow lectures.
(Malaysian Digest, October 1996, p. 7)
3 In 1997 a new private university (Universiti
Telekom) accepted its rst intake of 1000 students,
including students from South Africa, Malawi,
Guinea, Ghana, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and
Cambodia. Malaysia is encouraging the development
of such private universities, partly to reduce the
expenditure incurred by Malaysians studying
overseas, but also to help position Malaysia in the
future as an international source, rather than a recipient, of high-level educational services. (New Straits
Times, 27 May 1997, p. 3)
The growth of English-medium education has

permitted a rapid internationalisation of education
and allows developing countries to reposition
themselves as exporters of educational services.
English-medium higher education
One of the most signicant educational trends worldwide is the teaching of a growing number of courses in
universities through the medium of English. The need to
teach some subjects in English, rather than the national
language, is well understood: in the sciences, for
example, up-to-date text books and research articles are
obtainable much more easily in one of the world languages and most readily of all in English. The move towards
English-medium higher education is having a number of
long-term consequences. First, it accelerates and broadens the second-language use of English in both developed and developing countries, creating a constituency of
college graduates, many of whom come to use English
more extensively for social communication amongst
themselves and some of whom raise their own children
speaking English as a rst language. English-medium
higher education is thus one of the drivers of language
shift, from L2 to L1 English-speaking status (p. 10).
Second, English-medium education alters the pattern of
social privilege (p. 38) which may trigger wide-ranging
social change. Third, the growth of English-medium
education has permitted a rapid internationalisation of
education and allows developing countries to reposition
themselves as exporters of educational services (Case
Study 3).
The rise of the adult learner
In the 21st century the service sector of all economies is

expected to grow rapidly. Demand is likely to grow in
the tertiary sector and particularly in adult education,
where the English language skills formerly taught to
university students may no longer be sufcient to meet
the needs of new enterprises: widespread reform of
university curricula in English language can be expected
in many countries. The non-formal sector and businesses requiring in-service retraining are already proving to
be a major growth area. McRae (1997) suggests this may
be an transitional phenomenon: while the key to the
very long-term future may lie in the nursery schools, the
key to the next decade lies in patching gaps in peoples
education and retrotting us with new skills. But the
shift of emphasis from low-skill employment to
knowledge-intensive industries means that educated
labour will be in greater demand everywhere, yet the
required knowledge and skills will need regular updating, creating a more exible labour force seeking frequent retraining.
The complexication of higher education
Gus Hooke has argued that when any developing economy achieves a per capita income of about $3000, the
demand for higher education outstrips the capacity of
the country to supply. One result is expected to be a
continuing stream of students from developing countries
to those in the rst world. The Hooke model forecasts
that the international demand for specialist courses of
English as a second language (ESL) will multiply sixfold
by 2025 and that most of this will be satised by UK, US
and Australian providers. Since much of the demand
will come from Asia, Australian providers are expected
to benet more than the US and UK.
However, the higher-education market will become
increasingly complex, with growth in arrangements for
credit transfer, accreditation, hybrid courses (such as
engineering through English) and new forms of jointventure enterprise between institutions in the developed
English (60.3%)
Other (0.6%)
Figure 35 Proportions of all

school students studying
modern languages in Europe
French (30.4%)
Spanish (3.5%)
German (5.2%)
and developing world, alongside the expansion of both

the private tertiary sector and the entrepreneurial activities of public-sector institutions.
These developments will allow a much greater
proportion of students to be educated within their home
countries. Furthermore, some developing countries
(such as Malaysia) which have expanded their provision
for English-medium higher education (Case Study 3) will
emerge as competitors to developed countries for international students.
An electronic education?
The Hooke model forecasts a rapid rise in off-campus

training in the coming decades by distance education
and the growth of English-medium education in many
parts of the world effectively opening these markets to
distance providers in native-speaking countries.
However, it is likely to be the smaller educational enterprises which benet most. It is surprisingly difcult to
provide for large numbers of students entirely electronically and without local support. The mega-universities
such as the British Open University are more likely to
proceed through joint ventures with local institutions
than to attempt large-scale, long-distance programmes.
Some of this training may also be conducted through
the virtual universities which are now emerging, bringing together universities and corporate clients and ensuring that training is available to employees in the
workplace. There is widespread expectation that forms
of distance education exploiting new technology will play
an important role in workforce retraining and reskilling
programmes in the next few decades. Some industry
analysts have tried to put gures to the trend:
Analysts expect that within three years, some 15 per cent of
corporate education and training worldwide will be conducted remotely via the more cost- and time-effective use of the
Internet, intranet and other technologies. (Kline, 1997)
Such forms of training will allow institutions in

Europe, the US and Australia to offer training provision
to the desktops of executives in other parts of the world,
without the associated costs of travel and subsistence or
loss of productive time. There are, however, several
factors which may make this route unattractive to trainees: the issue of inequality of access (p. 38), which for
many countries means technology will be available only
to workforces of larger transnational companies; the fact
that overseas travel is often regarded as an incentive to
accept training; and nally, the lack of a part-time training culture in many countries, where working practices
are built around the expectation that staff will study fulltime for an agreed period.
45
The global media

Not so long ago, the media industry was bound by the territorial limits of the
nation state. Today, the media is an international industry, competing to
reach audiences with disposable incomes in every world region. Is English
required to reach these massive global audiences?
The global presence

SA
sia
60
cif
Pa
ica
ia
er
As
rm
Am
W
a/
ric
Af
Fo
s
e
SWr U
SS
As R/
ia
As
ia
Eu
20
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ro
pe
40
Figure 36 BBC World Service

coverage in 19967
(millions of listeners)
Until the 1990s, the BBC World Service was one of the
few broadcasting institutions with worldwide reach. Its
coverage today spans Europe, the Americas, Asia and
the Pacic, Africa, the former USSR and South-west
Asia. In 1996 to 1997 its weekly audience was 143
million listeners with the majority in Asia (Figure 36), a
presence supported by BBC English, offering teaching
programmes and materials to many local broadcasters.
The BBC World Service share is, however, a small
part of a massive industry: many national media conglomerations, including British television interests, are now
active on a global scale. It is a business that has been
transformed in recent years by the merging of large
media groups, one of the most notable being News
Corp, whose media ownership has included Twentieth
Century Fox, Fox TV network, and two satellite systems,
BSkyB and Star TV. US companies, with large domestic
markets which have allowed the amassing of vast
programme libraries, have been particularly prominent.
In 1994, for example, just under a quarter of Disneys
$10.1 revenue billions came from outside the US. 1996
returns should reach 30%. By 2006, it aims for 50% of
revenue to be made overseas (Guardian, 30 November
1996, p. 2). Recently the company merged with Capital
Cities/ABC whose interests include 80% of the cable
channel ESPN. Such global expansion has caused many
people to fear the Disnication of world cultures.
Localising the global
Arte
BBC Prime
BBC World
CNN Int.
Deutsche Welle
Discovery
Euronews
EBN
Eurosport
MTV Europe
NBC Super Ch.
Travel Channel
TNT
TV5
27.1
2.8
3.4
28.1
3.4
10.0
21.3
2.8
43.9
23.5
11.6
4.1
9.7
10.8
Table 14 Percentage of
European viewers
watching satellite TV
channels (30 day period)
Fears that satellite TV will help bring about a globally

uniform audio-visual culture based on US English may
prove unfounded. Satellite television, a technology which
has the capacity to envelop the world audience with a
homogeneous product, will create greater linguistic and
cultural diversity and be more supportive of local
languages than previously supposed. When global satellite TV channels were rst established, it was necessary
for them to reach an audience spread over a large territory: economic logic required the use of big languages.
And, although the audience would speak many languages, it was the middle class with enough disposable
income to make associated advertising ventures worthwhile whom the satellite operators targeted an audience
who could be reached through English.
Star TV, based in Hong Kong and owned by News
Corp, was one of the rst of the global operators.
Launched in 1991 it used a satellite that covered 38
nations and capturing a potential audience of 2.7 billion
in a wide range of countries including China, Japan,
India, Malaysia and Israel. Initially it was aimed at the
top 5% of the audience well educated, wealthy, professional, and often English speaking (Frendenburg, 1991,
cited in Chan, 1994).
When Star TV rst launched, the majority of its
programming was in either English or Mandarin in
order to reach the elite audiences from eastern Asia to
India. But more recently, local programming has been
introduced:
As more international channels become available on Indian

television screens, foreign and Indian broadcasters have
begun to target specic audiences. Star TV, the Hong
Kong-based satellite network which kicked off the Indian
cable revolution in 1991, was the rst to realise that Indians
do not like watching serials in Mandarin, and that the
Chinese reacted equally negatively to South Indian
Malayalam songs. ... Foreign broadcasters targeting Indias
potential viewership of 500m-plus have realised that there
is no such thing as a pan-Asian market. (Financial Times, 17
November 1995)
As the market developed and new channel capacity

became available, Star TV has promoted local languages. It has struggled with local regulations to offer
Cantonese programming for music, sports and news,
while plans exist to develop its Hindi/Indian programming. The company now aims to introduce a new Hindi
serial at prime-time evening viewing to follow Hindi
news (India Today, 30 November 1996, pp. 969).
CNN International is also moving into languages
other than English as it launches a 24-hour Spanish
news service for Latin America alongside plans for a
Hindi service (Financial Times, 9 December 1996, p. 19).
Similarly, CBS is to develop a Portuguese language news
service in Brazil (Independent on Sunday, 2 March 1997, p.
2). Perhaps the most remarkable story in this connection
is that of MTV often regarded as the vehicle for
submerging the worlds teenagers with US English music
culture (Case Study 4).
The word localisation is on the lips of nearly every
marketing manager in global corporations and the drive
towards greater diversity in provision comes from the
need to increase market penetration. It is well known
that advertising, for example, needs to adapt to local
culture, language and social values. But the means of
achieving localisation has come from technology: digital
systems have expanded transmission capacity so greatly
that now multiple streams can be carried at high speed
and at low cost. Compression technology allows 10 satellite channels to be carried in place of one analogue channel. With such enormous capacity, most world regions
will be provided with 500 channels or more. For the
viewer watching their digital TV system, that will mean
a greater choice of programming (though not necessarily
higher quality), much of it tailored to niche audiences.
Linguistic diasporas
Europe may be different from other world regions in the

way that satellite TV is encouraging the use of English.
While it is virtually impossible to know how many homes
worldwide are watching what programmes in what
languages, the rst market-research data is ltering into
the public domain. Table 14 charts European viewing of
international channels in a 30 day period in 1995. From
a sample of viewers, it emerged that throughout Europe,
70.2% felt able to understand English well enough to
follow TV news or read a newspaper in the language,
followed by 43.8% in French and 40.2% in German
(EMS Survey, Cable and Satellite Europe, January 1997).
Such widespread take-up of English has given rise to an
anxiety about the impact on other, smaller languages.
One researcher investigating the extent to which
Swedish children watched and understood Englishlanguage satellite programming speculated:
In one hundred years time, will we still speak Swedish? ...
Or will we, few as we are, have become engulfed by the
When there are 500 channels to choose from

... showing the same lm but in different languages
national viewers will no longer have a shared
experience.
English empire and keep Swedish in the family chest, a
quaint relic to be dusted off, polished up and displayed on
festive occasions. (Findahl, 1989)
Yet the growth in satellite TV channels also permits

diasporic linguistic groups to receive programming in
their rst languages. Table 15 shows a range of the
languages available on satellite channels in Britain in
1996. Furthermore, it is not only English language providers who can play the global-alliance game. The Arabic
language station MBC based in London has agreed to
cooperate with Arab Network of the US in joint productions. TV Asia shows Indian and Pakistani lms with
daily news in 5 Asian languages on British satellite channels. And Bollywood, Indias home lm industry, is a
ready and successful supplier, turning out 300 Hindi
language lms a year and exporting many videos and
lms to expatriates in West Asia and Africa.
Dubbing
One of the oldest forms of media localisation is the

dubbing and sub-titling of lms. In Britain, where the
audio-visual culture and production values require lip
synch, sub-titling is preferred to dubbing. But in many
countries (notably India) it is normal for locally produced
lms to add studio-recorded sound tracks after shooting;
audiences have become used to the lack of lip synchronisation that this produces and are more accepting of lms
dubbed from other languages. Dubbing, apart from allowing the import of (primarily American) visual and
thematic materials, has a linguistic effect. Dubbing of
American TV programmes, for example, is affecting the
pragmatics of other languages. Ross (1995) has documented the way expressions like hello are dubbed into
Italian. The Italian equivalents, bon giorno or ciao do
not easily match lip movements or length of the English
expression. Hence Salve has become popular and
Italians have begun to use the expression spontaneously.
There have been many such subtle effects on other
languages which arise from the dubbing of English
language lms and television programmes.
Dubbing also allows the English language media
industry to maximise prots by selling to new audiences.
Jurassic Park dubbed into Hindi ran for 25 weeks in
India, grossing $6 million in 1994 (Financial Times, 11
July 1996, p. 6). The airline industry too is a major
consumer of dubbed lms for in-ight movies. And

English is emerging as a relay language for the marketing of lms: a Hong Kong action movie, for example,
may be dubbed into English to show at an international
festival. It will then be bought and translated into a third
language.
Fragmentation of culture
The global media industry thus has complex effects on

languages and cultural identities with its competing
trends towards cultural convergence and diversication.
Whereas national broadcasting services have played an
important role in the creation of a national cultural identity through the provision of a shared experience of
representations of the world and signicant cultural and
political events satellite TV may be encouraging a
cultural fragmentation. The programming schedules of
satellite TV are quite unlike those of terrestrial broadcasting: instead of a mixed output held together by continuity announcements, satellite channels offer
mono-thematic, repetitive schedules which encourage
channel hopping by the viewer. Programming thus now
results from decisions by the viewer, not the broadcaster.
When there are 500 channels to choose from some
showing the same lm but at different starting times,
others showing the same lm but in different languages
national viewers will no longer have a shared experience.
One source of uncertainty about the effects of satellite TV and cultural identity lie in the extent of cable
TV. In some countries, cable is the most popular way of
receiving satellite transmissions. For example, cable TV
reached a penetration of 88.6% in Belgium by the early
1990s (Paliwoda, 1993). It is not a technology limited to
fully developed regions: in India, there are now over 16
million homes with cable and an estimated 40 million
households to be equipped by 2000. Cable also provides
a solution to a political as well as a technical problem.
The transferring of satellite programming to terrestrial
cable systems brings broadcasts under the regulatory
control of the state. And cable can offer local services,
such as advertisements for local shops or announcements
of local events, blended into a global programming. This
mix of the global and local will provide a somewhat
unpredictable context in which English language
programming will operate in the 21st century.
Euronews
English, French, German,
Italian, Spanish
CNN International
English
CNBC
English
AsiaNet
English, Hindi, Gujarati,
Punjabi, Bengali, Urdu
Worldnet
English
NBC Super Channel
English, Dutch, German
MTV
English
Table 15 Languages
available on British satellite
channels 1996
Will satellite TV bring

English into every
home?
p. 60
Case Study 4 MTV

MTV, the music channel which has done more than any other station
to help create a global youth music culture, has in the past few years
adopted a policy of localisation a move which is signicant because
music is widely regarded as being one of three content areas, alongside
sports and international news, which can operate globally in English.
Music programming does not require advanced linguistic skills on the
part of the audience (Chan, 1994, p. 120).
MTV currently has 3 world divisions: in Asia, Europe and the Americas
reaching 268 million households worldwide (Financial Times Weekend,
1617 November 1996). The company began localising by establishing
production centres in different world regions to draw on local talents
and aim at local audiences: MTV Europe is based in London, MTV Asia
in Singapore. Both are now localising production further. The former
uses centres in Italy, Germany and London, aiming to provide 59%
locally produced programming on 3 separate regional satellite beams.
MTV Asia, using regional production centres established in India,
Taiwan and Singapore is guided by a policy of localisation, as David

Flack, Senior Creative Director of MTV Asia, explains:
Localisation is actually helping build national identity. Ive made it a
personal rule not to commission anything outside of a country for
that country. If were doing a show for Indonesia the title sequence
and all the rest has to be generated by people from that country
otherwise its not going to be relevant to them. For youth programming we have to mean something to the kids were broadcasting to.
If we dont they simply wont watch us.
Were not just a music video channel were a place to go to and
we need to keep researching what our audience wants.
Broadcasting Mandarin to the Philippines isnt going to be successful, just as broadcasting an international youth programme to
Indonesia isnt going to be successful. English is a kind of hip factor
but its good to be talking in a local language.
47
Youth culture
The baby boom in the west gave rise to a demographic hump which had
profound consequences in public policy, the economy and culture. Now the
baby boomers of the west are replaced by those in the non-western world
who may have different cultural orientations and aspirations.
The global teenager
Can anything be done to

inuence the future of
English?
p. 62
Peter Schwartz, in his classic account of scenario building, describes the emergence of the global teenager as a
new driving force. As the wests previous baby boomers
have passed through the generations they have required
continual adjustment of public policies and resources
relating to education, housing and health policies. In
economic terms, they have inuenced manufacturing of
clothing, motor vehicles, leisure and employment. And,
culturally, they have brought new waves of music, world
outlooks, afliation networks and political attitudes.
Clearly, surges in the youth population must gure in
any strategic thinking about public services, higher
education or provision for foreign-language studies.
Today we face a baby boom of global proportions with
children who will become tomorrows teenage force:
As the baby boom appeared (or should have appeared) as a
factor in every scenario of U.S. behavior in the 1950s,
1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, so the wave of global teenagers
will be a factor dwarfing other demographic factors in
scenarios starting from 1990, through the next fifty years or
so. (Schwartz, 1996, pp. 1201)
W WW
BENETTON WEB MAGAZINE
http://www.benetton.com/
benetton-web/colors.html
MTV ONLINE
http://www.mtv.com/
SONY
In the non-western world particularly India, China

and Brazil there is an inuential generation emerging
equivalent to those that have passed in the west; a boom
that represents a major demographic shift in global
youth. The populations of the Big Three regions have
aged, but those in developing countries are becoming
younger.
Tables 16 and 17 show the expected shift between
1995 and 2025 in numbers of teenagers and young
adults speaking major world languages. These projections, calculated by the engco model, must call into
question the extent to which global youth culture will be
focused on the style and cultural trends of the Big Three
regions, where, since World War II, English has been

the dominant language of youth style.
It is well documented that the teenage years are
sensitive ones for adult identity development and are an
age where language shift occurs, establishing patterns of
use for later years. The future of English as a global
language therefore may depend, in large measure, on
how the language is taken up and used by young adults
in Asian countries. The numerical size of the group
apart, there is a signicant difference in the new generations of baby boomers from those that have gone before;
identity in the future will be acquired and negotiated in a
cultural context which has global dimensions.
Young people with sufficient income are today becoming the target of a globalised industry in media, consumer products and fashion: they belong to what might be
called the Sony-Benetton culture. Young people in
India, in work rather than school, with income but no
family responsibilities, may see themselves as having
more in common with young people in Brazil than with
cultures in their home country. In this way, the sense of
belonging to a sub-cultural group may not change, but
the sense of where the group is may undergo a
profound change. And, of course, the linking of dispersed sub-cultures can be quickly achieved. Will hanging
out on the Internet become as formative as hanging out
on the street? Electronic media will become not just a
means of communication, but a generator of global style
(Schwartz, 1996, p. 125).
Tim Berners-Lee, the British inventor of the World
Wide Web, recently imagined the future effect of the
Internet on a teenage son:
The search engine has shown him a random selection of the
643,768 people around the world whose personal reading
prole is identical to his own. ... For your son, the Web is
the gateway not to diversity but to conformity. To be on the
top of the normal curve, a kid his age has to surf the Web
carefully, always sticking to the popular output of the big
media companies. It takes a certain sensibility a cybersense of hipness to select only those places that he can
guess the majority of his teen group will be choosing at the
same time. He knows that though he may live in a small
town in the Netherlands, he is right in the centre of the
main trend; he feels the strength of being exactly in tune
http://www.sony.com/
Case Study 5 Sign of the times

In the 1960s Britain became associated with a strong
and vibrant youth culture, revisited in the 1970s with
the punk revolution. Now, perhaps once again, there is
a new 90s wave of artistic creativity across a range of
cultural contexts: art, music, fashion and design.
Britpop is one expression of an expanding and
inuential teenage population and both its stars and
followers are able to enjoy a new global culture; one in
which the semiotics of music and clothing style are
crossing national and language boundaries more easily
than ever before.
While British lyrics and British bands are highly successful overseas, so too are international stars from the US,
Europe and Asia. In 1995, Polygram, the worlds largest
music company, reported top selling international acts
of British and American stars in Japan: Bon Jovi, Def
Leppard and Janet Jackson amongst them. Polygram
also promotes Jacky Cheung, Faye Wong, Samuel Tai

and Mavis Fan in Asia.
There is emerging an extraordinary vitality in this hybridity. The music world is now full of cross-over genres.
Several groups have been inuenced by Hindi and
Krishna music and have created new sounds and followings. There is also a developing knowledge of music
diversity in the global music industry: MTV channels (p.
47) have a policy of promoting regional bands that are
not American or English. In the teenagers future world,
an appreciation of Britpop or American heavy metal
may sit easily alongside other tastes: To be truly hip in
the world of the global teenager could mean knowing
how to recognise indigenous music from Senegal, New
Zealand, Uruguay and the Yukon (Schwartz, p. 132).
Young people in India, with income but no family

responsibilities, may see themselves as having more
in common with young people in Brazil than with
cultures in their home country.
with all his seen and unseen colleagues. And he knows he
wears the same sort of clothes and eats exactly what they do.
(Berners-Lee, 1996, p. 141)
A branded consumer
Just as terrestrial television once provided shared cultural
experiences and helped to construct a sense of national
identity for many countries, including Britain, now
global marketing is helping to establish a recognisable
youth culture worldwide. It is a culture based around
ownership and use of consumer durables, clothing and
cultural products. Such marketing provides both the
comfort of a shared experience and, to some extent, a
shared meaning to the products with the implied opportunity for building lifestyles and identities around them.
English plays a complex function in this global
culture. Historically, English has played a key role in the
branding of products. But branding is now commonly
used to communicate not a single product but a set of
values and attitudes. Those values and attitudes, engineered to have a global appeal, may transcend cultural,
religious or linguistic divides. Virgin is one example of
new-style branding; from record sales to air transport,
cola sales to nancial services, the brand identity acts as
an umbrella for a lifestyle and set of corporate values.
Benetton is typical of the transnational companies
now targeting youth with clothing and related consumer
products: the company has expanded its global reach to
over 7,000 retail outlets in 120 countries with 50 new
stores in China. Like other companies selling style
products, the World Wide Web and related magazine
publishing form an important part of the companys
strategy in reaching young adults around the world.
Respondents to a questionnaire published on Benettons
Web pages suggest nearly 80% of their audience are in
the 1130 age group. Their magazine, Colors, runs already to 400,000 copies worldwide, but their communications policy is a multilingual one. The magazines are
bilingual in English and another language: French,
Italian, Spanish, German or Japanese. Future editions of
the magazine will appear in Portuguese, Hindi, Korean
and Mandarin. But signicantly, Benettons global
advertising campaigns focus on visual images without
text. Colors is a visual magazine.
Transnational companies selling style have no particular loyalty to the English language: they will follow the
market. The logic of globalisation is to sell more widely
by localising products. New technology allows localisation to be accomplished more rapidly and more cheaply
than ever before. With franchise agreements, licences
and the general extension of large companies into niche
markets, it may be quite possible that the currency of
English is eroded.
Diversity and fragmentation
Wallace and Kovocheva (1996) in a study of youth cultures in western and eastern Europe, before and after the
fall of communism, argue:
Youth cultures and consumption have been at the forefront
of spreading new styles across geographical and linguistic
frontiers because they do not rely to any great extent on
language: music and sub-cultural styles are transnational
and travel easily across frontiers. Evidence of this can be
drawn from the ubiquity of MTV, a satellite TV channel
that broadcasts nonstop pop videos and to which television
sets are tuned from Stockholm to Soa, from Lisbon to Lviv.
Have youths been absorbed into a generalized consumer

culture? Does the ubiquitous presence of plastic chairs, fuck
off grafti, and MTV indicate the general homogenization
of culture? The answer is no. Although youths across Europe
may share similar cultural symbols and styles, the
signicance of these things is very different in different
places. (Wallace and Kovocheva, 1996, pp. 190, 211)
Wallace argues the cultural theorists point that even

a homogeneous product would give rise to different
effects in different cultures: the uniformity of a cultural
text does not guarantee a uniform reading. This to some
extent explains why youth styles are notoriously difcult
to predict. Youth culture can be seen as an accommodation to the contradictions of the lifestyles and values of
the older generation rather than a simple adoption or
rejection of them.
Nevertheless, companies like Benetton are trying to
mobilise a youth agenda intended to unite young
people across the world. This agenda includes an awareness of the global environment, appreciation of diversity
and human rights. If the Earth has become a Global
Village, then Benetton is the Village clothing store. And
like every good leading citizen, it feels an obligation to
not only succeed in business, but also to improve the
neighbourhood. Environmental and social issues may
provide a better focus for global youth identity than
language. The wearers of the united colours of
Benetton may be encouraged to unite in a celebration of
cultural and biological diversity.
There is, therefore, alongside the trend towards
global homogeneity, a trend towards diversity. It may be
that the ability to speak languages, even partly, becomes
a distinct style advantage. There may be a greater readiness to learn new languages in the streets of cyberspace
than in the classroom: Schwartz predicts, In the twelve
to twenty-two age group worldwide, knowing several
languages would be commonplace, and world travel
would be a constant temptation (1996, p. 123).
Style and varieties of English
English, of course, is not a single, unitary language and it

is unlikely that young people accept or reject English on
the basis of its standard form. Young people within
native-speaking English countries experiment with particular varieties of English in order to present or experience particular social identities: in schools in both
England and Australia, for example, children may adopt
words and characteristics from black American speech.
Black English for many children is associated with
American culture but, perhaps more saliently, with
music and sports cultures which form part of a globalised
speech fashion which extends beyond native speakers.
Or, as the Australian cultural theorist, John Hartley, has
astutely observed, such usages may appear in advertising
aimed at youth markets with greater frequency than
their actual use among the young.
Non-native forms of English also may acquire identity functions for young people. In Europe, for example,
MTV has promoted the use of foreign-language varieties
of English as identity markers a behaviour more
usually associated with second-language usage by
employing young presenters with distinctive French,
German and Italian English accents, alongside British
presenters with regional accents. Such cultural exploitation may indicate that standard, native varieties will be
the least inuential for the global teenage culture.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1995
Chinese
Hindi/Urdu
Spanish
English
Arabic
Portuguese
Bengali
Russian
Japanese
German
French
Malay
201.6
59.8
58.0
51.7
39.5
32.2
25.2
22.5
18.2
12.2
9.7
9.5
Table 16 Estimated millions

of speakers aged 1524
(engco model)
The engco model predicts a

shift in the languages spoken
by the worlds young people
between 1995 (above) and
2050 (below)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
2050
Chinese
Hindi/Urdu
Arabic
English
Spanish
Portuguese
Bengali
Russian
Japanese
Malay
German
French
166.0
73.7
72.2
65.0
62.8
32.5
31.6
14.8
11.3
10.5
9.1
8.9
Table 17 Estimated millions

of speakers aged 1524
(engco model)
49
Internet communication
Computer technology has transformed the way people interact both locally
and globally. Now we are at the edge of a new era of personal and group
communications. Will the Internet remain the agship of global English? And
if so, will it be English as we know it today?
The Internet
WWW
NUA INTERNET SURVEYS
http://www.nua.ie/surveys/index.cgi
ENGCO WEB MONITOR
http://www.english.co.uk/
future/web.html
INTERNET SOCIETY WEB
LANGUAGE SURVEY
http://www.isoc.org:8080/
palmares.html
The Internet is regarded by many as the agship of

global English. A frequently quoted statistic is that
English is the medium for 80% of the information stored
in the worlds computers, a gure quoted in McCrum et
al. (1986). It is certainly true that growth of computer
use and of the Internet in particular has been spectacular in the last few years. Computers have become
extensively networked and the networks themselves
linked into the global structure of the Internet. With live
interaction taking place between users and the storeand-forward messaging systems of the Internet blurring
distinctions between archived and ephemeral copies of
texts, the whole notion of storage has been given an
anachronistic air. Indeed, a major reconsideration of
intellectual property rights in connection with electronic
texts has been provoked in part as a result of the way
information and ideas now circle the world.
Using the same infrastructure as the telephone, the
Internet carries English language services into nearly
every country and, with growing private subscriptions,
into peoples homes. Data trafc, it is claimed, has now
overtaken voice trafc in the developed world
(Independent on Sunday, 17 November 1996, p. 3). The
system has its origins in the academic and, in particular,
scientic community, which is the longest connected
community of all. English is deeply established among
scientists as the international lingua franca and, from this
beginning, English appears to have extended its domain
of use to become the preferred lingua franca for the
many new kinds of user who have come online in the
1990s:
The electronic media that bind the world together are
essentially carriers of language. To work efciently, they
need a common standard. ... The English language is now
the operating standard for global communication.
(Geoffrey Nunberg of Stanford University, cited in The
Economist, 21 December 1996, p. 37)
But is it true that the Internet will remain a major

driver of English? At present, the language most widely
used is English, but this reects the fact that 90% of the
worlds computers connected to the Internet are based in
English-speaking countries, as are the computers that
host the publicly accessible World Wide Web sites. In
this light, it is perhaps not surprising that the majority of
both trafc and Web sites are rooted in English: at
present, users in other countries, working in other
languages, nd that if they are to communicate through
cyberspace, they must do so in English.
Internet growth
The overall shift in predicted Internet use is similar to

that outlined for the economy: the number of computer
hosts in Asia eventually will outstrip those in the Big
Three countries. Furthermore, the Internet, from its
origins as a tool for international communication
between a global academic elite, will increasingly serve
local, cultural and commercial purposes. And as the
Internet becomes more widely used, it is natural to
expect a wider range of languages will be employed.
One issue in monitoring Internet growth is knowing
what a user is. There are many who have access to the
Internet for whom it forms only an infrequent or casual
means of communication. For numbers of those who use
the system, we might nd a guide in the plethora of
market surveys a result of growing commercial exploitation of the Internet which seem to suggest, overall,
that around 50 million people used the Internet at the
beginning of 1997, of whom around 20% are in Europe.
Here, the largest Internet community is expected to be
based in Germany, followed by the UK, the Netherlands
and Sweden. Elsewhere, connections to the Internet are
rising rapidly: there were an estimated 100,000 users in
China in 1996, a gure that may have already increased
markedly due to a growth in private subscriptions.
As access to the Internet expands in any country, so
the prole of its users changes, as do the functions it
serves and the range of languages conveyed across it.
Typically, usage focuses initially around the workplace,
with the academic community often the rst wired, but
eventually accounting for a small proportion of users.
Surveys tend to suggest most users at present are male,
young and middle class. Hence, in many parts of the
world, the demography of the average Internet user
Case Study 6 Automatic translation

Automatic translation of texts was once a far-fetched
dream but has become a practical reality remarkably
quickly. New software is becoming available for the
major languages which operates on desktop PCs and
which can be embedded in email and computer conferencing applications. Thus it may not be necessary for
an Internet user to be able to write in English in order
to exchange messages with the English-speaking
community. One such message (right) was submitted to
a US-based discussion list concerned with adult education by an Italian correspondent. It shows the possibilities (and linguistic hazards) of routine machine
translation. But what would this mean for the popularity of English? And what kinds of discourse community
might emerge around such machine-mediated English?
Hi. First of all, I apologize for my (bad) English: I am Italian and,

as its known, nobody is perfect. ... (Im writing this message
with the help of a software of automatic translation and therefore not all the demerits are due to my person. ...)
My name is . Im a new affiliate to the list and I absolve the
invitation gladly to send a short professional profile.
I am concerned with Education & Training from more than 10
years. During these years I have taught in classroom, I have
developed and projected tens of self-trained courses on
various topics.
Currently I conduct plans of formation for firms of big dimensions and Im particularly taken an interest in the problematic
tied up to the Education through the net.
You will have a particularly attentive reader in me (I dont know
if it is a promise or a threat. ...).
Kindly, could anybody give me a judgment on the quality of the
software of translation done? (in other terms, is it comprehensible what do I have written?). Thanks in advance.
Browser software will transmit language preference

information when contacting a remote site. If a page
is available in that language it will be automatically
retrieved in preference to one in English.
differs from the population at large: only 2530% are
women (12% in Japan) and most users have access to the
Internet through their work. It may be that as access
becomes easier, the demography of the Internet will look
more like that of the national population, with least
access by the rural, poor and unemployed.
The growth of local communities
The growth of the Internet has not followed the geographical pattern of spread to which the world has been
accustomed for centuries. It is moving from a widely
dispersed, global network towards one with denser local
hubs, rather than starting from a central point and
becoming more dispersed. Hence, although the Internet
is usually thought of primarily as a global communications network, the action on it is likely to be increasingly
local: intranets (Internet-like networks within organisations, often re walled against the outside world) are
expected to grow more rapidly over the next few years
than the Internet itself. These intranets will create
employment-based communities which, in the case of
transnational corporations, may extend over national
boundaries. This may encourage English, but it may also
permit, say, a Swiss-based company to maintain a
German-speaking culture amongst its employees. Action
will be local also in the sense that most communications
and access will become local in nature. Electronic mail
will be used to contact someone on the other side of
town rather than the other side of the world. Databases
and Web sites are also rapidly emerging which serve the
local rather than the global community. And as the
number and density of locally based communication
groups rises, so will the use of local languages. Yet on the
Internet, locality will be always a virtual one, allowing
members of the community, temporarily or permanently
distanced, to maintain close links.
One of the dislocating features of the Internet is the
way it provides access to the local by people who are
physically remote. Connecting to a local FM RealAudio
radio site in Texas and hearing news of downtown trafc
jams, reading the Shetland Times on a Web site and
discovering the outcome of a neighbourhood dispute,
viewing a street scene through a security camera placed
on the other side of the world these provide a means of
temporarily viewing and listening to the world from a
local perspective, as if joining another community. This
capability may encourage informal language learning in
future amongst young surfers by providing access to a
live local community using the target language.
Internet communication
A great deal of communication on the net is not in the

public domain and therefore difcult to monitor.
Electronic mail, for example, is expected to be a dominant activity, even when the Web has matured, for it
supports communities much in the way that newsgroups
do. List servers, sending messages out automatically, also
create considerable trafc between members of selfselected groups. The software needed to manage and
distribute such messages once required an institution
with a large machine permanently attached to the
Internet. Now it is possible for an international mailing
list to be managed via a home computer. This is one of
the democratising trends on the Internet: the breakdown of gatekeeping and the shift of control to ordinary
users, in turn leading to informal, vernacular or in-group
language in public places.
This ambiguity and uidity about the status of

Internet communication is reected in ongoing tension
as to whether it is conceived of as a form of publishing
or a conversation. A consensus is needed, not least for
legal purposes. As court cases in different parts of the
world have shown, the Internet has thrown up problematic issues regarding intellectual property rights and
libel. But it is clear from research by linguists that new
genres and forms of English are arising on the Internet.
The system is not simply encouraging the use of English,
but transforming it.
Languages on the Web
As computer usage spreads, it is predicted that English

content on the Internet may fall to 40% of the total
material. The English Company (UK) Ltd has devised a
corpus linguistic method for estimating the proportion of
languages on the World Wide Web which suggests the
English language content is now around 8 billion words.
The technique will be rened and used to monitor the
Webs changing linguistic composition. Meanwhile, the
Internet Society has reported preliminary ndings
(Table 18) in a survey of the language of home pages
using a different methodology. The main conclusion is
that languages other than English are now being used on
the Internet and this trend is likely to be of growing
importance. In 1996 the Internet Society published new
protocols for Web browsers which will facilitate the use
of Web pages in different languages. In future, browser
software will transmit language preference information
when contacting a remote site. If a page is available in
that language it will be automatically retrieved in preference to one in English. This means, for example, that
the Web will appear to be in Spanish to a Spanish speaker and in French to a French speaker, provided the
hosts contacted maintain pages in these languages.
Software support for automatic language translation
is also improving. There is a widespread expectation that
such aids will become common, according to a recent
Delphi study of the social impact of technology.
The Delphi form ... asked about machines for the translation of texts into different languages, voice recognition technology for translation of speech into different languages,
and interactive software for English as a foreign language
controlled by the learner. Between 50% and 60% of respondents believe that these will be practicable by 2004.
(Technology Foresight, para 4.21)
Some of these technologies are, in fact, already available. In future, it may not be necessary for providers to
create pages in different languages. The Internet, or the
users own computer, may provide an invisible translation service. Operated by the Internet, this would work
when a page is retrieved by a users computer, automatically submitted to another Internet site (possibly in a
different part of the world) and then translated by a
powerful mainframe computer, before being passed in
the required language to the user who requested the
page. Translation software for major languages is already
available on PCs and is now used in ordinary communication on the Internet, as the case study (left) shows. Such
language technologies, widely available, may
signicantly reduce the need for learning English for the
casual Internet user, although many linguists remain
sceptical whether they provide a reliable means of
communication between speakers of different languages.
What impact will the

Internet have on the
global use of English?
p. 61
Language
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Estimated %
servers
English
332,778 84.3
German
17,971 4.5
Japanese 12,348 3.1
French
7,213 1.8
Spanish
4,646 1.2
Swedish
4,279 1.1
Italian
3,790 1.0
Portuguese 2,567 0.7
Dutch
2,445 0.6
Norwegian 2,323 0.6
Table 18 Languages of home

pages on the Web
51
Time and place

Discussions of globalisation emphasise the annihilation of time and space
brought about by new communications technology, but there are some
respects in which both will continue to be signicant factors shaping
economic, political and cultural formations in the 21st century.
Regionalisation
Will a single world

standard for English
develop?
p. 56
Although GATT and WTO promote international free

trade, much of the growth in todays trade is emerging
within regional blocs. Some 76 regional trade agreements are listed by WTO, over half of which have been
established since 1990 (The Economist, 7 December 1996,
p. 27). This rise in regional trade is not simply a consequence of the emergence of trading blocs, such as Nafta
or the EU; the likely cause and effect is the other way
around, with economic development brought about, in
part, by the globalised activities of transnational corporations stimulating the formation of regional trade. Given
this circumstance, as the economies of Asian countries
mature, markets in adjacent countries will look more
attractive than those far away. Such adjacency may in
future include cultural neighbourhoods as much as
geographical ones. The likely consequence of economic
regionalisation, therefore, is the emergence of regional
lingua francas other than English.
There are indications that this phase of globalisation
is beginning. An international report on language education (Dickson and Cumming, 1996), shows the popularity of English in Thailand is increasing, as in many
South-east Asian countries. But the author of the prole
for Thailand reports:
Thailands role in Indochina has become increasingly more
important with the democratisation of the political systems
in Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos and possibly Mianmar, and
Thai businessmen and academics have been participating in
the affairs of these neighbouring countries by serving as
business investors, partners, and advisers. At present,
English is used as the medium of communication in most of
WWW
OUDP PROGRAMME
http://www.sim.ac.sg/infgd/PROGRAM
2.NSF/Web/Partner/UKOU?Openview
these situations, but there is a growing perception that

knowledge of these neighbours may be critical in enhancing
better cross-cultural understanding, a perception that may
have a future effect on policies for language education in
Thailand. (Wongsothorn, 1996, pp. 1223)
This suggests that economic modernisation may be

particularly favourable to English only in its rst wave.
As countries rise in economic status, they themselves
may become the source of skills and technology for
neighbouring countries. And as labour in such countries
becomes more expensive and threatens a countrys
competitive edge in the global economy, they will nd
themselves well placed to relocate production in lessdeveloped neighbouring countries. There is evidence
that this is already happening in Hong Kong (relocating
production to mainland China) and Singapore (involved
in joint ventures in China, Philippines and India).
Another potentially signicant example is Mercosur
a common market established in 1991 between Brazil,
Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. It seems that the
trade agreement may be helping to establish Spanish as
the regional lingua franca and may be giving rise to a
political expectation, as in Thailand, that the languages
of neighbouring countries should be more prominently
studied:
English became Brazils second language in the 1970s. Now
the challenge is from Spanish. ... Mercosurs boosters rightly
claim that language is its secret weapon: where the
European Union must haggle in a dozen tongues, Mercosur
speaks in just two and they are enough alike to allow the
group to dispense with interpreters. ... Mercosur has prompted a belated interest on both sides in learning the
neighbours language. The entire foreign-trade department
of Brazils National Industrial Council, the manufacturers
lobby, is taking Spanish lessons. Portuguese classes run by
the cultural arm of the Brazilian embassy in Argentina are
attracting record numbers. Diego Guelar, Argentinas
ambassador to Brazil, is encouraging Argentine language
schools to set up there. Within the next two years, the
Case Study 7 The UK Open Universitys Singapore programme

The British Open University has, since 1994, offered an
undergraduate degree programme in Singapore which
is jointly managed with local partner institutions. In
recent years, 2 distance-taught courses in the English
language have been collaboratively developed with
authors, administrators and editors based in Singapore.
The process of project management and exchange of
draft materials within the UK institution has, in the last
few years, become based on a mix of email and
electronic document exchange, reducing the dependence on face-to-face meetings. This is a process which
lends itself to globalisation: members of course teams
who are currently distributed across the campus in
Milton Keynes and who communicate electronically
might just as easily be dispersed across the world.
Messages and draft materials can be exchanged electronically over such distances as easily as on the campus
network. Indeed, it sometimes happens that messages
between Singapore and the UK arrive sooner than
those sent across the campus, such are the vagaries of
the store- and-forward process which messaging
networks employ.
But two factors make close integration of working practices problematic: one relates to time zone and the
other is cultural. The British working day starts just as
the one in South-east Asia closes. It is therefore impossible to take coordinated complex decisions quickly a
full working day elapses between each response and
transporting hard copy and discs by courier remains a
more reliable and almost as rapid a method of document exchange. These limitations are mitigated only by
a corresponding trend towards more exible working
hours on both sides: the working hours of academic
staff overlap and in both locations authors are able to
send and receive electronic messages from home.
The second factor is cultural. It is well known that
Asian, British and European business cultures differ in
key areas, such as patterns of negotiation, approaches
to project management, orientation to time and
expectations of working-role relationships. Although
some of these cultural problems may be institutional
rather than national, they form as effective a barrier to
close integration as time-zone differences.
The division of the world into three major time zones

will give rise to new patterns of advantage and
disadvantage for countries, depending on their
geographical location, time zone, language and culture.
Brazilian state of Sao Paulo and the Argentine province of
Buenos Aires Mercosurs two largest population centres
plan to offer the other countrys language as an optional
subject in their school curricula. (The Economist, 9 November
1996, p. 88)
LONDON
What this analysis suggests is that the present phase

of globalisation has favoured the English language,
primarily because ows and relationships have been
between Big Three countries and developing economies.
The next phase, however, may favour regional languages. National language curricula in schools may become
more diversied as the need arises to teach a regional
lingua franca together with the languages of neighbouring countries. English may be simply crowded out from
its present prime position and demand for English may
not rise as fast as might be predicted from the growth in
local economies.
Time zones
The logic of globalisation has led to closer integration of

working practices of dispersed teams (Case Study 7). The
same logic has also increased the economic benets of
being located in the same time zone. Technology cannot
overcome difference in time as easily as distance. A
communication may be transmitted instantly to the
other side of the world, but action may not be taken on it
until the next working day. In the late 20th century,
three major business zones have emerged, based on the
time zones within which the Big Three trading blocs
operate: the United States, Europe and Japan. The
zones are presently based on the main nancial centres:
New York, London and Tokyo.
The centre of gravity of these business zones is
expected to shift slightly in the coming decades,
reecting the changing centres of business. As China and
India become more important in the global economy,
the Asian zone may be expected to shift westwards,
between time zones 5 and 8. The European zone may
shift eastwards, reecting increase in economic importance of eastern European countries. This will place
Germany to a more central time location (Figure 37).
Each of these major zones may develop its own regional language hierarchy. The Americas, for example,
might become more prominently Spanish-English bilingual. In which case, the Spanish-speaking population in
the US will become an important economic resource. In
Europe, the present hierarchy, which positions English,
French and German as the big languages, may continue, with French gradually being squeezed as the extension of the EU favours English and German. In Asia,
complex patterns of regional difference may arise, with
India projecting the use of English on the western side
and the extensive bamboo network of Chinese businesses promoting Chinese to the east. However, the fact
that Mandarin is a second language for many engaged in
international trade may complicate its position as a
regional lingua franca.
Help or hindrance?
The division of the world into three major time zones

will give rise to new patterns of advantage and disadvantage for countries, depending on their geographical location, time zone, language and culture. Some global
corporations operating in the services sector, for
example, are able to exploit their dispersion across time
zones:
NEW YORK
TOKYO
European zone
American zone
11 10 9
Asian zone
Russian zone
3
10 11
12
Figure 37 The trading days of the three global nancial centres span the world. In the coming
decades three major zones of economic activity may emerge. Russia will be in a unique position
in spanning two of them
We seem to be moving to a three time-zone world, a world
where economic activity is passed from one on to the next,
maybe to the next, before being handed back to zone one.
One zone performs the night-shift for the other. We talk of
European countries having a time-zone advantage. London
can trade with East Asia and North America. (McRae,
Independent, 24 September 1996, p. 24)
Thus British Airways is able to switch its European

enquiries desk from north-east England to New York at
the close of business each day (customers are said to be
own over to New York), avoiding the need for nightshift working. Indeed, the telecommunications link
between the US and the UK carries more trafc than
any other international channel. But the dominant effect
of time zones in a period of globalisation will be to bring
countries within similar zones into closer integration. In
other words, the economic relationship between north
and south will become restructured, with countries in the
south increasingly providing cheaper labour and backofce services for those in the north. North America will
develop a closer relation with Latin America, perhaps
eventually forming a single trading bloc. Europe, however, may nd Africa an increasingly important trading
partner and service provider. Asia will, again, be the
most complex region. Australia is well placed to pick up
the English language benets in the Asia Pacic region,
but the role played by Russia is as yet unpredictable.
Russia [...] has a time-zone advantage, in that it runs two
time-economies: if Europe provides only slow growth, it can
benet from the Asian boom. Only politics can hold it back.
(McRae, Independent, 24 September 1996, p. 24)
Following the death of Deng Xiaoping, China has

announced its intention to develop a closer economic
relationship with the Russian Federation. The linguistic
dynamics of any north Asia zone which may emerge
would be different from those in the south east. English
is likely to serve functions in all these regions, but it will
enter into a deeply complicated system of relationships
with other languages.
53
Summary
1 New working patterns
Globalisation affects the ways that organisations are structured

and the patterns of communication between members of the
workforce. There is more communication required; more work
is language related and the growth in screen-based labour
allows working groups or teams to be internationally dispersed.
Two consequences of such changes are that workers in many
sectors require a deeper command of English than hitherto and
a larger proportion of the workforce need to operate in an
international language. These developments in working practice
are likely to represent a major driver towards English-language
training in the future.
2 Internationalisation of education
Globalisation is also affecting education particularly higher

education and corporate training. Patterns of provision are
becoming so complex that it is difcult to identify purely
national interests. English will provide a means for secondlanguage countries to internationalise their education systems
and thus become major competitors to native-speaking
countries in English-medium education. A second signicant
trend is towards distance education. This may benet the
institutions of Western countries who will be able to supply
high-value training and accreditation services in-country at
lower cost than traditional residential courses. However, an
explosion in distance education is already visible in developing
countries, driven by the need to educate more people, more
cheaply, with fewer qualied teachers.
3 Localisation
One of the most signicant trends in both satellite TV and the

marketing departments of large TNCs is the tailoring of
products and services to suit local markets. Language provides a
key strategy in achieving localisation. The visual element of US
TV programmes, for example, may not change but dubbing
permits the programme to reach a local audience. Localisation
increases the role of languages other than English in domains
formerly associated with English.
4 Youth culture
The changing demography of the world, in which most Western

countries are experiencing a decline in numbers of young
people whilst those in Asia and Latin America are experiencing
a baby boom, suggests that the focus of a global youth-culture
might shift in the next decade or so from Europe and the US.
Although the English language has been associated with a
global youth-culture, the language does not seem to play as
signicant a role as sometimes appears. Clothing and music
may be more important. English lends a hip factor it will be
in the mix but other languages will be increasingly
important to the worlds young, who are encouraged to
celebrate diversity by the advertising strategies of companies
such as Coca-Cola and Benetton.
References
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Chan, M.J. (1994) National responses and accessibility to Star TV in Asia.
Journal of Communication, vol. 44. pp. 11231.
Dickson, P. and Cumming, A. (1996) Proles of Language Education in 25 Countries.
Slough: NFER.
Findahl, O. (1989) Language in the age of satellite television. European Journal of
Communication, vol. 4, pp. 133-59.
Kline, D. (1997) Net predictions for 1997. http://www.upside.com/
McCrum, R., Cran, W. and MacNeil, R. (1986) The Story of English. London:
Faber & Faber.
McRae, H. (1997) How will Labour deal with real life? Independent, 7 May, p. 17.
Mercer, N. (1996) English at work. In J. Maybin and N. Mercer (eds) Using

English: from conversation to canon. London: Routledge/Open University.
Paliwoda, S. (1993) International Marketing. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.
Ross, N.J. (1995) Dubbing American in Italy. English Today, vol. 11, pp. 458.
Schwartz, P. (1996) The Art of the Long View. New York: Doubleday.
Snyder, D. (1996) Whats happening to our jobs? The Futurist, MarchApril, pp.
713.
Wallace, C. and Kovocheva, S. (1996) Youth cultures and consumption in
Eastern and Western Europe. Youth and Society, vol. 28, pp. 189214.
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of Language Education in 25 Countries. Slough: NFER.
English in the future
World English
Will a single world standard for English develop?
Will English give Britain a special economic advantage?
Will the British brand of English play an important role in the world
in the 21st century?
Rival languages
Which languages may rival English as a world lingua franca in the
21st century?
Which languages will benet from language shift? Which languages
will lose speakers?
What gives a language global inuence and makes it a world
language?
English as a transitional phenomenon

Will the demand for English in the world continue to rise at its
present rate?
Will satellite TV channels bring English into every home, creating a
global audio-visual culture?
Will English continue to be associated with leading-edge technology?
Will economic modernisation continue to require English for technology and skills transfer?
What impact will the Internet have on the global use of English?
Managing the future

Can anything be done to inuence the future of English?
A Brent Spar scenario for English
The need for an ethical framework for ELT
This book has tried to establish a new agenda for

debate, not simply on the future of the English
language in the 21st century, but also on the role of
its native speakers, their institutions and their global
enterprises.
This nal section brings together some of the
arguments put forward in the book and shows how
they might help address key questions about the
future of English. The rush to English around the
world may, for example, prove to be a temporary
phenomenon which cannot be sustained indenitely.
Languages other than English are likely to achieve
regional importance whilst changed economic
relations between native-speaking English countries
and other parts of the world will alter the rationale
for learning and speaking English.
The ELT industry may also nd itself vulnerable to
shifts in public opinion, like other global business
enterprises now experiencing nasty surprises in
their world markets. An increasing concern for
social equity rather than excessive benet for the
few is one expected social value shift which likely to
inform both public policy decisions and personal lifechoices and this will have unpredictable
consequences for the popularity of learning English
as a foreign language.
The English language nevertheless seems set to play
an ever more important role in world
communications, international business, and social
and cultural affairs. But it may not be the nativespeaking countries who most benet.
Ways forward
55
World English
Will a single world standard for English develop?
One question which arises in any discussion of global
English is whether a single world standard English will
develop, forming a supranational variety which must be
learned by global citizens of the 21st century. Like most
questions raised in this book, this demands a more
complicated answer than those who ask probably desire.
There are, for example, at least two dimensions to
the question: the rst is whether English will fragment
into many mutually unintelligible local forms; the second
is whether the current national standards of English
(particularly US and British) will continue to compete as
models of correctness for world usage, or whether some
new world standard will arise which supersedes national
models for the purposes of international communication
and teaching.
The widespread use of English as a language of wider
communication will continue to exert pressure towards
global uniformity as well as give rise to anxieties about
declining standards, language change and the loss of
geolinguistic diversity. But as English shifts from foreignlanguage to second-language status for an increasing
number of people, we can also expect to see English
develop a larger number of local varieties.
These contradictory tensions arise because English
has two main functions in the world: it provides a vehicular language for international communication and it
forms the basis for constructing cultural identities. The
former function requires mutual intelligibility and
common standards. The latter encourages the development of local forms and hybrid varieties. As English
plays an evermore important role in the rst of these
functions, it simultaneously nds itself acting as a
language of identity for larger numbers of people around
the world. There is no need to fear, however, that trends
towards fragmentation will necessarily threaten the role
of English as a lingua franca. There have, since the rst
records of the language, been major differences between
varieties of English.
The mechanisms which have helped maintain standard usage in the past may not, however, continue to
serve this function in the future. Two major technologies
have helped develop national, standard-language forms.
The rst was printing, the invention of which provided a
xity in communication by means of printed books.
According to scholars such as Anderson (1983), such
xity was a necessary requirement for the imagined
communities of modern nation states. But with increasing use of electronic communication much of the social
and cultural effect of the stability of print has already
been lost, along with central gatekeeping agents such as
editors and publishers who maintain consistent, standardised forms of language.
The second technology has been provided by broadcasting, which in many ways became more important
than print in the socially mobile communities of the 20th
century. But trends in global media suggest that broadcasting will not necessarily play an important role in
establishing and maintaining a global standard. Indeed,
the patterns of fragmentation and localisation, which are
signicant trends in satellite broadcasting, mean that
television is no longer able to serve such a function. How
can there be such a thing as network English in a world
in which centralised networks have all but disappeared?
Meanwhile, new forms of computer-mediated
communication are closing the gap between spoken and

written English which has been constructed laboriously
over centuries. And cultural trends encourage the use of
informal and more conversational language, a greater
tolerance of diversity and individual style, and a lessening deference to authority. These trends, taken
together, suggest that a weakening of the institutions and
practices which maintained national standard languages
is taking place: that the native-speaking countries are
experiencing a destandardisation of English.
The ELT industry, however, may play an important
role in maintaining an international standard, as
Strevens (1992) suggested:
There exists an unspoken mechanism, operated through the
global industry of ELT teaching, which has the effect of
preserving the unity of English in spite of its great diversity.
For throughout the world, regardless of whether the norm is
native-speaker or non-native speaker variety, irrespective of
whether English is a foreign or second language, two
components of English are taught and learned without
variation: these are its grammar and its core vocabulary.
[...] the grammar and vocabulary of English are taught and
learned virtually without variation throughout the world.
(Strevens, 1992, p. 39)
However, second-language countries are likely to

develop their own curricula, materials and teaching
resources which they will seek to export to neighbouring
countries. In some parts of the world, this may help
bring new, non-native models of English supported by
dictionaries and pedagogic materials into competition
with the older standard varieties. There is no reason
why, say, an Asian standard English may not gain
currency.
Smith (1992) carried out an experiment using speakers of 9 national varieties of English China, India,
Indonesia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines,
Taiwan, the United Kingdom and the United States in
order to discover whether the spread of English is creating greater problems of understanding across cultures
(Smith, 1992, p. 88). He concluded that there was no
evidence of a breakdown in the functioning of English as
an international lingua franca but that, interestingly,
native speakers (from Britain and the US) were not
found to be the most easily understood, nor were they, as
subjects, found to be the best able to understand the
different varieties of English (Smith, 1992, p. 88).
Since the ELT publishers from native-speaking
countries are likely to follow markets most of the large
publishers already provide materials in several standards
it will be non-native speakers who decide whether a
US model, a British one, or one based on a secondlanguage variety will be taught, learned and used. At the
very least, English textbooks in countries where English
is spoken as a second language are likely to pay much
more attention to local varieties of English and to localise their product by incorporating materials in local
varieties of English.
The most likely scenario thus seems to be a continued
polycentrism for English that is, a number of standards which compete. It will be worth monitoring the
global ELT market for signs of shifting popularity
between textbooks published in different standards.
The likelihood is that English may be so prevalent in

the world that Britain obtains no special benet in
possessing native speakers: economic advantage
may shift more clearly towards bilingual countries.
Will English give Britain a special economic advantage?
It has been suggested that the English language will
provide the key to Britains economic prosperity in the
future. After all, if much of the worlds business is
conducted in English, this surely will be of advantage to
native speakers. This book presents arguments which
challenge this idea and suggests that in future Britains
monolingualism may become a liability which offsets any
economic advantage gained from possessing extensive
native-speaker resources in the global language.
There are several reasons why monolingualism may
not be the most advantageous strategy in a world that
increasingly is bilingual and multilingual, and trade is
signicant among them. A greater volume of trade will
occur within Europe in a context where trilingual
competence (in English, French and German), or at least
bilingual competence, is widely regarded as necessary,
especially for trade with peripheral countries. As the
core of Europe moves eastwards, there is a danger that
Britains peripheral position will be felt more acutely and
its monolingual status may become an economic liability. In other regions of the world, regional languages
may become important in business such as Chinese in
East and South-east Asia, and Spanish in the Americas.
The inability to eld staff competent in these languages
in addition to English may prove a hindrance as markets
become more competitive. The likelihood is that English
may be so prevalent in the world that Britain obtains no
special benet in having so many native speakers: the
advantage may shift more clearly towards bilingualism.
At present, the English language helps make Britain
attractive to Asian companies wishing to invest in factories with direct access to European markets, since many
Asian countries use English as their international lingua
franca. But if a country such as the Netherlands can
provide English, German and Dutch-speaking
employees, why establish an enterprise within a mono-
lingual English-speaking area which is peripheral geographically, politically and economically? Britains
linguistic advantage in attracting investment from Asia
may decrease as English becomes more widely used in
other European countries.
English will no doubt remain an important asset to
Britain in terms of the production and marketing of
intellectual property; English language materials will
continue to be important economic resources for native
speakers. But intellectual property in English will
become more widely produced and marketed in other
parts of the world.
The global ELT market, similarly, is likely to become
more complex. As in other global industries, the strategic
importance of alliances and cooperative ventures will
grow. International networks of language schools may
take an increasing market share. Competitors to Britain
will arise in Europe, some of whom will employ British
native speakers on a contract basis, while others will
establish ofces in Britain. These trends may make it less
easy to identify distinctively British goods and services.
There is also a likelihood that new ELT providers
based in European and Asian second-language areas
may prove more attractive to some clients than nativespeaker institutions. There is a rising demand for courses, materials and teachers which cater for the needs and
experiences of second-language users. Non-nativespeaking teachers are not necessarily regarded as second
best any more. More people are asking, How can
monolingual British teachers best understand the needs
of second-language users of English?
Such developments make it difcult to argue that
Britain will have an intrinsic economic advantage based
on language. If Britain retains an edge with regard to the
English language, it will be largely because of wider
cultural associations and its international brand image.
Will the British brand of English play an important role in the world in the 21st century?
The conventional wisdom is that US English is the most
inuential variety worldwide. Recent American studies
of the cultural consequences of globalisation suggest:
The global culture speaks English or, better, American. In
McWorlds terms, the queens English is little more today
than a high-falutin dialect used by advertisers who want to
reach affected upscale American consumers. American
English has become the worlds primary transnational
language in culture and the arts as well as science, technology, commerce, transportation, and banking. ... The war
against the hard hegemony of American colonialism, political sovereignty, and economic empire is fought in a way
which advances the soft hegemony of American pop culture
and the English language. (Barber, 1996, p. 84)
By 2000, English was the unchallenged world lingua franca.
... This language monopoly bestowed upon the United
States an incalculable but subtle power: the power to transform ideas, and therefore lives, and therefore societies, and
therefore the world. (Celente, 1997, p. 298)
It will be clear from the discussion elsewhere in this book

that these commentaries already have a slightly oldfashioned feel to them. The hegemony of English may
not be so entrenched as writers such as Barber and

Celente fear. But Barber may also be dismissing the position of British English too readily. Much of the negative
reaction to English in the world is directed towards the
US; most territories in which English is spoken as a
second language still have an (ambiguous) orientation to
British English (Figure 5, p. 11); British publishers have a
major share of the global ELT market and there are
signs that even US companies are using the British variety to gain greater acceptance in some world markets.
Microsoft, for example, produces two English versions of
intellectual property on CD-ROM, such as the Encarta
Encyclopedia: a domestic (US English) edition and a
World English edition based on British English.
The future of British English in the world will depend
in part on continued, careful management of its brand
image. Some useful groundwork has already been
undertaken. The support of British Studies courses in
overseas universities, for example, has helped shift the
focus from cultural heritage to a more balanced understanding of Britains place in the modern world. There is
also a growing appreciation of the importance of British
audio-visual products in projecting an image of Britain
as a leader of style and popular culture.
57
Rival languages
Which languages may rival English as a world lingua franca in the 21st century?
There is no reason to believe that any other language
will appear within the next 50 years to replace English as
the global lingua franca. The position of English has
arisen from a particular history which no other language
can, in the changed world of the 21st century, repeat.
We have argued, however, that no single language
will occupy the monopolistic position in the 21st century
which English has almost achieved by the end of the
20th century. It is more likely that a small number of
world languages will form an oligopoly, each with particular spheres of inuence and regional bases.
As trade, people movement and communication
between neighbouring countries in Asia and South
America become more important than ows between
such regions and Europe and North America, so we can
expect languages which serve regional communication to
rise in popularity. But it is actually very difcult to foresee more precisely what will occur.
For example, we have noted that economic activity,
telecommunications trafc and air travel between Asian
countries will greatly increase. But there are at least
three possible linguistic scenarios which may develop
from this. One is that English will remain the preferred
language of international communication within Asia,
since the investment in English may be regarded as too
great to throw away, or the social elites who have
beneted from English in the past may be reluctant to let

their privileged position become threatened. Or it may
simply be the most common shared language. A second
scenario is that Mandarin becomes regionally more
important, beginning as a lingua franca within Greater
China (for communication between the regions of Hong
Kong, Beijing, Shanghai and Taiwan) and building on
increased business communication between the overseas
Chinese in South-east Asia.
The third scenario is that no single language will
emerge as a dominant lingua franca in Asia and a greater number of regional languages will be learned as
foreign languages. If intraregional trade is greatest
between adjacent countries, then there is likely to be an
increased demand for neighbouring languages. In this
case the pattern of demand for foreign languages will
look different in each country.
The position of Russian in Central and North Asia is
subject to similar problems of prediction. But it does
seem clear that the global fortunes of Spanish are rising
quite rapidly. Indeed, the trading areas of the south
(Mercosur, Safta) are expected to merge with Nafta in
the rst decade of the new millennium. This, taken
together with the expected increase in the Hispanic
population in the US, may ensure that the Americas
emerge as a bilingual English-Spanish zone.
Which languages will benet from language shift? Which languages will lose speakers?
This book has identied language shift where individuals and whole families change their linguistic allegiances
as a signicant factor in determining the relative positions of world languages in the 21st century. Although
such shifts are relatively slow often taking several generations to fully materialise they are surprisingly difcult
to predict. Most research in this area has focused on
migrant and minority communities who gradually lose
their ethnic language and adopt that of the majority
community. Little research has been conducted on
linguistic migration between big languages, such as
from Hindi or Mandarin to English. But in the next 50
years or so we can expect substantial language shift to
occur as the effects of economic development and globalisation are felt in more countries. This takes us into new
territory: there has been no comparable period in which
can provide an indication of what is to come.
First, the loss of at least 50% and perhaps as much as
90% of the worlds languages means that the remaining
languages will acquire native speakers at a faster rate
than population increase in their communities. English is
not the direct cause of such language loss, nor is it the
direct benefactor. As regional language hierarchies
become more established, there will be a shift towards
languages higher in the hierarchy. One of the concomitant trends will be increased diversity in the beneciary
languages: regional languages will become more diverse
and richer as they acquire more diverse speakers and
extend the range of their functions.
Second, processes of internal migration and urbanisation may restructure residential and employment
patterns in multilingual communities on lines of social
class rather than ethnolinguistic community. Parasher
(1980) showed, for example, how the rehousing of ethnic
groups brought about by redevelopment created neighbourhoods in which English became the language of
inter-ethnic friendship and communication.
Third, economic development is greatly enlarging the
numbers of middle class, professional families in the
world those who are most likely to acquire and use
English in both work and social forums.
Fourth, the growth of English-medium tertiary
education worldwide has created a signicant transition
point in late adolescence for many second-language
speakers at which English may take over from their rst
language as a primary means of social communication.
The nature of English bilingualism in many L2 countries
thus suggests that for some speakers English may
become a rst language during the course of their lives,
which would upset the assumption that such language
shift can only occur between generations. Migration
towards L1 use of English by middle-class professionals
may thus take place more rapidly than has hitherto been
thought possible. India and Nigeria may experience
substantial increase in numbers of rst language speakers
of English in this way and it is worth remembering that
even a small percentage change in these countries would
greatly increase the global number of native English
speakers.
The languages which might benet most, in terms of
larger numbers of native speakers, are Hausa and
Swahili in Africa, Malay, regional languages in India
and Tok Pisin. Russian, Mandarin and Arabic may also
prot. English, at the apex of the hierarchy, is certainly
implicated in this upgrading process and will probably
continue to act as a global engine of change, encouraging users to shift upwards from small community
languages to languages of wider communication.
No single language will occupy the monopolistic

position in the 21st century which English has
almost achieved by the end of the 20th century.
What gives a language global inuence and makes it a world language?

Japanese, will grow much more slowly. The relative
positions of the top six are likely to change during the
coming decades, but it is unlikely that any other
language will overtake English.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
English
German
French
Japanese
Spanish
Chinese
Arabic
Portuguese
Malay
Russian
Hindi/Urdu
Bengali
100
42
33
32
31
22
8
5
4
3
0.4
0.09
Table 19 Global inuence of major languages according to

the engco model. An index score of 100 represents the
position of English in 1995
The changing status of languages will create a new

language hierarchy for the world. Figure 38 shows how
this might look in the middle of the 21st century, taking
into account economic and demographic developments
as well as potential language shift. In comparison with
the present-day hierarchy there are more languages in
the top layer. Chinese, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish and
Arabic may join English. French and other OECD
languages (German, Japanese) are likely to decline in
status. But the biggest difference between the presentday language hierarchies and those of the future will
result from the loss of several thousand of the worlds
languages. Hence there may be a group of languages at
the apex, but there will be less linguistic variety at the
base. The shift from linguistic monopoly to oligopoly
brings pluralism in one sense, but huge loss of diversity
in another. This will be offset only in part by an increasing number of new hybrid language varieties, many
arising from contact with English.
The big languages

CHINESE, HINDI/URDU
ENGLISH, SPANISH, ARABIC
Regional languages
(The languages of major trade blocs)

ARABIC, ENGLISH, CHINESE, MALAY
RUSSIAN, SPANISH
National languages
Around 90 languages serve over 220 nation states
Local languages
The remainder of the world's 1000 or less languages

with varying degrees of official recognition
Compare the hierarchy (left)

with the one for the present
day. p.13
No one has satisfactorily answered the question of what

makes a language a world language. It is clear from
earlier discussions in this book that sheer numbers of
native speakers do not in themselves explain the privileged position of some languages.
David Crystal suggests that a language becomes an
international language for one chief reason: the political
power of its people especially their military power
(Crystal, 1997, p. 7). Historically that may have been
true: in the future, it will be less clearly military power
which provides the international backing for languages,
because of changes in the nature of national power, in
the way that cultural values are projected and in the
way markets are opened for the circulation of goods and
services.
What we need is some sense of what makes a
language attractive to learners, so that we can identify
languages which newly meet such criteria in the future.
This would also allow us to chart and ideally anticipate,
the decline of erstwhile popular languages.
In this book we have focused on economic and
demographic factors. Some combination of these might
usefully form a starting point for an understanding of
what makes a language acquire importance. The engco
model provides an illustration of the kind of approach
that can be taken. The model calculates an index of
global influence taking into account various economic
factors which have been discussed earlier, including
Gross Language Product and openness to world trade
(Traded Gross Language Product). The model also
includes demographic factors, such as the numbers of
young speakers and rates of urbanisation. Finally, it
takes into account the human development index (HDI)
for different countries. This is a composite gure produced by the UN, which combines measures of quality of
life with those for literacy and educational provision. In
this way, HDI provides an indicator of the proportion
of native speakers who are literate and capable of generating intellectual resources in the language.
The engco model of global inuence thus generates
a new kind of league table among languages, which
weights languages not only by the number and wealth
of their speakers, but also by the likelihood that these
speakers will enter social networks which extend beyond
their locality: they are the people with the wherewithal
and ambition to go about in the world, inuence it
and to have others seek to inuence them. The calculations for the mid 1990s for the basket of languages we
have surveyed in this book are as shown in Table 19.
No strong claims are made for the validity of this
index, but it does seem to capture something of the relative relations between world languages which other
indices, based crudely on economic factors or numbers
of native speakers, do not convey. It shows that English
is, on some criteria at least, a long way ahead of all
other languages, including Chinese.
The advantage of the engco index is the way it can
be used to generate projections. As the model is rened
and the full demographic and economic projections for
the countries concerned are taken into account, league
tables will be published for the decades up to 2050.
Preliminary results indicate that on this basis Spanish is
one of the languages which will rise most quickly. The
nearest rivals to English German, French and
Figure 38 The world language hierarchy in 2050?
59
English as a transitional phenomenon

Will the demand for English in the world continue to rise at its present rate?
Although the position of English seems entrenched, it is
possible that the extraordinary interest in the language
in recent years will prove to be a temporary phenomenon associated with the rst-wave effects in a period of
global change: the transitional nature of a global economy, the current state of telecommunications networks,
the immaturity of satellite television markets, and educational curricula which lag behind the needs of workers
and employers. These pages examine why the current
global wave of English may lose momentum.
Figure 39 shows the projections made by the engco
model for speakers of English to 2050. The dotted lines
EFL speakers
700
Speakers (millions)
Figure 39 Estimates of
rst-language speakers of
English from 1950 to 2050 as
calculated by the engco
model, together with
speculations regarding L2 and
EFL communities
600
L2 speakers
L1 speakers
Market share
400
200
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
represent speculative curves for second-language and

foreign-language speakers. There is, as yet, no basis for
estimating these groups safely although it is these
communities who will in practice determine the future of
global English. Nevertheless, the curves are located
approximately correctly for the present time (the vertical
dashed line) and the speculative curves demonstrate
some ideas developed in this book.
First, L1 speakers of English will soon form a minority group. Second, at some point the increase in people
learning English as a foreign language will level out. This
is a demographic necessity, but may be hastened by a
leakage of EFL speakers to L2 status. The key question
is, at what point will the numbers of learners decline?
The dotted line, market share, indicates a speculative projection of the global ELT market open to the
ELT industries of native-speaking countries, who
currently dominate global ELT provision. The curve
begins with a notional 50% share, which takes account
of the present closed nature of many national textbook
markets. The actual share of the market taken by publishers and educational providers from Britain, Ireland,
US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand is at present
impossible to estimate but it is the shape of the curve
which is important. Here it shows a declining market
share, as providers from L2 territories become more
active. That British and other native-speaking ELT
providers will nd the global market much more competitive, will lose market share and may even experience a
decline, is entirely compatible with the idea that more
people in the world are learning and using English.
Will satellite TV channels bring English into every home, creating a global audio-visual culture?
Satellite TV has been regarded as a major driver of
global English. Star TV in Asia, for example, used
English and Mandarin in their start-up phases, because
these are the big languages which reach the largest
audiences. MTV is frequently credited with bringing US
English to the world through music and popular culture.
Thus English language programmes reach the middle
classes in South and South-east Asia in whom the
companies who pay for advertising are most interested.
But the extensive use of English language material also
reects the easy availability of English language product
on the world market. However, as satellite operators
develop, they need to expand their audiences by increasing their reach in individual countries this means
going beyond English-speaking audiences. As their
income streams develop and as technological innovation
(such as digital transmission) make additional channels
available, operators will be able to nance and operate
channels more suited to local and niche audiences. Such
economic and technological logic explains why English
programming has been so prominent in the 1990s.
Evident now is the same logic driving an increase in the
number of languages and community interests serviced
by satellite and cable TV. English language programmes
will remain, particularly in certain content areas (such as
sport and news), but they will become one of many offerings, rather than the dominant programming.
National networks in English-speaking countries will
continue to establish operations in other parts of the
world, but their programming policies will emphasise

local languages. CBS, for example, intends to establish a
news and entertainment channel in Brazil, broadcasting
in Portuguese, not English; CNN International is launching Spanish and Hindi services; Star TV and MTV
are rapidly localising introducing programming in an
increasing number of languages (p. 46).
National networks based in other languages will also
establish a greater presence in the global audio-visual
market. Ray and Jacka (1996), for example, note that
Doordarshan, the Indian state-television company, will
lease transponders on a new satellite with a footprint
stretching from South-east Asia to Europe. They
comment, this signals two major changes: the loosening
grip of Murdoch on global satellite broadcasting and the
entry of Doordarshan into global broadcasting to Indian
diasporic audiences. [...] there can be no doubt that
India will become an even stronger force in world television in the very near future (Ray and Jacka, 1996, p.
99). Spanish television networks in Mexico are similarly
establishing a global presence, producing programming
for Europe as well as for Spanish speakers elsewhere in
the Americas.
It is thus clear that two trends will dominate the
second wave of satellite broadcasting: other major world
languages will increase their global reach and the larger
providers will localise their services. Both trends indicate
a more crowded and linguistically plural audio-visual
landscape in the 21st century.
British and other native-speaking ELT providers will

nd the global market much more competitive
... and may even experience a decline.
Will English continue to be associated with leading-edge technology?

Leading-edge technology, particularly computers and
information technology, has been largely English based
in several respects. First, its research and development is
focused in the US, though often in close collaboration
with Japanese transnational companies (TNCs). Second,
the literature and conferences in which research ndings
are reported and through which researchers keep up to
date with developments elsewhere, are English based.
Third, communications technology and documenthandling software have developed around the English
language. Indeed, the notorious history of the ascii
coding set which has plagued the use of computer
systems for non-English languages for many years, is one
example. Fourth, the installed user base of new technology is primarily located in the US, resulting in support
manuals, help lines, on-screen menu systems and so on,

appearing rst in English.
The close association between English and information technology may prove a temporary phenomenon. As
software and technology become more sophisticated,
they support other languages much better. Desktop
publishing and laser printing are now capable of handling hundreds of lesser used languages and a wide range
of scripts and writing systems. Computer operating
systems and software are now routinely versioned for
many languages. In many cases the user can further
customise the product, allowing even very small languages, unknown to the manufacturers, to be accommodated. So whereas English speakers used to enjoy the best
and latest technology, this is no longer so true.
Will economic modernisation continue to require English for technology and skills transfer?
Currently, English is to be found at the leading edge of
economic modernisation and industrial development (p.
32). The typical pattern of economic modernisation
involves technology and skills transfer from the Big
Three regions (North America, Europe and Japan) as a
result of investment by TNCs, often via joint-venture
companies: a process associated closely with English.
But as countries benet from such transfer and come
up to speed, there develop local networks of small
companies supplying the large TNC enterprises. Since
many such suppliers use local employment, this
secondary economic activity does not stimulate English
to the same degree as primary activity around TNCs.
There is yet a third wave to be expected in economic
development. Just as the Big Three TNCs transfer technology, not simply to produce goods more cheaply but
also to create new markets, so countries like Thailand
and Malaysia are looking towards their neighbours,

including Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, as future
trading partners. The development of such regional
trade, in which no Big Three country is directly involved, may diminish the primacy of English as the
language of technology transfer: the necessary level of
expertise can be obtained closer to home and more
cheaply. Sources of management and technology transfer in Asia now include Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan,
Korea, Malaysia and Thailand. This third-wave technology transfer often associated with less than leadingedge technology may be less reliant on English. But it
is equally possible that English provides the means for
such countries to extend into regional markets.
There is no doubt that it would be extremely helpful
to have a better understanding of how the next phases of
globalisation will affect the use of English.
What impact will the Internet have on the global use of English?
The Internet epitomises the information society, allowing the transfer of services, expertise and intellectual
capital across the world cheaply, rapidly and apparently
without pollution or environmental damage. At present
90% of Internet hosts are based in English-speaking
countries. It is not surprising, therefore, that the majority
of trafc and the majority of Web sites are based in
English and that those users based in other countries and
who normally work in other languages, nd they have to
communicate with others in the cyberspace community
through the medium of English.
Many studies, however, have shown how well the
Internet supports minority and diasporic afnity groups.
Although early studies of nationally oriented Internet
newsgroups (containing discussions of national or regional culture and language) seemed to indicate a preference for using English (for example, soc.culture.punjabi)
others which have become more recently active (such as
soc.culture.vietnamese) extensively use the national
language. It is not yet clear why some groups use English
less than others, but an overall trend away from the
hegemony of English in such groups is visible and often
surfaces as an explicit topic of discussion.
One reason may be that the Internet user base is
developing rapidly in Asia and non-English-speaking

countries. And software technology, such as browser and
HTML standards (which govern the HyperText Markup Language in which Web pages are written), now also
supports multilingual browsing (p. 51).
The quantity of Internet materials in languages other
than English is set to expand dramatically in the next
decade. English will remain pre-eminent for some time,
but it will eventually become one language amongst
many. It is therefore misleading to suggest English is
somehow the native language of the Internet. It will be
used in cyberspace in the same way as it is deployed
elsewhere: in international forums, for the dissemination
of scientic and technical knowledge, in advertising, for
the promotion of consumer goods and for after-sales
services.
In the meantime, local communication on the
Internet is expected to grow signicantly. This, and the
increasing use of email for social and family communication, will encourage the use of a wider variety of languages. English is said to have accounted for 80% of
computer-based communication in the 1990s. That
proportion is expected to fall to around 40% in the next
decade.
61
Managing the future

Can anything be done to inuence the future of English?
Can anything be done by institutions and decisionmakers to inuence the future of English?
This is a difcult question to answer. There is an
argument that global processes are too complex, too
overwhelming in their momentum and too obscure in
their outcomes to permit the activities of a few people
and institutions, even with coherent policies, to make
any difference. David Crystal suggests that the English
language may have passed beyond the scope of any form
of social control:
It may well be the case ... that the English language has already grown to be independent of any form of social control.
There may be a critical number or critical distribution of
speakers (analogous to the notion of critical mass in nuclear
physics) beyond which it proves impossible for any single
group or alliance to stop its growth, or even inuence its
future. If there were to be a major social change in Britain
which affected the use of English there, would this have any
real effect on the world trend? It is unlikely. (Crystal, 1997,
p. 139)
Even if the English language cannot, in any comprehensive sense, be managed, there is an argument that
complex systems have an unpredictability in their behaviour which needs to be taken into account by strategic
management. The institutions and organisations which
will best survive the potentially traumatic period of
global reconstruction which has only just begun, and
even thrive during it, will be those which have the best
understanding of the changing position of English in
local markets, which can adapt the products and services
they offer most quickly and effectively and which know
how to establish appropriate alliances and partnerships.
But the function of strategic management can extend
beyond ensuring either survival or the exploitation of
changing conditions in the marketplace. In complex
systems, small forces, strategically placed, can lead to
large global effects. There is no way, at present, of
knowing what nudges placed where will have what
consequences. But careful strategic planning, far-sighted
management, thoughtful preparation and focused action
now could indeed help secure a position for British
English language services in the 21st century.
A Brent Spar scenario for English

Shell Oil is renowned for its use of scenario planning in
the 1960s, which allowed it to weather the disruptions
following the oil crisis more easily than rival companies
(pp. 223). But its corporate scenario planning has had
some signal failures in recent years it failed, for
example, to ensure policies were sufciently robust
against the real-life scenario provided by the Brent Spar
oil platform. Shell wished to dispose of the redundant
structure by sinking it in the North Sea. It was aware of
the environmental issues there is evidence that, in
hindsight, the environmental case was on Shells side.
But this did not prevent a major public-relations disaster
which, through boycotts of Shell products in the
Netherlands and Germany, hit the corporations prots
and brought its reputation under public scrutiny.
Shells experience is just one of many recent examples of how the international business environment can
spring nasty surprises, often resulting from shifts in
public opinion. There are two reasons why public attitudes now have a powerful impact on whole industries
whose protability and even viability can be destroyed
remarkably quickly.
First is the increasing complexity of global business: if
one sector or product line is hit, then it may have a
much wider and unpredictable impact worldwide.
Transnational corporations have discovered that there is
no hiding place. An incident in a small, jointly managed subsidiary in a remote part of the world can have
major consequences for the parent company and other
related businesses. Second, globalisation affects not just
large business enterprises but also the way public opinions are formed and disseminated: public attitudes and
changing social values now have a much greater effect
on the business environment. In this respect, global
media and Internet technologies are helping bring about
a new form of peoples democracy, of which policy
makers of all kinds need to take more serious account.
There are several lessons here for English and those
who supply English language goods and services. Public

attitudes towards massive language loss in the next few
decades, for example, is unpredictable. It would be easy
for concerns about this issue to become incorporated
into the wider environmental consciousness which seems
to be spreading around the world. The spread of English
might come to be regarded in a similar way as exploitative logging in rainforests: it may be seen as providing a
short-term economic gain for a few, but involving the
destruction of the ecologies which lesser-used languages
inhabit, together with consequent loss of global linguistic
diversity. The Shell experience suggests that a direct link
between the spread of English and language loss would
not have to be proven. Indeed, counter-evidence could
be brought forward by linguists and yet have little
impact on global public opinion.
There are other ideological movements which are
travelling in a similar direction. There is, for example, a
growing demand for linguistic rights, within a humanrights agenda, arguing that educational provision in a
childs mother tongue should be regarded as a basic
human right. Such arguments may be carried to the
heart of the political process in countries experiencing
demand for regional autonomy or repositioning themselves as regional hubs for trade and services.
These trends suggest a nightmare scenario in which
the world turns against the English language, associating
it with industrialisation, the destruction of cultures,
infringement of basic human rights, global cultural
imperialism and widening social inequality.
Clinging to the idea that the presently dominant
economic rationality will continue to direct the future
of English without hindrance during the next century
might be similar to Shells failure to anticipate public
reaction to Brent Spar. But even if economic rationalism
lingers, there may come a time when more realistic
assessments are made by governments of the long-term
effectiveness of mass English teaching.
The ELT industry will have to respond to changing

international social values ... to ensure that the
reputation of Britain, of the British people and their
language, is enhanced rather than diminished.
The need for an ethical framework for ELT
There is a growing appreciation that the business environment of the next century will require global enterprises to meet three bottom lines: economic prosperity,
environmental protection and social equity. Public trust
in the institutions and organisations which provide goods
and services may in the future represent a more important component of brand image than the quality of the
product itself. Hence ethical, as well as environmental,
values are likely to come under increasing public scrutiny and signicantly inuence customer loyalty.
However, one of the problems facing the proponents
of an ethical approach to English teaching is that no one
is sure where the moral high ground lies when it comes
to the export of ELT goods and services. English has for
long been seen as a clean and safe export, one without
some of the complex moral implications associated with
the sale of products such as weapons or military vehicles.
The ELT industry has been portrayed as one which
benets both producer and consumer and both exporting and importing countries. It has been a major component in overseas aid as well as a commercial enterprise.
How then, can the teaching of English be brought
within a more ethical framework? What social responsibilities are associated with the promotion and teaching of
English? There is a growing concern about endangered
languages but very little debate about the management
of large languages, of which English is the largest.

A more sensitive approach will be needed in the
future, which recognises that English is not a universal
panacea for social, economic and political ills and that
teaching methods and materials, and educational policies, need to be adapted for local contexts. The world is
becoming aware of the fate of endangered languages and
more anxious over the long-term impact of English on
world cultures, national institutions and local ways of
life. Perhaps a combination of circumstances such as
shifting public values, changed economic priorities and
regional political expediency could bring about a serious reversal for British ELT providers at some point in
the future. The development of a Brent Spar scenario
for English might help explore possible chains of events.
Whether such a discussion is held in terms of global
brand management, the need to adapt to a changing
business environment, or a moral requirement to work
within an ethical framework, the ELT industry will have
to respond to changing international social values. This
would bring a major exporting activity into the same
framework which is now expected to regulate trading
relations with other countries and would help to ensure
that the reputation of Britain, of the British people and
their language, is enhanced rather than diminished in
the coming century.
Ways forward
This book has aimed to establish a new agenda for
debate, not simply on the future of the English language
in the 21st century, but also on the role of its native
speakers, their institutions and their global enterprises.
For this reason the book identies some of the key
questions and has drawn attention to a number of areas
which will repay further investigation and development.
q Supporting a debate on the future of English. Many of the
topics raised briey in this book would repay further
discussion and consultation with experts in the
various areas of concern (such as economists, technologists, cultural theorists, business managers). This
can be taken forward in a variety of ways: seminars,
further publications or Internet discussion groups.
q Building better forecasting models. The forecasting models
upon which this book draws (such as the engco
model) show the value of modelling for certain
purposes. There is more that can be done in this
direction to understand better the patterns of
language shift and to model the future populations of
second-language speakers.
q Scenario building. It is suggested that building scenarios
for English in different parts of the world would help
to explore further the impact on the English
language of the complex interaction of global economic and technological trends. This is not a project to
be undertaken lightly, but it is likely to repay the
investment by providing a structure within which
local knowledge and experience can be centrally
coordinated. The Brent Spar scenario is only one

possibility. Others relate to the future language use
and loyalties of the global teenager and the impact of
the growing middle and professional classes in Asia.
q Brand management. One way of managing the complex
attitudes and responses to English by the world
public to the benet of Britain is through more careful brand management. A debate would be timely
on how Britains ELT providers can cooperatively
prepare for the need to build and maintain the
British brand and how the promotion of English
language goods and services relates to the wider
image of Britain as a leading-edge provider of cultural and knowledge-based products. The way English
is promoted and marketed may play a key role in
positioning Britain as one of the 21st centurys
forward-thinking nations.
The indications are that English will enjoy a special
position in the multilingual society of the 21st century: it
will be the only language to appear in the language mix
in every part of the world. This, however, does not call
for an unproblematic celebration by native speakers of
English. Yesterday it was the worlds poor who were
multilingual; tomorrow it will also be the global elite. So
we must not be hypnotised by the fact that this elite will
speak English: the more signicant fact may be that,
unlike the majority of present-day native English speakers, they will also speak at least one other language
probably more uently and with greater cultural loyalty.
63
Tables
1 Major world languages according to the engco model
2 Major international domains of English
3 Disciplines in which German academics claim English as their
working language
4 Native speakers of English
5 Second-language speakers of English
6 Countries in transition from EFL to L2 status
7 Native-speaker numbers for major world languages in 2050
8 The 10 largest cities in the year 2000
9 Estimated economic strength of languages
10 Estimates of Gross Language Product of major languages
11 Major languages by Traded GLP
12 Seven ages of the technological economy
13 Indonesian languages likely to be endangered
14 Percentage of European viewers watching satellite TV
15 Languages available on British satellite channels 1996
16 Estimated millions of speakers aged 1524 1995
17 Estimated millions of speakers aged 1524 2050
18 Languages of home pages on the Web
19 Global inuence of major languages
Figures
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Will English remain the worlds language?

The proportion of the worlds books annually published
The three circles of English according to Kachru
Showing the three circles of English as overlapping
The branches of world English
A language hierarchy for India
A language hierarchy for the European Union
The world language hierarchy
Lexical diffusion of a sound change
Singular verbs used with collective noun subjects
Projected increase in Internet users
Cyclical patterns in student enrolments
Monthly electricity consumption
page
8
8
9
10
11
11
27
27
29
29
29
31
39
46
47
49
49
51
59
page
2
9
10
10
11
12
13
13
18
18
19
19
20
References (section 5)
Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities. London: Verso.
Barber, B.R. (1996) Jihad vs. McWorld. New York: Ballantine Books.
Celente, G. (1997) Trends 2000: how to prepare for and prot from the changes of the 21st
century. New York: Warner Books.
Press.
Parasher, S.N. (1980) Mother-tongue English diglossia: a case study of educated
English bilinguals language use. Anthropological Linguistics vol. 22, pp. 15168.
Ray, M. and Jacka, E. (1996) Indian television: an emerging regional force. In J.
Sinclair, E. Jacka and S. Cunningham (eds) New Patterns in Global Television:
peripheral vision. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Smith, L.E. (1992) Spread of English and matters of intelligibility. In B.B.
Kachru (ed) The Other Tongue: English across cultures. Urbana: University of
Illinois Press.
Strevens, P. (1992) English as an international language: directions in the 1990s.
In B.B. Kachru (ed) The Other Tongue: English across cultures. Urbana: University
of Illinois Press.
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Young native speakers of English and Malay, 19502050

Forecast of social value shifts amongst trend setters
Forecasting, scenario planning and hope
World population growth
Demographic estimates of rst-language speakers
The ethnic composition of the US population
Length of time taken to double per capita income
Proportions of world wealth in 1990
Estimated shares of world wealth in 2050
Language-engineering products available for major languages
Falling cost of making a transatlantic telephone call
Distribution of the 500 largest global corporations
Traditional import-export model of English
Post-modern/globalised model of English
US employment by sector
Composition of Gross World Product 19902050
Development of world tourism 19501990
Languages used in intercontinental telephone traffic
Teledistance of selected countries from Britain in 1997
Half of the worlds languages in the Asia Pacic region
Geographic distribution of the 6,703 living languages
Proportions of all school students studying modern languages
BBC World Service coverage in 19967
The trading days of the three global nancial centres
The world language hierarchy in 2050?
Estimates of rst-language speakers of English to 2050
Case studies
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
World Print in Hong Kong

Singapore Straits Times
Internationalisation of education in Malaysia
MTV
Sign of the times
Automatic translation
The UK Open Universitys Singapore programme
The engco model
21
23
23
26
26
26
28
29
29
30
31
32
33
33
34
35
36
37
37
38
39
45
46
53
59
60
page
42
43
44
47
48
50
52
The engco forecasting model has been designed by The English

Company (UK) Ltd as a means of examining the relative status of
world languages and making forecasts of the numbers of speakers of
different languages based on demographic, human development and
economic data. The gures reported in this document are based on
demographic projections from World Population Prospects 19502050
(1996 Revision) and Sex and Age Quinquennial 19502050 (1996 Revision) in
machine-readable data sets made available by the United Nations in
1997, on economic data for 1994 from the World Bank, and from estimates of proportions of national populations speaking different languages taken from national census data and a variety of reference sources.
The main purpose of the model is to explore the potential impact of
urbanisation and economic development on the global linguistic landscape of the 21st century. Further explanations of the assumptions made
by the engco model, together with any other reports and revised
projections, can be found from time to time on The English Company
(UK) Ltds Internet site (http://www.english.co.uk).
Sources
Overview

has been produced for
the British Council by
The English Company (UK) Ltd.
Figure 1 based on data from the British Council English 2000 Global Consultation
Report. The report highlights the results of a questionnaire completed by 2000
English language teaching specialists in all parts of the world; the British
Council press release was issued at the launch of the English 2000 project in
March 1995.
Section 1
Figure 2 based on data in Unesco statistical yearbook (1995); Figure 3 based on
Kachru (1985) with gures from Crystal (1997); Figure 5 after Strevens (1992);
Table 1 data from the engco model of The English Company (UK) Ltd,
compared with data from the online edition of Grimes (1996); Table 3 after
Skudliks work presented in Viereck (1996); Tables 4 and 5 based on gures
given by Crystal (1997). Table 6 based on McArthur (1996); IRC data,
collected for a paper given to the International Pragmatics Association,
Mexico, July 1996 by Simeon Yates and David Graddol.
Section 2
Figure 9 based on Chambers and Trudgill (1980) p. 179; Figure 10 based on
Bauer (1994) p. 63; Figure 11 loosely based on survey data reported by NUA
Internet Surveys showing total world users in 1996 as 35 million and
projections of 250 million in 2000, with most rapid growth in Asia Pacic;
Figure 12 loosely based on quarterly International Passenger Survey data for
1984 and 1990 reported in English 2000 (1995), showing 615,000 English
language course visitors in 1990; Figure 13 drawn from Al-Zayer and AlIbrahim (1996); Figure 14 from the engco model of The English Company
(UK) Ltd; Figure 15 based on Wilson (1982); Figure 16 drawn from Van der
Heijden (1996).
Descriptions of the Hooke model are based on notes of interviews made by
David Graddol in January 1996 with Gus Hooke, then Director of Tertiary
Studies at the Australian Academy, Sydney, during a visit supported in part by
the British Council and a later unpublished manuscript (Hooke, 1996). Some of
this material is available in an audio-cassette recording made by the BBC for an
Open University course, U210 The English Language: past, present and future.
Section 3
Figure 17 data from the online Population Information Network (Popin) of the
UN Population Division; Figure 18 from the engco model of The English
Company (UK) Ltd; Figure 19 data from the US Commerce Department
Census Bureau, cited in McRae (1994); Figures 20, 21 and 22 drawn from the
Hooke forecasting model; Figure 23 data from Hearn and Button (1994);
Figure 24 based on Financial Times, 23 December 1996; Figure 25 based on
information from Fortune; Figures 26 and 27 based on information prepared for
the British Council by David Graddol, June 1996; Figure 28 based on The
Economist, 28 September 1996; Figure 29 from the Hooke forecasting model;
Figure 30 data from the World Tourism Organisation (1992) Compendium of
Tourism Statistics; Figure 31 based on data on trafc ows from TeleGeography
Inc; Figure 32 based on an analysis of prevailing rates of independent UK
carriers; Figure 33 drawn from Grimes (1996).
Table 7 from the engco model of The English Company (UK) Ltd; Table 8
information based on Girardet (1996); Table 9 based on Ammon (1995);
Tables 10 and 11 from the engco model of The English Company (UK) Ltd;
Table 13 based on information from Grimes (1996).
Section 4
Figure 35 based on data from Eurydice, the education information network in
the European Community (1992); Figure 36 data from the BBC Annual
Report (199697).
Table 14 data from Cable and Satellite Europe, January 1997, p. 36; Table 15
compiled from the Blue Book of British Broadcasting, 22nd edition, 1996; Tables 16
and 17 from the engco model of The English Company (UK) Ltd.
Section 5
Figure 39 from the engco model. Table 19 from the engco model.
Production team
David Graddol
Margaret Keeton
Design consultant
Carlton Larode
Editing consultant
Christine Considine
English 2000
Caroline Moore
Tony OBrien
Ian Seaton
World Wide Web

Further information about
English 2000 is available on the
British Councils Internet site:
http://www.britishcouncil.org
Updated information related to
The Future of English? can be
found at the Web site of
The English Company (UK) Ltd:
http://www.english.co.uk
Email newsletter
The Global English Newsletter (GEN)
offers a means of keeping up to date with
developments in English as a global language.
To start receiving the newsletter send a
blank email message with the
SUBJECT line: SIGNON GEN
to maillist@english.co.uk
Acknowledgements
This book has beneted from many interviews and discussions with
colleagues in Britain and overseas during the period of its research and
production. In particular, the author would like to thank the following
for sharing their experiences and ideas:
Australia: Gus Hooke, Australian Academy. Brunei Darussalam: Gary
Jones, UBD. China: John Hilton, British Council. Denmark: Robert
Phillipson, University of Roskilde. Hong Kong: Peter Choy, World
Print; Rod Pryde, British Council. Malaysia: Tony Crocker, British
Council. Singapore: David Flack, MTV Asia; Joe Foley, NUS. UK:
Julian Amey, Canning House; Roger Bowers, World of Language;
Anne Diack, BBC/OUPC; Paula Kahn, Phaedon Press; Tom
McArthur, English Today. Perri 6, Demos.
We are grateful for comments on draft materials from the following:
Professor Jenny Cheshire, Queen Mary and Westeld College,
University of London; Professor David Crystal; Professor Nic
Coupland, University of Cardiff; Dr Anthea Fraser Gupta, University
of Leeds; Professor Theo van Leeuwen, London College of Printing;
Dr Tom McArthur, English Today; Professor Ulrike Meinhof,
University of Bradford; Dr Robert Phillipson, University of Roskilde.

David Graddol
Contents
Introduction...............................................1
Overview...................................................2
Book highlights.......................................................................4
1 English today..........................................5
The legacy of history..........................................................6
English in the 20th century.............................................8
Who speaks English?........................................................10
Language hierarchies ......................................................12
Summary and references..............................................14
2 Forecasting ..........................................15
Futurology..............................................................................16
Making sense of trends ..................................................18
Predictability or chaos?...................................................20
Scenario planning ..............................................................22
3 Global trends ......................................25

Demography ........................................................................26
The world economy........................................................28
The role of technology ..................................................30
Globalisation.........................................................................32
The immaterial economy..............................................34
Cultural ows ......................................................................36
Global inequalities.............................................................38
4 Impacts on English...............................41
The workplace ..................................................................42
Education and training....................................................44
The global media...............................................................46
Youth culture........................................................................48
Internet communication................................................50
Time and place ...................................................................52
5 English in the future.............................55

World English ......................................................................56
Rival languages ...................................................................58
English as a transitional phenomenon ...................60
Managing the future.........................................................62
Tables, gures, case studies...........................................64
Sources ...................................................inside back cover
English 2000
The Future of English? has been commissioned by

English 2000 to facilitate informed debate about the
future use and learning of the English language
worldwide.
English 2000 is an initiative led by the British Council
which seeks to forecast future uses of English
worldwide and to help develop new means of
teaching and learning of English. The project team
works to position British English language teaching
goods and services to the mutual benet of Britain
and the countries with which it works.
British Council
The British Council promotes Britain internationally. It

provides access to British ideas, talents and experience
through education and training, books and
information, the English language, the arts, science and
technology.
The British Council is represented in 228 towns and
cities in 109 countries. It provides an unrivalled
network of contacts with government departments,
universities, embassies, professional bodies, arts
organisations, and business and industry in Britain and
overseas.
For further information contact:
English 2000
10 Spring Gardens
London SW1A 2BN
Telephone:
Fax
0171 930 8466

0171 839 6347
The British Council is an independent, non-political organisation. The

British Council is registered in England as a charity no. 209131

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The Future of English?

A guide to forecasting the popularity of the

First published 1997

What is this book about?

of the English language and concludes that

forecasting, identies the patterns which

the 21st century: about who will speak it

the future is more complex and less

underlie typical linguistic change and

brieng document, written for

The book has been commissioned by the

used scenario planning as a strategy for

The Future of English? takes stock of the

development of English and the diversity

present, apparently unassailable, position of

intended to stimulate constructive debate

can expect its status to remain unchanged

can inform policy developments both in

The last section summarises implications

unprecedented social and economic global

concerned with the promotion of English

in which we might reach a better

long-term impact on English of

The book is divided into ve main

will hold in the 21st century world. This

technology, growing economic

sections, each followed by a summary of

already having on language and

reassessment of the role played by British

Why worry now?

World-wide, there are over 1,400 million people living in

Figure 1 Will English remain

2 The Future of English?

The position of English as a world language may seem to

As the world is in transition, so the English language is

The future of English will be more complex, more

Many of the trends that are documented here are not

The likelihood, as this book demonstrates, is that the

A new world era

According to many economists, cultural theorists and

Questioning the future

Jurassic Park grossed $6m

q How many people will speak English in the year

385 million people will

q What role will English play in their lives? Will they

How many people will

q What effects will economic globalisation have on the

What have been the

q Is the Internet the electronic agship of global

2 English and global culture

5 Social value shifts

The shifting patterns of trade and new working practices (such

3 English as a leading-edge phenomenon

English is closely associated with the leading edge of global

There is a growing belief amongst language professionals that

6 Need for scenario building

This book suggests that development work should be put in

4 The Future of English?

q The legacy of history