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RECALLED

'M

BOTANY

f^^y^^^'

"From
soft

fragile

mushrooms,
coarse

delicate
tall
I.

water - weeds and pond scums,

bushes,
slender

to tloating lenves.

grasses,

hanging moss."

weeds, See Chapter

olimbers, gigantic

trees

and

BOTANY
AJV

ELEMENTARY TEXT
FOR SCHOOLS

BY

L.

H| BAILEY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDOX: MACMILLAN &
CO.. Ltd.

1909
All rights reserved

Copyright

1900, 1907.

By

L. H.

bailey

Set up and eleetrotyped October, 1900 Reprinted with corrections Jiuiuary, July, October, moi July, 1903, June, 1904, March, July, 19U5 January, June, 1906, September, 1907 New edition with additions, October, ]fl07 January and Sepiember, 1909

J.

JDSount {pleasant Press Horace Mcharland Cunipariy

Harrisburg, Pa.

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

{Revised for second edition.)

This book
Plants"
teacher.

is

made
to

for

the

pupil:
the

"Lessons with

was

made

supplement

work

of

the

There are
nature of
to
its

four general subjects in this book

plant
itself;

the

the

the relation
studies;

of

the

plant

surroundings;

histological

determination
point

of
of

the

kinds of
the
it

plants.
is

From

the

pedagogical

view,

third

the least

important:
schools

the writer
it.

has inserted
of the

because so
is

many

want
so

Each
the
will

subjects

practically

distinct,
will.

that

teacher
desire

may begin where he

to

Few

schools

pursue
in

all

the four

parts
the

The notes
ters

small type at

ends of
to

the

chap-

are

intended as suggestions and

supply infor-

mation to teachers:
use.

they are
of

not

necessarily for class

The explanation
239,
is

karyokinesis, for example, on

to to

page

intended
it

answer
be

frequent
to

inquiries

from

teachers;

is

not

taught

beginners.
is

The main
gest

object

of

the "Notes,"

however,

to

sug-

experiments and corollary observations.

The
the

schools

and
which

the

teachers

are

not

ready for

text -book

presents
science.

the

subject
it

from
is

the

view -point of

botanical

Perhaps

better

'

^J>^

iV.

C. State Loiuge

VI
tliat

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

the

secondary

schools

attempt

only

to

teach

plants.

A
view,

book may be

ideal

from the
use
to

specialist's

point of

and yet

be of

little

the

pupil

and the

school.

Every
two
value.

statement

in

an

elementary
value

text -book

has

values,

the

teaching

and
exists

the

scientific

An

elementary text -book

primarily for
results
in

the

purpose of teaching;
perception

and good teaching

than
in

quickened
facts.

rather

absorption

of

The pupil should come

animals with
powers.
little

to

the
his

study of plants and

natural

more than
the

and native
is

Study with
to

compound microscope

specialization

be

made
his

when

the

pupil

has
sense

had
of

experience,
relationships

and
are the

when
trained.
first

judgment

and

One
fact

of

things
the

that

child

should

learn
is

when he comes
that

to

study of natural history

alike.

the

no two things are

the

This leads to an
that

apprehension of

correlated

fact

every animal
live,

and plant contends for an opportunity to

is

and

this

the

central

fact in

the

study of living things.

this

The

world
stood.

has a

new meaning when

fact

is

under-

The

ninety

and

nine

cannot
can
in

and

should

not

be

botanists,

but

everyone
is

love

plants

and

nature.

Every person
in

interested

the

evident

things,

few

the

abstruse
to
live,

and recondite.
rather

Education should train

be scientists.

persons

than

to

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

Vll

Now

and theu a pupil develops a love of science

sake.

for science's

would add

to the

sum

He would be an investigator. He He should of human knowledge.

his

be encouraged.

There are colleges and universities in

studies.

which he may continue

In the
for the

secondary schools

botany should
the
of

be

taught
to

purpose of
with which
his

bringing
he
lives,

pupil

closer
his

the

things
of

widening
It

horizon,

intensifying

hold

on

life.

should
It

begin
should
It

with familiar plant forms and phenomena. be

related
to

the

experiences
the

of

the

daily

life.

should not be

taught for

purpose of

making

the

pupil a specialist:

that effort should be retained for the

It is

few who develop a taste for special knowledge.

often
said that

the high -school pupil should

begin the

study of botany with the lowest and simplest forms of

life.

This
to

is

wrong.
It

The microscope
is

is

not an introphysiology of

duction
plants

nature.

said

that

the

can

be best understood

by beginning with the

but technical plant
the

lower

forms.
is

This

may

be true:
for

physiology
subjects

not a subject

beginner.

Other

are

more important.
is

The

youth

by nature

generalist.

He

should

not be forced to be a specialist.

great

difficulty

in

the

teaching of

botany

is

to

determine
sideration.

what are the most profitable topics for con-

The trouble with much

of

the

teaching

is

VIU
that
it

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

attempts to go too far, and the subjects have
connection
botanical

no

vital

with the pupil's

teaching
It is

life.

Good
with

for

the

young

is

replete

human

interest.

connected with the

common

associations.

The teacher often

of
is

hesitates to teach

botany because
This

lack
well
;

of

technical

knowledge of the subject.

but
a

technical

knowledge of the subject does

Expert
specialists

not

make
to

good

teacher.

are

so

likely
lar

go into mere details and to pursue

so
far,

particu

subjects

when teaching
emphatic

beginners,

as

to

miss

the

leading and

points.

They are

so

cognizant of exceptions to every rule that they qualify

their

statements

until

the

statements

have no force.
In

There are other ideals than those of mere accuracy.

other words,
a
so
it

is

more important that the teacher be

than
a

good
exact

teacher
that

good

botanist.
n/)thing.

One may be
But being a

his

words mean
spoil

good botanist does not

a
is

good teacher.
adapted to one's use
that

An
is

imperfect

method that
a
perfect

better

than

one

cannot
that

be

used.

Some

school
the

laboratories

are

so perfect

they dis-

courage

pupil
his

in

taking

up

investigations

when
good

thrown on
often

own

resources.

Imperfect
originality.

equipment

encourages
is

ingenuity

and

teacher

better than all the laboratories

and apparatus.

Good teaching
enthusiasm
of

devolves
teacher;

on
but

the

personality

and
is

the

subject-matter

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

prime requisite.
he
attempts
to

IX

to

teach.

The teacher should know more than Every teacher should have
botanical

access

the

current

books.

The
of

school

library should contain

these books.

By

consulting the
the
latest

new books
opinion.

the

teacher

keeps

abreast

When
pathies

beginning

to

teach

plants,

the pupil than of botany.

are
to

The

pupil's

think more of mind and symof

be expanded:

the science

botany
first first

is

not
his

to

be extended.
teaches

The teacher who thinks

science
;

of

subject

he

who

thinks

of

his pupil

teaches nature-study.
first

Teach
pupil

the

things nearest

to

hand.

When

the
to

has seen

the

common, he may be introduced

the rare and distant.

things.

We

live

in the

midst of

common

The old way of teaching botany was

forms and the names of
that
plants.
It
is

to

teach

the

now proposed

only function

be

taught.

But one cannot study

the language of

function

intelligently without

some knowledge of plant

the

forms and names.

subject.
togethei*.

He must know
form and
plant
is

The

study of

function
is

should
it

go

Correlate what a
this

with what
or

does.

What
come

is

part?
It

What

its

office,

how

did

it

to

be?

were a pity to teach phyllotaxy withit

out teaching

light -relation:

were

an equal pity to

teach light -relation without

teaching phyllotaxy.

X
Four

PAKAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

epochs

can

be
(1)

traced

in to

the

teaching
the

of

elementary botany:
of

The

effort

know

names
was
the

plants

and

to classif3^

This was the

outgrowth of

the

earlier

aspect

of

plant

knowledge,
of

when
things

it

necessary to
world.
the
(2)

make an inventory The desire to know

plants.

the

in

the

formal

names of

parts

of

This

was an outgrowth of the

Botanies came to be dic(3)

study of gross morphology.

tionaries of

technical terms.
of

The

effort

to

develop

the

powers
a

independent
of the

investigation.

This

was

largely

result

German
the

laboratory

system,
It

which developed the trained

emphasized
the

specialist

investigator.

value

of

compound
is

microscope
the
greatest
into

and other apparatus.

service
to

This method
science,
is

of

botanical

but

its

introduction
(4)

the secondary
effort

schools

usually
as

unfortunate.
a

The

to
its

living

know the own life in

this
is

plant
a

complete

organism

natural

way.

In the begin-

ning of

epoch we are now living.

a
general
to

There

protest

against

the

teaching of

"big names"
to

pupils;
if

but the

pupil does not object

technical terms
to

he acquires them when

as

he learns

the thing

which they belong,

he acquires other
the

language.

When
taught
of

part

is

discovered

name

becomes a necessity,
should

and
to

is

not easily forgotten.

the

He
The

be

not

memorize
are

names.

"hard" words
to-morrow.
than

to-day

the

familiar

words of

There are no words in this

book harder
hippopotamus

chrysanthemum, thermometer, and

PAKAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

The
book
should
be
a
to

XI

guide
the

to

the

plant

the

plant should be a guide

book.
out-

Plants
right
bles

should

not
;

be personified or endowed

with motives

but

figures
to

of

speech and
a
lesson

paraor to

drive

may often be employed home a point.

the
pupil's
interest

teach

Excite

rather

than his

wonder.

The
self

better the teacher, the less he will confine him-

to

the questions at the end of the lesson.

Botany always should be taught by the "laboratory

method:" that
jects
is,

the

pupil

should work out the subthemselves.

It
is

directly

from
to

the

specimens
the
is

easy,
far.

however,

carry

laboratory

method

too

to
it

set

With beginners, it a young pupil a

The
pupil

rarely

good teaching merely

task,

expecting

him
help,

to

work
the

out.

needs

suggestions,

and

enthusiasm inspired by a good teacher.

Specimens mean more

them.

to

the pupil

when he

collects

No matter how commonplace men will vivify it and fix it in

the
the

subject,

speci-

pupil's

mind.

living,

growing plant

is

worth a score of herba-

rium specimens.
Acknoivledgements.

To

hundreds of young people in

is

many

places

the

author

under

the

profoundest

obligations,

for they

have instructed him in the point

been given by
of view,

of view.

Specific aid has

many

persons.

From
read

the

teacher's

point

proofs

have

been
Aliss

by Miss Julia E. Rogers, Minburn, Iowa;

Xll

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

Mrs. Mary Rogers Miller,

L. B. Sage, Norwich, N. Y.;

lecturer

of

the

Bureau

of

Nature -Study

in

Cornell
all

University.

From
been
of

the botanist's

point of view,

the
of

proofs
the

have

read

by

Dr.

Erwin

F.

Smith,

Division

Vegetable

Physiology and
of

Pathology,

United

States

Department
been

Agriculture,

and

his

suggestions

have

invaluable.

Chapters

XI and
conthe

XII

are

adapted
to

from
by

two

papers

which

were

tributed

Farmer's
Dr.

Reading-Course
B.

under
of
it

author's

charge,

M.
with

Duggar,

Cornell

University.
the

Two
have
the

specialists,

whom
as

has been

author's

privilege

to

associate

teacher
parts:
III,

and
Dr.

collaborator,

contributed
p-i-eater

particular
of

K.

C.

Davis,

portion

Part

and

H. Hasselbring, the most of Chapter

XXV. On

special

problems the author has had the advice of Dr. K. M.

Wiegand,

of

Cornell

Universit3^

L. H.
Horticultural Department, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
October
1,

BAILEY.

1900.

CONTENTS
PART
CHAPTER
I.
I

The Plant Itself

PAGK
as a

The Plant
The Eoot The Stem

Whole

II.

III.

14

IV.

Propagation by Means of Roots and Stems

19

V.

How

the Horticulturist

Propagates Plants by Means

24
31

of Roots

and Stems
.

VI. Food Reservoirs

VII.
VIII.

Winter Buds
Plants and Sunlight

36 42

IX.

Struggle for Existence amongst the Branches

....

52

X. The Forms of Plants

XI.
XII.
XIII.

59

How

the Plant Takes in the Soil

Water

64

The Making

of the Living Matter

74
85 90

Dependent Plants
Leaves and Foliage
or

XIV.

XV. Morphology,
Members
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.

the

Study of

the

Forms

of

Plant
101

How

Plants Climb

108
114
122

Flower- Branches

The Parts
Particular Fruits

of the Flower

XIX. Fertilization and Pollination

128
136
147

XX.

Forms

of Flowers

XXL
XXII.

Dispersal of Seeds
(xiii)

158

XIV
CHAPTKR

CONTENTS
PAflB

XXIII.

Germination

164

XXIV. Phenogams and Cryptogams

172

XXV.

Studies in Cryptogams

178

PART
The Plant
XXVI. Wliere Plants Grow
in

II

Its

Environment
197
203 209

XXVII. Contention with Physical Environment

XXVIII. Competition with Fellows

XXIX. Plant

Societies

219
228

XXX.

Variation and Its Results

PART
Histology, or the Minute

III

Structure of Plants
23o

XXXI. The

Cell

XXXII. Contents and Products

XXXIII. Tissues

of Cells

245 252

XXXIV.

Structure of Stems and Roots

259
269

XXXV.

Structure of Leaves

PART IV
The Kinds of Plants
(p. 275)

BOTANY
FART I THE PLANT ITSELF
CHAPTER
I

THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

1.

A plant is

the soil and air

a living, growing thing. It partakes of and sunshine. It propagates its kind and
It
It

covers the face of the earth.

has

much with which

the

to contend.

makes

most
it

of

every

opportunity.

We
and

shall learn its parts,

how

it

lives,

how
2.

behaves.

THE PARTS OF A PLANT. Our familiar plants are made up of several

distinct parts.

The most prominent

Fig.
in
2.

of
^
"
^.

these parts are root, stem, leaf, flower,

fruit

and seed.

differ wonderfidhj

Familiar plants size and shape,^

^^s^

from fragile mushrooms, delicate waterweeds and pond-scums, to floating leaves,

soft grasses, coarse weeds, tall bushes,

slender

climbers,

gigantic

trees,

and

hanging moss.
3.

See frontispiece.
plants
2.

THE STEM PART. In most

is

on which the other or secondary parts are

there a
central part or shaft

main

buttercup plant,

showing the various parts

(1)

N. C. State Coiiegl

2
borne.

THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

This main part
is

the plant axis.

in familiar

plants, the axis

;

bears

the

Above ground, branches, leaves

and flowers below ground, it bears the roots. 4. The rigid part of the plant, which persists over winter and which is left after leaves and flowers are fallen, is The framework is composed the framework of the plant. When the plant is dead, the of both root and stem. framework remains for a time, but it slowly decays. The dry winter stems of weeds are the framework or skeleton The framework of trees is Figs. 3 and 4. of the plant. the most conspicuous part of the plant. The root bears the stem at its 5. THE ROOT PART.

normally bears only root-branches. The stem, however, bears leaves, flowers and fruits. Those living surfaces of the plant which are most exposed
apex, but otherwise
it

to light

The root tends to are green or highly colored. grow dowmvard, but the stem tends to grow upivard toward light and air. The plant is anchored or fixed in the soil by
the roots.
6.

THE FOLIAGE PART. The

and

Plants have been called "earth parasites." leaves precede the floivers

in point of time or in the life of the plant.

alivays precede the fruits
seeds.

The

floivers

Many

plants die

when
any

the seeds have matured.

The whole mass

as
its

of leaves of

plant or any branch

7.
life,

is

known

foliage.

THE PLANT GENERATION. The

all

course of a plant's

with

the events through which the plant naturally

The lifepasses, is known as the plant's life-history. history embraces various stages or epochs, as dormant seed, germination, growth, flowering, fruiting. Some plants run
their course in

a few weeks or months,

and some

live

for centuries.
8.

The

entire life -period of a plant

is

called a genera-

tion.

the whole period from birth to normal death, without reference to the various stages or events through
It is
it

which

passes.

THE PLANT GENERATION

9.

generation begins with the ijoung seed, not with

germination.
left in

that is, when no life is It ends with death any part of the plant, and only the seed or spore

remains to perpetuate the kind. lily or an onion, the generation does not end until the bulb dies, even though the top is dead. 10. When the generation is of only one season's duration, the plant is said to be annual.

In a bulbous plant, as a

When

it is

of

biennial. Biennials usually

two seasons, it is bloom

the second year.

When

of three

more seasons, the plant is perennial. Examples of annuals

or
are pigweed, bean, pea, garden

sunflower; of biennials, evening

primrose,
snip,

mullein,
;

teasel,

par-

carrot

of

perennials,

dock,

meadow

grass, cat-tail,
trees.

and

all

shrubs and

11.

DURATION OF THE

PLANT BODY.
soft

Plant
die

strucless

tures which are

more or
at

and which

the

herbaceous, in contraA plant which is herbaceous to the ground is called an herb; but an herb may have a woody or perennial root, in which case it is called an herbaceous perennial. Annual plants are classed as herbs. Examples of herbaceous perennials are buttercup (Fig. 2), bleeding heart, violet, water-lily, many
close of the season are said to be

distinction to being ligneous or

woody.

grasses, dock, dandelion, golden rod, asparagus, rhubarb,

many
12.

wild sunflowers (Figs.

3, 4).

Many

herbaceous perennials have short generations.

THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

They become weak with one or two seasons of flowering and gradually die out. Thus red clover begins to fail after Gardeners know that the best bloom of the second year. hollyhock, larkspur, pink, and many other plants, is secured when the plants are only two or three years old. 13. Herbaceous perennials which die away each season to bulbs or tubers, are sometimes called pseud-annuals Of such are lily, crocus, annuals). (that is, false
onion, potato

shrub or bush

Dogwood

osier

14.

Plants which are normally perennial

may become

annual
growth.

in a shorter -season climate by being killed by frost,

rather than by dying naturally at the end of a season of

Such plants are

called plur-annuals in the short-

season region.

Many

tropical perennials are plur-annuals

when grown

in the north, but they are treated as true annuals because they ripen sufficient of their crop the same

season in which the seeds are sown to make them worth

cultivating, as tomato, red pepper, castor bean.

HOW PLANTS ARE MODIFIED

15.

Woody

or ligneous plants are usually longer lived

Those which remain low and produce several or many similar shoots from the base are called shrubs, as Fig. 5. Low and thick shrubs are lilac, rose, elder, osier. bushes. Plants which produce one main trunk and a
than herbs.

more or
16.

less elevated

head are trees.

Fig.

6.

PLANTS ARE MODIFIED BY THE CONDITIONS IN WHICH THEY GROW. In most plants, the size, form and
general appearance vary or change with the conditions in

That is, which the plant groivs. there is no uniform or necessaij form into which plants shall grow

,'"_'''

"^^i^^^-^

No two

plants are exactly alike.

Observe plants of the same kind and age, and see how they differ The farmer and gai or vary. dener can cause plants to be large or small of their kind, by chang ing the conditions or circumstan ces under which they grow,
17.

No two

parts of the

plant are exactly alike.

parts

same No two

^i

grow
is

in the

same conditions,

for one

nearer the main stem,

one nearer the light, and another 6. A tree. The weeping birch. has more room. Try to find two leaves or two branches on the same plant which are exactly
alike.

Fig.

7.

Every plant makes an effort to propagate or to perpetuate its kind; and as far as we can see, this is the end for which the plant itself lives. The seed or spore is the final product of the plant. under19. Every plant, and every part of a plant,
18.

goes vicissitudes.
tions in

It

has to adapt itself to the condiIt

which

it

lives.

contends for place in which to

THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

grow, and for air and light. Its life is eventfnl. flant, therefore, has a history and a story to tell.
Review.
parts
is

Every

Of
plant

what comthe
are

posed?
axis?

What is What parts

? ?

borne on the stem

the root
are the

On
part
col-

On what
?

most highly

ored parts found

take?
are

What

direction does the root

The stem?

How

plants anchored in

In what order do the different parts appear? What is meant by the life-history? What are some of the stages or events in the lifehistory? At what point does a generation begin? When end? By what means does the next generation begin? What is an Annual? Biennial?
the soil?
There are no two branches
alike

Perennial?

Herbaceous perennial? Pseud-annual? Shrub? Bush? Tree? Give three examples of each of these classes, not mentioning any given in the book. What is a plur-annual? Why are no two parts or plants exactly alike? What is the final effort of every plant? Why
is

the

life

of a plant eventful?

Note.

The

teacher

may

assign each pupil to one plant in the

school yard, field, or in a pot, and ask him to bring out the points in

the lesson.

Wintertime brings out the framework of the

plants.

CHAPTER
THE ROOT
20.

II

THE ROOT SYSTEM. The

to

offices of the root are to

hold the plant in place, and

gather food.

Not

all

the

food materials, however, are gathered by the roots.

21.

The

entire

root system.
perennial,

mass of roots of any plant is called its The root system may be annual, biennial or
or
shallow,

herbaceous
or

woody,
22.

deep

large or small.

KINDS OF ROOTS.
leading
central

strong

root,

which runs directly downwards, is a tap-root.

The

side or spreading roots are usually

smaller.

Plants which have such a

clover, beet, turnip,

root system are said to be tap -rooted.

Examples are red

23.

radish, burdock, dandelion.

Fig.
is

A
is

fibrous root system

one

composed of many nearly equal slender branches. The greater number of plants have fibrous roots. Examples are many common grasses, wheat, oats, corn, and most trees. The buttercup in Fig. 2 has a fibrous
which
root system.
24.

SHAPE AND EXTENT OF THE ROOT SYSTEM. The

depth to which roots extend depends on the kind of plant, and the nature of the soil. Of most plants the roots
(7)

THE KOOT
extend far in
directions
all
lie

and

comparatively near
the

surface.

The

roots usually radiate

from a common

point just beneath

the surface of the

ground
go
The crooked
roots exposed where the been washed away.

The roots and there in search of food,

25.

here

9.

soil

has

often extending much farther in all

in rich soil.

directions than the spread of the top of the plant.

tend to spread farther in poor

Roots The root has no snch definite form as the stem has. Roots are usually very crooked, because they are constantly turned
soil

than

aside

by obstacles.

Fig. 9.

Examine
is

roots in stony or gravelly soil.

2G.
allij

The extent of root surface

large,

usu-

vert/

for the
fine

feeding roots

are

and very

numerous.
ordinary
plant

An
of

Indian

corn

may
10.

have a total length of root (measured

as
if

The bracing
a

buttresses of

the roots were

field pine.

placed end to end) of several hundred

27.

feet.

The

fine

feeding roots are

soil.

most abunby

dant in the richest

the food materials.
11.

They

are attracted

Roots often will completely

Root-hairs

of the radish,

surround a bone or other morsel. When roots of trccs are exposed, observe that most of

THE ROOT -HAIRS

them are horizontal and
lie

near the top of the ground.

hi search of water.

Some

roots, as of willows,

go far

They

often run into wells and drains, and into

the margins of creeks and ponds.

Grow

^,

plants in a long narrow box, in one end of

which the
28.

soil is

kept very dry and in the

_

other moist: observe where the roots grow.

The feeding surface of the roots is near their ends. As the roots become old and hard, they serve only as channels through ivhich food passes and as hold -fasts The root -hold or supports for the plant.
of

a plant

is

very strong.
plant,

Slowly pull

upwards on some
firmly
it is

and note how

soil.

anchored in the

With

the

increase in diameter, the upper roots often

protrude

Iracwg

above the ground and become These buttresses are usually largest in trees which always have been exposed to strong winds. Fig. 10.
buttresses.

.,^_ vsv

29.

THE ROOT-HAIRS. The

larger part

of the nourishment gathered

is

by the root

taken in through root-hairs. Fig. 11. These are very delicate x>rolonged surface cells of the roots. They are borne for a short distance just back of the tip of the
f^^"^*

root.

The root -hairs are very small, often invisible. They, and the young roots, are usually broken off when the plant is pulled up. They are best seen when
30.

are germinated between layers of dark blotting paper or flannel. On the

seeds

l^ji

i
^--

young
,.,

roots, they will be seen as a

like

or

gossamer

-.,
-

like

covering.

mould.^ Root-

^^^ ^ trumpet creeper or tecoma.

'^''"*'^

10

THE ROOT
:

hairs soon die they do not grow into roots. New ones form as the root grows. 31. AERIAL ROOTS. Although most roots bury themselves in the soil, there are some which grow above ground. These usually occur on climbing plants, the roots becoming

14.
13.

Indian com, showing the

aerial roots at oo.

Aerial roots of an orchid.

supports or

fulfilling the office of tendrils.

These aerial

and therefore enter the crevices and dark places of the wall or tree over which the plant climbs. The trumpet creeper (Fig. 12), true or English ivy, and poison ivy, climb by means of roots. 32. In some plants, all the roots are aerial; that is, the plant groivs above ground, and the roots gather food from the air. Such plants usually grow on trees. They are
roots usually turn
the light,

away from

fuvcriut: severul acres,

ludiu.

12

THE ROOT
as

known

epiphytes or air- plants

(Chapter XIII).

The

most familiar examples are some of the tropical orchids, which are grown in glasshouses. Fig. 13.
33.

Some

plants throw
roots,

out

aerial

which
or

propagate
act

the

plant

as

braces.
Fig. 14.

The

roots of Indian corn are

familiar.

Many
banyan

ficus trees, as the

of India (Figs. 15, 16),

send out roots from their branches when these

;

roots

reach

the

ground

they take hold and be-

come great trunks, thus

spreading the top of the
parent
areas
tree
Mangroves marching into the
sea.

tree

over
17)
of

great

The
(Fig.

mangrove
the

grows along seashores and sends down

tropics

roots

from the overhanging branches into the shallow

water, and thereby gradually marches into the sea.

The

tangled mass behind catches the

Review. What

drift,

and

soil is

formed.

is the root for? What is a root system? Define Fibrous root. What determines how deep the root may go? How far does the root spread ? Explain what form the root system may assume; also what extent. Where are the greatest num-

tap-root.

ber of fine roots found ? Where is the feeding surface of roots? Of what use to the plant are the old woody roots? What are roothairs? What do they do and what becomes of them? What are aerial
roots?
roots

grow?

Where found ? What are What are brace roots?

epiphytes, and where

How

do their do the banyan and man-

grove spread (aside from seeds)? Note. The pupil should see the root-hairs.

week before

this

REVIEW

13

lesson is studied, have the pupil place seeds of radish, turnip or cabbage between folds of thick cloth or blotting paper. Keep the cloth or paper moist and warm. The hairs show best against a dark background. In some of the blotting papers, sprinkle sand observe how the root-hairs cling to the grains (compare Chapter XI). study the root-hold of a plant. Let him The pupil also should carefully pull up a plant. If a plant grow alongside a fence or other root-hold rigid object, he may test the by securing a string to the plant, letting the string hang over the fence and then adding weights size to the string. Will a stake of similar to the plant and extending no deeper in the ground, have such firm hold on the soil ?
:

Garden along the scliool-yanl fence, wliere pupils may grow the plants for study

CHAPTER

III

THE STEM
34.

THE STEM SYSTEM. The stem

of a piaut

is

the
its,

part which hears the huds, leaves, flowers and fruits,

office is to
;

throvigli

hold these parts up to the light and air and its tissues the various food -materials and the lifegiving fluids are distributed to
the growing and working parts.
35.

of stems of
its

mass or fabric any plant is called stem system. Figs. 4, 18

entire

The

The stem system may be herbaceous or woody, annual, biennial, or perennial;

and

it

may
and

assume many
shapes.
36.

different sizes

Stems are of many forms. in which a 18. Stem system of an apple tree plant grows is called its habit. Deliquescent trunk. The habit is the appearance or looks. Its habit may be open or loose, dense, straight, crooked, compact, straggling, climbing, erect, weak, strong, and the like. The roots and leaves are the important functional or working parts the stem merely connects them, and its form is exceedingly variable. 37. KINDS OF STEMS. T/ie stem may be so short as to be scarcely distinguishable. In such cases the crown of the

The general way

plant

that

part just at the surface of the ground

bears

the leaves and flowers; but this

crown

is

really a very short

stem.

The dandelion, Fig.

8, is
(14)

an example.

Such plants

KINDS OF STEMS

15

are often said to be stemless, however, in order to dis-

tinguish them from plants which have long or conspicuous

5teras.

These so-called stemless j>lants die

to

the

ground

every year.
38.
1,

2,

3.

along

when when
more

Stems are erect when they grow straight up. Figs. They are trailing or creeping when they run on the ground. Fig. 19. They are decumbent they lop over to the ground. They are ascending they lie mostly or in part on the ground but stand or less nprignt at their ends. They are climbing
cling to other objects for support.
in

when they
39.

Figs. 12, 20.

which the main trunk or the "leader" continues to grow from its tip are said to be excurrent in growth. The branches are lorne along the sides of the trunk, as in common pines (Fig. 21) and spruces. Excurrent means running out or running up. 40. Trees in which the main trunk does not continue are said to be deliquescent. The branches arise from one
Trees

common point or from each other. The stem is lost in the branches. The
are familiar examples.

apple tree (Fig. 18), maple, elm, oak, Deliquescent

means
41.

dissolving or melting away.

Each kind

of plant

own

has its peculiar

habit or direction of growth.

Spruces

always

grow

to a single

trailing plant

AbroniaJ

stem or trunk, pear trees are always deliques-

cent, morning-glories

are

are always creeping.

We

always climbing, strawberries do not know why each plant

is

has

its

own

habit

but the habit

in

some way

asso-

16
dated which
42.
tvith
it

THE STEM
the

plant's

genealogy
to
live.

or

tvith

the

tvay

in

has been ohliged

The stem may be simple or branched.

usually

simple
side

stem

grows from

the

terminal

bud,

and
if

branches either do
not start, or,
start,
ish.

they

they soon per-

Mulleins (Fig.

22) are usually simple.

So are palms.

43.

Branched
he of very

stems

may

different
sha2)e.

habit

and

Some stem
:

systems are narrow

and
said

erect
to

these are

be

strict.

Others are
twiggy.
44.

dif-

fuse, open, branchy,

STEMS

vs.

ROOTS.

Roots

sometimes grow
above ground (31r;ipe

vine climbing on a tree, two kinds of stems.

33)

so, also,

stems

sometimes grow un-

derground, and they are then

known

as subterranean stems,

rhizomes, or rootstocks (Fig. 23). 45. Stems normally bear leaves and buds, and thereby The leaves, however, are they distinguished from roots. may be reduced to mere scales, and the buds beneath them maybe scarcely visible. Thus the "eyes" on an Irish potato are cavities with a bud or buds at the bottom (Fig. 24). Sweet potatoes have no evident "eyes" when first dug (but they may develop buds before the next growing-

HOW STEMS ELONGATE

season).

17
the

The
is

Irish potato

is

a stem:

sweet potato
by

probably a root.

46. HOW STEMS ELONGATE. Eoo^s elongate growing near the tip. Stems elongate by growing more or less throughout the young or soft part or "between joints." But any

part of the stem soon reaches a limit beyond

which

it

cannot grow, or becomes "fixed;"

and the new parts beyond

elongate
until

they,

too,

become

rigid.

When
it

a part

of the stem once

fixed or hard,

becomes
never
that
inis,

creases in length:
the

trunk or woody parts

never groiv longer or higher;

branches do not become farther apart or higher from

the ground.
.

01(1

mullein

21.

Exeurreut trunk.

The different regions of growth in stems and roots may be observed

47.

stalk, with
strict habit of

growth.

in seedling-

pine.

plants.

Place seeds of radish or cabbage

between layers of blotting-paper or thick cloth. Keep them damp and warm. When stem and root have grown an inch and a half long each, with waterproof ink mark spaces exactly one -quarter inch apart. Keep the plantlets moist for a day or two, and it will be found that on the stem some or all of the marks are more than onequarter inch

apart

on the root the marks have not separated.

The root has grown beyond the last mark Figs. 25 and 26.

^.i

18

THE STEM
Eeview. What is the stem system ? What does the stem do ? How long may the stem persist ?

What
plant?

is

meant by the habit

of a

Name some

kinds of habit.

What are so-called stemless plants? What is the crown ? What becomes
of the

tops of

stemless plants

What What What

are erect, trailing, decumare exeurrent trunks?

Deli-

bent, ascending, climbing stems?

quescent?
are

What

is

a simple stem?

strict

stems

What

subterranean are How are stems ?

"

stems aistinguished from roots? What is the difference in mode of growth between stems and roots? Note. The pupil should make marks with waterproof ink (as Higgins' ink or indelible marking ink) on any soft growing stems as geranium, fuchsia, grass, the twigs of trees. Note that the separation of the marks is most evident on the youngest shoots. The pupil should observe the fact that a stem of a plant has wonderful strength. Compare tlie proportionate height, diameter and weight of a grass stem with those of the slenderest tower or steeple. Which has the greater

strength

Which the
?

greater height

Which

most Note that the grass stem will regain its position even if its top is bent to the ground. Split a corn stalk and
will withstand the

wind

observe
are
tied

how

the

joints

together
fibers.

braced with

and Note
-''

how
ed
rain-

plants

are weighta heavy

''

down

after

^^^T of the "J^''^'^^, stem and

root.
26.

The

result.

CHAPTER IV
PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS
48. The primary office of roots and stems is to support and maintain the plant; hut these parts may also serve to propagate the plant, or to produce new individuals. 49. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF RHIZOMES. 0e office

of subterranean stems or rhizomes

is to

propagate the plant.

Each stem has a bud

shoot arises.

at its

end, and from this

bud a

By

the rhizome, this

dying away of the older part of shoot becomes a separate plant, although
the
its

the rhizome maintains

plants.

connection for years in some

Shoots

may

also arise

from the intermediate or

lateral buds,

but the strongest shoots usually arise from the end or near the end of the rhizome. Fig. 23.
50. Each successive plant is farther removed from the original plant or the start-

ing-point of the colony.

or "patch" grows larger.

Thus the colony Familiar examples

are the spreading patches of

mandrakes or Solomon's seal, lily -of -the -valley, ferns. Cannas propagate b}' means of rhizomes so does ginger, and the "roots" can be purchased at the drug

May

apples,

quack -grass,

store.

Fig. 27 illustrates

the

spread of a
the right the

colony of wild sunflower.

On
have

rhizomes
note
the
27.

died

away

the

frayed ends.

On

Creeping rhizomes of wild sunflower.

le^t, the strong up-turned buds show where the shoots

(19)

20
will

PROPAGATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS

The old stems in the middle arise next spring. show where the buds were at the close of the last season. Fig. 23 shows one of the terminal buds.
51.

When rhizomes

are cut in pieces, each piece having

hud or "e^e," the pieces may grow ivhen planted. A familiar example is the practice of dividing tubers of potato. A severed piece of plant designed to be used to propagate the plant is a cutting. See Fig. 28.
at least one

28.

Cuttings of eann.i rhizome.

made undesignedly when land is cultivated. The cultivator or harrow breaks up the rhizomes of quack -grass, Canada thistle, toad flax, and other weeds, and scatters them over
52.

Cuttings of rhizomes are often

or accidentally

the

field.

PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS. Roots sometimes make buds and throiv up shoots or new plants. Severed roots, or root cuttings, often grow. Blackberries, raspberries, and many plums and cherries, throw up shoots or " suckers " from the roots and this propensity is usu53.
;

CUTTINGS AND LAYEKS

ally increased

21
b}'

when

the roots are broken, as

a plow.

Broken roots of apples often sprout. Plants may propagate by means of root cuttings. 54. The buds which appear on roots are unusual or abnormal, they occur only occasionally and in no definite Buds appearing in unusual places on any part of order. Such are the buds the plant are called adventitious buds. which arise when a large limb is cut off, and from which

suckers or watersprouts arise.

55.

LAYERS.

Roots sometimes arise from^ aerial stems

If a branch touches the ground and takes root, it is called a layer. Gardeners often bend a limb to the ground and cover it for a short distance, and when roots have formed on the covered part, the branch is severed from its parent and an inde-

that are partially huried.

pendent plant
Fig. 29.
56.

is

obtained.

See

There are several kinds of

a creeper,

layers:

when

a trail-

layer of dewberry.

The

ing shoot takes root throughout

its

new
the

plant has
left.

arisen at

entire length

a runner,

when

on the ground and takes root at the joints, as the strawberry; a stolon, when a more or less strong shoot bends over and takes root, as the black raspberry or the dewberry (Fig. 29) an offset, when a few very strong plants form close about the base of the
the shoot trails
;

particularly in succulent or bulbous plants, as house-leek (old -hen -and -chickens) and some lilies. The rooting branches of the mangrove and banyan (Figs.

parent,

may be likened to layers. NATURAL CUTTINGS. Sometimes without the aid of man. Some kinds
15, 17)

57.

cuttings

occur

of willows shed

22

PROPAGATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS

them
off
:

their twigs, or the storms break

many

of these

twigs take root in the moist earth where willows grow, and they are often carried down the streams and are washed

along the shoi-es of lakes. Observe the willows along a brook, and determine whether any of them may liave come

down
58.

the stream.

PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF LEAVES. Even leaves

to neiv plants. There are examples in warm countries. The lake -cress of northern streams also propagates in this way: the leaves with little

may

take root and give rise

plants attached

may often be seen floating down stream. Gardeners propagate some kinds of begonias by means of leaf cuttings; also gloxinias and bryophyllums.
59.

PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF BVDS. Buds

])lant.

often

become detached and j^ropagate the

Familiar

examples

are

the

bulblets
foliage
;

of

tiger

lilies,

borne

amongst the

for

all

bulblets

and

bulbs are only special kinds of buds.

Fig. 30.

Some water plants make heavy winter buds, which become detached on the approach of In cold weather and sink to the bottom.
*

spring, they give rise to

60.

GRAFTS.
with

Sometimes

new

plants.

branch

may

30.

Buibiet of

unite

another plant.
lie

branch or a

trunk

may

against another plant of the

same kind, or of a very closely related kind, and grow fast to it; and if its original trunk die away, the part will be growing on an alien root. A branch which grotvs fast to a branch of another plant, the wood of the two knitting together, is called a graft.

Fig. 31.

It

is

necessary

between a graft and a parasite: a parasite prej's upon another plant, robbing it of its food, but a graft becomes an integral part of the stock on which it grows, and does its full work in elaborating food for itself and for the stock.
to distinguish

REVIEW
Keview. What are primary and secondary
offices of roots

23

and stems?
?

What

are the offices of rhizomes

does propagation by rhizomes proceed ? Why Name some does the colony spread ? plants which propagate by means of rhi-

How

zomes.
be

What

is

a cutting?

May

cuttings

made

of rhizomes?

atous weeds often

stances.

How are spread ? How

rhizomdo roots
in-

serve to propagate the plant?

Name

What

are

adventitious

buds?
stolon,

What
offset.

is

a layer?

Define some of the

kinds of layers,

runner, creeper,

Explain how cuttings

without the aid of serve to propagate the plant? Explain how plants propagate themselves by means of detachable buds. What is a
graft?

may occur man. How may leaves

How may

grafting

take

place

without the aid of

man?
is

Note. "patch" of

If
it

there

an

accessible
thistle,

31.

native graft.

toad-flax,

Canada

May

what means
semination.

by "Patches" are always instructive when considered with reference to propagation and disapple, or other perennial plant, the pupil should determine

enlarges from year to year.

i;oluuy of

ilay applt

CHAPTER V
HOW THE HORTICULTURIST PROPAGATES PLANTS
BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS
61.
into

CUTTINGS IN GENERAL. A

hit

of a plant

stuck

ground stands a chance of groiving; and this bit (Compare 51.) Plants have preferences, is a cutting. however, as to the kind of a bit which shall be used, but there is no ivay of telling what this preference is In some instances this preference has except by trying. not been discovered, and we say that the plant cannot be propagated by cuttings. 62. Most plants prefer that the cutting be made of the soft or growing parts (called "wood" by gardeners), of which the "slips" of geranium and coleus are examples. Others grow equally well from cuttings of the hard or mature parts or wood, as currant and grape and in some instances this mature wood may be of roots, as in Pupils should make cuttings now and the blackberry. If they can do nothing more, they can make cutthen. and they can plant tings of potato, as the farmer does them in a box in the window. 63. THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING. The softwood cutting is made from tissue which is still growing, or at least from that which is not dormant. It comprises one or
the
; ;

two

joints, with

leaf

attached.
to
wilt.

Figs. 32, 33, 34.

It

must
irell

not

be allowed

Therefore,

it

must be
it

protected from direct

established;

sunlight and dry air until

it

is

and

if

has
least

many
cut

leaves,

some of them
in

should be

removed, or at

in

two,

order

to

reduce the evo.Dorating surface.

(24)

The

soil

should be uni-

,,^

THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING

forraly

25
to

moist.

The pictures show the depth

are

which

the

cuttings
64.

planted.

wood
bend:

for the

For most plants, the proper age or maturity of making of cuttings may be determined by
it

giving the twig a quick

if

snaps and
bark,
it
;

^^

y the

is

in proper condition
it

if

bends tvithout breakit

ing,
soft

is

too
too
it

young and
old;
is

or

if

it

splinters,

too

old

and woody.
strong
usually

The

tips of

upright

shoots
cutting

make

the best

cuttings.

Preferably, each
its

cutting should
if

have a joint

or node near
three joints.
65.
its

base

and

the internodes (or spaces

it

between joints) are very short,

may

comprise two or

The stem of the cutting is inserted one -third or more length in clean sand or gravel, and the earth is pressed
it.

firmly about

to exclude the light

newspaper may be if the sun strikes

too

laid over the

it

bed
soil

and to

prevent

rapid evaporation.

The

should be moist clear through, not on top only.

66. Loose
is

used.

earth in
tings
;

sandy or gravelly soil Mason's sand is good which to start most cutfine

or

gravel

sifted

of

most of
be used.
contain

its

earthy matter

may
which

Soils are avoided

much decaying
it

organic matter, for these soils are

off," or

breeding places of fungi, which attack the soft cutting

and cause

to

"damp

to

die

at

or near the

26

ARTIFICIAL
If

PROPAGATION
the cuttings are to be

surface of the ground.

in

grown

a window, put

three or four

inches

of

the earth in

a shallow box or a pan.

soap

box cut in two lengthwise, so that it makes a box four or five inches
deep

like

gardener's
of

flat

is

excellent.

Cuttings

common

plants, as geranium, coleus, fuchsia,

carnation, are kept at a living-

room temperature.
cuttings

As long
and

as the

Verb.:nu cutting readj'

for transplanting

look
in

bright

green,

good condition. It maj^ be a month before When roots have formed, the plants begin roots form.
they are
to

make new
is

leaves at the tip.

planted
Fig. 35

into other

Then they may be transboxes or into pots. The verbena in

growing shoots from
practice, in that
is

just ready for transplanting.

67. It is not always easy to find

which to make the cutting?

The best
case,

to

cut back
then

an
it

old

plant,

keep

irarm and

ivell

ivatered,

and

thereby force
neio shoots.

it to

throiv out

The

old geran-

ium plant from the window-garden, or the one taken up from the lawn
bed,

may

be treated this

way.
best

See Fig. 36.

plants
of

The

30.

Old geranium plant cut back to make it throw out shoots from which cutting! can be made.

geranium and coleus and most window plants are those which are not more than one year old. The geranium and fuchsia cuttings which are made in January, Febru-

THE GKAFT
ary, or

27

March
;

tvill

give

compact blooming plants for the

their places.

next tvinter

and thereafter new ones take

Fig. 37.
68.

THE HARDWOOD CUTTING. Best

cuttings are
in

results are secured

ivhen the

made

in

the fall

until spring

sand in

the cellar.

and then buried These cuttings are

the
roots

usually 6 to 10 inches long.

They

are not idle while they

The lower end form more readily when the cutting

rest.
is

calluses

or heals, and

planted in

the the

spring.

But
take

if

proper season has

passed,

cut-

tings at any time in

them box in the window, and watch. They will need no

winter, plant
in a deep care.

shading or special Grape, cur-

gooseberry and poplar readily take root from the ^^' ^^^^^ winter geranium, from a spring cutting. hardwood. Fig 38 shows a currant cutting. It has only one bud above the
rant,

ground.
69.

THE GRAFT. T^7ieM

the

cutting

is

inserted
;

in

plant rather than in the

and the graft may grow. In this case the cutting grows fast to the other plant, and the two become one. When the cutting is inserted in a plant, it is no longer called a cutting, but a cion and the plant in which it is inserted
soil,
ive

have a graft

is

called the stock.

Fruit trees are grafted in order that

a certain variety or kind

may

he perpetuated.

28
70. Plants

ARTIFICIAL

PROPAGATlOxN
to

have preferences as
;

the

stocks on which

they will

grow

hut we can find out what their choice is

only by making the experiment. The pear grows well on the quince, but the quince does not

grow so well on the pear. The pear grows on some of the hawthorns, but it is an unwilling subject on the apple. Tomato plants will grow on potato plants and potato plants on tomato plants. When the potato is the root, both tomatoes and when the topotatoes may be produced mato is the root, neither potatoes nor Chestnut will tomatoes will be produced. grow on some kinds of oak. 71. The forming, growing tissue of the stem (on the plants we have been dis;

cussing)
side

is the

cambium,

lying on the out-

of the woody cylinder, beneath the bark. In order that union may take place,

the

cambium

of the cion

and of the stock

must come
is
38.

together.
ot
j? i

Therefore the cion

.

There are j shaping the cion and or preparing the stock to receive it. These ways are dictated largely by the relative sizes of cion and stock, although
set in the side of the stock.
i

Currant cutting.

many ways

them are matters of mere personal preference. securing close conprinciples are two covering tact between the cambiums of cion and stock the wounded surfaces to prevent evaporation and to protect the parts from disease. 72. On large stocks the commonest form of grafting is the cleft-graft. The stock is cut off and split; and in one or both sides a wedge-shaped cion is firmly inserted. Fig. 39 shows the cion; Fig. 40, the cions set in the stock; Fig. 41, the stock waxed. It will be seen that the lower
of

many

The underlying

THE GRAFT

29

bud that lying in the wedge is covered by the wax; but being nearest the food supply and least exposed to weather, it will push through the it is the most likely to grow
:

wax.
73. Cleft -grafting is done in spring, as growth begins. The cions are cut previously, when perfecthj dormant, and

Cioii

of apple.

40.

The

cioii inserted.

41.

The

parts waxed.

from
sizes

the tree

which

it is

desired to propagate.
in the cellar.

The cions
of various

are kept in sand or

moss

Limbs

may be

cleft -grafted,

from
If the

one -half inch up to four

is

inches in diameter; but a diameter of one inch

the most

convenient
tree -top

size.

All the leading or main branches of a

may

be grafted.

remaining parts of the

top are gradually cut away and the cions grow well, the
entire top will be

changed over to the new variety.

Review. How do we determine how a plant luay be propagated? Mention any plants that grow from cuttings. What are softwood cuttings? Hardwood? Describe a geranium cutting. What is the
proper condition of wood for making a softwood cutting? How is it planted? Where? In what kind of soil? Give directions for watering. How may cutting- wood be secured? Describe a hardwood cut-

30
ting.

AKTLFICIAL

PKOPAGATION

When is it made? Name plants which can be propagated easily by means of hardwood cuttings. Wnat is a cion? Stock? How do we find out what stocks are congenial to the cion? Describe a cleftWhen is cleft-grafting performed? Why do we graft? graft. Note. The cutting-box may be set in the window. If the box does not receive direct sunlight, it may be covered with a pane of Take care that the air is not kept glass to prevent evaporation. too close, else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings, and See that the pane is they will rot at the surface of the ground. and if water collects raised a little at one end to afford ventilation in drops on the under side of the glass, remove the pane for a time. Grafting wax is made of beeswax, resin, and tallow. The liands are greased, and the wax is then worked until it is soft enough to For the little grafting which any pupil would do, it is spread. better to buy the wax of a seedsman. However, grafting is hardly to be recommended as a general school diversion, as the making of cutand this account of it is inserted chiefly to satisfy the tings is general curiosity on the subject. But now and then a pupil may make the effort for himself, for nothing is more exciting than to make a graft grow all bj' one's self. The pictures of the cuttings (Figs. 32-3.'), 38) and the grafts

(Figs. 39-41) are one-third natural size.

Cutting-bed, showing carnations and roses.

CHAPTER

VI

FOOD RESERVOIRS
74.

STOREHOUSES.
is

All

greathj

thickened

or congested

parts are reservoirs for the storage of plant-food.

This

food

mostly starch.

Potatoes, beets, turnips, thick

Recall

rhizomes, seeds, are examples.

how

potatoes sprout

42.

Potato spi-uuls

Tlie sprouts

have used

tlie

food stored in the tuber,

and the tuber has

shrivelled.

in the cellar (Fig. 42)

the sprouts are produced from the

stored food.
75. The presence of starch can he determined by applying diluted tincture of iodine to the part: if a blue or
(31)

32
purplish

FOOD RESERVOIRS
brown
color appears, starch
is

present.

Cut the

part open and moisten the fresh surface with iodine (to

be had at the drug store).

The

test

will

usually give

43.

winter branch bearing leaves inside a window, while attached to the tree outside.

still

the

best

reaction

when
i

the
11

part

is

perfectly

Starch
winter.
76.

may be found
Test them.

nearly

all

twigs

in

dormant. fall and

This stored plant-food enables the plant to start

begin

quickly in the ^^ving, without tvaiting for full root- action

to
;

and

it

enables the plantlet in the

it

seed to groiv until

soil.

establishes itself in the

The flowers
mostl}'

of early-blooming trees are

developed

from

the

nourishment

stored in the twigs, not from the materials

taken in at the time by the roots. This can be demonstrated by bringing branches of
peach,
plants
**

apple,
into

and

the

other early - blooming house in the winter and

^'^ip"*"*"""

keeping them in water; they will bloom and sometimes even make leaves. Study Fig. 43.

KINDS

OF

STOREHOUSES

33

77. KINDS OF STOREHOUSES. Short and much thickened or swollen parts of roots or stems are known as tubers. These may be stem tubers, as the potato, or

root tubers, as the

tato (45).

sweet po-

Most tubers are sub.

terranean
78.

Many

tubers are stem at

the top and root in the remain-

ing part: these are called

crown
of

tubers, because the upper part

comes

to

the

surface

the

ground, or is a crown. Leaves and stems arise from the upper

part.

Beet,

radish,
carrot,

parsnip,

turnip,
roots,

salsify,

dahlia

are

examples.

These
longer
45.

tubers are usually

much

multiplier oniou.

Fig. 44. than broad, and generally taper downwards. 79. A much thickened part which is composed of scales or plates is a bulb. The bulb may be scaly, as in the lily; or it may be tunicated,

made up of plates
within
layers,

or

layers

as the onion.
80.

are

Small bulbs which borne amongst the

or
flowers
are
as bulblets.

foliage

known

Such are the "top onions," and the little bulbs which the
tiger lily (Fig. 30)

46.

Section of a multiplier onion.

bears

on its stem. Bulbs which grow around the main bulb or which are formed by the breaking apart of the main bulb, are known as bulbels. Many bulbous plants propagate by means of bulbels. The
size.

Natural

34

FOOD RESERVOIRS
multiplier or potato onion
(Fig. 45)
is

an example.
is

If the built
it

eut across,

found to have two or more "hearts" or cores

is

(Fig. 46). When it has been planted a week, each core or part begins to

separate
there
are

(Fig.

47),
as

and

soon

many
be

onions as there are cores. Potato

47.

onions

can

Beginning to separate into its parts Each part will be a little onion.

bought of seedsmen. They are used for the raising of

early onions.

known as corms. These have a loose covering, but the interior is not made up of scales or plates. Of such are gladiolus and crocus corms (Figs. 48, 49). Corms multiply by cormels
81. Solid bulb-like parts are

usually

48.

Corm

of crocus.

Nat.

size.

49.

Section of a crocus corm.

Fig. GO shows or small corms, as bulbs do by bulbels. an old gladiolus corm on which three new corms have grown. 82. We have seen that thickened parts may serve one

USE OF THE STORED FOOD

or both of two purposes
:

35

they may be storehouses for be means of propagating the plant. The storage of food carries the plant over a dry or cold By making bulbs or tubers, the plant persists season. A lunch is put up until spring. for a future day. Most bulbous plants are natives of dry countries.
food;

they

may

Review. What do j-ou understand by food reservoirs? How is the presence

of starch determined?

Where may

starcli

be found
is

Of what service
?

to the plant

this stored food

a
T

How
1

are the flowi.

ers

and leaves enabled

n

to start so early
V,

Tj i Root tuber. Stem tuber. Crown tuber. Give examples. Scaly Define bulb. bulb. Tunicated bulb. Bulblet. Bulbel. Give examples. Define corm. Cormel. What two purposes do congested parts serve ? Note. The pupil should examine various kinds of bulbs and tubers. If these are not at hand, many kinds can be bought of seedsmen or florists. Secure onion, narcissus, hyacinth, gladiolus, crocus, potato. Cut them in two. Study the make-up. Test them for starch. Plant some of them in pots or boxes. Observe how they grow. In the onion and some other plants most of the stored food

in spring

r, i Define tuber.

'" Three conns growing on an old one. Oladiohis.

is

sugar.

kept in a window.

CHAPTER

VII

WINTER BUDS
83.

WHAT BUDS
is
it

ARE.

Because of cold

or dry weather,

the plant

forced into a period of inactivitj-.

stores food,
It

We

have

seen that

start in the spring.

and is ready to make a quick also makes embryo branches and

:

The growing points of the plant are at rest for a time. In the warm season, the growing point is active, and the covering of scales is not so pronounced. A ivinter hud may be defined as a resting covered growing point. 84. A dormant hnd, therefore, is a shortened axis or branch, bearing miniature leaves or flowers, or both, and protected by a covering. Cut in two, lengthwise, a bud of the horse-chestnut or other plant which has large buds. With a pin, separate the tiny leaves. Count them. Examine the big bud of the rhubarb as it lies under the ground in winter
or early spring.
of the apple
85.
51.

packs them away underneath close-fitting scales branchlets and their coverings are winter buds.

these

Dissect large bud.s

and pear. Figs. 51, 52. The bud is protected by firm

scales
;

and dry
apri-

but these scales are

Bud
cot

of

showing

only modified leaves.

close.

The

scales

fit

the miniature leaves.

and buds are more or less woolly. Examine them under a lens. As we might expect, bud-coverings are most prominent in cold and dry climates.
(36)

Often the bud is protected by varnish ( see horse - chestnut the balsam poplars). Most winter

WHEKE BUDS ARE

86.

37
borne
in the axils

WHERE BUDS

ARE.

Buds

(ire

of the leaves,

in

the acute angle which the leaf

makes

with the stem.

When

the leaf

is

growing in the summer, a bud is When the leaf forming above it. falls, the bud remains, and a scar marks the place of the leaf. Fig. 53 shows the large leaf -scars of ailanthus. Observe those on the
horse-chestnut, maple, apple, pear, basswood, or any tree or bush. Sometimes two or more 87. the buds are borne in one axil
:

extra

53.

Leaf-sc;ii>

accessory or Observe supernumerary buds. them in the Tartarian honeysuckle

ones
are

54.

Termi-

nal

bud

betw e e n two other buds .

Currant.

Ailanthus.

(common
honey

in yards), walnut, but-

ternut, red maple,

locust,

and sometimes

in

the

apricot and peach.

88. Shoots of
this
is

many
bud.
line.

plants
It

bear a bud at the

tip:

a terminal

continues the growth of the

axis

in

a direct

Very often three or more buds

are clustered at the tip

(Fig. 54)

and

in

this

case there

may

be more

buds than leaf -scars. Only one of them, however,

is

strictly terminal.

89. Bulbs

and cabbage
to
is,

heads

may
that

be likened

buds

they are with

55.

condensed

stems,

scales or modified leaves

gigantic

bud. Cabbage.

densely overlapping and forming a rounded body.

55.

Fig.

They

differ

from true buds,

however, in the fact

38
that
the}'

WINTEK BUDS
are eoudeusations of

embryo stems borne

iji.

in the axils of leaves.

main stems rather than But bulblets

^^^

.,:^

may be
able

scarcely distinguish-

from buds on the one hand and from bulbs on the other. Cut a cabbage head iia two lengthwise, and see what
it

is

like.

90.
is

WHAT BUDS DO. A hud growing point. In the

The openFruit-

growing season it is small, and persons do not notice it. In the winter it is dormant and wrapped up and is plainly
seen
buds.
:

bud

of pear.

n g of the pear bud.

i

it

is

waiting.

All hranvhes spring from

56.

Willow,
are

The" pussies"

pushing
out,

winter buds give rise to branches, : that is, the leaves are borne on the lengthening axis. Sometimes the axis, or branch, remains very short, so short that it may not be noticed. Someit grows Several timcs
91. All not to leaves alone
teet long.

and
is

biacifbud^

scale
ready
fall

92.

Whether
grows
depends
it

the

to

from

branch
or
uot

long

the base of each.

on has,
soil,

the chance

position on the plant,

rainfall,

and many other things.

The new shoot is the unfolding and enlarging of the tiny

axis

and leaves which we saw

Figs. 51, 52.
If

Growth

is

in the bud.

progressing.

the conditions are congenial, the shoot

leaves than were tucked

may form more

commonly

away

in the bud, but

HOW BUDS OPEN

it

39

The length of the shoot usually depends more does not. on the lengths betireen joints than on the mimber of leaves.
93.
swells,
little

HOW BUDS

OVEJU. When

the

bud

the scales are pushed apart, the

axis elongates and pushes out. In most plants, the outside scales fall very
little

soon, leaving a

ring of sears.
willow,
all

Notice
other
Figs.
in-

peach,
plants.

apple,

plum,
as

and
pear.

Fig. 56.
time,

In others,
in

the scales

grow

for a

the

57, 58.

In other plants, the

ner bud-scales become green and

almost leaf -like.

See the maple

later,
Opening of the
pear bud.

and hickory.
hickory bud.
the

Fig. 59 shows a

Two weeks

young shoot had pushed out

scales were

and the enlarged

Leaves may or

hanging (Fig. 60).

buds.

94. Sometimes floivers come out of the

may

not accompany the flowers.

We
bud

is

The saw the embryo flowers in Fig. 52. shown again in Fig. 57. In Fig. 58 it is
In Fig. Gl
it

opening.

is

more advanced, and the woolly unIn formed flowers are appearing. Fig. C2 the growth is more advanced. In Fig. 63 the flowers are full blown and the bees have found them. 95. Buds which contain or produce only leaves ai-e leaf-buds. Those which contain only flowers are flowerbuds or fruit-buds. The latter occur on peach, almond, apricot, and many
very
early

spring-flowering
single flower
is

plants.

''^^

^^''^'

'"

'"" ''"""i-

Fig. 64.

The

bud

in

Fig. 65.

emerging from the apricot Those which contain both leaves and

40
flowers are

WINTER BUDS
mixed buds,
96.

as in pear, apple,

and most

late

spring- flowering plants.

Fruit-buds are

usually

thicker

or

stouter thaii

leaf -buds.

They are

borne in different positions on differ-

ent plants.

In some plants

(apple, pear) they are

on the
or

ends
spurs
sides
65.

of
;

short

branches
along
last

in others (peach, red

maple)

they
of

are

the

the

year's

The
04.

Almond flower tlu

sole occupant of a bud.

opening of the flower-bud of apricot.

growths.

In

Fig.

66

are

shown

three

fruit -buds

and

buds on A.
97.

In Fig. 67 a fruit-bud

one leaf -bud on E, and leafis at the left, and a

leaf-bud at the right.

THE "BURST OF SPRING"

chiefly the

means
buds.

opening of the Everything was made ready the fall before. The embryo shoots and flowers ivere tucJced away, and the food was stored. The warm rain falls, and the shutters the open and the sleepers wake frogs peep and the birds come.
:

"^M^M^

\M

Review.

What
What

are dormant buds?

is

What
ing?

are they for?

What
is

their cover-

Where
?

are they borne?

When

are

they formed

a leaf -sear?

are accessory buds?

What

other

What name is

applied to them?

Define terminal bud.

What are bulbs and it do? cabbages? How do they differ from buds? What do buds do? From what do branches arise? To what do winter buds ,^. , ,, ,, give rise? What determines whether the What does
. .

^^
66.

, , ^ Fruit-buds and

t.

-^

leaf-

v ^ buds

of pear.

WINTER TWIGS

IN

THE HOUSE

41

branch shall be long or short? Describe the opening of a bud What are flower-buds? Leaf-buds? Mixed buds? How may fruit buds be distinguished ? What is the "burst of spring"? Note. It is easy to see the swelling of the buds in a room in winter. Secure branches of trees and shrubs, two to three feet long, and stand them in vases or jars, as you would flowers. Renew the water frequently and cut oft" the lower ends of the shoots occasionally. In a week or two the buds will begin to swell. Of red maple, peach, apricot, and other very early-

flowering things, flowers

ten to twenty days.

may

be obtained in

Try it. The shape, size, and color of the winter buds are different in every kind of plant. By the buds alone botanists are often able to dis-

Fruit-bud and leaf-bud

of apple.

tinguish the kinds of plants.

Even such

similar

plants as the different kinds of willows have good bud characters.

The study

of the kinds

of

buds affords excellent training of the

powers of observation.

J^AV,
The burst
of spring in the
lilac.

CHAPTER

VIII

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

98.

EACH PLANT LOOKS FOR LIGHT. Green plants

live

only in sunlight, direct or indirect, Tlie gradual withdrawal of light tends to weaken the plant; but the plant makes an effort to reach the light and therefore grows towards it. The
irJiole
'

habit of a plant

may

he chan<jed
to

bij

its 2)osition

with reference

sun-

two similar plants. Place one near the window and the other far from it. Watch the Fig. behavior from day to day. C8 sliows a fern which grew near
light.

Select

08.

Sullif'iriil

li';lit.

the glass in a conservatory

ttt
:

ig,

69 shows one which grew on the floor of a conservatory.

Fig. 69 also teaches another lesson, which
is

to be ex-

plained in another chapter (Chapter

99. Plants

XXVI).
The most vigor-

grow towards the

light.

ous branches, as a rule, are those which receive most light.

Climb a
100.

tree

and observe where the

plants

thriftiest shoots are;

or observe any bush.

When

or

their

parts are not

stiff

or rigid, they

turn towards the light if the light

comes mostly from one direction.

The geraniums and fuchsias in window are turned around occasionally so that they will grow
the
69.

symmetrical.

Plant radish in a
(42)

Same kind

In need of light. of fern as No.

68.

EACH BRANCH LOOKS FOR LIGHT

pot or pan.
high, place the

43

When
pan

the plants are three or four inches

in a tight
it

box which has a hole on

is

one

side.

The next day

will look like those in Fig. 70.

This turning towards

the

light

called

heliotropism

Greek for "sun.") 101. Even under natural conditions, 2)lants become misshapen or unsymmetrical if the light comes
(helios is

mostly from one direction.

On

the

edge of a forest, the branches reach out for light (Fig. 71)
Trees tend to grow away from a
building.
in

their

position,

Branches become fixed so that even

in winter they tell of the search

70.

Searching for

li?ht.

f^j,

Jighj-

[Y\g. 72).

Some plants climh other plants in order to reach the sunlight; or they climh rocks and buildings. Notice that the vine on the house luxuriates where it is lightest. Climbing plants sometimes choke and smother the plant This they may do by throwing on which they climb. their mantle of foliage over it, and smothering it, or by sending their roots into its trunk and robbing it of food. Sometimes they do both, as in Fig. 74. Every plant has
102.

a story to
103.

tell

of the value of sunlight.

EACH BRANCH LOOKS FOR LIGHT. The plant is made up of branches. There is a struggle amongst the
branches for sunlight. two branches are alike
tree.
tree.

We
:

have seen (Fig. 7) that no

we now know one reason why.

Notice that the small branches die in the center of the

Look on the inside of a pine, spruce or other dense Every branch has a story to tell of the value of

sunlight.
104. EACH LEAF LOOKS FOR LIGHT. Leaves are borne towards the ends of the branches. This is particu-

44
larly

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

marked when the struggle
of
is

severe.

If

the out-

side

a
will

plant be

is

densely
to

thatched

with

leaves, the

inside

found

be comparatively bare.

Con-

71.

Branehes of the cedar reaching for

light.

trast

Figs. 75

and
tree

76, both

being views of
in

one

tree.

We know
knows
105.
it

the

as

seen

Fig. 75

the

squirrel

as seen in Fig. 76.

On any branch

in

a very thick -topped tree

or

bush, leaves of equal age usually tend to be largest

where

EACH LEAF LOOKS FOE LIGHT

the light is best. Leaves which grow
in

45

full
the

sunlight

tend to persist later

in
fall

than

those
in

which grow poor light (Fig.

This fact
is

77).

sometimes

ob''''^'

scured because the

'^^^ branches have

grown towards the

light.

outermost leaves are most exposed to autumn winds. 106. Plants which start in cellars, from seeds, bulbs,
or tubers,

grow
the

until

the stored food

is

exhausted and
size
is

then die:

darkness.
is

do not develop to full Figs. 78 and 79 show this. Fig. 78

leaves

in

rhu-

barb forced in a cellar for the winter market;

a plant
107.

Fig. 79

grown out-of-doors.

Compare Fig.
is

42.

The position or direction of leaves

light.

determined
to

largely by exposure

suncli-

In temperate

mates, they usually hang

in

such a way that they

the
of

receive
amount
serve
of

greatest

the

Obarrangement
light.

leaves

in

Fig.

80.

One
gree.

leaf shades the other

least

to the

possible de-

If the plant

were
light,

placed in a

new

position

with
the

reference
leaves

to

would
to

make
their

an
,.,

effort

turn

VJ.

^, ., of , Mantle clematis. The leaves, and later the flowers, spread themselves to the light.
,
.

blades.

Observe

the

shiugle -like arrangement

46
in

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

Fig. 75.

Norway maple, which

find

were to examine tlie leaves on the photographed in Fig. 75, he would that leaves Avhich are not on the outside lengthen
If the pupil
is

their leaf-stalks in order to get the light.

See Fig. 144. Norwa}^ maple is common on lawns and roadsides. 108. We have seen (84) that a large part of the leaves of any one year are packed away in the buds of
the previous

winter.

It

is

almost impossithese leaves

ble that

should

be
hit

packed
or
miss.

away

They are usnalhj arranged in a mathematical can

see

order.
this

We
order

when

the

shoot has

grown. We can see it by studying the buds on recent shoots,

since there
for

was a

leaf

each bud.

The

leaves (or buds)

may

be opposite each other on the stem, or alternate.

109.

Fig. 81.

When

leaves

are ojyposite, the j^it's

That

nsuaUy alternate one pair stands north and south, the next See the box -elder shoot, on pair stands east and west. One pair does not shade the pair the left in Fig. 81.
.

is,

if

beneath.
110.

The leaves are

in four vertical ranks.

In

the

There are several kinds of alternate arrangement. elm shoot in Fig. 81, the third bud is verti-

75.

Looking

at the top of a

Norway maple. As the

bird sees

it.

76.

Looking up into the same

tree.

As

the squirrel se8

it

48

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

cally

above the first. This is true, no matter which bud is selected as

the starting point.

Draw

a thread

around the stem until the two buds

are joined.

Set a pin at each bud.

I.

miiiii

' I

'

<'

^niit

Observe that two buds are passed (not counting the last) and that the thread makes one circuit of Representing the numthe stem. ber of buds by a denominator, and the number of circuits bj' a numerator, we have the fraction X, ivhich expresses the part of the circle ivhich lies between any two buds. That is, the buds are onehalf of 360 degrees apart, or ISO Looking endwise at the degrees.
stem, the leaves are seen to be 2yovilT-p/I

the leiives hung four weeks longer than on the north side, because of more sunlight and

idUJieu.

Note that

in

the

apple

perhaps more food.

shoot (Fig. 81, right), the thread

makes two

circuits

and

five

buds are passed

two- fifths

represents the divergence between the buds.

are 5-ranked.

The

leaves

78.

Rhubarb growTi

in the dark.

The

leaf-blades do not develop.

PHYLLOTAXY
111. Every plant

49
leaves.
lilac,

has
see

its

own arrangement of
box-elder,
ash,

For

opposite

leaves,

maple,

For 2-ranked arrangement, For 3 -ranked see all grasses, Indian corn, basswood, elm. For 5-ranked (which is arrangement, see all sedges. one of the commonest), see apple, cherry, pear, peach,
honeysuckle, mint, fuchsia.
pluir.

poplar,

wil,^4^

low.
see

For

8- ranked,

holly,

osage

orange.
plicated

More com-

ments
bulbs,

arrangeoccur in
house leeks,

and other condensed parts. The arrangement of leaves on the

stem
is

Icnown

as

phyllotaxy

(literally

"leaf

arrange-

ment".) Make out the phyllotaxy on

any plant.
112.

In

some
79.

plants, several leaves

occur at one level,

Rhubarb grown
in the light.

being arranged in a

around the stem. Such leaves are said to be verticillate or whorled. Leaves arranged in this way are
circle

usually narrow.
rule in

Although a definite arrangement of leaves is the most plants, it is subject to modification. On shoots which receive the light onl}^ from one side or which grow in difficult positions, the arrangement may not be definite. Examine shoots which grow on the under side
113.

of dense tree -tops or in other partially lighted positions.

50
114.

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

The
leaf

directiou
is

or

"hang"
but

of the
their

usually

fixed,

there are some leaves ivMcli change

direciion

between daylight
Thus,
plants,
It is

and darkness.

leaves

cf

clover (Fig. 82), bean, locust,

aud

many

related

"sleep" at
not a sleep
sleep,
is

night; also oxalis.

in the sense in

which animals
its

however

but

function

not

well understood.
115. Leaves usually expose

one

80.

All the leaves are exposed

to light.

particular

surface

to

the

light.
is

This
is

is

because their internal structure

efficient

such that light

most

when

it

strikes this surface, as

we

shall

learn

later

on.

Sohie

plants, however, expose both

surfaces to the light, and

their leaves stand vertical.

Others

endeavor
turn

to

avoid

the intense light of

midthe
light.

day and
direction

to

in

of

least

Leaves standing edgewise

are said to exhibit polarity.

They
if

are

"compass

plants"

they point north

and south. The famous compass plant or silphium of the prairies and the wild lettuce are examples of plants having polar 81. Phyllotaxy of box-elder, elm, apple. (Wild IcttUCG IcaVCS. [Lactuca Scariolaj is a common piant on roadsides; p. 356.) Every leaf has a story to tell of the value of sunlight.

THE WINTER BUDS SHOW EFFECT OF SUNLIGHT

116.

5]

WINTER BUDS SHOW WHAT HAS BEEN THE EFFECT

OF SUNLIGHT. (86), and the

Buds
size

are borne in the axils of the leaves

or vigor of the leaf determines to a large extent the size of the bud.

Notice that, in most instances,

the largest
tip (Fig.

buds are nearest the

If

83).

the largest

,ones are not near the tip, there

some special reason for it. Examine the shoots on trees

is

and bashes. 117. The largest huds usually start first in spring. and the branches which arise from them have the advantage in the strnggle for existence. Plants tend to grow most vigoroushj from their ends. Observe that only the terminal bud grew in the hickory twig in Fig, Every bud has a story to tell of 60.
Day and
uight positions of
the clover leaf.

the value of sunlight.

Review. What is the relation of the plant ? Does its form ever depend on its relation to light? In what direction do the tops of plants grow? Where are the most vigorous
to sunlight

branches?

What

is

heliotropism?

Why

are

trees sometimes unsymmetrical?

any instances yourself ? which plants profit by the climbins' habit I Is Explain. there struggle amongst brancnes ?

Do you know What is one way in

Where Where

are leaves borne in reference to light? are

leaves usually largest
?

Do they

darkness ? Are leaves borne di rectly above one another? How may leaves be arranged? Explain what phyllotaxy is. Are leaves always arranged definitely? Explain the
develop in

83.

The

big termina.

buds. Hickory.

arrangement

in

some plant which

of leaves?

is

What
posed

is
?

the

"sleep"

Which
?

not mentioned in this lesson surface of the leaf is ex

What

are compass plants

How

do buds show what the

effect of sunlight

has been?

What buds

start first in spring?

CHAPTER IX
STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AMONGST THE BRANCHES
118.
history.

NO TWO BRANCHES ARE ALIKE Every

It has to contend for air
to

tu'uj

has a

and sunlight, and a place

in which

Its size and shape, therefore, depend on under which it lives. Observe the long, straight, big-leaved shoots on the top of the plant, and the short, weak, crooked ones on the inside or under side. 119. There is struggle for existence for every ttviq and Those finding the best conditions live and every leaf.

grow.

the conditions

84.

The

struggle for life. Mulberry shoot.

thrive

those

finding

the poorest
:

die.

The weak

are

prunes the tree, and Observe the tends to make the strong the stronger. competition in the branch photographed in Fig. 84. Pick

overpowered and

finally perish

this

out the dead twigs, the w^eak ones, the strong ones. 120. THE BUDS MAY NOT GROW. There is not room in

a tree-top for

all the

buds

to

grow into branches. Some buds

(52)

THE BUDS MAY NOT GKOW

are suppressed.
die.

53

So

it

Branches comes that

branches are not arranged

regularly,

although the
be.

buds may
tarian

In the Tar-

or

"tree"

honey-

suckle the buds are opposite

;

Fig. 85 shows

how
the

the branches are.

121.

The results of
can
be

struggle for existence in the

tree -top

expressed

85.

The branching

is

crooked

in figures.

Consider that
is

and irregular.

every bud

the

germ or starting point of a branch. Observe at what distances apart

the buds are usually borne on

any

plant,

and

estimate

the

number

of buds which the plant

has borne: count the number of branches which the tree actually
bears.
It will

be found that the

number of buds is far in excess of the number of branches the

:

difference between the

numbers shows how many buds or branches

have
failed.

Or, count

the
the

buds on any
possibilities.

branch, and figure up

A
10

branch 12 inches long,

for

instance,
If

has

buds.

each

bud

grows, at the end of

86.

Scar* of tb dormant buds.-WiUow,

the Uext SeaSOU there

54
will be

STRUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES

10

branches, each

of

which may have 10 buds.

;

At

the end of the second year there will be 100 branches

at the

Can 1,000 branches be end of the third, 1,000. borne on a 4-year-old branch 12 inches long ? Or, count for the places of the old bud - scars on the branches the buds persist as wrinMes in the hark, often for many

years

(Fig. 86).

One can

often locate these bud-scars

on old branches with

over the bark.
122.

his eyes closed

by running
called

his fingers

Buds which

fail

to

grow are

They are usually the weakest ones, those ichich buds. grew in the most uncongenial conditions. They are towards the base of the shoot. We have seen (117) that it is the terminal or uppermost buds which are most likely The dormant buds gradually die. They may to grow. If the other buds live four or five j-ears on some plants. or branches fail or are injured, they may grow, but usually they die.

dormant

123.

Dormant buds must not be confounded with

ad-

have learned (54) that adventitious buds are those which are formed at unusual times or j^laces, If a large branch because of some disturbance of the part. is cut off, suckers or wjitersprouts are thrown out near the wound these arise from buds which are made for the occaThese buds did not exist there. In many countries sion. it is a custom to "pollard" or cut off the tops of trees and strong advenevery few years for the firewood Fig. 87. titious shoots arise along the trunk.
ventitious buds.
: ;

We

124.

WHERE THE BRANCHES GROW. Because new shoots

tend to arise from the top of the twigs, the branches of most trees are in tiers or layers. These tiers often can
be traced in trees 50 and 100 ye.rs old.
oak, maple, ash, or other tree.

young, vigorous trees 125. When part of a top

Try it in any For practice, begin with (Figs. 88 and 89).

is

removed, the remaining

87.

pollard tree

In this case, m;ui has added to the struggle for existence.

An

ash tree in Algeria,

The ohoots are

cut for forage.

56
branches
light
fill

STKUGGLE AMONGST BKANCHES

the space.

The branches

are attracted

and

air,

and grow

in that direction.

by the pruned or
to

injured top always tends

io

come hack
126.

equi-

librium.

A
its

mangled or
tends
to

hroJien

plant

regain
tion.

former posifallen trees,

arise.

From

upright

shoots

In Fig. 90 observe the

new trunk

arising from

the center of the arch;

see that the
is

main trunk

smaller beyond that

point.
Tiers
of
89.

Even

in old trees

branches on

the

tiers

can

be

Review. What is meant by the statement that every

twig has a history?

young

tree.

traced.

Upon

Explain what what does the shape and size of a branch depend ? you mean by the struggle for existence. Why do not all buds grow? order, why are not branches? If buds are arranged in mathematical

How may
figures?

the
Select

effect

of

struggle

for

existence
in tiers, or

be

expressed

in

some branch and

explain.

Define dormant buds.

Adventitious buds.

Why

are branches

borne at intervals?

How do
tion,

plants tend to re-

gain their form and posi-

when

injured

Note. Let the pupil work out the history of some branch. It is better to select a branch which
is

vigorous.

He

should
if

first

determine,
is

the

shoot
season.

dormant,

how
year's

much grew

the previous
last

The

growth bears buda on the

90.

The

erect bole

on the

fallen

tnmk.

95.

October 18th.

58

STKUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES

;

main axis, not on side branches and the "ring" (scars of bud-scales) marks the junction between the different years' growth. Notice this ring in Fig. 83. The teacher will find many twigs worked out in "Lessons with Plants." Figs. 91-95 show an actual case. These drawings were all made with the greatest care from one elm twig. The twig The side branch is evidently (Fig. 91) shows three years' growths. only one year old, for it did not arise until the twig which bears it was one year old. Note that only one of the buds made a branch. There are five blossom buds. Fig. 92 shows the twig in bloom. Fig. 93 shows it in fruit and leaf. Fig. 95 shows the net result. The side branch grew from a to s and made two blossom buds. The tip The two buds of the main shoot (Fig. 91) was broken in a storm. next in succession grew. Each made flower buds. Observe how many buds on this elm shoot have failed.

Crushed by storm, the tree

still

shoots upward.

CHAPTER X
THE FORMS OF PLANTS
Although the form of the branch, and to some is determined by a struggle with the conditions in which it grows, nevertheless each lind The lumof plant has its own peculiar habit of growth.
127.

extent the entire plant,

96.

Diflferent

forms of

trees.

berman distinguishes the kinds of trees by their "looks," rather than by their leaves or flowers, as the botanist does. The farmer usually does the same with his cultivated plants.
128.

The habit

of a plant

is

determined by

its

size,

general style or direction of growth,

form The of head, and method of branching.

general
be erect,
the like.
is

style

been mentioned

well

of plants has Chapter III they may strict, creeping, decumbent, and The shape of the top or head illustrated in trees. Note the

or

stature

in

general effect of the mass, as seen

distance.

at

The elm is vase-form or round-headed (Fig. 96, which is cited

07.

Round-headed and
fastlgiate trees,

again to teach another lesson, p. 223). So

(59).

60

THE FORMS OF PLANTS

and apple trees. The Lombardy poplar columnar or fastigiate. Young spruces and firs are conical. Heads

are maple, beech,

(Fig. 97)
is

may
flat,

be narrow, wide, symmetrical, irregular or broken. 129. The general leaf age or furnishing of the
top
is

different for each

The top may be dense or thin. The folikind.

age

may

be heavy, light,

Coujpare maples and elms, apples and peaches, and other

large, small.
trees.

130.

The

trunk

or

bole of the tree is one of its most conspicuous

ObsCrve the features. trunk of the palm (Fig. 98), and the forking trunks of elms and maples. Observe that no two '- ^ trees have trunks which are quite alike. The bark is different for each
strict straight
'

98.

The uubranched trunks

of palms.

kind of jilant. 131. Plants

ings:

awaken
said
to

certain thoughts or feel-

they are

have expression.
expression
of
in
is

This

the source
The
plaut form

much
them.
its

of our pleasure

Trees

are

m Winter. Russian

ihisile.

particularly expressive.

One suggests

restfulness, because
its

of

deep shady top

another gaiety, from

moving.

EXPRESSIONS OF PLANTS
small, light -colored

61
its

leaves

another heaviness, from

,

very large, dull foliage; another strength from the massive

branches; another grace, from the flowing outline or

flexile

growth.
lithe,

think of the oak as strong, the willow as the aspen as weak, and the like. Irregular or

We

*^^mM
many

inn.

Tlie

trunks of an old olive

tree.

Italy.

gnarly trees suggest struggle.

trees,

If

all plants,

or even all

were alike, we shonld have

little

pleasure in them.
to

132.

The

exjJression of a plant

depends
in

on the character of the

shadows

the top.

some extent These

shadows (or lights and shades) are best seen by looking at the plant when the sun is low and behind the observer.

62
Stand
at

THE FORMS OF PLANTS

some
distance.

Look at the dark places in the they are lumpy and irregular. In the pasture beech they are in layers or strata. The shadows depend mostly on the method of branching. Those who
old pasture maple:

take photographs
133.

know how

the "high lights" and shadows

develop on the plate.

The

habit of a plant

is

nsiially

most apparent

-^^^

101.

pear tree of the Kieffer variety.

it

102.

pear tree of the Hardy variety.

is

when

is

leafless.

The framework

then revealed.

summer. Observe their forms as outlined against the sky every one diiferent from every other. Notice the plant forms as they stand in the snow. Fig. 99. How do stems of the pigweed differ from those of burdock and grasses? Observe how the different plants hold snow and ice. 134. The more unusual the shape of any tree or other
are as interesting in winter as in

Woody plants

INTEREST IN PLANT FORMS

plant, the greater
is
is

63

our interest in

it,

because our curiosity

or condition has produced the abnormal form. Such plants should be preFig. 100. served whenever possible.
Review.

awakened.

Some unusual circumstance

What do you mean

own
habit (36)?
Is the

by the statement that each kind of

plant has

its

some

of the forms of

How do plants differ in habit? Name tree-tops. How may plants differ in the furnishtrunk charaeteristie?

ing of the top?

a tree?

Bark?
is

Bring in and

describe the bark of three kinds of trees.

What

the expression of

What

are

some

of the expressions?

stand by the shadows in the top.

On what do
Tell

Explain what you underthe shadows chiefly

depend?

What

is

there to see in plants in winter?

Why

are

we

interested in plants of unusual form?

in "looks."

how any two

trees differ

should learn about should get the feeling of mass. Then he should endeavor to determine why the mass is so and so. Trees are best to begin on. No two trees are alike. How do they differ? The pupil can observe as he comes and goes from school. An orchard of different kinds of fruits shows strong conof

Note. One
is

the

first

things

the pupil

plants

to see

them as a

whole.

He

trasts.

Even
This

different varieties of the

is

same

fruit

may be

unlike in

habit.

especially true in pears (Figs, 101, 102).

bouey locust

tree.

CHAPTER
HOW THE PLANT TAKES
IN

XI

THE SOIL WATER

135. PLANT-FOOD. Having learned what a plant is and having seen it as a whole, we may now inquire how it secures food with which to live. We can discuss onl}^ the

outlines of the subject here

the pupil

may

consider the

question again

when he

takes

up Part HI.
soil.
if

The plant
this

obtains food materials

from the

We know

to

be true, because the plant dies In this

material which the plant
tissues or to aid in
talies

removed from the soil. discussion, we use the word food to designate amj
in to incorporate ivith
its

promoting its vital activities. The word is sometimes used to denote only some of the products (as starch) which the plant manufactures from the raw materials,

but

it is

unfortunate to press a common-language

word
into

into such technical use.

136.

the

there

ROOT STRVCTTJRE. Roots divide thinnest and finest fibrils are roots and there are rootlets.
fleshy

The
root

large,

root

of

the

radish
are

(Fig. 103) terminates in a common-sized

to

which

little

rootlets
little

at-

tached.

Then

there are

rootlets

attached to the fleshy root at various

But the rootlets >^ places near the base. x-which we see are only intermediary,
and there are
structures.
137.

numerous

3'et

smaller

103.

Root and

rootlets.

The

rootlets, or fine divisions, are clothed

with rootCarefully

hairs (29), ivhich are very delicate structures.

(64)

ROOT STRUCTURE
germinate
radish
or

65
that

other

seed,

so

no

delicate

parts of the root will be injured.

For

this purpose, place

a few seeds in packing -moss or in the folds of cloth or

blotting paper, being careful to

keep them moist. In a few days the seed has germinated, and the root has grown an inch or two
long.

Notice that, excepting at a

of about a quarter of an inch behind the tip, the root is covered with minute hairs

distance

'

(Figs. 11, 104).

ally

They
is,

are actu-

hairs,

that

root -hairs.

\
I

''\

Touch them and they collapse, they are Dip one of the plants in water, and when removed the hairs are not to be seen. The water mats them
so delicate.

together along the root and they are no

longer evident.

Root-hairs usually are

a plant
is

destroyed
.

when
be
it

pulled out of

done ever so carefully. They cling to the minute particles of '..'...ii'm"'" covering of root-hairs. ^qW Under a microscopc, observe how they are flattened when they come in contact with grains of sand (Chapter II). These root-hairs clothe the young rootlets, and a great amount of soil is thus brought into actual contact with the plant. Root-hairs are not young
t
i^

the

soil,

^ilnwi',','-''t'i'ie

roots

they soon die.

138.
is

The

rootlet

and

the root-hair differ.

The

rootlet

The root -hair is a delicate tube (Fig. 105), tvithin the cell- tv all of which is contained living matter {protoplasm); the ivall and the lining membrane permit water and substances in solution to pass in. Being long and tube-like, these root-hairs are especially adapted for taking iu the largest quantity of solua solid, connpact structure.

FOOD FROM THE SOIL

tions
;

and

the}' are the principal

soil,

food
the

is

absorbed from the

means by which plantalthough the surfaces of

do their part. Water-plants do need an abundant system of root-hairs, and such plants depend largely on their rootlets.
rootlets themselves

not

139.

OSMOSIS. In order
root -hair,
it

to

enters the

is

necessary that

understand how the water we study the

physical process

known

as os-

mosis.
rated

A
by

salt

solution sepa-

memhrane from
some of the water
its

ivater absorbs

and increases
First
dissolve
saltpeter,

own volume.

ounce of which we may use as a fertilizer solution, in one

pint of water, calling this solution No.
I. For use in experiments later on, also dis-

one

solve a piece of saltpeter

105.

not
i
j

Cross section of root, enlarged,

larger tliau a peach pit (about

.

one -seventh ounce) in about one gallon of water, calling this solution No. II. Now fill the tube, C in Fig. 106, almost full of the strong solution I, and tie a piece of animal membrane (hog's bladder is A small excellent for this purpose) over the large mouth. funnel, with a long stem, may be used if one cannot obtain

showing

root-liairs.

Then sink the tube, bladder -part downa tube like C. wards, into a large bottle, A, of water until the level of liquid in the tube stands at the same height as that in the
bottle.

The tube may be

it

readily secured in this position

in

by passing
rise,

through a hole

the cork of the bottle.

In a short time,

we

notice that the liquid in

begins to

and in an hour or so it stands as at F, say. This The liquids diffuse. The salt is an important result. If water solution diffuses more slowly than the water.

OSMOSIS

67

were on both sides of the membrane, it would diffuse equally both wuys and there would be no rise of liquid. The presence of salt in N diminishes the amount of fluid
passing out, and more water comes
salt in

than water and

go out; hence there is pressure in the tube. 140. The cell-sap of the root -hair absorbs wafer from the The above experiment enables soil by osmotic action. us to understand how the countless little root-hairs act, each one like the tube N, if only the whole surface of the tube were a bladder membrane, or something acting similarly. The soil water does not contain much of

the land's

fertility*

that

is,

it

is

very weak solution.

root- hair,
tilled

The
a

active little
is

on the other hand,

cell -sap,
:

always

more concentrated solution hence soil water must come in, and along with it come also
with
small
quantities
of

dissolved

food

materials.

Some

of these materials

may

be fertilizers which have been A-

applied to the land.

The plant absorbs these solulong as they are used for the growth of the plant. The salts which are dissolved in the soil water ^^^- t illustrate osmosis diffuse themselves through the tiny membrane of the root-hairs, each ingredient tending independently to become as abundant inside the root-hair as outside in the
141.
tions as
soil

water.

Once
on
growth.

inside
to

the

root-hair,

these

absorbed
to

solutions
utilized
ever,

pass
in

stem and As long as they are

root
into

and

leaf,

be

used,

how-

more must come

equilibriuni.

the

root -hairs, in

restore the

Thus

those snhsiance.s

order to which are

FOOD FROM THE SOIL

needed must come in as long as the land can furnish them Absorption was illustrated before by an soluble form.

artificial

arrangement because the root -hairs are so small

that they cannot be seen readily.

But

all

parts of the

root can absorb

142.

some

water.

from
ble.

iveak solutions

Fleshy pieces of root or stem will absorb water and become rigid; in strong solutions
ivill

such fleshy parts

give

up

their water

and become

flexi

To experiment

further with this principle of absorp-

about one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and let them lie in the air half an Place a few of these slices in some of the strong hour.
tion, cut several slices of potato tuber
fertilizer

solution
II.

I.

Place

similar pieces

in

the

weak

solution

In half an hour or more, those pieces in the

weak solution will be very rigid or stiff (turgid). They will not bend readily when held lengthwise between the Compare these slices with those in the strong fingers.
solution,

where
is

they are

very flexible
to

(flaccid).

This

bending

evidently due

the fact

that

those in the

strong brine have actually lost some of their water.

taining a small

So

the potato tuber could take in soil water con-

amount of food but if the water contained much food material the potato would actually lose some of the water which
;

it

held.
143. These experiments not only demonstrate

how

the roots absorb water containing plant-

food, but they emphasize the fact that the outside solution
107. Killed

must be very

dilute in order that

by

too
tion.

strong
solu-

food

sorb water which has dissolved only a small

The root-hairs abamount of plant -food from the richness of the soil, and
water
be absorbed at all.

may

not

from such
to

rich solutions as the sap of the plant itself.

]44. The plant

may

be wilted,

and even

killed

by

at-

tempting

feed

it

food solutions which are too strong.

ROOT-PRESSUKE

To test this matter, secure a young radish plant (or almost any seedling with several leaves) and insert the roots into a small bottle containing some of the saltpeter solution I,
In another bottle place a similar plant with

some of the weak solution II. Support the plant in the mouth of the bottle with cotton batting. After standing for a few hours or
less it will

be noticed that the leaves of the

plant in the strong solution begin to w41t, as

in the weak soluand normal. This further indicates that the growing plant is

in Fig, 107.
tion,

The plant
is

Fig. 108,

rigid

so constituted as to be able to

very dilute solutions only.

to feed
it

If

make use of we attempted

The
thrives

strong fertilizer solutions, these

plant
in a

strong solutions, instead of being absorbed

by the
145,

plant,

take
to

water from the

tvilt.

latter.

weak

solution.

causing the plant

The farmer or gardener knows that he can injure adding too much plant-food. Everyone recognizes the value of wood ashes as a fertilizer but no one would dare water his valuable plants with lye, or sow his choice vegetable seeds on an ash bank, however well it might be watered. If there is a potted plant at hand which is of no value, remove some of the soil, add considerable wood ashes, water well, and await the result or give it a large lump of nitrate
or even kill his plants by
; ;

of soda.
146.

ROOT-PRESSURE. TAe
to

ing water gives rise

activity of the root in absorbconsiderable force. This force is

known
is

as root-pressure. The cause of this pressure not well understood. The pressure varies in different

plants

and

in

the

same plant
off

at

different

times.

To
small

illustrate

root -pressure, cut

a strong -growing

plant near the ground.

By means

of a bit of rubber tube,

70

FOOD FROM THE SOIL

attach a glass tube with a bore of approximately the diam-

Pour in a little water. Observe the rise of the water due to the pressure from below (Fig. 109).
eter of the stem.

Some
ihe

plants will force the column of water

41

feet. The water ascends chiefly in young wood, not between the bark and wood, as commonly supposed. To illustrate the path of water-ascent, insert a growing shoot in water which is colored with eosin note the path which the color takes. (Eosin dye may be had of dealers in microscope supplies. Common aniline may answer very

several

well.)

147.

HOW THE SOIL HOLDS MOISTURE. The

is

water which
free

valuable to the plant

is

not the
of

water, but the thin film of moisture

little

ivMcli adheres to each

particle

soil.

The

finer the soil,

the

greater the

number
is

of particles,

and therefore the greater

it

the

quantity of film moisture which

can hold.

This moisture surrounding the grains

may

not be perceptible, yet the plant can use it. Root absorption may continue in
a
soil

which seems

to he

dust dry.

f^L,

AIR. Corn on land which has been flooded by heavy rains loses its green color and turns
^^^-

^^^ ROOTS NEED

yellow.

Besides diluting plant -food, the

soil,

water drives the air from the

this
109.

and

suffocation of the roots

ill

is

very soon

apparent in the general

^j^^^

health of the

To show
it.

root-pressure,

Stirring or tilling the soil aerates

Water-plants and bog-plants have adapted themselves

to their particular conditions.

They

either get

their air

by

special surface roots, or

from the water.

PROPER TEMPERATURE
149.

ROOTS EXCRETE

71

PROPER TEMPERATURE.

T/?e

root

must

l)f

warm

perform its functions. Should the soil of fields or greenhouses be much colder than the air, the plant When in a warm atmosphere, or in a dry atmossuffers. phere, plants need to absorb much water from the soil,
in order to

and the roots must be warm

supply the water as rapidly as

if it

the
is

root -hairs

are

to

If the roots are chilled, the plant may wilt or die. Try this with two Put one pot potted plants, as radish, coleus, tomato, etc.
in a dish of
ice water,

needed.

and the other

in a dish of

warm

water, and keep them in a

In

short time notice

is

warm room. how stiff and

vigorous

the

one whose roots are

the

warm, whereas
signs of wilting.
150.

other

may show
plant

ROOTS EXCRETE.
is

The

not only absorbs what

ble,

already solu

but it is capable of rendering soluble small quantities of the insoluble

soil,

substances present in the

and

ivhich

may
plant

be

needed

for plant-food.
this

accomplishes

result

The by

means
roots.

of substances excreted

by the

These substances may even etch marble. On a polished marble block, place a half-inch of sawdust or soil, in which plant seeds. After the plants have attained a few leaves, turn the mass of sawdust over and observe the prints of the roots on the marble. These prints will be very faint. An
illustration of this

110.

The
soil.

rootlets auil root-

hairs cling to the particles

of

fully pull
soil,

experiment is given on page 73. up a young seedling which is growing

soil

Carein

soft

and notice how tenaciously the

110).

particles are held

to

the root (Fig.

72

FOOD FROM THE SOIL

151. THE FOOD MATERIALS. We have seen that all food materials must he in solution in water in order to be

taken in

hij

the roots.

Different kinds of plants require

different kinds

and proportions of the food materials, but

ordinary green plants are supposed to require at least eleven of the elementary substances in order to live.

These are Carbon, C. Oxygen, O. Nitrogen, N. Hydrogen, H.

:

Potassium, K. Calcium, Ca.

Magnesium, Mg.
Phosphorus, P.
Sulfur, S.
Iron, Fe.

Chlorine, CI. (in

plants)

some

All these elements must be in combinations, not in their

elemental form, in order
152.
to be

absorbed by roots.

of these except carbon and oxygen are Some of the oxygen is taken in only through the roots. Usually
all

taken in by the roots in the form of water (which is H2O), and in other compounds. Some carbon is probably taken

by the roots in the form of carbonates, btit it is doubtwhether this source of carbon is important to the plant. Water is not only a carrier of plant-food: it is itself a plant-food, for some of it is used in the building up of
in ful

organic materials.

The seven elements in the right-hand column are called the mineral elements: they remain in The mineral elements the ash, when the plant is burned. come from the soil. 153. The ash is a small part of the total weight of
In a corn plant of the roasting -ear stage, the ash (what remains after ordinary burning) is about 1 per
the plant.

cent of the total substance.

154.

Water

is

the

most abundant

single constituent

or substance of plants.

In the corn plant of the roasting-

WATER

IN

THE PLANT
is

73
water.

ear stage, about 80 per cent of the substance

Fresh wood of the apple contains about 45 per cent of water. The plant secures its water from the soil.
fresh turnip
is

over 90 per cent water.

Review. What
from?
their

is pi ant- food ? Describe the feeding root.

Where does some

of

it

come
is

Describe root-hairs.

What

does the root-hair differ from the rootlet ? What is osmosis? Describe the experiment. How does the soil water get into the root-hair? For how long does this absorption continue? Under what conditions may the root-hair lose its sap? In what condifunction?
tion
if

How

must the

soil

water be in order to be absorbed

What may result

the food solutions are too strong?

Has

this fact
is

plant-grower?
soil

What

is

root-pressure?

How

when

it is

live in

dry soil?

what

effect

most valuable to the plant? Why do roots need air? How do they get it? Describe a cold soil has on roots. How do roots secure the plant-

to the the water held in the How are plants able to

any interest

food in the soil particles? What elements are necessary to plants? In what forms must these elements be in order to be absorbed by the roots? About what percentage of the whole substance is ash ? What
is

the most abundant constituent in plants?

Whence does

it

come?

under a lens, to see the odd and miscellaneous particles of which it is composed. Not all kinds of plants exhibit strong root -pressure. The grape vine is a good subject to show it. If pot plants are used, choose a well-rooted one with a straight stem. Coleus, begonia and Impatiens Sultani are good subjects. These can be had at greenhouses.
soil

Note.

Examine

Koot eicretions

may

etch a marble svirfaca.

CHAPTER

XII

THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

155.

but two sources from tvhich

soil.

SOURCES OF FOOD. The ordinary green plant has to obtain food, the air and the

When

a plant

is

water passes off:

matter.
If the

this
is

thoroughly dried in an oven, the water came from, the soil (154).
called the
is

dry substance or dryburned in an ordinary fire, only the ash remains: this ash came from the soil (152). The part which passed off as gas in the burning contained the elements which came from the air: it also contained some of those which came from the soil all those (as nitrogen, hydrogen, chlorine) which are transformed into gases by the heat of a common fire. 156. CARBON. Carbon enters abundantly into the composition of all plants. Note what happens when a plant is burned without free access of air, or smothered, as in a charcoal pit. A mass of charcoal remains, almost as large
dry matter

The remaining part

as the body of the plant.

Charcoal

is

almost pure carbon,

the ash present being so small in proportion to the large

amount
purity.
is

of

carbon that we look on the ash as an imHalf or more of the dry substance of a tree

carbon.

When

the tree

is

charred (or incompletely

burned), the carbon remains in the form of charcoal.

The

carbon goes off as a gas when the plant is burned in air. It does not go off alone, but in combination with oxygen, and in the form called carbon cUoxid gas, COj. 157. The green plant secures its carbon from the air.
In other words,

much

of

the solid matter of

the plant
fliorid

comes from one of the gases.

(74)

By volume

carbon

CHLOROPHYLL

75

forms only about three -hundredths of 1 j)er cent of the air. It would be very disastrous to animal life, however, if this percentage were much increased, for it excludes the lifeCarbon dioxid is often called "foul -gas." giving oxygen. It may accumulate in old wells, and an experienced person will not descend into such wells until they have been tested with a torch. If the air in the well will not support combustion, that
is,

if

the

torch

is

extinguished,

it

usually

means that carbon dioxid has drained into the place. The air of a closed school -room often contains far too much
of this gas along with little solid particles of waste matters.

Carbon dioxid
158.

is

often

known

as carbonic acid gas.

APPROPRIATION OF THE CARBOff. The carbon dioxid of the air readily diffuses into the leaves and other green parts of the plant. The leaf is delicate in texture, and often the air can enter directly into the leaf tissues.
however, special inlets provided for the admisand other green parts. These inlets consist of numerous pores (stomates or stomata), ivhich are esj^ecially abundant on the under surface of

There

are,

sion of gases into the leaves

the leaf. The apple leaf contains about one hundred thousand of these pores to each square inch of the under surface. Through these breathing pores the outside air

enters into the air-spaces of the plant,

little cells

and

finally into the

containing the living matter.

In Part III these

breathing pores will be studied.

159.

CHLOROPHYLL. TAe green

color of leaves

is

due

to

Purchase at the drug store about a gill of wood alcohol. Secure a leaf of geranium, clover, or other plant which has been exposed to sunlight for a few hours and, after dipping it for a minute in boiling water, put it in a white cup with sufficient alcohol to cover the leaf. Place the cup on the stove where it is not hot enough for the alcohol to take fiie.
a substance called chlorophyll.

After

ft

time the chlorophyll

is

dissolved by the alcohol,

76

THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

this
leaf

a future experiment.
160. In

which has become an intense green. Save Without chlorophyll,

for

the jAant can

not appropriate the carbon dioxid of the air.

most plants this chlorophyll or leaf -green throughout the green tissues in little oval bodies, and these bodies are most abundant near the upper surface of the leaf, where they can secure the greatest amount of light. Without this green coloring matter, there would be no reason for the large flat surfaces which the leaves possess, and no reason for the fact that the leaves are borne most abundantly at the ends of branches, where the light is most available. Plants with colored leaves, as coleus, have chlorophyll, but it is masked by other coloris

scattered

ing matter.
in hot water:

This other coloring matter

boil a coleus leaf

is

usually soluble
it

and notice that

becomes

green and the water becomes colored.

161. Plants groivn in darkness are yellow and slender, and do not reach inaturity. Compare the potato sprouts which have grown from a tuber lying in the dark cellar with those which have grown normally in the bright light (Fig. 42). The shoots have reached out for that which and when the food which is stored in they cannot find the tuber is exhausted, these shoots will have lived useless lives. A plant which has been grown in darkness from the
;

seed will soon die, although for a time the

will

little

seedling

and slender. Light favors the production of chlorophyll Sometimes chlorophyll is found in buds and seeds, but it is probable that these places are not
tall
.

grow very

perfectly dark.
phyll, or

Notice

how

potato tubers develop chloro-

become green, when exposed to light. 162. PHOTOSYNTHESIS. Carbon dioxid is absorbed by the leaf during sunlight, and oxygen is given off. We have seen (157) that carbon dioxid will not support animal life. Experiments have shown that carbon dioxid is absorbed and that oxygen is given off by all green surfaces

STARCH

77

How the carof -plants during the hours of sunlight. bon dioxid which is thus absorbed may be used as food
is

a complex question, and need not be studied here.

163.

Chlorophyll absorbs the energy oj

is

t/ie

sun's rays, and

used by the living matter in uniting the carbon dioxid absorbed from the air with some of the
the energy thus obtained

brought up by compounds are united

ivater

the roots.
is

The process by ivhich

all

these

a complex one, but the ultimate result

starch. No one knows and our first definite knowledge of the product be-

usually

is

the details of this

process
gins

when

starch

is

deposited

in the leaves.

The process of

using the
the air

carbon dioxid of

has been

known

as

carbon -assimilation, but the term now most used is photosynthesis (from Greek words, meaning light and to put together)
.

STARCH. All starch composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (C6H10O5).

164.
is

The sugars and the woody

substances are very similar to
it

in composition.

All these

substances are called carbo-

In making this the carbon and oxygen of carbon dioxid and To show the escape of from the hydrogen and oxygen oxygen. of the water, there is a surplus of oxygen. It is this oxygen which is given off into the air. To test the giving off of oxygen by day, make the experiment illustrated in Fig. Ill, Under a funnel in a
hydrates.
starch from

78

THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

tVesli

deep gluNS jar containing

place fresh pieces of

the

common

spring or stream waterwater -weed elodea (or

anacharis).
nel.

Invert a test tube over the stem of the fun-

In sunlight bu})bles of oxygen will arise and collect

When a sufficient quantity of oxygen has collected, a lighted taper inserted in the tube will elow with a brighter flame, showing
in the test tube.
^1'''

^
,

^i'.ljlK^

the presence of oxygen.

sim-

^B^E^StBjii^'

pier but less accurate experiment

is

c:^^^^^^^^

-^H^hH^^ |BB^^..

^^'^ter

immerse an active leaf of a plant, and to observe the bubbles which arise. From a
^^

^^HjP^"'
"~^
-

JHmm-

leaf in sunlight the

bubbles often

^^Kf ^^K" ^^^^^^^^^^^^'

^"

arise in great

one
112.
|,g

in

numbers; but from shadow, the bubbles usuFig.

of the bubblcs
^

^
that a leaf

'

ally are comparatively few.

U2.

To show

may

Somc
^^^

may
if

give off oxygea.

^j^jy

particularly

marked changes in temperature occur. Observe the bubbles on pond scum and water weeds on a bright day.
165. Starch is present in the green lecwes of plants which
to sunlight; tut in the dark no starch can Apply iodine to the leaf be formed from carbon dioxid. from which the chlorophyll was dissolved in a previous experiment (159). Note that the leaf is colored purplish brown throughout. The leaf contains starch (75). Secure a leaf from a plant which has been in the darkness for about two days. Dissolve the chlorophyll as before, and attempt to stain this leaf with iodine. No purplish brown color is produced. 166. The starch manufactured in the leaf may he entirely removed during darkness. Secure a plant which has been Split kept in darkness for twenty -four hours or more. a small cork and pin the two halves on opposite sides of one of the leaves, as shown in Fig. 113. Place the plant

have been exposed

DIGESTION
in

79

the sunlight again.

After a niorning of bright sunin this

leaf with

shine

dissolve the chlorophyll

alcohol;

then stain the leaf with the iodine.

is

Notice that the leaf

stained

deeply

in

all

parts except in that part

over which the cork was

placed,

as

in

Fig.

114.

There

is

no starch in the
or

covered area.
167. Plants

parts

of plants which have developed no chlorophyll can

form no starch.
a variegated
leaf

Secure
of
co113.

Excluding light
leaf.
114.

leu s, ribbon grass, gera-

from part of a

The

result.

nium, or of any plant showing both white and green areas. On a day of bright sunshine test one of these leaves by the alcohol and iodine method for the presence of starch. Observe that the parts devoid of green color have formed no starch. However, after starch has once been formed in the leaves, it may be changed into soluble substances and removed to be again converted into
starch in other parts of the living tissues.
168. DIGESTION.
ules.

Starch

is

in the

Whenever the material

to

is carried

form of insoluble granfrom one part of the

plant

made

soluble

another for purposes of groivth or storage, it is When this before it can be transported.
is

starchy material

transferred from place to place,

it

is

usually changed into sugar by the action of

a ferment.

This

is

a process of digestion.

of starchy foods to sugary foods

169

much like the change by the saliva. DISTRIBUTION OF THE DIGESTED FOOD. After being
It is

changed
roots.

to the soluble

form, this material

is

ready
then

to

be

used in growth, either in the leaf, in the stem, or in the

With other

luore

complex products

it

is

r^'--

80

THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

all

tributed throughout

of the

and when passing down

nite bark.

to the root

growing parts of the plant it seems to pass more

readily through the inner bark, in plants which have a defi-

This gradual downward diffusion of materials

is

suitable for growth through the inner bark

the process

Starch one growing season If a tree is to be used in the next season (Chapter VI). constricted or strangled by a wire around its trunk, the digested food cannot readily pass down and it is stored above the girdle, causing an enlargement.
referred to the "descent of sap"
is

when

mentioned.

and other products are often stored

in

170. ASSIMILATION. T/ie food from the air and that from the soil unite in the living tissues (see photosynThe sap that passes upwards from the thesis, 162, 163). roots in the growing season is made up largely of the soilwater and the salts which have been absorbed in the diluted solutions. This upward-moving water is conducted largely through certain tubular cells of the yoiDuj wood. These cells are never continuous tubes from root to leaf; but the water passes readily from one cell to another in its upward course.
171.

growing

The upward-moving water gradually- passes to tlie parts, and everywhere in the living tissues, parit

ticularly in the leaves,

meets the products of assimilation

influence of the living

from

the leafy parts.

Under the

matter of the plant, this product from the leaves first forms combinations with the nitrogen. A substance more complex than sugar is then formed, and gradually com-

pounds are formed tvhich contain sulfur, j^^iosphorus, jwtassium, and other elements, until finally protoplasm is manufactured. Protoplasm is the living matter in plants. It is in the cells, and is usually semi-fluid. Starch is not living matter. The complex process of building up the protoplasm is called assimilation. 172. RESPIRATION. Plants need oxygen for respiration just as animals do. We have seen that plants need the

RESPIKATION
carbon dioxid of the
the air
is

81

inert,

To most plants the nitrogen of air. and serves only to dilute the other ele-

ments; but the oxygen is necessary for all life. We know that all animals need this oxygen in order to breathe or In fact, they have become accustomed to it in respire.
just the proportions

found

in the air;

and

this is

now

best

for them.

When

animals breathe the air once they make

it foul, because they use some of the oxygen and give off Likewise, all living parts of the plant carbon dioxid. must have a constant supply of oxygen. Roots also need

it

(148).
173.

The oxygen passes

into the air-spaces

and into the

protoplasm, entering into combinations the final products of

which are carbon dioxid and water.

equal in bulk to the tissues (Fig. 115)
as animals do.

The air-spaces may be As a result of the use

.

of this oxygen alone at night, plants give off carbon dioxid

Plants respire; but since they are stationdo not

ary, and more or less

inactive, they

need as much oxygen

as animals, and they

do not give off so much carbon dioxid. During the

use
so

day plants

much more
^^^'
"^

'OXVffen
_

carbon dioxid than that thev are

,

said to purify the air.

^^^'''" "^ ^ l^at, showing llie air-spaces. Breatliing pore or stoma at a. The palisade cells -which chiefly contain the chlorophyll are at 6. Epider-

The carbon dioxid which plants give off

son with that given
in a sleeping

^^i eUs

at

c.

at night

is

very slight in compari-

of

so that a few plants room need not disturb one more than a family mice. Plants usually grow most rapidly in darkness. 174. TRANSPIRATION. We have found that the plant
off

by animals;

takes

its

food

from the

soil

in

very dilute solutions.

82

THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

is

Much more water

absorbed by the roots than

is

used ia

growth, and this surplus icater is given off from the leaves into the atmosphere by an evaporation process known as
transpiration.

The transpiration takes

place

more abun-

dantly from the under surfaces of leaves, and througrh the It has been found that a sunflower pores or stomates.
plant of the height of a man. during an active period of

^^^^^1^^^

TRANSPIRATION
mist soon accumulates on the inside of the glass.

83
In time
as

drops of water form.

The experiment may be varied

shown
care to

in Fig. 116.

Or

invert the fruit-jar over an entire

plant, as

shown

in Fig. 117, taking

soil with oiled paper or rubber cloth to prevent Even evaporation from the soil. in winter moisture is given off by

cover the

leafless twigs.

Cut a twig,

seal the

severed end with wax, and allow

the
shrivels.

twig to lie several days: it There must he some upin

else

ward movement of water even

winter,

plants

would shrivel

and

die.

175.

When
that

the roots fail to supTo

illustrate transpiratioji.

ply to the plant sufficient water to

equalize
leaves,

transpired

by

the

the plant wilts.

delicate shoots is

Transpiration from the leaves and increased by all of the conditions which

would increase evaporation, such as higher temperature, dry

air or wind.

they open

The breathing pores are so constructed that and close with the varying conditions of the atmosphere, and thereby regulate transpiration. However, during periods of drought or of very hot weather, and
especially during a hot wind, the closing of these stomates

cannot sufficiently prevent evaporation.

very active and yet
fail to

The

roots

may

be

absorb sufficient moisture to

leaves.

equalize that given off

by the

The plant

wilts.

Any

injury to the roots or even chilling them (149)

may
the
fol-

cause the plant to wilt.

On

a hot, dry day note

how

leaves of corn "roll" towards

afternoon.

Early the

lowing morning note

leaves appear.

(146).

and vigorous the same up by root-pressure Some of the dew on the grass in the morning
fresh

how
is

Water

also forced

84

THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

the water forced

may be
176.

up by the
is

roots;

some of

it

is

the condensed vapor of the air.

The uHlting of a plant

cells.

due
are

to the

loss of water

from the

The

cell

walls

soft,

and
it

collapse.
inflated

toy balloon will

not stand alone until

is

with air or liquid. In the woody parts of the plant the cell walls may be stiff enough to support themselves, even though the cell is empty. Measure the contraction due to
wilting and drying by tracing a fresh leaf, and then trac-

ing the same leaf after

it

has been dried between papers.

The

softer the leaf, the greater will be the contraction.

Eeview.

Whence comes the food of plants?

What
is

What

is

meant by

the dry substance?

charcoal?

How

is it

obtained?
of
it

How

much

of the dry substance is carbon?

What becomes

is burned in air? Whence conies the carbon? carbon dioxid? How abundant is it in the air? How does the CO2 get into the leaf? What is chlorophyll? What function has it? Where are the chlorophyll bodies located? What relation has light to chlorophyll? When is CO2 absorbed? What is formed after CO2 is taken in? Define photosynthesis. What is starch? What is given off when starch is made by photosynthesis? In what part of the plant is starch first made? When? What are carbohydrates ? What is digestion of starch? How is the digested food distributed? Explain assimilation. What is the product of assimilation? Explain

the plant

when What is

respiration.

When

are

and CO2 given

off?

Define transpiration.

Why

do plants wilt?

All egg-sheil

farm for the

pupil's desK.

CHAPTER

XIII

DEPENDENT PLANTS
DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT PLANTS. Plants They collect the raw materials and make them over into assimilable food. They are independent. Plants without green foliage cannot make food: they must have it made for them or they die. They are dependent.
177.

with roots and foliage usually depend on themselves.

The potato sprout (Fig. 42) cannot and elaborate carbon dioxid. It lives on the food stored in the
collect

tuber.
178.

All plants

with

natumlhj

white or blanched parts are dependent.

Their leaves do not develop.

live

They

on organic matter that which has been made by a plant or an animal. The Indian pipe, aphyllon
(Fig.

118),

beech

drop, coral

root

(Fig. 119)
plants,

among

flower -producing

also mushrooms and other fungi (Figs. 120, 121) are examples. 179.

PARASITES AND SAPROPHYTES

is

plant which

dependent on a
is

living plant or animal

a parasite,

and the plant or animal on which it lives is the host. The dodder is a true parasite. So are the rusts and mildews which attack leaves and shoots and injure them.
(85)

118.

parasite,

growing in
It ii

woods. Aphyllon.
in bloom.

86
180.

DEPENDENT PLANTS
The threads
of the parasitic fungus usually creep
in

through the intercellular spaces

(Fig. 122).

the leaf or stem and

cells

send suckers (or haustoria) into the

These threads (or hyphse)

often

clog the breathing spaces of

the leaf and

plug the
the

stomata, and they also appropriate

cell

and
:

disorganize

fluids

thus they injure

or kill their host.

The mass
is

of hyphae of a fungus

called
0.

mycelium.
hypha? finally

Some

A mushroom, exama

of

the
of

grow out

ple of plant.

saprophytic

the leaf and produce spores or reproductive cells

which answer the purpose of seeds

ting the plant (b, Fig. 122).
181.

in distribu-

A
is

plant which lives on dead or decaying

a

matter
amples:
the

saprophyte.

Mushrooms

are ex-

they live on the decaying matter in

soil.

example.

Mould on bread and cheese is an Lay a piece of moist bread on a plate

and invert a tumbler over it. In a few days it The spores were in the air, or will be mouldy. perhaps they had already fallen on the bread Most but had not had opportunity to grow.
plants
are

able to

make

use of the

humus

or

vegetable mould in the

182.

soil,

and

to that extent

might be called saprophytic.

Some

parasites spring from

the

ground
on
the

(Figs.

118,

119),

as

other plants do, but they are parasitic

roots

of

their

hosts.

Some
119.

parasites

may

be

partially

parasitic
CoraUorhiza or coral-root, showing the mycorrhiias.
\'

and

Many

(pcrhaps most) of these root-

partially saprophytic. '^ \ T

PARASITES

AND SAPROPHYTES

87

saprophytes are aided iu securing their food by soil fungi, which spread their delicate threads over the root -like

branches of the plant and act as intermediaries beThe roots of the tween the food and the saprophyte. coral -root (Fig. 119) are covered with this fungus, and the roots have practically lost the power of absorbing

These fungous-covered roots are known as mycorrhizas (meaning ''fungus root")- Mycorrhizas are They are found on many not peculiar to saprophytes. wholly independent plants as, for example, the heaths, oaks, apples, and pines. It is probable that the fungous threads perform some of the offices of root -hairs to the host. On the other hand, the fungus obtains some nourThe association seems to be ishment from the host.
food direct. mutual.
183. Saprophytes

break down or decompose organic

as

substances.

Chief of these saprophytes are the microscopic

organisms

known

bacteria (Fig. 123). These innumerable

bodies are immersed in

water or
food

iu

animal and
entire

plant juices, and absorb

over* their surface.

By breaking

down organic combinations, they jJroduce decay.

Largely
agency,

through their and that of

but
micro-

121.

many

true

Saprophytic fungus. One of tlie shelf fungi (Polyporus) growing on dead trunks and logs.

scopic fungi, all things pass into soil and gas.

the bodies of

plants
life

Thus are and animals removed and the conis

tinuing round of
184.

maintained.

Some parasites are green- leaved. Such is the mistletoe. They anchor themselves on the host and

88

DEPENDENT PLANTS

absorb its juices, but they also appropriate and use the In some groups of colored carbon dioxid of the air.
bacteria the process of

photosynthesis,
to
it,

or

something
185.

equivalent

takes

place.

Parasitism
as

and
of

saprophytism

are

usually
is,

regarded
a loss
of

as degeneration,

independence. plants might Thus, the have been independent. whole class of fungi is looked upon as The more a a degenerate evolution.
that

The ancestors

these

plant

depends
it

on
still

other

plants,
to

the
its

more
,
122.

tends

further

lose

parasitic fungus,

.^.

independence.
^gG.

EPIPHYTES. To be distiu from the dependent plants are plants withgrow ou othcr ^ thosc which = haustoria projecting These are q^^ taking " food from them. into the cells, are also green -leaved plants whose roots burrow fi^ti^"' arts*'of^'thf hdiV^ of the host plant and perMdCT%^ffel^*o? the ^^ *^ leafhaps derive some food from it, but which subsist chiefly on materials which they secure from airThese plants are epiphytes dust, rain-water and the air. (meaning "upon plants") or air-plants. Orchids are 187. Epiphytes abound in the tropics. amongst the best known examples (Fig. & ^o<i The Spanish moss or tillandsia of the 13). Mosses and lichens &^^ oT South is another. '^^ which grow on trees and fences may also be
shaded ^parts ramifying in the leaf tissue. The rounded
dotted^-

magnifled. The mycelium, or vegetative

g^^ishcd

^^

called epiphytes.

In the struggle for exis-

123.

Bacteria,

much

tence, the plants probably have been driven

to

magnified.

these

special

grow.
will.

Plants

places in which to find opportunity to grow where they must, not where they

REVIEW ON DEPENDENT PLANTS

Review.
examples.
looks?

89

What
How

is

an independent plant?

are dependent plants distinguished

Dependent? Give from others in

Saprophyte. Give examples. What is a does a parasitic fungus live on its host? What are hyphse? What are root-parasites? What is mycelium? Give examples. What is a mycorrhiza? What is the relation of the soil fungus to its host? What is the role or office of saprophytes in nature? Are parasites ever green ? Explain. What has probably
Define parasite.
host?

How

been the evolution of most parasites and saprophytes? What is an How do they live? Why may they epiphyte? Give examples. have become epiphytes? Note Usually, the most available parasite is the dodder. It is common in swales from July until autumn, winding its coralyellow stems about herbs and soft-growing bushes. It is a degraded member of the morning-glory family. It produces true flowers and seeds. These seeds germinate the following spring. The slender young vine grows from the ground for a time, but if it fails to find a

host, it perishes.

The

cultivated

mushroom, a saprophytic

plant.

CHAPTER XIV
LEAVES AND FOLIAGE
188.

Leaves

may
to

be studied from two points of view

their
to

with
kinds.

reference

function,

or

what they do

and with reference

their

form, or their shapes and

189. FUNCTION. Leaves, as we have seen, make organic matters from carbon dioxid and water; they respire,

throwing
starch,

off

carbon dioxid as waste;

it

they

digest

the

that

may

be

transported;

and they perform

digestion) are

other vital activities.

Functions which require both lungs

and stomach performed by

in

animals (respiration and

leaves;

and

in addition to these functions,

they appropriate the carbon of the air (process of photoAny part synthesis), a work which is peculiar to plants.
of the plant, however,

may

bear chlorophyll and perform

of
leaves.

the functions

Even

aerial

sometimes green. 190, The general form and structure of leaves is intimately associated with their function they are thin and muchexpanded bodies, thereby exposing the
roots, as of orchids, are
:

greatest possible surface to light and

air.

The

position of the leaves usually

has relation to light, as we have seen (Chapter VIII). Leaves usually hang
in

shade
124.

such a way that one casts the least those die and on the other
;

Simple leaf. One of the eupatoriums or boneseU.

f^n which havc the Icast favorable po.

.

SltlOnS.
(90)

FORM OF LEAVES
191.

91

FORM. Leaves are simple or unbraiiched (Fig. The aud compound or branched (Fig. 125). method of compounding or branching follows the style of veining. The veining, or venation, is of two general kinds: in most plants the main veins diverge, and there is a conspicuous network
124),
of smaller veins: such

leaves

are

netted-

veined.
plants the

In other main veins

is

are parallel, or nearh'

so,
125.

and there

no

Compound or branched
(which
is

leaf of brake

conspicuous network

veined leaves (Fig. 136).

leaves
is

these are parallelThe venation of netted-veined pinnate or feather -like, when the veins arise from
palmate or

a fern).

the side of a continuous midrib (Fig. 124);

digitate

(hand-like),
the

when
it

the veins arise from the apex

If

of the petiole (Fig. 126).

the leaf were divided be-

tween
be

main
or

veins,

would
coui-

pinnately
192. It

digitately

pound.
is

customary

to

speak

of a leaf
the

as

compound only when

are
as

parts

or branches
blades,

com-

pletely

separate

when
126.

the division extends to the midrib

(Figs. 125, 127, 128).

The parts
as
leaf-

Digitate-veined peltate leaf

or branches
lets.

are

known

^^^

^ '^'

Sometimes the
is

leaflets

themselves are compound, and

the whole leaf

then said to be hi- compound or twice-

compound (Fig. 125). Some leaves are three-compound, four - compound, or five compound. Decompound is a
-


92

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

general term to express any degree of compounding be-

yond twice -compound. 193. Leaves which are not divided

said to be
:

to the midrib are

lobed, openings or sinuses

not more than half the

depth
cleft,

of

the

blade

(Fig. 129).

sinuses deeper than

the middle.
parted, sinuses two-thirds
or

more

to the midrib

Pinnately compouud leaf of ash.

(Fig. 130).

divided, sinuses nearly or quite to the midrib.

The parts
than
leafleis.

are called lohes, divisions, or segments, rather

The

leaf

may

be pinnately or digitately
cleft,

lobed, parted,

or

divided.
is

A
or

pin-

nately

parted

or

cleft leaf

sometimes
all

said to be pinnatifid.

194. Leaves

may have one

of

three parts
iole

blade or expanded part, petstipules or appendages at

or

stalk,

the base of are

all

the petiole.
in Fig. 131.

All these parts

shown
three
is

leaf

which has

of

these

parts
128.

said to be

complete.
Digitately leaf of rasp berry.

The
often

pound

stipules

are

green and leaf- like and perform the function of foliage, as in the pea and Japanese quince
(the latter

common
and

in yards).

leaflets which have no stalks are said to be ses-

195. Leaves

sile (Fig. 137), i.e., sitting.

The

129.

Lobed

leaf of sugar maple,

FOKM OF LEAVES
same
leaf
is

93
of a sessile

said of flowers

and

fruits.

The blade

may

partly or whollj^ surround the stem,

when

it

is

said to be

clasping (Fig.

In some cases the runs down the stem, such forming a wing
132).
leaf
:

leaves are said

to
.

be de-

current (Fig. 133)

When

opposite sessile leaves are

joined by their bases, they

are
said
to

be

connate

(Fig. 134).
196. Leaflets

may have
130.

one or

all

of

these three

Digit ately parted leaves of begoi:

parts, but the stalks of leaflets are called petiolules

and

the stipules of leaflets are called stipels.

The

leaf of the

garden bean has

and stipels. The blade is usually attached to In pinnate the petiole by its lower edge.
leaflets, petiolules,

197.

veined leaves, the petiole seems to continue through the leaf as a midrib (Fig. 124).

In some plants, however, the petiole joins the blade inside

or beyond the margin (Figs.
126,

135).

Such leaves are

said to be peltate or shield

shaped. This

mode

of attach-

ment
131.

is

particularly

common
the

in floating leaves (e. g.,

Complete leaves
of willow.
132.

Clasping leaf wi aster.

water Hlics)
^^,^

Pcltatc leaves

usuall}^ digitate- vcincd.

and leaflets are infinitely variable in shape. Names have been given to some of the more definite or regular shapes. These names are a part of the language of botany. These names represent ideal or typi198. SHAPE.

Leaves

94
cal

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

shapes, but there are no two leaves alike and very
perfectly

few which

conform

to

the

definitions.

The

shapes are likened to those of familiar objects or of geometrical figures. Some of the commoner shapes are as
follows
:

Linear, several times longer than broad, with the sides \nearl3^ or quite parallel. Spruces and most grasses are examples. Fig. 136. In linear leaves, the main veins are usually parallel to the midrib.

Oblong, twice or thrice as long as broad, with the sides parallel for most of their length. Fig. 137 shows the short- oblong leaves of the box, a plant which is much used for edgings in gardens.

Elliptic differs

from the oblong

in

having the sides gradn-

tapering to either end from the middle. The EuVally ropean beech. Fig. 138, has elliptic leaves. (This tree
is

often planted.)

Lanceolate, four to six times longer than broad, widest below the middle and tapering to each end. Some of the narrow -leaved willows are examples. Most of the willows and the peach have oblong-lanceolate

\
^ ^ ^

leaves.

Spatulate, a narrow leaf which is broadest towards the The top is usually rounded. It is much like

Vapex.

an oblong

leaf.

Ovate, shaped somewhat like the longitudinal section of an egg: twice as long as broad, tapering from near the base to the apex. This is one of the commonest leaf forms. Fig. 139.

Obovate, ovate inverted,

^^

the wide part towards the apex. Leaflets of horse-chestnut are obovate. This form is commonest in leaflets of digitate leaves.

Reniform, kidney -shaped.

This form

is

^^ wild ^W wild
^^

particularly in root -leaves. ginger are nearly reniform.

plants,

sometimes seen in Leaves of

Orbicular, circular in general outline. Very few leaves are perfectly circular, but there are many which are nearer ^tl circular than any other shape. Fig. 140.

SHAPE OF LEAVES
The shape
of

95

many

leaves

is

described in combinations

of these terms, as ovate -lanceolate, lanceolate-oblong.

199. The shape of the base and apex of the leaf or leaflet The is often characteristic. base may be rounded (Fig.

124), tapering (Fig. 127), cor-

date or heart-shaped (Fig. 139),

truncate or squared as
off.

if

cut

The apex may be blunt or obtuse, acute or sharp, acuminate or long -pointed, truncate
(Fig. 141).

200
gin gin
is is

also characteristic of each

The shape of the markind of leaf. The mar-

entire

when

it

is

not indented or cut in any

it

way

(Fig. 137).

When

not entire,

may

be undulate or wavy

(Fig. 126), serrate or saw -toothed (Fig. 139), dentate or more coarsely notched (Fig. crenate or round 124),

toothed, lobed, etc.

201.

Leaves

often

differ

greatly in form on the

plant.

same
differ-

Observe

the

leaves on the young growths of mulberries and wild grapes also on vigorous squash and pumpkin vines. In some cases there may be simple and compound 134. Two pairs of connate leaves of honeysuckle. leaves on the same plant. This is marked in the so-called Boston ivy or ampelopsis (Fig. 142), a vine which is used to cover brick and stone buildings. Different degrees of compounding, even in the same leaf, may often be found in honey locust and

ent shapes of

96
Kentucky
able

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

coffee tree.
in

Remarkforms are

differences

seen by comparing seed-leaves

with mature leaves of any plant

(Fig. 143).

ITS

THE LEAF AND ENVIRONMENT. The form and shape

202.

of the leaf often have

direct

l.i:>.

I'ult.ite

relation to the

ka\eb ot ho-cilled Egyptian lotus.

place in
are

Floating leaves leaf grows. expanded and flat, and the petiole varies in length with the depth of the water.
usualli/

which the

Submerged

leaves are usually linear or thread- lil-e,

or are cut into very narrow divisions.

Thereby

is

more surface exposed, and possibly the leaves are less injured by moving water. 203. The largest leaves on a sun -loving plant
are usually those which are fulhj exposed to light.

Compare

the sizes of the leaves on the ends of

branches with those at the base of the branches

or in the interior of the
tree -top.
,

\ //c

In dense

foli-

f^

age masses, the petioles

136.

Linear-

of

the

lowermost

or

^^^^^

acuminate leaf of
^'^^^'

undermost leaves tend to elongate to push the

:>

leaf to the light

(Fig. 144).

204.

On

the approach of winceases to work,

It

ter the leaf

and
it
^^t.

^^^^ V
Short-obiong leaves of box.

often dies.
is

may

drop,
;

when
or
it

said to be
it

deciduous

may remain on
is

the plant,

when

is

said to be persistent.

If persistent leaves re-

main green during the winter, the plant

said

to

be

FALLING OF THE LEAF

evergreen.

97

Most leaves fall by breaking off at the lower end of the petiole with a distinct joint or articulation. There are many leaves, however, which wither and hang

138.

Elliptic

leaf

Ovate serrate
cf hibiscus.

leaf
140.

of purple beech.

Orbicular lobed leaves.

on the plant nntil torn

off

by the wind
lilies,

of snch are the

leaves of grasses, sedges,

and other plants known as monocotyledons (Chap. XXIII). Most leaves

orchids,

of this character are parallel -veined.

205. Leaves also die and fall

Consult 439.
light.

from lack of

Ob-

serve the yellow

and weak leaves

in a dense tree -top or in

any thicket. Why do the lower leaves die on house-plants? Note the carpet of needles under the pines. All evergreens shed their leaves after a time.

Counting back from the

years the
leaves

tip of a pine

or spruce shoot, determine

how many
145).

persist (Fig.

In some spruces a few leaves

may

be

found on branches ten or more years old. Leaves usually persist longest
in the lightest positions (Fig. 77).
^^^-

Tmucate leaf

of tulip-tree

Although the forms and positions of leaves often have direct relation to the places and conditions in which
206.

98
the leaves grow,

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

is

not known that all forms and shapes

have been developed

to

adapt the plant

It
is

to its

environment.
that

probable

the

toothing or lobing of the

leaf -margins is

due to the

same causes which produce compounding or branching of leaves, but what these causes are is not known.
It

has been suggested that

leaves have

become com-

pound
their

in order to increase

surface and thereby

to offer a greater exposure to

li2.

light

in

shady places,

Different forms of leaves from one plant of ampelopsis.

but very
SpCCicS
species

many sun -loving

liaVC

COmpOUnd

leaves,

have simple and even small leaves. Again, it has been suggested that compound leaves shade underlying leaves less than simple
leaves do.

and many shade-loving

207.

HOW TO TELL A LEAF. It

is

often difficult to dis-

compound from leaves. As a

tinguish

leaves from leafy branches and leaflets

rule, leaves can be told by the followLeaves are temporary structures, sooner or later falli-g (2) Usually buds are borne in their axils. (3) Leaves are usually borne at joints or nodes. (4) They arise on

ing tests-

(1)

wood

of the current-year's

143.

Muskmelon

seedlings, with the un-

like seed-leaves and true leaves. growth. (5) They have a more or less definite arrangement. When leaves fall, the twig which bore them remains; when leaflets fall; the main petiole which bore them falls also.

144.

leaf

mosaic of Norway maple.

lengths of petioles.

Note the

Shoot of the

common

white pine, one-third natural

size.

The PiPture shows the falling of the leaves from the different years growth, rho part of the liranch between the tip and A is the last season s growtli between A and B it is two years old the part Detween B and C is three years old; it has few leaves. The part that grew four seasons ago beyond C has no leaves.
;

100

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

?

Review. How m:iy leaves be studied

timi
?

"Whiit

do leaves do?

What

other parts
is

What is meant by funemay perform the function

?

of leaves?

How
?

form of leaves associated with

are simple leaves

their function

What

Com-

pound?

What

is

venation?

What

are the types or

kinds of venation?

What
is

are the two types of

a leaflet?

compound leaves? What compound decompound.

;

Define bi-

What

are lobed, cleft,

?

parted, and divided leaves?

plete leaf?

Pinnatifid leaf

Com-

Complete

leaflet?

What

is

a sessile

leaf?

How may

the petiole join the blade?

How
De-

are the shapes of leaves

fine the

named

or classified?

shapes described in 198. Describe com14G. Oblique leaf of mon sliapes of the base of the leaf. Of the apex. the elm. Of the margin. How are the forms and sizes of leaves ever related to the place in which they grow? Why do leaves fall ? Define deciduous. Evergreen. When do pine Persistent.
leaves fall
Fig. 14n.
?

How

cnn you distinguish leaves?

Describe the leaf in

luae bushes in

January and July. Framework and

foliage.

CHAPTER XV
MORPHOLOGY, OR THE STUDY OF THE FORMS OF PLANT MEMBERS
208. Botanists interpret all parts of the plant in terms
of root, stem,

and

leaf.

That

is,

the various parts, as

thorns, flowers, fruits, bud-scales, tendrils,

and abnormal

or unusual members, are supposed to represent or to stand

in the place of roots,

stems (branches), or leaves.

(1)

209.

The forms

of the parts of plants are interesting,

therefore, in three ways:

merely as forms, which

may

named and described; (2) their relation to function, or how they enable Uie part better to live and work; (3) their origin, as to how they came to be and whether they have been produced by the transformation of other parts. The whole study of forms is known as morphology (literally,
be
the "science of forms"). the study of morphology.
210. It
is

We may

consider examples in

customary

to say that the various parts of

plants are transformed or modified root, stem, or leaf, but

the words transformation

and modification are not used

p,s

in

the literal sense.

Itismeant that the given part may occupy the place of or represent a leaf.
a
leaf,it

a tendril,
It

was not

first

a leaf and then a tendril: the part develops into a ten-

dril instead of into

stands where a leaf normally

might have stooa;

211. It
is

it is

the historical descendant of the leaf.

which have similar from the same fundamental type, or which are of close genealogical relationship, are homologous. Thus the tendril, in the instance assumed above is homologous with & leaf. Parts which have similar funcbetter to say that parts
arise

origins,

which

(101)

102

MOKPHOLOGY

tious or perform siiDilar labor, without respect to origins,

are

analogous.

Thus a

leaf -tendril

is

analogous to a

branch -tendril
logons.

but the two are

not

homo-

212. There are five tests

we may hope
is

to determine
:

by means of which what a given part by the appearance or

reli-

looks of the part (the least

able test)
;

(2)

by the position

of the part with relation to other

its place on the plant by comparison with similar 147. Leaf and clad Leaves of plants (comparaophyllaofaspar parts on other asparagus. agus. tive morphology) (4) by study of (^"3) by study of the intermediate or connecting parts development of the part in the bud or as it originates, The last by means of the microscope (embryology). test can be applied only by the trained investigator, but Even with it often gives the most conclusive evidence.

parts
(3)

1-J8.

'^<:^

149.

Fern-like leaf-oranehes of

greenhouse asparagus.

the

application of
to

all

these

tests,

it

is

sometimes imas
it

possible

arrive

at

definite

conclusion

to
is

the

origin

or morphology of a part.

For example,

not

yet agreed whether most cactus spines represent leaves or

CLADOPHYLLA
branches, or are mere
hairs are).

103

outgrowths of the epidermis (as

213.

The foliage
is

of asparagus

com-

posed

of

modified

branches.

The true

leaves of asparagus
are

minute whitish
foliage
is

scales {a, Fig. 147)

The green

produced in the axils

of these scales.

On

the

strong

spring

shoots of asparagus,

which are eaten,

the

true
as

leaves

appear

large
.

U.

scales (a, o, Fig. 148) scales persist

These large

eia.

Phyllodia of acf,These Australian

are sometimes

trees

in glasshouses. on the base of the asparagus plant, even in the fall. In the species of greenhouse or ornamental asparagus, the delicate foliage is also made up of green leaf-like branches (Fig. 149). In some cases the true leaves fall after a time, and there is little evidence left.

grown

The strong new shoots usually show

leaves plainly (as in Fig. 150).

the true

Branches which
as

simulate
(.singular,

leaves

are

known

cladophylla

cladophyllum). The broad flat leaves of florists' smilax (common in glasshouses) are cladophylla.
Strong
new
shoot of

N\

Asparagus
sh^^n|7he

^ m-1

214. In

the
i

study of morphology,
i

it

IS

not cuough,

j.

howcvcr,
a
part

merely to
represents

%.
*"^

determine whether

and^the^Yranches^y
their'afos.^

root, stcm, or leaf:

ouc must determine

of root, stem, or leaf

what part or kind

104
it

MORPHOLOGY
For example, the
foliage
in

stands for.

Fig. 151

represents green expanded petioles.

These

leaf -like

mem-

bers bear buds

(which

branches) in their axils, have the arrangement or phyllotaxy of leaves therefore they are
;

produce and they

considered to be true leaf parts. But they stand edgewise as if

152.

The

tliorus are ia the axils

they might be petioles

sometimes

of leaves.

they bear leaf -blades; other aca-

cias

have compound expanded leaves;

there are intermediate forms or gradations between different acacias;

young

seedlings

sometimes show intermediate

all

forms.

From

the evidence,

it is

now

understood that the foliage of the simpleleaf acacias represents leaf -like petioles.

Such

petioles

are

known

as

phyllodia
153.

(singular, phyllodium).

Two

or more bud;^

215.

Thorns

are borne in the axils.

and strong spines are usually branches. The spines of hawthorns or thorn-apples are examples: they are borne in the axils of leaves as branches are (Fig. 152) hawthorns usually bear two or more buds in each axil (Fig. 153), and one or two of
;

154.

Some

of the buds pro-

duce leafy branches.

these

buds often grow

sometimes
155).

the following year into

normal leafy branches (Fig. 154)

the

thorn

itself

bears

leaves
pears,

(Fig.
apples,

The thorns plums are

to

of

wilding

and
In
155.

short,
.

hardened
is
.

branches. longer

well -cultivated trees there

sufficient vigor *

The thorn

push the main branch into

and

may bear leaves.

PRICKLES AND BRISTLES

softer growth, so that the side

105

buds do not have a chance and honey locust are also branches. Those of the honey locust usually arise from supernumerary buds which are borne somewhat above the axils. 216. Prickles, bristles, and tveaJc spines, which have a definite arrangement on the
to start.

The thorns

of osage orange

stem, are tisually modified leaves or parts

of leaves.
thistles

The spines

of

156.

Leaf-spine of
barberry.

are

hardened

points of leaf-lobes.

The spines

of

the

barberry are reduced leaves; in their axils are borne short branches or leaf -tufts
(Pig. 156)
;

in

spring on young shoots

may

be found almost complete gradations from spiny leaves to spines. The prickly
ash has prickles that simulate stipules and
stipels,

but the irregularity of position

in-

dicates that they are not

stipules.

homologous with

The

prickles of the

common

locust

(robinia) are usually interpreted as stipules.

217. Prickles, bristles, and hairs, which

are
57.

scattered

or

Small prickles of

have no dofintie ar-

the prickly ash.

rangement, are usure-

ally mere out-grow^ths of the epi-

They usually are moved with the bark. Of such

dermis.
the
prickles

are

of

squashes,
roses.

briars

(Fig. 158),
218.

and

The reason
spines
is

for the
difficult

exis-

tence of

to de158.

termine.

In

many

or

most cases

Prickles of dewberry.

they seem to have no distinct use or function.

In

some

way they

are associated with the evolution of the plant,

106

MORPHOLOGY

and one cannot determiue wh}- they came without knowIn some much of the genealogy of the plant. cases they seem to be the result of
ing
the
as

contraction
in

of

the

plant -body, other

desert

the

cacti

and

plants;

and they may then serve a

lessening
transpiration.

purpose in
It is

common

notion that spines and

prickles exist for the purpose of keep-

ing enemies away, and that hairs keep the plant warm, but these ideas
usually lack scientific accuracy.
if

spines do keep

Even away browsing aniit

mals in any plant,

question

is

quite another

came to be. 159. The diminishiug leaves ^ boneset. what spines and hairs are for demands close scientific study of each particular ease, as any other problem does.
the spines

why

To answer

the question

219.

Leaves
(Fig.

are

usually

smaller as they approach the

flowers

159).

They
losing

often become so

much reduced
scales,

as to
their

he

mere
as

office

foliage.

In

however, the flower-branches may be borne

their
axils,

(Fig.
leaves,

160).

Much-reduced

particularly

those

which are no longer green and working members, are

called bracts.
160.

In some cases,

The uppermost

flowers are borne

large colored bracts are borne

just beneath the flowers

in the axils of bracts. Fuchsia.

look like petals

the flowering

dogwood

is

and an example
;

also the bougainvillea,

which

is

common

in

glasshouses

SCALES OF BUDS AND BULBS

(Fig.

107

161)

also

the

scarlet

sage of

gardens and the

flaming poinsettia of greenhouses.

220.

The

scales of buds are special kinds of bracts. In

scale represents

some cases each

it

represents a petiole or stipule.

lilac,

an entire leaf; in others, In the expanding pear,

maple,

hickory,

and

horse-chestnut buds, note the

gradation from dry scales to

green leaf -like bodies.

the winter scales fall

When

pushing
shoot,

out

of

by the the young

:

scars

are left

these

scars

form
the

"rings,"

which
scales
special

mark
of

annual
are
also

growths.

See Chap. VII.

The

bulbs kinds of
protective

leaves
bodies

or bracts.
in others
.

In some cases they are merely

;
161.

they

are

storeJiouses

We
the
is

In the bougaiuvillea three gaudily colored bracts surround each cluster of three small flowers.

have

found

(45)

that

presence of scales or bracts

one means of distinguish

ing underground stems from roots.

Review. What are considered to be the fundamental or type forms from which the parts of plants are derived? How do the forms of plants interest us? What is morphology? What is meant by transformation and modification as used by the morphologist ? What is meant by homologous parts ? Analogous parts? Tell how one may determine the morphology of any i>art. What is a cladophyllum ? Pliyllodium ? Show a specimen of one or the other, or both (canned asparagus can always be had in the market). What is the morphology of most thorns? Explain the thorns of hawthorn. What are bristles, prickles, and hairs? Why do spines and bristles exist! Explain what a bract is. A bud-scale. A bulb-scale.

CHAPTER XVI
HOW PLANTS
221.

CLIMB

We

a place in which to

have seen that plants struggle or contend for live. Some of them become adapted to

grow

in the forest shade, others to

grow on other plants

Observe how

as epiphytes, others to climb to the light.

woods grapes, and other

flexile

forest climbers, spread their foli-

age on the very top of the forest tree, while their long

trunks

may be

bare.

ways in which plants climb, but most climbers may be classified into four groups: (1) scramblers, (2) root-chmbers, (3) tendril-climbers, (4) twiners. 223. SCRAMBLERS. Some plants rise to light and air by resting their long and weak stems on the tops of bushes and quick-growing herbs. Their stems are elevated by the growing twigs of the plants on which they recline. Such plants are
222. There are several

scramblers.
or bristles.

Usually they
In most weedy

are provided with prickles

swamp
Briars,

thickets,

scrambbe found.
bed-

ling plants

may

some

roses,

root-climber. The English ivy.

straw or galium, bitter sweet (Solanum Dulcamara,

not the celastrus), the tear-thumb polygonums, and other

plants are familiar examples of scramblers.
224.

ROOT-CLIMBERS. Some plants climb by means of

in

true roots, as explained

paragraph 31.

These roots

(108)

TENDRIL - CLIMBERS
seek the dark places and
walls and bark.
miliar example.

109

therefore enter the chinks in

trumpet creeper, is a faivy, which is often grown to cover buildings, is another instance (Fig. 162). Still another is the poison ivy. Roots are distinguished from stem tendrils by their irregular or indefinite position as well as by their mode of growth.
Fig. 12, the

The true or English

225.

TENDRIL-CLIMBERS. A slender coiling part which

is

serves to hold a climbing plant to a support

known

as a

103,

Tendril of Virginia, creeper.

The

direction of

tlie coil

changes near

tlie

middle.

tendril.

The

free

some

object,

when

end swings or curves until it attaches itself and then

it

strikes

coils

and

draws the plant

close to the support.

The spring

of the coil

also allows the plant to

the plant to maintain its

tured tendril from

holds on.

its

move in the toind, thereby enabling hold. Slowly pull a well -masupport, and note how strongly it

To test the a storm. draw an ink line lengthwise of it, and note that the line is now on the concave side and now on the convex side. Of course this movement is

Watch

the tendrils in

movement

of a free tendril,

slow, but

it

is

often evident in an hour or so.

Usually
it,

the tendril attaches to the support the Virginia creeper

by coiling
tendrils.

ahotit

but

and Boston ivy attach to walls by

means of disks on the ends of the

226. Since both ends of the tendril are fixed,

when

it

110

HOW PLANTS CLIMB

would tend to twist it in two. be found, however, that the tendril coils in differin ditiferent

finds a support, the coiling

It will

ent directions 163 the change

bers

parts of

its

length.

In Fig.

of

direction in

the coil

occurs at the

straight place near the middle.

In long tendrils of cucumand melons there may be several changes of direction. 227. Tendrils may be either branches or leaves. In

164.

The

fruit-cluster

and tendril of grape are homologous.

the Virginia creeper and grape they are branches

(Fig. 164), and sometimes one branch of a
is

they

stand opposite the leaves in the position of fruit -clusters

fi-uit-

cluster

tendril.

These tendrils are therefore homologous

with fruit -clusters, and fruit -clusters are branches. Examples 228. In some plants tendrils are leaflets. are the sweet pea (Fig. 165) and common garden pea. In Fig. 165, observe the leaf with
its

two

stipules, petiole,

TENDRIL - CLIMBERS

111

two norma) leaflets, and two or three pairs of leafletThe cobea, a Tendrils and a terminal leaflet -tendril. common garden climber, has a similar arrangement. In some cases tendrils are stipules, as probably in the greenbriars (smilax).

229.

The

petiole or midrib

may

act as a tendril, as in

various kinds of clematis.

In Fig. 166, two opposite leaves

165.

Ill

the sweet pea (and garden pea) the leaflets are tendrils.

compound and At h and c the midrib or rachis has wound about a support. The petiole and the petiolules may behave similarly. Examine
are attached at a.

Each

leaf is pinnately

has two pairs of leaflets and a terminal

leaflet.

the tall -growing nasturtiums in the garden.

230.

TWINERS. The

entire

plant or shoot
is

may wind
Examples

about a support.

Such a plant

a twiner.

are bean, hop, morning-glory, moon-flower, false bitter-

112

HOW PLANTS CLIMB

sweet or wax- work Ccelastrus), some honeysuckles, wistaria, Dutchman's pipe, dodder. The free tip of the

twining branch sweeps about in curves, much as the tendril does, until it finds support or becomes old and rigid, 231. Each kind of plant usually coils in only one

166.

Clematis climbs by means of

its leaf-stalks.

direction.

Most plants

coil

against the sun, or from the

to be dextrorse (right-handed)

observer's left across his front to his right as he faces the

plant.

Such plants are said

orantitropic (against the sun).

ing-glory.
to his left.

Examples are bean, mornThe hop twines from the observer's right Such plants are sin^'strorse (left-handed) or

REVIEW ON CLIMBING PLANTS

eutropic
(witli

113
the

sun). Fig. 167 shows

the two directions.
do do they climb? Explain what is meant by scramplants climb?

Review.

Why

How

blers.

By
is

root-climbers.

What
does
coil?
its

a tendril?
find a

How

it

support?

Why and how does it How does it grasp

support?

What

is

the

morphology of the tendril of

Virginia creeper?

Why? Of
a twiner?

the pea?

Of
is
it

the clematis?
find a support

What
does
?

How

(^

a dextrorse twiner?
is

What

Sinistrorse?
107.

Dextrorse

.-ind

siiiisti

Note.
pupil

bitter-sweet and hop.

The
not

r
:i

may

understand why

the branch (as tendril and

flower- cluster)

stands opposite the bud in the grape and Virginia creeper.

Note that a grape-shoot ends in a tendril

(a, Fig.

The

tendril represents the true axis of the shoot.

which the branch grows to continue the shoot. This branch ends in a tendril, &. Another leaf has a branch in its axil, and this branch ends in the tendril c. The real apex of the shoot is successively turned aside until it appears to be lateral. That is, the morphoside a leaf is borne,

from the

axil of

^
168).

On

the

logically terminal points of the successive shoots are

the tendrils, and the order of their appearing

h, c.

is a,

The

tendrils branch: observe the

minute scale
1()8.

representing a leaf at the base of each branch. This type of branching the axial growth being continued

Sympode

of tlie grape.

by successive
branch
is

lateral

a sympode.
is

terminal bud

buds is sympodial, and the Continuous growth from the monopodial, and the branch is a monopode

CHAPTER XVII
FLOWER- BRANCHES
have (86) seen that branches arise from the Sometimes the leaves may be reduced to bracts and yet branches are borne in their axils. Some of the branches grow into long limbs; others become short spurs; others
232.
axils of leaves.

We

hear flowers.
233. Flowers are usually borne

near the top of the plant, since

the

plant

must grow before

it

blooms.

Often they are produced in great numbers. It results, therefore, that flower - branches usually stand close together, forming a cluster. The shape and arrangement of the flower-cluster differ with the kind of plant, since each plant has its own mode of branching.
234. Certain
definite or well-

marked types
these

of

flower -clusters

have received names.

Some

of

names we

shall discuss, but

the flower-clusters which perfectly

ception rather than the rule.

169.

match the definitions are the exThe

is

Terminal flowers of the whiteweed (in some places called ox-eye

daisy).

determining of the kiuds of flower- clusters

one of the most per-

du)

SOLITARY FLOWERS

CORYMBOSE
bose
ters.

CLUSTERS

115

plexing subjects iu descriptive botany.

the subject around three ideas:
clusters,

We may

classify

solitary flowers,

corymclus-

cymose

235.

SOLITARY FLOWERS.
cases flowers are borrve

In

many

singly.

be solitary.

They are then said to The solitary flower

may

be either at the end of the main shoot or axis (Fig. 169),

when

it

is

said to be terminal,

or from the side of

(Fig. 170),

the
is

shoot

when
The

it

said to

be lateral.
is

lateral flower

also said to be axillary.

236.

CORYMBOSE CLUSTERS.
were
close

If the flower -bearing axils

rather
170.

together, an open

Lateral flower of abutilon.

or leafy flower-cluster might re-

sult, as in

Fig. 171.

The fuchsia continues

were so

to

grow from

the tip, and the older flowers are left farther and farther

behind.

If the cluster
flat

short as to be

or convex on

top, the outermost flowers

would

be the older.
in

flower -cluster

which the lower or outer flowopen first is said to be a corymbose cluster. It is sometimes said to be an indetermiers

nate cluster

since

it

is

the re-

sult of a type of

growth which
or less contin-

may go on more
237.
is

uously from the apex.

a raceme, which

The simplest form of a definite corymbose cluster is an unbranched open cluster in which

116

FLOWER - BRANCHES
on short stems and open from below from the okler part of the shoot) upwards. The raceme may be terminal to the main branch, as in
Fig.
172,
to

the flowers are borne

(that

is,

or
it,

it

may be

lateral

as in Fig.

173.

Racemes often bear

flowers

the

on one side

of the stem, or in a single row.

238.

When
and

bose
id

flower -cluster

is

corymlong
it

dense
a

the

flowers
is

e sessile

or nearly so,

lied

spike

(Figs.

174,

o).

Common
are

pikes
lette,

plantain,

examples of migno-

mullein.

239.

very short and

is is

dense spike
(Fig.
ITJ.
le

a head. Clover

ple.

a good examThe sunflower and re-

176)

of Chinese Wistaria.

lated plants bear

many

small

flowers in a very dense head,

of the sunflower, thistle,

This special kind of head

has been calk

and

an antJiodiuni, but
this

word
the

is

little

used.
in

Note

that

sunflower
exterior
first.

(Fig. 177) the outside

or

flowers open

s (in fruit) of barberry. Another special form of spike is the catkin, which usually has scaly bracts and the whole cluster is deciduous after flowering or fruit-

COKYMBOSE CLUSTERS
ing,

117

and the flowers

(in

typical cases) have only

one sex.

Examples are
and
flower-

the " pussies" of willows

(Fig. 213)
clusters of oaks

(Fig.

212), hickories, poplars.

240.

When

a loose,

elongated
or

corymbose
it

flower-cluster branches,
is

compound,
of
of

is

called a panicle.

Be-

cause

the

earlier

growth

the

lower
is

75.

Loose spikes of

fale

dragon's heart or pliysostegia.

174.

branches, the panicle

usually broadest at the base or conical in out-

True panicles are not common. 241. When an indeterminate flower- cluster is short, so that the top is convex or flat, it is a corymb (Fig. 178). The outermost flowers open first. Fig. 179 shows many corymbs of
line.

Spike of h y acintb. Note, also,

that

the

flowers and foliage are pro d uced

from the
stored food
in the bulb,

only water being given.

the bridal wreath, one of the spireas.

242.

When

cluster arise

the branches of an indeterminate from a common point, like the frame of an umbrella, the clus-

ter

is

an umbel

(Fig. 180). Typical

in

umbels occur
carrot,

par-

snip, parsley

and
of

other

plants

the parsley fam"-

Head of crimson
clover.
177.

r'

ily:
-^
_

the family
AS tne

Head

of unflower.

IS

knOWn

118
Umbelliferaj,

FLOWEE- BRANCHES
or

umbelIn
the

bearing
carrot
belliferae,

family.

and many other Umthere

are

small

or secondary umbels, called

umbellets, at the end of

each of the main branches.

(In the center of the wild

carrot
finds

umbel
a
single,

one

often
flower,

blackish,

often aborted
comprising
umbellet.)
243.

flowered

CYMOSE CLUSTERS.
the

When

terminal

or

1"9-

Corymks

of the bridal wreath (spirea).

central flower opens

first,

the cluster

is

said to be

cymose.

The growth
is is

of the shoot or cluster

determinate, since the length

definitely

determined or stopped

by the terminal flower. Fig. 181 shows a determinate or cyraose

mode

of flower-bearing.

24 i. Dense cymose clusters are

usually flattish on top because of
the

cessation

of

main or central

axis.

growth in the These com-

pact flower -clusters are

known

as

cymes. Apples, pears (Fig- 182) and cherries bear flowers in cymes. Some cyme -forms are like umbels in general appearance. A head -like cymose cluster is a it blooms glomerule from the top downwards rather than from
:

Corymb

of candytuft.

the baSB UpwardS.

MIXED CLUSTERS
245.

INFLORESCENCE

119

MIXED CLUSTERS.

Often the cluster is mixed, being determinate in one part and indeterminate in another part of
the

same
is

cluster.

This

is

the
the

case in Fig. 184,

ter

The main
but

clus180.

indeterminate,

branches are determinate.

The
and

Compound umbel
wild carrot.

of

cluster has the appearance of a

panicle,

is

usually so called,
Lilac
is

but

it

is

really a thyrse.

a familiar example of a thyrse.

In
dein-

some

cases, the

main

cluster

is

terminate and the branches are

determinate, as in hydrangea
elder.

and

Such clusters also are mixed

.

clusters.

246

INFLORESCENCE. The mode

is

or method of flower arrangement

known
is,

as the inflorescence.

the

inflorescence

is

That cymose,
soli-

corymbose, paniculate, spicate, By custom, however, tary.

the

word

inflorescence has

come

to

be

used for the flower-cluster

itself in

works on descriptive botany. Thus a cyme or a

181. Determinate or cymose arrangement. Wild geranium,

panicle

may

be called an

It will be seen that even solitaiy flowers follow either indeterminate or determinate meth-

inflorescence.

ods of branching.
247.

stem of a solitary flower

THE FLOWER-STEM. The is known as

compa^e'Fig.'w"'

120

FLOWER -BRANCHES
a

peduncle

also

the

general stem of
cluster.

Sifloicer-

The
is

stem

of

the individual flower in

a cluster

a pedicel,

248. In the so-called

stemless plants (37) the

peduncle
rectly

may

arise di-

from the ground, or crown of the plant,

as
in

dandelion,
(Fig.

hyagar-

cinth

174),

den daisy (Fig. 185). This kind of peduncle

is

called

scape.
It

A
has
it

scape

may

bear one or

many
pparently f.vniose.

flowers.

no foliage leaves, but mav have bracts.

He

Review. What is the homology of flnwor-hranehes? that flowers are often borne in clusters? Explain what may be

meant by a solitary flower. What are the two types of flower-clnsters? What are corymbose clusters?

Define

raceme.

Spike.

Head and anthodium. Catkin. Panicle. Umbel. Umbellet. Corymb. What are cymose clusters? What is a cyme? Glomerule? Contrast indeterminate and determinate modes of branching. Explain mixed clusters. What

What is meant by word inflorescence? Define peduncle, pedicel, and scape.

is

a thyrse?

the

Note.

In the study of flowerim. Xhyise of hor>.e-chestuut

clusters, it is Well to select first

REVIEW ON FLOWER-BRANCHES

121

those which are fairly typical of the

the various classes discussed in the preceding paragraphs. As soon as

main types are well fixed in mind, random clusters should be examined, for the pupil must
the

the

never receive the

all

impression

that

flower-clusters follow the defini-

tions in

of

the

books. Clusters of some commonest plants are very

puzzling, but
least

the pupil should at

to

be able

discover whether
is

the inflorescence

determinate or

indeterminate.

In the tomato
flower-cluster
185

is

(Fig. 186) the opposite the leaf.

Scapej of thetiueoi Liifjlibb daisy. Examine blooming tomato plants, and determine the method of th is inflorescence. Compare the grape.

In

some cases the

leaf,

flower-cluster

ends in a
leaf;

the cluster is

suggesting that morphologically a

is

but see whether there

leaf,

not a joint between the cluster

and the
leaf
is

showing that the

attached to a branch.

The flower- cluster of the tomato has been greatly modified by cultivation. It was originally
distinctly racemose.
186.

Tomato

shoot.

Llt*45

CJerauiums iu the school-room wiiidov

CHAPTER

XVIII

THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER

249.

The flower
It is

exists for the purpose of

all its

producing

seed.

probable that

varied forms and colors

contribute to this supreme end.

please the

human fancy and make

These forms and colors living the happier, but

the plant, not for the

the flower exists for the good of

The parts of the flower are of two general those which are directly concerned in the produckinds tion of seeds, and those which act as covering and protecting organs. The former parts are known as the essengood of man.

tial

organs

the latter as the floral envelopes.

close

The floral envelopes usually bear a These envelopes are very resemblance to leaves. commonly of two series or kinds the outer and the inner.
250. ENVELOPES.

The outer and green.

flower-bud.

series,
It

known

as the calyx,

is

usually smaller

usually comprises the outer cover of the

whorl

in

Fig. 187.

The calyx is the lowest The inner series, known as the

corolla,
is

usually

colored

and

more

special or irregular
in
187.

shape than the

It
is

Flower of a buttercup
in section.

^alyX.

thc

flower,

as

rule.

showy part of the ^^^- ^^^'''" "^ buttercup. The corolla is the second or large
It is

whorl in Fig. 187.

251.

the large part in Fig. 188.

of
several
it

The calyx may be composed

is

leaves.

Each

leaf

a sepal.

If

it

is

of one piece,

may be

(122)

FLOKAL ENVELOPES

123

lobed or divided, in which case the divisions are called

calyx -lobes.

In like manner, the corolla

may

be com-

posed of petals, or it may be of one piece and variously lobed. A

calyx of one piece, no matter

how

gamosepalous. A corolla of one piece is gamopetaldeeply lobed,

is

ous.
flower

When

these

series

are

of

separate pieces, as in Fig. 187, the

is said to be polysepalous and polypetalous. Sometimes both series are of separate parts, and sometimes only one of them is so

formed.
252.

The
at

floral

envelopes

are

Jiottwlogous with leaves.

petals,

Sepals and
189.

least

when more than

more than one whorl, and one whorl stands below
another
so
Flower of fuchsia in section.

three or five, are each in

that

the

parts

overlap.

They
end
190.

are

borne on the expanded or

In Fig. 187
all

thickened end of the flower-stalk: this

is

the torus.

the

Pistil of garden pea. the stamens being pulled down in order to disclose
it;

parts are seen as attached to the torus.

also a section,

showing

This part
tacle,

is

sometimes called recep-

but this word is a commonlanguage term of several meanings, whereas torus has no Sometimes one part is atother meaning. tached to another part, as in the fuchsia (Fig. 189) in which the petals are borne on the calyx -tube.
Simple pistils of ESSENTIAL ORGANS. The essential ;ercup, one in They are also longitudinal section, homologous with leaves. The outer series is composed of the stamens. The inner series is composed of the pistils.

the single compartment.

253.

organs are of two series.

124

THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER

254. Stamens bear the pollen, which is made up of grains or spores, each spore usually being a single plant The stamen is of two parts, as readily cell.

seen in Figs. 187, 188, 189, the enlarged terminal part or anther, and the stalk or
filament.

The filament
is

is

often so

short as to seem to be absent, and

the anther
sessile.

then said to be
J2. til

The anther bears the It is made up pollen spores. of two or four parts (known
as

Coiupouud

pis-

of a St. John'swort. It has 5 earpels.

sporangia

or

spore -cases),

which burst and discharge the

pollen.
the pollen

When
is

shed,

the stamen dies.

255. Pistils hear

Knotweed, a very common but inconspicuous plant along hard walks and roads. Two flowers, enlarged, are shown at the right. These flowers are very small and borne in the axils of the leaves.

the seeds.
til

The

pis-

may
or

be of one

part

compart-

ment, or of many parts. The different units or parts of which it is composed are carpels. Each carpel is homoEach logous with a leaf. carpel bears one or more seeds. A pistil of one carpel is simple; of two or more carpels, compound. Usually
the

structure

of

the

pistil

may be determined by

cut-

ting across the lower or seed-

bearing part. Figs. 190, 191,

192 explain.
contain
several

The structure
se.
o.

flower

may

of a plum blossom. sepals; p. petals; sta. stamens;

s.

ovary;

style;

pistil consists of

st. stigma. The the ovary, style,

one

carpel

(simple or

pistil) as the

pea (Fig. 190)

carpels

and stigma. It contains the seed part. The stamens are tipped with anthers, in which the pollen is
borne. The ovary, the fruit.
o,

ripens

into

separate

CONFORMATION OF THE FLOWER

simple pistils, as the buttercup
256.
parts:
;

125

or a compound pistil, as

the St. John's- wort (Fig. 192).

The

pistil,

whether simple or compound, has three

the lowest or seed -bearing part,

which is the ovary; the stigma at the upper extremity, which is a flattened or expanded surface, and usually roughened
or sticky
;

the stalk -like part or style,

connecting the ovary and stigma.

times the style
is

Some-

apparently wanting,

is said to be sessile on These parts are shown in the The ovary or seed fuchsia, Fig. 189. A long style, bearing a vessel is at a. large stigma, projects from the flower.

and the stigma

the ovary.

See, also. Figs. 191

257.

and 194. CONFORMATION OF THE FLOWER.

pistils is said to

A
all

Flower
nasturtium.
petal at a.

of

giirden

flower which has calyx, corolla, sta-

Separate
Is

The calyx

mens, and

be complete

prolonged into a spur.

;

others are incomplete.

In some flowers both the floral

envelopes are wanting: such are

naked. When one of the floral envelope series is wanting, the remaining series is said to be
calyx,

and the flower

(

is

therefore

apetalous
petals).

without

Theknotweed (Fig. 193), smart(Fig.

weed, buckwheat, elm

92),
are
exflow:

amples.
196.

Some

The five petals of the pansy, detached to show the form.

ers lack the

pistils

i9

these are

staminate,

whether the envelopes are missing or not. Others lack the stamens these are pistillate. Others have neither
:

126

THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER

:

these are sterile (snowball and hystamens nor pistils drangea). Those which have both stamens and pistils are perfect, whether or not the envelopes are These which lack either stamissing. mens or pistils are imperfect or diclinous. Staminate and pistillate flowers are imperfect or diclinous.

258. Flowers

in

which the parts of

Those
unlike
198.

each series are alike are said to be regular

f)
(as in Figs. 187, 188, 189).
in

which some

parts

are

other parts of the same series are

irregular.

Improvised stand
for lens.

The

irregularity

may
;

be
;

calyx

as in nasturtium

(Fig. 195)
in the

in corolla

(Fig. 196, 197)

stamens (com-

pare nasturtium, catnip Fig. 197, sage); in the pistils. Irregularity is most fre-

quent in the corolla.

Review. What

^^^<;

are the two

is the flower for? What general kinds of organs in the

^
What men?

flower?

What
the

is

the homol?
?

ogy

of

flower- parts

What
Calyx
lobes
?

are floral envelopes

?

Sepals
Corolla
?

? ?

CalyxPetals ?

Corolln-lobes
?

lous flowers

GamosepnlGamopetalous ? PolySta-

sepalous? Polypetalous? Define torus.

are the essential organs?

199.

Dissect-

ing needle. natural

size.

200.

Dissecting gl

Filament? Anther? Pollen? Pistil? Style? Stigma? Ovary? CarIn pel ? Define a complete flower. what ways may flowers be incomplete?

Explain perfect and imperfect (or diclinous) flowers. Define regular flowers. In what ways may flowers be irregular? Note. One needs a lens for the examination of the flower. It is best to have the lens mounted on a frame, so that the pupil has both hands free -for pulling the flower in pieces. An ordinary pocket

REVIEW ON FLOWERS
lens

127

may be mounted on

a wire in a block, as in Fig. 198,

cork

is

slipped on the top of the wire to avoid injury to the face.

should be provided with two dissecting needles (Fig. securing an ordinary needle in a
pencil-like
Fig. 200.
stick.

The pupil 199), made by

Another conis

venient arrangement

shown
is

in

small tin dish

used

for the base. Into this a stiff wire standard is soldered. The dish is filled with solder, to make it heavy

and

firm.

Into a cork slipped on

is

the standard, a cross-wire

serted,

in-

201. Dissecting stand. end a jeweler's glass. The lens can be moved up and down and sidewise. This outfit can be made for about seventy-five cents. Fig. 201 shows a convenient hand-rest or dissecting stand to be used under this lens. It may be 16 in. long, 4 in. high, and 4 or 5 in. broad. Various kinds of dissecting microscopes are on the market, and these are to be recomm'^nded when they can be afforded.

holding

on

the

Odd

bios

of one of the passi

Calyx-lobes and petals are 5. A fringe of hairs (or crown) grows from The club-shaped stigmas project. The stamens, ,5 in number, the petals.

stand inside the crown.

CHAPTER XIX
FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION
259. FERTILIZATION. ^^ee(^5 result

from

the

union of two

slements or parts.

One

of these elements, a nucleus of a

plant cell, is borne in the pollen-grain. The other element, an egg-cell, is borne in the ovary. The pollen -grain falls on the stigma (Fig. 202). It absorbs the juices exuded by the stigma and grows by sending out a tube (Fig. 203) This tube grows downward through the style, absorbing food as it goes, and finally reaches the egg -cell in the interior of an ovule in the ovary, and fertilization, or union of the two nuclei, takes place. The ovule then The growth of the pollen -tube is ripens into a seed. often spoken of as germination of the pollen, but it is not germination in the sense in which the word is used when speaking of seeds.
260. Better seeds

that

is,

those

which produce stronger and more

fruitful

plants

usually
is

result

when the
flower.

pollen comes from another

Fertilization effected be-

tween different flowers

fertilization
;

cross-

that resulting from

the application of pollen to pis202.

B, pollen of plum escaping

tils

in

the

samc flowcr
or

is

close-

Sratinf^nV^'sll^'n.!
Enlarged.

fertilization

self-fertilization.

^ ^jQ
may

j^g

sccu that the cross- ferti-

be of many degrees between two flowers in the same cluster, between those in different clusters on the same branch, between those on different plants.
lization relationship
(128)

POLLINATION

129

Usually fertilization takes place only between plants of

the

same

species or kind.

261. In

many

cases the pistil

has the power of selectis

ing pollen when pollen from two or more sources

to the stigma.

applied

Usually the foreign pollen,

if

from the same kind of plant, grows and performs the office of fertilization, and pollen from the same flower perishes. If, however, no foreign pollen arrives, the pollen from the same flower may finally grow and fertilize the germ. 262. In order that the pollen may grow, the 203 stigma must he ripe. At this stage the stigma PoUen gram is usually moist and sometimes sticky. A ripe Greatly magstigma is said to be receptive. The stigma may remain receptive for several hours or even days, depending on the kind of plant, the weather, and how soon
pollen
is

received.

When

fertilization

takes
the

place, the

stigma
263.

dies.

Observe, also,

how soon

petals wither

after the stigma has received pollen.

POLLINATION. The transfer

is

of the pollen

from anit

ther to stigma
fall of its

known

as pollination.

The

pollen

own weight on

the adjacent stigma, or

may may be

from flower to flower by wind, insects, or other There may be self-pollination or cross-pollination. 264. Usualh^ the pollen is discharged by the bursting of the anthers. The commonest method of discharge is through a slit on either side of the anther (Fig. 202). Sometimes it discharges through a pore at the apex, as in azalea (Fig. 204), rhododendron, huckleberry, wintergreen. In some plants a part of the anther w^all raises or
carried

agents.

falls as

lid,

as in barbei-ry (Fig. 205), blue cohosh,

May

apple.
is

The opening
it

of an anther (as also of a seed -pod)

known

as dehiscence. said to dehisce.

When

an anther or seed -pod

opens

is

130

FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

I
204.

POLLINATION
266.

131
self-

pollinatio)).

Some flowers have so developed as to prohibit Very irregular flowers are usually of this
gory.
ers

cate-

usually

Regular flowdepend

on

the selective

dichogamy and power

of the pistil to in-

sure crossing. Floivers

ivhich

are

very

and provided with nectar and strong perfume are

irregular

usually pollinated by
insects.
oider flower of hoUyhock.

Gaudy

col-

qys probably attract

a greater

insects in
attraction.

many
The

cases, but

perfume appears to be

insect visits the flower for the nectar (for

of honey) and may unknowingly carry the Spurs and sacs in the flower are nectaries, but in spurless flowers

the

making

pollen.

the nectar

is

usually secreted in the

bottom of the flower-cup.

Flowers

which are pollinated by insects

are

said

to

be

entomophilous
("insect loving").

Fig. 208 shows a

larkspur.

The en19.

velopes are separated in Fig. 209.

The long spur

at
208.

once suggests insect pollination.

Flower of larkspur.
is

Envelopes of a larkspur. There are five wide sepals, the upper one being spurred. There are four small petals.

The spur

a sepal

Two

hollow petals
to

project into this spur, apparently serving

guide

th^

132

FERTILIZATION AND POLLINAl ION

bee's tongue.

ently colored

^^^^%^^
""*
'

The two smaller petals, in front, are differand perhaps serve the bee in locating the nectary. The stamens ensheath the pistils As the insect stands on the (Fig. 210). flower and thrusts his head into its center, the envelopes are pushed downward and outward and the pistil and stamens come Since the in contact with his abdomen.
flower
is

pro-

terandrous,

the

pollen which the

pistils receive from the bee's

210.

stamens
pistils.

of lark

spur,

surrouiuliiit

the

Note a rangement in the toad -flax or butter -and -eggs (Fig. 211).
267.

abdomen must come from another flower. somewhat similar ar-

Many

flowers are polli-

nated hy the ivhul.

to

They
(

are said
"

be anemophilous
quantities
of
it is

wind-

loving").
great

Such flowers produce

of
pollen, for

much
ally

wasted.

They usuto

have broad stigmas, which

large

expose wind.

surface

the

They are usually lacking in gaudy colors and in perfume. Grasses and pine ti-ees are typical

examples of
268.

anemophilous
cases
cross
-

Toad-flax

is

an entomophilous

plants.

flower.

In

many

pollination

is

insured

because the stamens and pistils are in different flowers (diclinous, 257). When the staminate and pistillate

POLLINATION
flowers are on the

133
oak (Fig. 212), bcocli, is moncecious

same

plant,

e. g.,

chestnut, hazel, walnut, hickory, the plant

("in one house")(poplar

When
Fig.

they are on different plants

and

willow,
is

213), the plant

cious

dioecious

("in two houses").

Mona'plants

and

dioecious

may
They

be pollinated by wind
are usually

or insects, or other agents.

wind -pollin2. 8tamin;ite catkins of oak. Tlie pist late flowers are in tlie leaf axi and not shown in this picture.

nated, although willows are

often,
if

not mostly, insect-

pollinated.

The Indian corn

is

(Fig. 214)

a monoecious plant.
(tassel).

are in a terminal panicle

ers

The staminate flowei-s The pistillate flow-

are

in

a dense spike (ear), inclosed in a sheath or

is

husk.

Each "silk"

a style.

duces a kernel of corn.

Each pistillate flower proSometimes a few pistillate flowei-s are borne in the tassel and a few staminate flowers on the
tip of

the ear.

269. Although most flowers

are
of

such

character as

to

insure or increase the chances

of cross -pollination, there are

some

ivJiich

absolutely forbid

2i:j.

Catkins of a willow.

staminate

flower is shown at s, and a pistillate flower at p. The staminate and pistillate are on different
plants.

These flowers are usually borne beneath or on the ground, and they lack showy colors and perfumes.
crossing.

They are togamous

known
flowers

as

cleis-

(meaning

"hidden flowers"). The lilt has normal showy flowers which maybe inseet-pollinated, and in addition is provided
i

134

FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

with these degenerate flowers.
peanut,

plants bear cleistogamous flowers.

Only a few Hogthe best

common
and

blue violet, fringed windalibarda

are

tergreen,

subjects in the northern states.

Fig. 215

shows a cleistogamous flower of the hogpeanut at a. Above the true roots, slender rhizomes bear these flowers, which are provided with a cal^'x and a curving corolla which does not open. Inside are the stamens and pistils. The pupil must not confound the nodules on the roots of hog -peanut with the cleistogamous flowers
:

these nodules are concerned

in

the

appropriation of food.

Late in summer

the cleistogamous flowers

may be found

just underneath the mould.

rise

21)
\vi

Iiiibni
t
li

rem
pi

iii()ii(F(

Kms

lilt

stciininate rtoweis borne in

They never above ground. The following summer one may flnd a seedling plant with the remains of the old cleistogamous flower still adhering to the root. The

hog-peanut is a common low twiner in It also bears racemes of small woods. pea -like flowers Cleistogamous flowers usually appear after the showy flowers have passed They seem to insure a crop of seed by a method which expend
pistillate

the

tassel and

tlowers

borne in the ear.

little

of

the

plant'

energy.

See Fig. 216

Review.
tilization ?

"What

is

fer-

Pollination? Define cross- and self-pol-

215.

lination.

Which

gives the

Hog-peannt, showing a leaf, and a cleistogamous tiower at o.

better results,
pistil?

and how?

What

is

meant by the

selective

power of the

Describe a receptive

pistil.

cross-pollination secured?

How la

Exhibit one. By what agents is pollen discharged? What is meant

KEVIEW ON POLLINATION
by the word dehiscence?

135

What
ers
?

is its oflfice?

How frequent
?

What do you understand by dichogamy' is it? What aieentomophilous flow-

Anemophilous

Exhibit

or explain one of each.

is

What
ir-

the usual significance of

regularity in flowers?

the nectar borne

Where is What are

monoecious and dioecious plants? Cleistogamous flowers? Note. The means by which

cross-pollination

is

insured are
of

absorbing
It is

subjects

study.

easy to give so
to

much time

and emphasis

the subject,

however, that an inexperienced observer comes to feel that perfect mechanical adaptation of

means
plants,

to end whereas

is
it

universal in
is

not.

One

is likely to

lose or to overlook

the sense of proportions and to

form wrong judgments.

studying cross-pollinane. C )tninon blue violet. The fnmUiar flowers are shown, iiiitural size. Tlie one is likely to look first corolla is spurred. Late in the season, for devices which prohibit the eleistogamous flowers are often borne on the surface of the ground. A small stigma from receiving pollen one is shown at a. A nearly mature pod is shown at 6. Both a and b are from its own flower, but the one-third natural size. better endeavor is to determine whether there is any means to insure the application of foreign pollen for the stigma may receive both but utilize only the foreign pollen. Bear in mind that irregular and odd forms in flowers, strong perfume, bright colors, nectar, postulate insect visitors; that inconspicuous flowers with large protruding stigmas and much dry powdery pollen postulate wind-transfer; that regular and simple flowers depend largely on dichogamy, whether wind- or insect-pollinated. Most flowers are dichogamous.
In
tion,
;

Funuelform corollas

CHAPTER XX
PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS
GENERAL FORMS. Flowers vary wonderfully in form, color, and in shapes of the different parts. These variations are characteristic of the species or kind of
270.
size,

plant.

The most variable part

is

the corolla.

lu

many
in

cases, the disguises of the parts are so great as to puzzle

botanists.

Some
to

of

the

special

forms, notably

the

have arisen as a means of adapting the A few flower to pollination by particular kinds of insects. well-marked forms are discussed below in order to illusorchids,

seem

trate

how

they

may
in

differ

among

themselves.

doubt as to the parts of any flower, look Pistils may be told by first for the pistils and stamens. the ovary or young seed -case. Stamens may be told by the pollen. If there is but one series in the floral envelope, the flower is assumed to lack the corolla: it is apetalous The calyx, however, in such cases, may look like a (257). corolla, e. g., buckwheat, elm, sassafras, smartweed, knotweed (Fig. 193). The parts of flowers usually have a they are oftenest in 3's numerical relation to each other, The pistil is or 5's or in multiples of these numbers. often an exception to this order, however, although its compartments or carpels may follow the rule. Flowers on those on the the plan of 5 are said to be pentamerous plan of 3 are trimerous {merons is from Greek, signifying "member"). In descriptive botanies these words are often written 5-merous and 3 -merons. 272. The corolla often assumes very definite or distinct forms when gamopetflous. It may have a long tube with
271.

When

(136)

GENERAL FORMS
a wide- flaring limb,

137
funnelform,
If the

when

it

is

said to be

as in morning-glory (Fig, 217)

is

and pumpkin.
stands
is

tube

very narrow and the limb

right

at

angles to
in

it,

the corolla

phlox (Fig. 218). If the tube is very short and the limb wide -spreading and nearly circular in
salverform, as
outline, the corolla
is

rotate or wheel-

shaped, as in potato (Fig. 219). 273. A gamopetalous corolla

or

gamosepalous calyx is often cleft in such way as to make two prominent

parts.

Such

parts

are

said
of

to

be
lips

Fuunelform flower of
morning-glory.

lipped or labiate.

Each

the

or lobes

may

be notched or toothed.
is

In 5-merous flowers, the lower lip

usually 3-lobed and the upper one

2-lobed.

Labiate flowers are char-

acteristic of the

197),

mint family (Fig. and the family therefore is

(Properly, labi-

called the Labiatae.

Rotate flowers of
potato.

means merely lipped, without specifying the number of lips or lobes; l^ut if is commonly used to
ate

designate 2-lipped flowers.)

polypetalous flowers

Strongly 2-parted
said to be labiate;

may be

but the term

corollas.

is

oftenest used for gamopetalous

274. Labiate gamopetalous flowers which are

closed in

the throat (or entrance to the tube)

are said to be grinning or personate (personate

means

typical

Snapdragon is a example (Fig. 220); also toad-flax or butter -and -eggs (Fig. 211), and many related plants. Personate flowers usually have definite relations to insect
masJied, or person-lil-e)
.

138
pollination.

PAETICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

Observe how a bee forces his head into the
275. LILY

elosed throat of the toad-fiax.

FLOWERS. In
the

plants of the

lily

family
six

(Liliace^)

flowers are

typically

3-merous, having three sepals, three petals, stamens and a 3-carpelled pistil. The
parts in the different series are distinct from

^^^-"^

each other (excepting the carpels,) and mostly

free

if/^

from other

series.

The

sepals

and petals
the

M**V^^

are so
c^^^^fiy

much

alike that they are distinguished

this reason

W n^/k
/

^y position, and for

/-^Sm^ words
tli^

calyx and corolla are not used, but

f'miw

floral

envelopes are called the perianth

and the parts are segments. Flowers of lilies and trilliums (Fig. 221) answer these details. Not all flowers in the lily family answer in all ways to this description. The term perianth 1^
220.

is

used in other plants than the Liliacea?.

276. PAPILIONACEOUS

FLOWERS.

In

the

Personate flowers of snapdragon.

pea and bean tribes the flower has a special

form (Fig. 222). The

is

calyx

is

a shallow 5 -toothed tube.

The

corolla

pieces,

the

large

composed of four expanded part

as the stand-

at the back,

known
;

ard or banner
side pieces,

the

two

hooded
;

known

as the wiitg^

the

single

boat -shaped

part the

beIxevl.

neath the wings,

known as

The

keel

is

supposed to represent

two united petals, since the calyx and stamens are in 5's or multi221. Flower of trillium. moreover, it is comples of 5; posed of two distinct parts in cassia (Fig. 223) and Flowers of the some other plants of the pea family.

PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS

139

pea shape are said to be papilionaceous (Latin papilio, a butterfly).

277. Flowers of the pea and kind have a peculiar arrangement of stamens. The staits

mens
9

are 10, of

which
into

are united

223.

tube
the

which
lies

incloses

Cassia flower, showing the

separate
keel petals.

pistil.

The tenth

on the upper edge of the pistil. The remains of these stamens are seen in Fig. The stamens are said to 190. be diadelphous " in two brotherhoods") when united into two groups. Stamens in one group

stamen

222.

Papilionaceous flowers

o u

Sweet pea.

be called

monadelphous, and this arrangenient occurs in some members of

the Leguminosa^ or pea family.

278.

MALLOW FLOWERS.
in

flowers of the
well

The mallow family are

single
holly-

represented

hocks (Figs. 20G, 207) and in the

little

plant (Fig. 224)

known

as

" cheeses."
is

The peculiar structure the column formed by the united

and
is
224.

filaments, the inclosed styles,

the ring of ovaries at the bottom

of the style -tube.

The flower
the
torus,

comraon maiiow, a

tr

5-merous.

Count
on the

ovaries.

?ruul'rii:es'u,:'na:nes'
;eheeses"an.l" shirt button

They

sit

but are

140

PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

united in tlie center bj' tlie base of the style-tube, which forms a cone-shaped body that separates from the torus

when the fruit is ripe. Do all of the ovaries develop, or some crowded out in the struggle for existence? The calyx IS often reinforced by bracts, which look like an
are

extra calyx.

These bracts form an involucre.

a

An
a

in-

volucre

is

a circle or whorl of bracts standing just below

flower

or

flower
of

cluster.

The umbel
(Fig.

wild

carrot

180)

has an involucre below

it.

large

family of
as

plants,

known
or

the

Malvaceae

Mallow

family, has flowers similar to those of the holly-

hock.

To

this

family

belong

marsh

mallow,

althea, okra, cotton.

Ob-

serve that even though the hollyhock

tall- growing
is

a great

showy plant

225.

l!i(ij

and the "cheeses" is a weak trailing inconspicuous plant, they belong to the same family, as shown by the structure
orchid family.

of the floWCrS.

ORCHID FLOWERS. The flowers of orchids vary wonderfully in shape, size, and color. Most of them are
279.
specially adapted to insect pollination.

The
is

distinguish-

ing feature of the orchid flower, however,

the union of

stamens and pistil in one body, known as the column. In Fig. 225 the stemless lady's -slipper is shown. The flower is 3-merons, One of the petals is developed into a great

OltCniD
sac or "slipper,"
this sac the

AND SPATIIE FLOWERS

141

known as the lip. Over the opening of column hangs. The column is shov^n in detail: a is the stigma; d is an anther, and there is another similar one on the opposite side, but not shown in the picture; & is a petal -like stamen, which does not produce pollen. In
most
borne
other
orchids
there
is

one good
is

anther.
in

In orchids the pollen

usuallj^

adherent

masses,

one

or

two

masses occupying each sporangium of the anther, whereas in most plants the pollen is in separate grains. These pollen -masses
are

known

technically as pollinia.

Orchids
in choice

from the tropics are much grown

greenhouses.
in

Several species are

in

common
northern

22G.
pit.

woods and swamps states and Canada.

280. (often
fleshy

the

spjidix pit " is

Jaek-inthe-pnl-'Jack" is the the "pulthe spatlie.

;

SPATHE FLOWERS. In many

plants, very simple

naked flowers) are borne in dense, more or less spikes, and the spike is inclosed in or attended by a leaf, sometimes coi'olla-like, known as a spathe. The spike of flowers is technically

known
is

as a spadix.

This type of
tropical.

flower
family,

characteristic of the great

which

is

chiefly

arum The
the

commonest wild representatives

in

North are Jack -in -the -pulpit or Indian turnip (Fig. 226) and skunk cabbage.In the former the flowers are all diclinous and naked. The pistillate
flowers
227.

(comprising
are
,

only
, ,

Wild

a
,

1-loculed

aster,

with six

heads, each containing several florets,

ovary)
gp^dix,

bomc

at

the

base of the

of

into

and the stamiuate flowers (each few anthers) are above them. The ovaries ripen red berries. In the skunk cabbage all the flowers

142

PARTICULAll FORMS

OF FLOWERS

are perfect and have four sepals.

is

The common

calla lily

a good example of this type of inflorescence. 281.

COMPOSITOUS FLOWERS. The head (anthodium)

(Fig. 227),

or so-called "flower" of snnflower (Fig. 177), thistle, aster

dandelion,
daisy,
is

chrysanthemum, golden -rod,

composed of several or

many
These

^^f^^,
^M4uV//m',

little floivers,

or florets.
a

florets

are inclosed in

more

or less dense and nsualh- green

228.

Head

of pasture thistle, showiutj

JJi).

the high prickly involucre.

LouKitudinal section of thistle head.

230. Floret of
thistle.

involucre.
prickly.
florets,

In

the

thistle

(Fig. 228)

this

involucre

is

A
all

longitudinal section

(Fig. 229) discloses the

a

attached at bottom to

common

torus,

and

densely packed in the involucre.

florets constitute the

The pink
of the head.

tips of these

showy part

282.
flower.

Each At a

floret of the thistle (Fig.

is

230)

is

a complete

the ovary.

At
and

6 is a

much -divided plumy

is

calyx,

known

as the pappus.

The
is

corolla

long-tubed,

rising above the pappus,

enlarged and 5-lobed at

COMPOSITOUS FLOWERS
the top,
c.

The
a

style projects at

e.

The
the

five

anthers are united about

ring at
to
d.

style in

Such
syngevarious

anthers

are

said

be
the
the

nesious.
parts of
positae.
is

These
the

are

florets

of

Com-

In some cases the pappus

in the

scales,

ing.
later,

form of barbs, bristles, or and sometimes it is wantThe pappus, as we shall see

assists
in

distributing
florets are

the
all

seed.
alike.

Often the

not

The

corolla of those in the

outer

circles

maybe

devel-

2'51.

Oped into a

cornflower or bachelor's button, in which the outer florets are large and showy.

Jong, strap- lil-e or

tuhular part,

and

the head

then

has the

appearance of being one

flower with a border of
petals.

Of such
(Fig.

is

the

sunflower
lor's
2.')2.

177),

aster (Fig. 227), bache-

button
(Fig.

or

corn

Double dahlias.
veloped

In one, the florets have deIn the other, the florets

flower
field
-^

231),

and

flat rays.

appear as inroUed tubes.

daisy

(Fig. 169).

These long corolla -limbs are called

rays.
all

In some cultivated composites,

v^
"^ ^
j'? ? =^j

the florets

may develop

rays, as in

the dahlia

(Fig. 232),

and chrysan-

themum.
lion,
all

In some species, as dandethe

%V^lv>Jxi^ ^PW/^>^!*^^ ^V

rays.
,

florets naturally have Syngenesious arrangement of anthers is the most characteristic sin-

gle teature of the composites.

-1

-^^-

double larkspur
Fie.
aoa.

compare with

144
283.

PAKTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

of the flower

ATTACHMENT OF THE FLOWER PARTS. The parts may all be borne directly on the torus, or With reference to one part may be borne on another.

234.

Narcissus or daffodil.

Single flower at the

rlglit

double flowers at the

left.

the pistil or ovary, the stamens and envelopes

may be

at-

tached in three ways

hypogynous,
;

all

free

and attached

under the ovary, as in Fig. 187 perigynous, or attached to a more or less evident cup surrounding the ovary, as
in Fig. 194;

epigyall

nous, some or

of

them

apparently

borne on the ovary,

as in Fig. 189.

284.

DOUBLE FLOWthe

ERS.
tion

Under
and

stimulus of cultivaincreased

food -supply, flowers tend to become dou235.

True doubling ble. , , , , Petals arising from the staminal column of hollyarises in two ways, hock; and accessory petals in the corolla- whorl,
.

DOUBLE FLOWEES
morphologically
(Fig. 235);
:

145

(1) stamens or pistils

(2) adventitious or (iceessori/ petals

may change to petals ma arise

if

in the circle of petals.

Both of these

categories

may

be

present in the same

flower, as in

Figs.

233, 234,

and 235.

lu

the

full -double

hollyhock, the petals derived

from the

staminal column are

shorter

and
the

make
flower.
236.

a rosette in the center

of

The

wild or original form of the snowball.

Other modifications
of

Outer flowers larger.

flowers are

sometimes known as doubling.

dahlias (Fig. 232),

ample, double

For exchrysanthemums and

sunflowers

are forms in which the disk flowers have developed rays. The snow-

ball is

another case.

In the

wild plant (Fig. 236) the extei'iial

flowers of the cluster

are
t])(^

large

and

sterile.

In
(Fig.

cultivated
all

plant

237)

the flowers have besterile.

come large and

drangea
is

Hy-

a similar case.

Review.
237.

How
How

do
iiv

flowers

CnlMv.atpd sTiowball, in which nil the flowprs in the clnstor ha'.'<> hocome larae and showy.

vary in form?

are the var-

ious parts determined

disguised
of gamo-

flowers? "What are 5-merong and

of the

3-meron3 flowers?
petalous corollas?

What

are

some

common forms
Personate.

Describe a labiate flower.

Lily flower.

Papilionaceous flower.

What

are monadelpnous and diadelphous sta-

146

PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

lueus? Describe a mallow flower. Orcliid flower. Spathaeeous flower. Compositous flower. What do you understand by the terms hypogynous, perigynous, epigynous? How do flowers become double? What is meant by doubling in compositous flowers? In snowball and hydrangea? Note. The flowers of grasses are

too

difiieult for

the beginner, but

if

the

them he may begin with wheat or rye. The "head" or spike of wheat is made up of flowers and bracts. The flowers are in little
pupil wishes to understand
clusters or spifce?e^s( often called "breasts"

by farmers). One of the spikelets is shown at b, in Fig. 238. Each spikelet contains from 1-4 flowers or florets. The
structure of the flower
of rye
pistil
(

is

similar to that

Fig. 239)

and other grasses.

The

has 2 feathery prostigmas (windtruded

pollinated)
Fig.
239.
b,

shown
There
b,

at a,

are

stamens,

b.

There

are minute

scales in the

base of the flower (not

shown

in the ctit)

which

probably represent true These floral envelopes.

aie lodicules.
a.

The
are

larger
bracts.
is

Spikes and flowers of wheit. )earded (I. beardless wheat

;

parts,
.

c,

(1,

wheat i.spikelet in liU )oni c. Krain; f>, single spikelet on a ma ture head. The beards in d are
;
:

The larger
noiccring

one, d,
,

the
..

ghtnte,
c,

i and the

awns on the flowering ghimes.

gjuaUgr,

Is

palet.

The

entire spikelet is also subtended by two or gluDies; these are the two lowermost parts in
238.

brads
h,

Fig.
so.
a,

The glumes

of the spikelet,

and flowering glumes

Flower of
stigma;

rye.

b, b, b,

and palets of the flowers, constitute the chaff when

wheat is threshed.

stamens;
palet;

c d, flower-

ing glume.

CHAPTER XXI
FRUITS
285.

The ripened ovary, with

its

attachments,

is

known

as the fruit.

It contains the seeds.

If the pistil is simple,

or of one carpel, the fruit also will have one compartment.

compound, or of more than one carpel, the an equal number of compartments. The compartments in pistil and fruit are known as locules (from Latin locus, meaning "a place").
If the pistil is

fruit usually has

286. Tlie simplest kind of fruit

is

a ripened l-locided

ovary.
plexity

The
is
-

first

stage in com-

ripened
ovary.

2-

or

Very complex forms may arise by

loculed

many

the attachment of other parts

to the ovary.

style persists

Sometimes the and becomes a

beak (mustard pods, dentaria,

Fig. 240) or a tail as in clematis
;

or the calyx
tlie
\)v

may be

at-

tached to

ovary;

or the

ovary

may

iinlx'dded in the
re-

receptacle,

and ovary and

or

ceptacle

together
;

constitute

the

fruit

an

involucre
the
w;il-

a part of fruit, as possibly in the

may become
and

nut

lliekory.

and

cup

24U.

Ikntaria, or loothwort, iufruil.

of the acorn.

The chestnut

(Fig. 241) and the beech bear

a prickly involucre, but the nuts, or true fruits, are not

(147)

148

FRUITS
tast to
it,

grown

and the involucre can scarcely be

calit^d

a part of the fruit.

ripened ovary

is

a pericarp.

pericarp to which other parts adhere, has been called an

,^^,^
^"'^''

accessory
287.

or

rein-

Some

fruits

are dehiscent, or split

open at maturity(264) and liberate the seeds;

others
are

indehis-

cent, or do not open

A
is

dehiscent pericarp
called a pod.

The

parts into which such a pod breaks or splits

are
241.

known
is

as valves.

Chestnuts are ripened ovaries. They are borne in a prickly involucre. The remains of the catkin of staminate flowers is seen in the picture.

In indehiseent fruits
the seed
liberated

by the decay of the envelope, or bj' the rupturing of the envelope by the germinating seed. Indehiseent winged pericarps are known as samaras or key-fruits (consult Chapter XXII). Maple, elm (Fig. 93), and ash (Fig. 127) are examples.
288. PERICARPS.

The simplest
It
is

pericarp

is

a dry, one-

seeded, indehis(ient body.

known
242,

as an akene.

and the structure is explained in Fig. 191. Akenes may hepatica, anemone, be seen in buttercup, smartweed, buckwheat. 289. A 1-loculed pericarp which dehisces
head of akenes
is

shown

in Fig.

along the front edge (that

fruit of

is,

the inner edge,

next the center of the flower)

is

a follicle.
is

The

242.

Akenes

the larkspur (Fig. 243)

five

follicle.

of buttercup.

There are usually

of

thse

fruits

(sometimes three

or four) in each larkspur flower, each pistil ripening into

248.

Capsuies of datura or jlmson weed.

Septicidal and loeulicidal.

244.

Young follicles

ot

Normal larkspur ly, the flower has 5 pistils, but some are lost in the struggle
for existence.

2i,0.

Apical dehiscence in capsule

of bouncing Bet. Four columns of seeds are attached to a central shaft.

245.

swamp m
weed, not
dehisced.

Follicles
i
]

of
k-

yet

un^^
I

49,

3^8.

nf perennial or evtrlMtiUk iwa.

Leeumeg

Capsuies of evening primrose.

347.

Legumee

Locali-

uf

Lima

beau,

251.

Three-carpelled fruit of horsechestniit. Two locules are closing by abortion of the ovules.

'2.')2.

253.

St.

John's vort.
.septieidal.

Looulicidal poi of day-lily.

i.'iS.

Toad-flax

capsule.

Ha.sal

dehiscence

of

campanula

capsule.

259.

Shepherd's purse.
Silicle.

258.

Large 2-valved pods or capsules of

tecoma or truiupot-

Wl. Two-yalvca pods of catalpOi

oreeper.

PERICAEPS
a follicle (Fig. 244).
If these pistils

151
were united, a single

compound
cles;

pistil

would be formed. Columbine, peony, nine-

bark also have follimilkweed, also

(Fig. 245).
290.

1-loculed

which dehisces on both edges is a legume. Peas and beans are typical examples (Figs.
pericarp
246,

247):

in fact,

this character gives

name
ily,

to the pea-fam-

Leguminosfe.

lidU.

lierries of the siiowberry.

Often the valves of the legume twist forcibly and expel the seeds, throwing them some distance. The word pod
is
it

sometimes restricted to legumes, but

generically (as in 287) for
291.
all

it is

better to use

dehiscent pericarps.
pericarp of two or

compound pod dehiscing

more carpels

is

a capsule (Figs. 248, 249).

some capsules of one

they

locule,

There are but

may have been compound

(in the

when young
and
the

ovary stage) may have vanished. Sometimes one or more of the carpels are uniformly crowded out by the exclusive growth of other carpels (Fig.
partitions

251)
Eggplant
fruits.

The seeds or parts which

to be

Kxamples of

are

large berries.

crowded out are said

aborted.

292. There are several

open.
the

When
is

ways in which capsules dehisce or they break along the partitions (or septa),
as septicidal dehiscence
;

mode

known

Fig. 252

152
shows
parts
it.

FRUITS
In septicidal dehiscence the frnit separates into
the original
carpels.

representing
still

These carpels

may

be

entire,

and they then

usually

dehisce

individually,
if

along
folli-

the inner edge as

cles.

they were

When
mode
is
is"

the compartments split

in the middle,

between the partitions,

loculicidal dehiscence

the

(Fig. 253).

In some cases the dehis-

cence

at the top,

when

it is

said to
Plum
;

be apical (although several modes of

dehiscence are here included).
the whole top
laca (Fig. 254) the

example of a

When

dnipe.

comes off, as in purslane and garden portupod is known as a pyxis. In some cases apical dehiscence is by means of a hole or clefts (Fig. In pinks and their allies the dehiscence does not 255). extend much below the apex (Fig. 250). Dehiscence may Two-loculed capsules which resembe basal (Fig. 256). ble legumes in external appearance are those of catalpa and trumpet -creeper (Figs. 257, 258). 293. The peculiar capsule of the mustard family, or
Cruciferae,
is

known

as

silique

when

it

is

distinctly

longer than broad

(Fig.

240),

and a
its

silicle

when

its

breadth nearly equals or exceeds

length

(Fig. 259).
par-

cruciferous

tition,

capsule is 2-carpelled, with a thin each locule containing seeds in two rows.

The

two valves detach from below upwards. Cabbage, turnip, mustard,

cress,

radish,

shepherd's

purse, sweet alyssum, wallflower,

honesty, are examples,

294.
263.

Aggregate fruits of raspberry,

fleshy

The pericarp may be and indeJiiscent. A pulpy

is

pericarp with several or

many

seeds

a berry (Fig. 260).

To

the horticulturist a J)erry

is

a small, soft, edible fruit,

PEKICAKPS
without particular reference to
cal
its

153
structure.

The botaniare, therefore,

and horticultural conceptions of a berry

unlike.

In the botanical
gooseberries,
cur-

\.

/\^^tiGa

m^^L.

sense,
rants,

grapes,

tomatoes,

potato - balls and even eggplant fruits (Fig. 261)

are berries;
raspberries, are not.

strawberries,

blackberries

295.
J6i.

fleshy pericarp

containing one relatively

Strawberries.
I'he edible part is

ton

large seed or stone

is

Examples are plum (Fig. 262), peach, cherry, apricot, olive. The walls of the pit in the plum, peach, and cherry are formed from the inner coats of the ovary, Drupes are also and the flesh from the outer coats.
drupe.

known

as stone fruits.
ai-e

296. Fruits whicli

formed by the subsequent union

of separate pistils are aggregate fruits.

The carpels

in

aggregate fruits are usually more or less fleshy.

distinct,

In the

raspberry and blackberry flower, the pistils are essentially

but as the
Fig. 263.

pistils

ripen they cohere

and form

one body.
pistils
little

in

Each of the carpels or the raspberry and blackberry is a

In the raspberry the In the

drupe, or drupelet.

entire fruit separates

from the torus, leaving

the torus on the plant.

blackberry and dewberry the fruit

adheres to the torus, and the two
are

removed together when the

^^^---'

266.

fruit is picked.

Diagram of The a pear. reeeptacle is

a,

and

the

ACCESSORY FRUITS. When ^es. Hip of rose. pericarp b. the pericarp and some other part grow together, the fruit An example is said to be accessory or reinforced (2^6).
297.

267.

Apple flowers.

268.

Young ppl

fruiti.

ACCESSORY FRUITS
is

155

the strawberry (Fig. 264).

torus,

enlarged
ill

The edible part is a greatly and the pericarps are akenes imbedded

it.

These akenes are commonly called seeds.

Various kinds of reinforced fruits have received
special names.

298.

One

of these

is

the hip, Fig. 2C5.

is

characteristic of

roses,

In this case, the torus

deep and hollow, like an urn, and the separate akenes are borne

The mouth of the reclose, and the walls sometimes become flesh}^ the
inside
it.

ceptacle

may

fruit
269.

may then be mistaken

The a pome.

for

Pepo of squash.
is

a berry.

fruit of the pear,

apple, and quince

five

known

as

In this case the

united carpels are

completely buried in the hollow

torus,

ripe fruit, while the pistils

and the torus makes most of the edible part of the are represented by the core (Fig. 266). Fig. 267 shows the apple in bloom; Fig. 268 shows young fruits, only one having formed in each clusIn the lower lefthand flower of Fig. 267, note that the
fall.

ter.

sepals do not

Observe the sepals on the top of the

In the plum flower
free
pistil sits

torus (apex of the fruit) in Fig. 268.

(Fig. 194),

in the hollow imagine the pistil and torus grown together, and something like a pome might result. The fruit of pumpkin, squash (Fig. 269), melon and cucumber is a pepo. The outer wall is torus, but the sepals do not persist, and the fruit is normally 3-loculed (although the partitions may disappear as the fruit

note that the

torus:

270.

Winged

ripens).
299.

seed of

GYMNOSPERMOUS FRUITS.
is

In

pines,

sp^cl^^

spruces, and their kin, there

no

fruit in the sense in

there is

which the word is used in the preceding pages, because no ovary. The ovules are naked or uncovered, in

156

FRUITS
young cone, and they have The pollen falls directly on the
into a seed (Fig
is

the axils of the scales of the

neither style nor stigma.

month

of the ovule.

The ovule ripens

is

270) which

usually winged.

Because the

ovule

not borne in a sac or ovary, these

plants are called

gymnosperms

(Greek for
'/C-fVc^
","
-'!-'
"

"naked seeds").
class;

All the true cone-bearing plants

are
of this
also

certain

-'''i.
^;i^

other plants as red cedar, juniper, yew.

The plants
sometimes

are monoedioecious.

-*"":

cious

or

\^
;

rs^^
v^-"

The staminate flowers are mere naked stamens borne beneath

scales,
in

1^
71. Pistillate

small yellow catkins

cone

of

Norway

This tree
the

is

commonest

planted
greens.

spruce. one of of ever-

which soon fall. The pistillate flowers are naked ovules beneath scales on cones which persist
(Figs. 271, 272).

Pistillate

cone of white
pine.

What is a fruit, as understood by the botanist ? a loeule ? What are simple, compound, and accessory or reinforced fruits ? Define pericarp. Pod. What are dehiscent and indehiscent Define akene. Follicle. fruits? What is a samara or key-truit ?
Review.
is

What

Legume.
Silicle ?

Capsule.

Apical dehiscence.

Berry?

Explain septicidal and loculieidal dehiscence. Basal deniscenee. What is a pyxis? Silique ? Drupe? Drupelet? Explain an aggregate fruit.

Explain the fruit of strawberry, rose, apple, squash. fruit of pines and spruces?

What

is

the

Note.

Fully mature fruits are best for study,

For comparison,

particularly

if it is

desired to see dehiscence.

pistils

and partially

grown fruits should be had at the same time. If the fruits are not ripe enough to dehisce, they may be placed in the sun to dry. In the school it is well to have a collection of fruits for study. The specimens may be kept in glass jars. The following diagram will aid the pupil to remember some of the fruits to which particular names have been given. He must be
warned, however, that the diagrnin does not express the order of evoViUon of the various kinds. He should nlso remember that there are

REVIEW ON FRUITS
many common
names.
fruits

157
and these
slioiild

which answer to no

definition,

be studied and compared with the forms which have received definite

akene (indehiscent)
Simple
I>ry pericarps
.
.

follicle

(dehiscent)

legume (dehiscent)

Compound
Pericarps
-

septicidal dehiscence
loeulicidal dehiscence

(capsufe)
apical deliiscencc.
r

berry

[Pyxis

Flesluj pericarps

\
[

drupe
drnpelet

-^fjfn'eiia te

pericarj)s
r

strawberry
hip

ArcEssoRY Fruits

Dome
I

Gymnospermous or Cone Fruits

Autumn

fruits.

CHAPTER XXII
DISPERSAL OF SEEDS
300. It
is

to the plant's advantage to have its seeds

It

distributed as widely as possible.

has a better chance

of surviving in the struggle for exis-

tence.

It

gets

Many

seeds
as

away from competition. and fruits are of such

to

character

increase

their chances of wide dispersal.

The
of

commonest

Vi
l|
\
,

means

dissemination
fruits

may
Explosive fruits of

be classed under four

:

A
/|

l^eads

explosive
Inj Inj

pod\'s%hownaT?.''Thf

transportation transportation
\)UTS

wind;
hirds
*^V

/f
\J

pod

6\'^ThTsrltx'?eof\he is seen at a.

801. EXPLOSIVE FRUITS. Some pods open with explosive force and scatter the seeds. Even beans and everlasting peas (Fig. 246) do this. More marked

>k

^^s
%,

^
^/^/

examples are the locust, witch hazel garden balsam wild jewel weed or impatiens, violet, and the oxalis
, ,

AM^
/^/f

JF
274.

(Fig. 273).

The

oxalis is
1

winsed seeds
of catalpa.

common
in

in several species

the

wild and
is

in

cultivation.

of

them
273

known
the

as

One wood -sorrel.

yellow

Fig.
Wind-blown
fruits

shows

common

of dandelion.

oxalis.

The pod opens

(158)

loculicidally

WIND - TRAVELERS
The
takes
elastic

159

tissue

suddenly contracts

when dehiscence

and the seeds are thrown violently. The squirting cucumber is easily grown in a garden (procure seeds of seedsmen), and the fruits discharge the seeds with great force, thj-owing them many feet.
place,

276.

Thistledo

liifjh

in tlie air.

302.

WIND-TRAVELERS. Wind-transported

of two general kinds;

which are provided with wings, as the flat seeds of catalpa (Fig, 274) and conebearing trees (Fig. 270) and the samaras of ash, elm,

those

seeds

are

160

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS

277.

Tlie

expanding balloons of the milkweed.

and maple; those which have feathery buoys or parachutes to enable them to float in the air. Of the latter kind are the fruits of many composites, in which the pappus is copious and soft. Dandelion (Fig.
tulip-tree, ailanthus,

DISPERSAL BY BIRDS

161

The silk of 275) and thistle (Fig. 27G) are examples. the milkweed (Fig. 277) has a similar office, and also the
wool of the cat-tail (Fig. 278).
of the willow

Recall the cottony seeds

and poplar. 303. DISPERSAL BY BIRDS. Seeds of berries and of other small fleshy fruits are carried far and wide bybirds.

The pulp

is

digested,

but

the

seeds

are

not

injured.

Note how the cherries, raspberries, blackberries,

and Juueberries spring up in the fencerows, where the birds rest. Some berries and drupes persist far into winter, when they supply food to cedar birds, robins, and the winter birds. Fig. 279. Red cedar is distributed by birds. Many of these pulpy fruits are agreeable as human food, and some of them have been greatly enlarged or "improved" by the
arts of

the cultivator.

process by which such result

Consult paragraph 379 for the may have been attained

304. BURS. Many seeds and fruits bear spines, hooks, and hairs which adhere tc the coats of animals and to

162

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS
clothing.

,iiiil:-''"''l'"

The burdock has an

with
the

involucre

hooked
fruits

scales

containing
Fig. 280.
itous

inside

an involucre.

The clotbur is also Both are compos

plants, allied to thistles

but the whole head, rather than

the

separate In

fruits,

is

trans

some compositous fruits the pappus takes the form of hooks and spines, as in the " Spanish bayonets " and " pitchported.

forks."
are

Fruits of various kinds

as "stick tights," as

known
the

agrimony and hound's Those who walk in tongue. the woods in late summer and fall are aware that plants have means of disseminating themof
selves.

Fig. 281.
to

If it

is

im-

possible

identify

the

burs

which one finds on clothing, the seeds specimens of the plant may then be grown.
Review.
to

may

be planted and

"What
to
?

the

plant

advantage is it have its seeds

widely dispersed leading ways in

plosive fruits.
ers.

What
which

are

the

fruits

and
ex-

seeds are dispersed?

Name some

Describe wind-travel-

"What seeds are carried by birds t

Describe some bur with which you

are familiar.

Note.
ported.

This

lesson will suggest

"''''WJ^(raWwl?Bl^^
280.

other ways in which seeds are trans-

Nuts are buried by squirrels

The cow

is

carrying burdocks

fiEVlEW ON SEED DISPERSAL

for food, but
if

163
The seeds
of

they are not eaten they

may

grow.

nnnv

yilants aie

blown on the snow.

plant.

The old

stalks of weeds, stand-

may serve to disseminate the Seeds are carried by water down the streams and along shores. About woollen mills strange plants often spring up from seed brought in the fleeces.
ing through the winter, the winds.

Sometimes the entire plant is rolled for miles before Such plants are "tumble-weeds." Exam-

are Eussian thistle (Fig. 99), hair-grass or tumble-grass (Panieum capillare), cyclone plant (Cyclolomaplatyphyllum), and white amai'anth

(Amaranthus albus).
JM
of
sti.

About seaports
is

strange plants are often found, having been

ilui^
I

luk-.

introduced in the earth that

used in

sliips

for ballast.

These plants are usuallv known as "ballast plants."

persist long.

Most

them do not

A ziiK' lined box may be fitted to the school-room window and used us a receptacle for plants. A faucet under one corner will drain off the accmnnlated water. Geranium, coleus, grevillea, some begonias, and other plants may be grown in the conditions which are present in most schoolrooms. If the plants become sick, take them to the florist's

CHAPTER

XXIIl

GERMINATION
305.

THE SEED. We have found

is

(259) that by the pro-

cess of fertilization a seed

formed.

The seed contains a

miniature plant or embryo. The embryo usually has three parts which have received names: the little steralet or caulicle; the seed-leaf or cotyledon (usually 1 or 2) tlie bud or plumule lying between or above the cotyledons. These parts are well seen in the common bean (Fig. 282), particularly when the seed has been soaked for a few hours. One of the large cotyledons comprising half of the bean is shown at r. The caulicle is at c. The plumule is at a.
;

bean*^r,cotyie^
a^'piuinuye'^

The cotyledons are attached at /: tMs poitit IS the first

plumule
IS
ttt

to the caulicle

node, and the

hrstno

e.

the second node.

306. Every seed is provided with food, to support the germinating plant. Commonly this food is starch. Tlie food may be stored in the cotyledons, as in bean, pea, squash; or outside the cotyledons, as in castor bean, pine, Indian corn. When the food is around the embryo, it is

usually called endosperm.

307.

The embryo and endosperm

Over the point of the

are inclosed within a

covering made of two or more

seed-coats.

la3'ers

and known

as the

minute hole or a thin place in the coats known as the micropyle. This is the point at which the pollen -tube entered the forming ovule and through which the caulicle breaks in
caulicle is a

germination.

The micropyle

is

shown
its

at

in Fig.

283.

The

scar where the seed broke from

(164)

funiculus or stalk

THE SEED
is

165

the hilum.

It

occupies a third of the length of the bean

are always present

in Fig. 283.

The hilum and micropyle

in seeds, but they are not always close together.

In

many

cases

it is

difficult to identify the

its

micropyle in the dormant

seed, but

location

is

at once

shown by

the

protruding caulicle as germination begins. Opposite the micropyle in the beau

(at the other

an eleva- Extemafparts of ^*"formed by a union of the funiculus or seed -stalk with the seedcoats and through it food was transferred for the development of the seed, but it is now functionless. 308. Seeds differ wonderfully in size, shape, color, and These other characteristics. They also vary in longevity.

end of the hilum)

is

tion

known

as the raphe.

This

is

characteristics are peculiar to the species or kind.

Some

seeds maintain

life

only a few weeks or even days, whereas

In special

others will "keep" for ten or twenty years.

cases, seeds

have retained vitality longer than this limit, but the stories that live seeds, several thousand years old, have been taken from mummies are unfounded.
309.

GERMINATION. The embryo

it

is

not dead:
is

it

is

only dormant.

WJicn supplied until moisture, warmth, and

oxygen (air),
tion.

awakes and groivs: this growth

lives for a

germina-

The embryo

time on the stored food,

but gradually the plantlet secures a foothold in the soil and gathers food for itself. When the plantlet is finally
able to shift for itself, germination is complete.

swells.

The germinating seed first absorbs wafer, and The starchy matters gradually become soluble. The seed-coats are ruptured, the caulicle and plumule emerge.
310.

During this process the seed respires freely, throwing off carbon dioxid (CO2). Fill a tin box or large -necked bottle with dry beans or peas, then add water; note how much
they swell.
third
full

Secure two fruit- jars.

of

Fill

one of them a

beans and keep them moist.

Allow the

166

GEEMINATION
In a day or two insert a lighted

other to remain empty.

splinter or taper into each.

In the empty jar the taper

burns:
In
the

it

contains
jar

oxygen.
taper

seed

the

goes out:
replaced

the air has

been

by carbon dioxid.
is

Usually there

a percepti-

ble rise in temperature in

284.

The youug

roots are not able to gain

mass of germinating seeds. 311. The caulicle usually elongates, and from its lower end rOOtS are emitted. The
elongating caulicle
is

a foothold.

known
is,

as the h3T)ocotyl ("below the cotyledons").

That

the

hypocotyl

is

that part of the stem of the plantlet lying

between the roots and the cotyledon. The general direction oj the young hypocotyl or emerging caulicle is downwards. As soon as roots form it becomes fixed, and its subsequent growth tends to raise the cotyledons above the ground, as in the bean. When cotyledons rise into the air, germination
is

^^^i^

said

to

be

epigeal
Gemiiiuitiouof beau.

("above the earth"). Bean and pumpkin are examples. When

286.

the hypocotyl does not elongate greatly

285.

Cotyledons of g rating bp;\n spread apart to show elongating caulicle and plumule.

and the cotyledons remain under ground, the germination is hypogeal " beneath Pea and the earth " ) ( gCQ^lgt runner bean are examples.
.

liard

surface,

cot vl

When the germinating seed lies on a on closely compacted soil, the hypoand rootlets mav not be able to seeiire a foothol<l
as

GERMINATION OF BEAN

167

and they assume grotesque forms, Fig. 284. Try this with peas and beans. be312. The first internode above the cotyledons is tweeu the cotyledons and the plumule the epicotyl. It elevates the plumule into the air, and tlie pi immle- leaves expand into the ^^j sprouting of

first

true

leaves
first

of

the

castor bean.

plant.

These

true leaves, however,

may

313.

be very unlike the later leaves. GERMINATION OF BEAN. The

common
282)
the
288.

bean, as we have seen

(Fig.
all

has cotyledons which

hypocotyl
or

occupy

the space inside the seed -coats.

When
caulicle

elongating

emerges, the plumule-leaves have begun

Germination of eas Endospern tor bean.

to

enlarge and

to

unfold (Fig. 285).

The hypocotyl elongates rapidly. One The it is held by the roots. other is held by the seed -coats in the It, therefore, takes the form of soil. a loop, and its central part "comes up" first (a, Fig. 286). Presently
end of
it

draws the cotyledons out of the and then it straightens These and the cotyledons expand.
seed-coats,
persist for

290.

cotyledons or "halves of the beau,"

Germination complete in castor bean

some time, (&, Fig. 286). They often become green and probably perform some function of foliage. Be(tause of its large size, Lima bean shows
all

these parts well.

314.

GERMINATION OF CASTOR BEAN.

castor

Endoistor l,ean. sperm at o, o cotyle;

In

the

beau

the

hilum and

<li>n at b.

niicropyle are at the smaller end (Fig.

168
287).
that

GERMINATION
The beau "comes up" with
the
hypocotj-l

a loop, which indicates

greatly elongates.
seed,

On examining
it

germinating

however,

will

be

found

that the cotyledons are contained inside a fleshy

body or sac

This sac is the en(, Fig. 288). dosperm. To its inner surface the thin, veiny cotyledons are ver}" closely appressed, absorbing its substance
(Fig. 289).
in
size

The cotyledons increase

they reach the
air

as

(Fig,

291.

Sprouting Indian corn. Hilum at h ;

!I2.

Kernel of Indian corn.

Caulicle
b;

290), and become functional leaves.

315.

at

cotyledon
;

mieropyle
at d.

plumule

GERMINATION

OF

INDIAN CORN. Soak kernels of corn. Note that the mieropyle and hilum are at the smaller end (Fig. 291). Make a longitudinal section through Fig. 292 shows the narrow diameter
;

it.

The

single cotyledon

is

at a, the

293.

Indian corn.
:

Caulicle at c

roots

at p. The plumule at p. The food is stored cotyledon remains in the seed. both in the cotyledon and as endosperm, chiefly the latThe emerging shoot is the plumule, with a sheathter. The root is emitted from ing leaf ip, Fig. 293).

caulicle at b, the

emerging at m; plumule

the tip of the caulicle,

c.

The

caulicle

is

held in a

sheath

(formed mostly from

the

seed -coats),

and

some
^_

of the roots escape through the

this

upper end of
293).

sheath {m, Fig.

elongates,
if

tp^^V^^^'"
'^f(^w^

The

epicotyl

paris
it

ticularly

the seed
if

planted deep or
204.

Indian corn.

o.

plumule;

is

kept for some time

In Fig. 294
epicotyl has elon-

to p, epicotyl.

confined.

the

gated from n to p.

The
its

true

other leaves grow from

sheath.

plumule -leaf is at o, but In Fig. 295 the roots

KEVIEW ON GERMINATION
are

169
eaulicle-

seen
c,

emerging from the two ends of the

sheath,

w;
is

the
at 0.

epicotyl

has

grown

to

2^;

the

first

plumnle-leaf

Eeview. What does a seed contain? What do you understand by the embryo? What are its parts? Where is the food in the seed?

What

are the seed-coats?

What

is

the micropyle?

Hilum?
the

How may

the position of

determined?
sociated?

How
What

micropyle be do seeds differ?

differences as-

With what are these

is

germination?

Under what conditions does a seed

germinate? When is germination complete? What is the first phenomenon of germination? Explain the relation to O and CO2. Define hypo cotyl. Epicotyl. Hypogeal and epigeal germination. What becomes Explain germinaof the plumule? tion in a seed which you have
studied.

Note. Few subjects connected with the study of plant-life are so useful in school -room demonstrations as germination. The pupil should prepare the soil, plant the seeds, water them, and care for the plants. Plant in pots or shallow boxes. Cigar-boxes are excellent. The depth of planting should be
two
the seeds.

times the diameter of is well to begin the planting of seeds at least ten days in advance of the lesson, and to
to three
It

Germination

make

four or five different plantings

is complete, p, top of epicotyl o, phimiile-leaf m, roots; c, lower roots.

;

at intervals.

day or two before the study is taken up, put seeds to soak in moss or cloth. The pupil then has a series from swollen seeds to complete germination, and all the steps can be made out. Dry seeds should be had for comparison.

Good seeds
Cftstor

for study are those detailed in the lesson,

bean,

bean, cor^.

Make drawings and

notes of

all

the events in the

Natural planting of the fruits of Norway maple.

297.

The beginning

NOTE ON GERMINATION

17]

srermination. Note the effects of unusual conditions, as planting too deep and too shallow and different sides up. For hypogeal germination, use the garden pua, scarlet runner or Dutch case-knife bean, acorn, horse-chestnut. Squash seeds are excellent for germination studies, because the cotyledons become green and leafy and germination is rapid. Its germination, as also that of the scarlet runner boan, is explained in "Lessons with Plants." Onion is excellent, except that it germinates too slowly. In order to study the root development of germinating plantlets, it is well to provide a deeper box with a glass side against which the seeds are planted. Observe the germination of any seed which is common about the premises. Where elms and maples are abundant, the germination of tiieir seeds may be studied in lawns and along fences. Figs. 296 to 303 suggest observations on the Norway maple, which is a common ornamental tree. When studying germination, the pupil should note the bifferences in shape between cotyledons and plumule-leaves and between plumule-leaves and the normal leaves of cbe plant. Fig. 143. Make

drawings.

Germinatiou of beans and peas.

CHAPTER XXIV
PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS
and which the plant is propagated. There are other plants, however, which produce no seeds, and these plants are more numerous than the seed -bearing plants. These plants propagate by means of spores, which are generative cells, usually simple, containing no emhryo. These spores are very small, and sometimes are not visible to the naked eye. 317. Prominent amongst the spore -propagated plants are ferns. The common Christmas fern (so-called because it remains green during winter) is shown in Fig. 304. The plant has no trunk. The leaves spring directly from the ground. The leaves of ferns are called
316.

The plants thus

far studied produce flowers;

the flowers produce seeds by

means

of

fronds.

'V
.

v^"^

h-

%.

ftlh
Jfflll
*
'

other
"'^^

leaves

They vary in shape, as Compare Fig. do.

in this chap-

^^^ ^^ pictures

'v^^^^^^^^^m}.

ter.

Some
be
are

of the fronds are seen

top.
If

to

narrower at the
it

these

examined more closely

will be seen that the

(Fig. 305)
leaflets

are

contracted

and

are

densely
^ciA 304.

covered
bodies.

beneath

with

rv, t.^ Christmas f^ fern. T^^ Dryoptens

;

^.o

brown
cases.

These bodies are

acrostichoides

known

also as

COllcctioUS of Sporangia Or SpOrC^

^''"^'^'^-

318.

The sporangia
as

are

collected

into

little

groups,

known
sorus
is

sori

(singular,

sorus)

or

fruit -dots.

Each
as an

covered with a thin scale or shield,

(172)

known

STRUCTUKE OF FERNS
indusium.
its

173

This indusium separates from the frond at and the sporangia are exposed. Not all ferns have indusia. The polypode (Figs.
edges,
306,

307)

does

not:

the

sori

are

naked.

In the brake (Fig. 308) and

maiden -hair (Fig. 309) the edge of the frond turns over and forms an indusium. In some ferns (Fig. 310) an entire frond becomes contracted
to

cover the

sporangia.
is

In

other

cases the indusium

ering,

a sac -like cov-

which

splits

(Fig. 311).

The sporangium or spore case of a fern is a more or less .,1 IT, IT J 1, globular body and usually with a
319.
stalk
spores.

305.

Fruiting frond of ChristSori at a.

its

,as fern.

One
t.

(Fig.

307).
ripe

If
it

contains

fJte

somswitii

indusium, at

spores are set free. Lay a mature fruiting frond of any fern on white paper, top side up, and allow it to remain in a dry, warm The spores will discharge on the paper. place. 320. In a moist, warm place the spores germmate. They produce a small, flat, thin, green, more or less heart-shaped membrane (Fig. 312) This is the prothallus. Sometimes the prothallus is
.

When

bursts and the

/
1

an inch or more across, but oftener

it is

less

than one-fourth
this size.
It is

306.

Common

polypode

fern.-

307. Sori

Polypodium vulgare.

and sporangium of polypode.

commonly unknOWU CXCCpt

^q
botauists.

Prothalli

may

often be found in greenhouses where ferns

the moist stone or brick walls, or

are grown.

Look on

174
on the firm

PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS

soil of

undisturbed pots and beds.

Or spores

may
of

be sown in a damp,

warm

place.

321.

On the under side of the prothallus two kinds organs are borne. These are the archegonium and
the antheridium.

These organs are mi-

nute specialized parts of the prothallus.

Their positions on a particular prothallus

3u8.

are
.

shown
r.

at a
i

and

in

Fig. 312,

but lu somc lems tlicy are OH Separate lute edges of the leaf. The spermprothalU (plant dioBcious) cells escape from the antheridium and in the water which collects on the prothallus are carried to the archegonium,
underneath the revo.

The brake

fniits

tvhere fertilization taJces place.

From

a fertilized

arche-

gonium a plant grows, and this plant becomes the "fern." In most cases the prothallus dies soon after the fern
plant begins to grow.
322.

The

fern plant, arising from the fertilized egg in

plant, each

the archegonium, becomes a perennial

year

producing spores from its fronds, as we have seen; but which are merely detached special kinds of these spores produce the prothallic phase of the fern plant, from cells

which
arise.
tilized

new

individuals
is

A
but

fern
once

ferits

in

lifetime.

This alternais

tion of phases

called

the alternation of gen-

erations.
fertilized

The
plant
;

first
is

oi-

the
^''^^'^

gametophyte ond or non

plant
is

the sec-

fertilized

'^''^'

margins of a maidenhair frond.

the sporophyte {phyton

is

Greek for "plant").

all

323.

The

alternation of

generations runs

through

the vegetable kingdom, although there are some groups

of plants in which
it

is

very obscure or apparently want-

WHAT
mg.
It is

FLOWER

IS

175
In alga?
the

very marked in ferns and mosses.

the

(including

seaweeds)

the

gametophyte

makes

"plant," as the non-botanist knows

it.

There

is

a general tendency, In

the evolution of the vegetable lingdoni,

for the gametophyte to lose its relative importance and for the sporophyte
to

hecome larger and more highly deIn the seed -bearing plants

veloped.

is the only one seen by the non -botanist. The gametophyte stage is of short duration and the parts are small it is
:

the sporophyte generation

confined to the time

p

SIO. Fertile

and

sterile

froml?

..,.

..

of the sensitive fern.

or fertilization.

324.

or the "plant" as

The sporophyte of seed -plants, we know it, produces

spores

one kind being called pollengrains and the other kind embryo-sacs. The pollen -spores are borne in sporan-

sac like indusium.

en lied anthers.
cell, is

^.-^^ ^ff\nQh. are United into what are The embryo -sac, which contains the eggA borne in a sporangium known as an ovule.

gametophytic stage is present in both pollen and embryo -sac: fertilization takes place,

and a sporothis

phyte

arises.

Soon

sporo-

phyte becomes dormant, and is then known as an embryo. The embryo is packed away within
tight-fitting coats,

and the entire

(fllnp'^tm
312.

body

is

the seed.

When

the con-

Prothallus of a fern.

Enlarged.
6.

ditions are right the seed grows,

Archegonia at a; antheridia at

and the sporophyte grows

utility of the alternation of

into herb, bush, or tree.

The

generations

is

not understood.

176

PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS

325. It happens that the spores of seed-beariug plants

are borne

amongst a mass of
:

specially developed leaves

known

as floivers

therefore these plants have been

known

as the flowering plants.

Some

of

the leaves are devel-

oped as envelopes (calyx, corolla), and others as sporebearing parts, or sporophylls (stamens, pistils).
also be borne
line of

But the

spores of the lower plants, as of ferns and mosses,

may

in specially developed foliage, so that the

demarcation between flowering plants and flowernot so definite as was once supposed. The one definite distinction between these two classes of plants is the fact that one class produces seeds and the other does not. The seed -plants are now often called spermaphytes, but there is no single coordinate term to set off It is quite as well, for those which do not bear seeds.
less plants is

popular purposes, to use the old terms,

the seed -bearing

phenogams

for

plants and

cryptogams

for the others.

These terms have been objected to in recent years because their etymology does not express
literal facts {phe-

nogam

refers to the fact that the flowers are

showy, and

cryptogam to the fact that the parts are hidden), but the terms represent distinct ideas in classification. Nearly
the language has grown away from its The cryptogams include three great series of plants the Thallophytes or algee, lichens and fungi, the Bryophytes or moss -like plants, the Pteridophytes or

every word

in

etymology.

fern -like plants.

families.

In each of these series there are

many

See Chapter

XXV.
Describe the appearance of some

Review.
angia?

What
is

is

a spore?

fern plant which you have studied.

What

a sorus?

Indusium?
plant

How

does the

new "fern"

What are the spores and sporWhat grows from the spore? arise? What is meant by the phrase
Define gametophyte and sporophyte.

"alternation of generations"?
this point of view.

Desci'ibe the alternation in flowering plants.

What

is

Explain the flower from the significance of the word sperma-

phytet

Contrast phenogam and cryptogam.

NOTE ON CKYPTOGAMS
Note.

177

All the details of

fertilization

and of the development of

the generations are omitted from this book, because they are subjects
for specialists

and demand more

ti-ainiug in research

the high-school pupil can properly give to plant study.

are perhaps as many as phenogams, and for this urged thnt they are most p.roper subjects for study in the school. Thia position is untenable, however, for the best plant subjects for youth are those which mean most to his life. It is said, also, that they are best for the beginner because their life-processes are relatively simple in many eases; but the initial study of plants should be undertaken for the purpose of quickening the pupil's perception of common and familiar problems rather than for the purpose of

methods than Cryptogams reason it has been

developing a technical knowledge of a given science

Tree ferns are

iiiluibitants of the tropics.

They are often grown

in choice

greenhouses.

CHAPTER XXV
STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS
The
special

the use of the

advanced pupil who has acrinired skill in compound microscope, may desire to make

more extended excursions into the cryptogaraous orders. The following plants, selected as examples in various
groups, will serve as a beginning.

ALG^
comprise most of the green floating "st-um" which 3overs the surface of ponds and other quiet waters. The masses of plants are often called "frog spittle," Others are attached to stones, pieces of wood, and other objects submerged in streams and lakes, and many are found on moist ground and on dripping rocks. Aside from these, all the plants commonly known They ai-e iiiliabas seaweeds belong to this category.
algae itants of salt water.

The

The simplest forms

fission.

of

algas

consist

of

single

spherical cell, which multiplies by repeated division or

Most of the forms found in fresh water are filamentous, i. e., the plant-body consists of long threads, Such a plant-body is termed either simple or branched. a thallus. This term applies to the vegetative body of all plants which are not differentiated into stem and

Such plants are known as tliullophytes (325). All and are able to assimilate carbon dioxid from the air. This distinguishes them from
leaves.
algae contain chlorophyll,
813.

Sniroqiira. One of the most common forms of the ^ *''' green algae is spirogyra (Fig. 313). This plant usually There"*^ a forms the greater part of the floating green mass on nueleusata. ponds. The filamentous character of the thallus can be seen with the naked eye or with a hand-lens, but to study it carefully a microscope magnifying two hundred diameters or more should

Strand of spirogyra,

the fungi.

snowing
the
ehloro-

(178)

LGiE

179

be used. Tlie thread is divided into long cells by cross-walls wbieh, according to the species, are either straight or curiously fokled (Fig. 314). The chlorophyll is arranged in beautiful spiral bands near the wall of each cell. From the character of these bands the phint takes its name. Each cell is provided with a nucleus The nucleus is suspended near and other protoplasm
.

the center of the cell, a. Fig. 313, by delicate strands

of protoplasm radiating toward the wall

and terminat-

ing at certain points in the chlorophyll band.

The

remainder of the protoplasm forms a thin layer lining The interior of the cell is filled with the wall. The protoplasm and nucleus cannot be cell-sap. easily seen, but if the plant is stained with a dilute alcoholic solution of eosin (146) they become clear. Spirogyra is propagated vegetatively by the breaking off of parts of the threads, which continue to grow Resting- spores, which may remain as new plants. dormant for a time, are formed by a process known as cunjugation. Two threads lying side by side send out short projections, usually from all the celis of a long
series (Fig. 314). The projections or processes from opposite cells grow toward each other, meet and fuse,
1.

Conjugation
spirogyra.

of

Ripe zygospores

on the left; a, forming a connecting tube between the cells. The connecting tubes. protoplasm, nucleus, and chlorophyll band of one cell now pass througli this tube, and unite with the contents of the other The entire mass then becomes surrounded by a thick cellulose cell. wall, thus completing the resting -spore, or zygospore (Fig. 314, s). Vancheria is another alga common in shallow water and on damp

The tliallus is much branclied, but the threads are not divided by cross-walls as in spirogyra. The plants are attached by means of colorless root-like organs which are much like the root-hairs of the
soil.

higher plants: these are rhizoids.

The chlorophyll

is

in the

form of

grains scattered through the thread.

Vaucheria has a special mode of vegetative reproduction by means or swarm-spores. These are formed singly in a short, enlarged lateral branch known as the sporangium. When the sporangium bursts the entire contents escape, forming a single large swarm-spore, which swims about by means of numerous lashes or cilia on its surface. The swarm-spores are so large that they can be seen
of

swimming spores

with the naked eye.

to rest

After
of

swimming about

for

some time they coma

is

and germinate, producing a new plnnt.

resting- spores of vaucheria

The formation

accomplished

180

STUDIES

IN

CRYPTOGAMS

315, a.

by means of special organs, oogonia Fig. 315. o, and antheridia Fig. Both of these are specially developed branches from the thallus. The antheridia are nearly cylindrical, and curved toward the oogonia. The upper part of an autheridium is cut off by a cross-wall, and within
it

numerous

ciliated

sperm-

cells

are formed. These escape

^15.

Thread of vauclieria with oogouia and antheridia.

by the ruptured apex of the antheridium. The oogonia are more enlarged than the ancne side

theridia and have a beak-like of the

pro,iection turned a little to

They are separated from the thallusthread by a cross-wall, and contain a single large green cell, the egg-cell. The apex of the oogonium is dissolved, and through the opening the sperm-cells
apex.
enter.

Fertilization is thus accomplished.

After ferti316.

lization the egg-cell

becomes invested with a thick wall

Kipe oospore
of vaufheriu.

and
/

is

thus converted into a resting- spore, the oospore

1/.V

(Fig. 316),

T7I-

FUNGI
Some forms
of fungi are familiar to every one.

Mushrooms and

toadstools, with their varied forms

and

colors, are

woods, and pastures.

tightly sealed fruit jars,

In every household the

common in fields, common moulds are

familiar intruders, appearing on old bread, vegetables, and even within

where they form a

felt-like layer dusted over

with blue, yellow, or black powder (181). The strange occurrence of these plants long mystified people, who thought they were productions of the dead matter

upon

whicii they grew,

but

now we know

that a mould, like any other

it must from something which is analogous to a The "seed" in this ease is n, spore. Tiie seed. term spore is applied to the minute reproduc-

plant, cannot originate spontaneously;

start

tive bodies of all flowerless plants.

317.

spore

is

JIucor mucedo, show

ing habit.

a very simple structure, usually of only one

plant

cell,

whose special function

is to

repro-

duce the plant. A spore may be produced by a vegetative process growing out from the ordinai-y plant tissues), or it may be the re(^

sult of a fertilization process (316).

FUNGI
Mould.

181
is

One of these moulds, Mucor mucedo, which

decaying fruits and vegetables,
is

very com-

somemould appears as a dense mass of long white hairs, often over an inch high, standing erect from the fruit or vegetable upon which it is growing. The life of this mueor begins with a minute rounded spore [a, Fig. 318), which lodges on the
all

mon on

shown

in Fig. 317,

what magnified.

When

fruiting, this

decaying material. When the spore germinates, it sends out a delicate thread which grows rapidly in length and forms very many branches which 318. Spores of nmcor some germinating. soon permeate every part of the substance on which the plant grows {b, Fig. 318). One of these threads is termed a hypha. All the threads together form the mycelinm of the fungus (180). The mycelium disorganizes the material in which it grows, and thus nourIt corresponds physiologically to ishes the mucor plant (Fig. 317).
the roots and stems of other plants.

When the mycelium is about two days old it begins to form the long fruiting stalks which we first noticed. To study them, use a compound microscope magnifying about two hundred diameters. One of the stalks, magnified, is shown in Fig. 319, a. It consists of a rounded head, the sporangium, sp, supported on a long, delicate stalk, the sporangiophore, st. The stalk is separated from the sporangium by a wall which is formed at the base of the sporangium. This wall,
however, does not extend straight across the thread, but it arches up into the sporangium like an inverted pear. It is known
as the columella,
is c.

When

the sporangium

placed in water, the wall immediately dissolves and allows hundreds of spores, which were formed in the cavity within
the sporangium, to escape, 6
left of the fruit is

All that

is

the stalk, with the pear-

shaped columella at its summit, c. The spores which have been set free by the hreaking of the sporangium wall are now

by the wind and other agents. Those which lodge in favorable places begin to grow immediately and reproduce
scattered

Mupor. a, sporangium; b, sporangium bursting;

c,

columella.

the fungus.

The others soon The mucor may continue

perish.
to reproduce itself in this

way

indefi-

nitely,
tall

but these spores are very delicate and usually die if they do not on favorable ground, so that the fungus is provided with another

182

STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

means of carrying itself over unfavorable seasons, as winter. Tliis is accomplished by means of curious thick- walled resting- spores or zygospores. The zygospores are formed on the mycelium buried within the substance on which the plant grows. They originate in
the following manner Two threads which lie near together send out short branches, which grow toward each other and finally meet (Fig. 320). The walls at
:

the ends, a, then disappear, allowing the contents

to flow together.

At the same time, however, two

h, b,
c,

other walls are formed at points farther back,

separating the short section,

of the thread.

from the remainder

increases in size

This section

now

and becomes covered with a thick, dark brown wall ornamented with thickened tubercles. The zygospore is now mature and, after a period of rest, it germinates, either producing a sporangium directly or growing out as mycelium. The zygospores of the mucors form one of the most interesting and instructive objects among the
320.

however, very difficult to mucors, Sporodinia grandis, germinating zygo- may be frequently found in summer growing on spore on the left. toadstools. This plant usually produces zygospores, which are formed on the aerial mycelium. The zygospores are large enough to be recognized with a hand-lens. The material may be
Muoor showing
riglit

lower plants.

They

are,

formation of zygospore on the

obtain.

One

of the

dried and kept for winter study, or the zygospores

for

may be

prepared

permanent microscopic mounts in the ordinary way. fVillow mildew. Most of the moulds are saprophytes (181). There are many other fungi which are paras'tic on living plants and animals. Some of them have i-nteresting and complicated life-histories, undergoing many changes bofore the original spore is again produced. The willow mildew and the common rust of wheat will serve
to illustrate the habits of

parasitic fungi.

The willow mildew, Uncinula salicis, forms 321. Colonies of willow mildew. white downy patches on the leaves of willows (Fig. 321). These patches consist of numerous interwoven threads which may be recognized as the mycelium The mycelium in this case lives on the surface of the of the fungus.

FUNGI
leaf

183
cells of

and nourishes

itself

by sending short branches into the

the loaf to absorb food-materials from them.

Numerous

sunrnier-sjwrcs are

formed on short erect branches

all

over the white surface.

One

of these branches is

shown

in Fig. 322.

When

it

has grown to a certain length,

the upper part begins to segment or di-

vide into spores which fall and are scattered by the wind.

Those falling on
all

other willows reproduce the fungus there.

This process continues

but in the later
vision is
pai-t

summer,

of the season pro-

made

to maintain the
If

through the winter.

Summer-spores of illow patches are closely mildew. August, a number of little black bodies will be seen among the threads. These little bodies are called perithecia, shown in Fig, 323. To the naked eye they appear as minute specks, but when seen under a magnification of 200 diameters they present '. very interesting appearance. They are hollow spherical bodies decorated around the out
side wilh a fringe of crook-like

mildew some of the white examined in July or

The resting-spores of the willow mildew are produced in sacs or asci inclosed within the
hairs.

leathery

perithecia.

Fig.

324

323.

Perithecium of willow mildew.

shows a cross -section of a perithecium with the asci arising The spores from the bottom. remain securely packed in the perithecia. They do not ripen in the autumn but fall to the ground with the leaf and there remain

among the dead foliage. Tiie following spring they mature and are liberated by the decay of the
securely protected
perithecia.

They

are then ready to attack the un-

folding leaves of the willow and repeat the vork

of the

summer
rust.

before.

Wheat
minis),
,,

The development
i.

of

some

of the
Section through jierithepinm of wxi-

rusts, like the

is
i.

common wheat

rust (Puecinia gra''-.

1

thnr of than ii

even more interesting and complicated i, -ij TT-i x tlie mildews. \\ heat rust is also a

low mildew.

184

STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS
The mycelium

true parasite, affecting wheat and a few other grasses.

here cannot be seen by the unaided eye, for it consists of threads which are present within the host plant, mostly in the intercellular
spaces.

These threads also send short

(180),
into

branches, or haustoria

the

neighboring cells to absorb nutriment.

The

resting- spores of

wheat rust are

325.

ori containing teleu-

produced in late summer, when they may be found in black lines breaking through the epidermis of the wheat-stalk. They are formed in masses, called sori (Fig. 325), from the ends of numerous crowded mycelial strands just beneath the epidermis of the host. The individual spores are very small and can be well studied only with high powers of the microscope (X about 400). They are brown twocelled

tospores

of wheat

326).

bodies with a thick wall (Fig. Since they are the resting- or win-

ter-spores, they are termed teleutospores ("completed spores")- They usually do not fall, but remain in the sori during winter. The following spring each cell of the teleutospore puts forth a rather stout thread, which does not grow more than several times the length of the spore and terminates in a blunt This germ-tube, pi-nmiicclium, now extremity (Fig. 327). becomes divided into four cells by cross-walls, which are formed from the top downwards. Each cell gives rise to a short, pointed branch which, in the course of a few hours, forms a single small spore at its summit. In Fig. 327 a germinating spore is drawn to show the basidium, h, divided into four cells, each producing a short branch

with a

little

sporidium,

s.

A most
the

remarkable circumstance in the

wheat rust is the fact that mycelium produced by the teleutospore can live only in barberry leaves, and it follows that if no barberry bushes are in
life-history of the

326.

the neighborhood the sporidia finally perish. Those which happen to lodge on a barberry

Teleutospore
of wheat rust.

bush germinate immediately, producing a mycelium which enters the Very soon the fungus barberry leaf and grows within its tissues. procluces a qew kind of spores on the barberry leaves. These are

FUNGI
called cecidiospores.

185

They are formed

in long ehnins in little fringed

cups, or cecidia, which appear in groups on the lower side of the leaf
(Fig. 328).

These orange or yellow

is

eeeidia are

termed cluster-cups.

In Fig. 329
^^,,,^

shown a cross-section
the

of one of the cups, outlining

328.

Leaf of barberry with cluster-cups.

it

long chains of spores, and the mycelium in the tissues. The a?eidiospores are formed in the spring, and after they have been set free some of them lodge on wheat or other grasses, where they germinate immediately. The germ-tube
enters the leaf through a stomate,

whence

spreads

among

the cells of the wheat plant.

During sum-

mer one-celled wedospores

("blight spores") are produced in a manner similar to the teleutospores. These are capable of germinating

immediately and serve to disseminate the fungus during the summer on other wheat plants or grasses (Fig. 330). Late in the season, teleutospores are again produced, completing the life cycle of the
plant.

Many rusts beside Puecinia graminis produce different sporeforms on different plants. The
phenomenon is called and was first shown
the wheat rust.
hetcroecism,

to

exist

in

Curiously enough,

the peasants of Europe had ob-

served and asserted that barberry bushes cause wheat to blight long
before science explained the relation between

the cluster-cups on barberry and the rust

relation

on wheat. The true was actually

demonstrated, as has

3L'n.

Sect

througli a cluster-cup

on

barberry

leaf.

.j.jQ

on healthy wheat is another rust, producing the curious swellings often found on the branches of red cedar trees. In the spring the teleutospores ooze out from tbe "apple" in brownish yellow masses. It has been found that these attack various fruit trees oroducing aecidia on their leaves.
j^^^^g

Uredospores of wheat rust.

since been done for

many other

rusts on their respective

^^ sowing the

jecidiospores

plants and thus producing the rust.

The cedar apple

186

STUDIES IN

CRYPTOGAMS

LICHENS
Lichens are so coiniuon everywhere that the attention of the student is sure to be drawn to them. They grow on rocks (Fig. 346),
for beginners, but a

trunks of trees, old fences, and on the earth. They are too difficult few words of explanation may be useful.
of plants,

Lichens were formerly supposed to be a distinct or separate tribe and many species have been described. They are now known to be the green cells of various species of algse, overgrown and held together (imprisoned) by the mycelium of various kinds of fungi. The result is a growth unlike either component. This association of alga and fungus is usually spoken of as syvibiosis, or mutually helpful growth, the alga furnishing some things, the fungus others, and both together being able to accomplish work which neither could do independently. By others this union is considered to be a mild form of parasitism, in which the fungus profits at the expense of the alga. As favorable to this view, the facts are cited tliat each component is able to grow independently, and that under such conditions the algal cells seem to thrive better than when imprisoned by the fungus. Lichens propagate by means of soredia, which are tiny parts separated from the body of the thalhis, and consisting of one or more algal cells overgrown with fungous threads. These are readily observed in many lichens. They also produce spores, usually ascospores, which are always the product of the fungous element, and which reproduce the lichen by germinating in the presence of algal cells, to which the hyphse immediately cling. Lichens are found in the most inhospitable places and, by means of acids which they secrete, they attack and slowly disintegrate even the hardest rocks. By makitig thin sections of the thallus with a sharp razor and examining under the compound microscope, it is easy to distinguish the two components in many lichens.

LIVERWORTS
flat, green plants usually found growand in other moist, shady places. They frequently occur in greenhouses where the soil is kept constantly wet. One of the commonest liverworts is Marchantia polymorpha, two plants of which are shown in Figs. 331, 332. The plant consists of a flat ribbonlike thallus which creeps along the soil, becoming repeatedly forked as it grows. The end of each branch is always conspicuously notched. There is a prominent midrib extending nlong the center of each

The

liverworts are peculiar,

cliffs

ing on wet

LIVERWORTS

187

branch of the thallus. On the under side of the thallus, especially along the midrib, there are numerous rhizoids which serve the purl>ose of roots, absorbing nourishment from the earth and holding the jilaiit in its place. The upper surface of the thallus is divided into minute rhombic areas which can be seen with the naked eye. Each of these areas is perforated by a small breathing pore or stomate which

Plants of mareliantia.

This space is surrounded by clilorophyll-bearing cells, some of which stand in rows from the bottom of the cavity (Fig. 333). The delicate assimilating tissue is thus brought in close communication with the outer air through the pore in the thick protecting epidermis. At various points on the midrib are little cups which contain small green bodies. These bodies are buds or gemmcB which are outgrowths from the cells at the bottom of the cup. They become loosened and are then dispersed by the rain to other places where they take root and grow into new ^
plants.

leads into a cavity just beneath the epidermis.

The most
stalked
332.

striking organs on the

thallus of marchantia are the peculiar

bodies shown in Figs. 331,

These are termed archegoniophores and antheridiophores or receptacles. Their structure and function are
very interesting, but their parts are so r:::$^=^ minute that they can be studied only 333. Section of thallus of marchantia. Stomate at a. with the aid of a microscope magnifying from 100 to 400 times. Enlarged drawings will guide the pupil. The antheridiophores are fleshy lobed disks borne on short stalks (Fig. 331). The upper surface of the disk shows openings scarcely

188
visible to the

STUDIES

IN

CRYPTOGAMS
is

drawn

in Fig. 334,

naked eye. However, a section of the disk, such as shows that the pores lead into oblong cavities

in

From the base of each cavity there arises a thick club-shaped body, the antheridium. Within the antheridium are formed many sperm-cells which are capable of swimming about in
the receptacle.

334.

Section through antheridiophore of marchantia, showing antheridia.

One antheridium more magnified.

water by means of long lashes or cilia attached to them. When the antheridium is mature, it bursts and allows the ciliated sperm-cells
to escape.

The archegoniophores are

like rays.

also elevated

on stalks (Fig. 332).

In-

stead of a simple disk, the receptacle consists of nine or

more

finger-

Along the under

side of the rays,

between delicately fringed

curtains, peculiar flask-like bodies, or archegonia, are situated.

The

archegonia are not visible to the naked eye. They can be studied only with the microscope (X about 400). One of them much magnified is represented in Fig. 335. Its principal parts are the long vccJc, a, and
the rounded venter,
b,

inclosing a large free cell

the

egg-cell.

have seen that the antheridium at maturity discharges its sperm-cells- These swim about in the water provided by the dew and
rain.

We

Some of them finally find their way to the archegonia and egg-cells, which are thus fertilized, as pollen fertilizes tiie ovules of higher plants.
After fertilization the egg-cell develop? into the

spore -capsule or sporogonium.

The

335.

ium of marchantia.

mature spore-capsules may be seen They consist of an in Fig. 336. oval spore-case on a short stalk, the base of which is imbedded in the tissue of the receptacle from which it derives the necessary nourishment for the development of the sporoArchegongonium. At maturity the sporo-

336.

gonium

is

ruptured at the

apex,

Arehegoniophore with sporogonia of marchantia.

MOSSES

337.

Spores and elaters of marchantia.

together with numerous filaments These filaments are having spirally thickened walls (Fig. 337). called elaters. When drying, they exhibit rapid movements by The spores germinate means of which the spores are scattered. and again produce the thallus of marchantia.
setting free the spherical spores

MOSSES
If

we have

followed carefully the development of marchantia, the

are

study of one of the mosses will be comparatively easy. The mosses more familiar plants than the liverworts. They grow on trees,

both in wet and dry places. One of the comas Polytrichum commune, may serve as an example. This plant grows on rather dry knolls, mostly in the borders of open woods, where it forms large beds. In dry weather these beds have a reddish brown appearance, but when moist they form beautiful green cushions. This color is due, in the first instance, to the color of the old stems and leaves and, in the second instance, to the peculiar action of the green living leaves under the influence of changing moisstones,

and on the

soil

mon

larger mosses,

known

'^^'li

Section of leaf of Polytrichum

commune.
is

ture -conditions.

The inner surface

of the leaf

covered with thin,

longitudinal ridges of delicate cells which contain chlorophyll. These are shown in cross-section in Fig. 338. All the other tissue of the leaf consists of thick-walled, corky cells which do not allow moisture
to penetrate.

When the air is moist the green leaves spread out, exposing the chlorophyll cells to the air, but in dry weather the mar-

190

STUDIES

IN

CRYPTOGAMS

gins of the leaves roll iuward, and the leaves fold closely against

the stem, thus protecting the delicate assimilating tissue.

The antheridia and archegonia

at the ends of the branches

of polytrichum are borne in groups

on different plants (many mosses bear both organs on the same branch). They are surrounded by involucres of characteristic leaves termed pcriduL'lia or perich(etal leaves. Multicellular hairs

as paraphyses are scattered

known among the

The invo-

3;!9.

Section through a receptacle of Polytrichum commune, showing lucres with the organs borne within paraphyses and antheridia. them are called receptacles or, less ap-

archegonia and antheridia.

As in marchantia, the organs are very propriately, "moss flowers. minute and must be highly magnified to be studied. The antheridia are borne in broad cup-like receptacles on the
antheridial plants (Fig. 339).

They are much

like the antlieridia of

marchantia, but they stand free among the paraphyses and are not sunk in cavities. At maturity they burst and allow the sperm-cells or spermatozoids
to escape.

In polytrichum

when

the

re-

ceptacles have fulfilled their

to

the stem continues grow from the center of the cup (Fig. 340, m). Tlie function

archegonia are borne in otlier receptacles on different plants. They are like the archegonia of marchantia except that they
stand erect on the end of the

branch.

The sporogonium which

develops from
the fertilized

egg
It

is

shown

in Fig. 340, a, h.

consists of a long,

brown

stalk bearing the spore-case at

its

stalk

of
it

The base of the embedded in the end the moss stem by which The capsule is nourished.
summit.
is

340.

is

entirely inclosed

by a hairy

Polytrichum commune; ^ A fertile plants, one on the left in fruit; m, antheridial plant.

cap, the calypira,

h. The ealyptra is really the remnant of tho archegonium, which, for a time, increases in size to aceommodale

MOSSES

FERNS

191

carried

and protect the young {^rowing capsule. It is finally torn loose and up on the spore-case. The mouth of the capsule is closed by
a circular
lid,

the operculum, having a conical projection at the center.

drops, or
it

The operculum soon

may

of sixty-four teeth guarding the

mouth

be removed, displaying a fringe of the capsule.

This ring of teeth

is

known

as the peristome.

In
i.

most
e.,

mosses

the teeth exhibit peculiar hygroscopic movements,

they bend outwards and upon drying curve in the capsule. This motion, it will be seen, serves to disperse tne spores gradually over a long period of time. Not the entire capsule is filled with spores. There are no elaters, but the center of the capsule is occupied by a columnar strand of tis-

when moist toward the mouth of

sue, the columella, which expands at the mouth into a thin, membranous disk, closing the entire mouth of the capsule except the narrow annular chink guarded by the teeth. In this moss the points of the teeth are attached to the margin of the membrane, allowing the spores to sift out through the spaces between them. When the spores germinate they form a green, branched thread, the jn-otonema. This gives rise directly to moss plants, which appear as little buds on the threadWhen the moss plants have sent their little rhizoids into the earth, the protonema dies, for it is no longer necessary for the support of the little plants.

FERNS
The adder's tongue shown in Fig. 341, is one
fern,

Ophioglossum vulgatuni,

of a peculiar type of ferns be-

longing to the family Ophioglossaeete. This plant has a short, subterranean stem from which a single frond unfolds each year.

leaves.

The roots arise near the bases The leaves are curiously divided into a

of the
sterile

and a
to

fertile part,

sterile part

the latter being a sporophyll. The has a tongue-shaped blade which is narrowed

The young leaves are inclosed by the Opiiio :lossum a petiole. vulgutumsheathing base of the petiole. The growth is very slow, so that it takes several years for each leaf to develop before it is ready to unfold. During its development each leaf is sheathed by
the one preluding
it.

The

sporopiiyll is elevated

on a stalk arising near the base of the

consists of a spike bearing

sterile part of the frond.

The upper part

192

STUDIES IN

CRYPTOGAMS

two rows of large spore-cases or sporangia sunk in the tissue. At maturity the sporangia open by transverse slits and discharge the
inclosed spores.

When
little is

the spores germinate they produce subterranean tuberous

prothallia which, however, are rarely found,

known.

surface of
plant.

and of whose history They develop archegonia and antheridia beneath the the ground, and the fertilized egg produces the young fern
of the true ferns are explained in Chapter

The generations

XXIV.

EQUISETUMS, OR HORSETAILS
There are about twenty-five species
arvense
is

of

the only genus of the unique family Equisetacese.

equisetum, constituting Among these E.

common on

clayey and sandy

soils.

In this species the work of nutrition and that of spore-production

by separate shoots from an underground rhizome. The branches appear early in spring. The stem, which is 3 to G inches high, consists of a number of cylindrical, furrowed internodes each sheathed at the base by a circle of scale-leaves. The shoots are of a pale yellow color. They contain no chlorophyll, and are nourished by the food stored in the rhizome (Fig. 342). The spores are formed on specially developed fertile leaves or sporophylls which are collected into a spike or cone at the end of the
are performed
fertile

A single sporophyll is shown at i. It consists expanded into a broad, mushroom-like head. Several large sporangia are borne on its under side. The spores formed in the sporangia are very interesting and beautiful objects when examined under the microscope (X about 200). They are spherical, green bodies each surrounded by two spiral bands attached to the spore at their intersection, s. These bands exhibit hygroscopic movements by means of which the spores become entangled, and are held together. This is of advantage to the plant, as we
stalk (Fig. 342, a).

of a short stalk

shall see.

All the spores are alike, but some of the prothallia are better nourished and grow to a greater size than the otheis. The large prothallia produce only archegonia while the smaller ones produce antheridia. Both of these organs are much like those of the ferns, Since the proand fertilization is accomplished in the same way.
thallia are usually dioecious the special advantage of the spiral bands holding the spores together so that both kinds of prothallia may be in

EQUISETUMS

IROETES
As

193

close proximity, will be easily understood.

ized egg-cell develops into

in the fern, the fertil-

later in the season. The sterile They give rise to repeated whorls of angular or furrowed branches. The leaves are very much reduced scales, situated at the internodes. The stems are provided with chlorophyll and act as assimilrting

an equisetum plant. shoots, Fig. 342, st, appear much

342.

Equisetum urvense;
spike at
rt;

s<,

sterile slioot

/,

fertile

shoot showing the

s,

i,

sporophyll, with sporangia;

spore.

tissue, nourishing the

rhizome and the fertile shoots. Nutriment is also stored in special tubers developed on the rhizome. Other species of equisetum have only one kind of shoot a tall, hard, leafless, green shoot with the spike at its summit. Equisetum stems are full of silex and they are sometimes used for scouring floors and utensils: hence the common name " scouring rush."

ISOETES
Isoetes or quillworts are usually found in water or

damp

soil
is

on

the edges of ponds and lakes.

The general habit

of a plant

seen

in Fig. 343, a. perennial stem bearing numerous erect, quill-like leaves witli broad sheathing bases. The plants are commonly mistaken for young grasses.
It consists of a short,

194

STUDIES IN

CRYPTOGAMS

mac7-osporcs,

Isoetes bears two kinds of spores, large roughened ones, the and small ones or microspores. Both kinds are formed

in sporangia

Lome

in an excavation in the expanded base of the leaf. The macrospores are formed on the outer, and the

microspores on the inner leaves. A sporangium in the base of a leaf is shown at h. It is partially covered by a thin membrane, the velum. The minute triangular appendage at the upper end of the

sporangium

is

called the ligule.

The spores are liberated by the decay of the sporangia. They form rudimentary prothallia of two kinds. The microspores produce prothallia
with autheridia, while the macrospores produce
prothallia with

archegonia.

Fertilization

takes
rise

place as in the mosses or liverworts, and the fertilized egg-cell,

by continued growth, gives

again to the isoetes plant.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
In Chapter
sporoplujte

XXIV

the alternation of

generations and the terms gametophyte and

were explained.

In

many

of

the plants just studied, this alternation

is

more

clearly

and beautifully marked

than in any other groups of plants. In each generation, the reproductive body Isoetes showing habit of plant at a; b, base of leaf [egg or spore) gives rise to a new plantshowing sporangium, vel- form or generation different from the um, and ligule. parent generation. In the liverworts the thallus produces the egg. The fertilized egg-cell is the beginning of a new plant, but this new plant is not like the thallus which produced the egg, nor does it lead an independent existence. It is the sporogonium, which, although it is attached to the thallus, is not a morphological part thereof. Tiie sporogonium produces spores. It is the sporophyte generation of the plant, and not until the spores germinate is the thallus again produced. The same is true in the mosses. The "moss plant" produces the egg-cells. It is the gametophyte. The fertilized egg-cell develops into the sporophyte the spore-case and its stem. We can pull the stem of the capsule out of the moss plant and thus separate the sporophyte from the gametophyte.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

195

The fungi and algfe are omitted from these remarks. In the former there is nothing analogous to the sporophyte and the gamete In algas lil^e spirogyra, evidently the whole plant is a gaphyte.
metophyte and, since the zygospore germinates directly into a new gametophyte, there is probably no sporophyte. In some other algfe traces of a sporophyte have been found, but the discussion of these would lead too far for the present purpose. In the ferns the egg- cells are developed on the prothallus. It corresponds to the thallus of marTliis then is the gametophyte. chantia and to the "moss plant," but it has become much reduced. The plant developing from the fertilized egg-cell is the large and beautiful " fern plant " differentiated into stems and leaves. Since the u ru plant produces the spores directly, it is the sporophyte and corresponds to the shaft and capsule of the mosses. Both sporophyte and gametophyte lead an independent existence. As we pass on to equisetum and isoetes, the sporophyte is still more conspicuous in comparison with the gametophyte. In iso6tes the prothallus (gametophyte) is very rudimentary, consisting only of a few cells remaining within the spore, which merely bursts to expose Moreover, the the archegonia or to allow the sperm-cells to escape. spores have become differentiated into micro- and macrospores eorresi)onding to the pollen and embryo-sac of higher plants. This gradual increase of the sporophyte and reduction of the gametophyte can be traced on through the flowering plants in which "the plant" is the sporophyte, and the gametophyte is represented simply by a few cells in the germinating pollen grain, and in the

embryo -sac.

One of the tuft-mosses (Leucobryum). Outside and inside views of a tuft, the latter showing the radiating siems extending to the light.

344.

Desert vegetation.
in special regions.

The

tree eaoti

grow only

315.

Plants seize the

tirs.1

opijortuiiily to irrow.

Palis:i<les of tlie

Hud

PART II THE PLANT IN IIS ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER XXVI
WHERE PLANTS GROW
326.

ENVIRONMENT.

The circuinstancps and

its

surround
environvtoissoil,

ings in which an organism lives constitute

ment.
fitrc,
(iiiiiiHils

The environment comprises

teiuperature,
altitmle,

effects of

sunligJd,

competition

with

and other plants, and tlie like. An organism is greatly influenced by the environment or conditions in which it lives. Not only must a plant live and grow and multiply its kind, but it must adapt itself to its environment. 327. The particular place in which a plant grows is

known

as its habitat

(i. e.,

its

"habitation").
hill,

The habirock, sand

tat of a

given plant

may

be a swamp,

are

The plant inhabitants of any region Thus w^e speak of the flora of a meadow or a hill or a swamp, or of a country. The word is also used for a book describing the plants of
phiin, forest, shore.

known

collectively as its flora.

a region (as in Part IV).

328.

PLANTS GROW WHERE THEY MUST. The plant

its
:

is

not able to choose

ant
places.

environment.

It

has no volition.

Its seeds are scattered

though the

only a few of them fall in pleasThe seeds make an effort to grow even places are not favorable; and so it happens
(197)


198

WHERE PLANTS GROW

little adapted See the feni growing on a brick in Fig. G9.

that plants are often found in places which are

to

them.
329.

Plants must grow in unoccupied places.

Not only do the seeds

fall in

unfavorable places,

but most places are already occupied.

plants
Thei-e are,

So

it

comes that
will.

grow where they must, not where they

of course, certain limits

beyond which plants

cannot grow. Water lilies can thrive only in water, and white oaks onl}^ on dry land, but it is seldom that

oak finds the most congenial Fine large plants of the lily and strong giant trees of the oak are so infrequent, as compared with the whole number, that we stop to admire them. 330. Originally, plants were aquatic, as animals w^re.
either the water lily or the

place in which to grow.

Much

of the earth was sea. Many plants are now aquatic, and the larger number of these as algas and their kin belong to the lower or older forms of plant life. Many

plants of higher organization, however, as the water

lilies,

have taken to aquatic

life.

True aquatic plants are those which always live in water, and which die

^^
''^~ri:\
-s-i;;^^^

ii'hfn
I'P-

the water dries

They

are to be

distinguished
those which

from
live

on

shores or in swamps.
K^i^l>s?p^'

Aquatic plants may be wholly immersed or under water, or

partly

346.

The

lichen grows on the hard rocli.

emersed

or

standing above the water.

come

to

the surface to

Most flowering aquatic plants expand their flowers or to ripen

their fruits.

Some

aquatic plants are free-swimming, or

not attached to the bottom.

Of

this

kind are some utric-

AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL PLANTS

ularias,

199

In some waters, particularly enormous quantities of free -swimming microscopic life, both animal and vegetable, which is carried about by currents this is known under the general name of planMon (Greek for "wandering" or "roaming"). 331. The general tendency has been for plants to become terrestrial, or land- inhabiting. Terrestrial plants
or bladder -worts.
in the ocean, there are
:

347. Sphasnum bog, green anil living on top, but dead anil dying underneath. Sphagnum moss is used l)y luirserymen and florists as packing materi.al for plants.

often grow in wet places, but never in water throughout

their

entire

life

of such

are

swamp,

hog,

and marsh

plants.

Some plants have the ability to grow in standing water when young and to become terrestrial as the water dries up. Such are amphibious. Some buttercups are
examples.
332.

Some

localities,

plants grow in very special soils or special and consequently are infrequent or are confined Fig. 344.

to

certain well-marked geographical regions.

Common

plants are those ivMch are able

to

accommodate

200

WHERE PLANTS GROW

Weeds
are ex-

themselves to widely different environments.

amples.
333.

Many

plants have become so specialized in habitat

as to be parasitic, saprophytic, or epiphytic.

Chap. XIII.

Common

plants

often

and

difficult places.

Note that

most unusual some weeds grow not. only

in

grow

in fields, bnt often gain a foothold in chinks in logs, on

rotting posts, in crotches of trees, on old straw stacks, in

clefts

land, plants often

and crannies of rocks. In moist climates, as Enggrow on thatched roofs.

334. Plants

may

be said to be seeking

new

places in

which
tion,

to

grow.

plants

Whenever ground is cleared of vegetaThe farmer plows the again spring up.

meadow

immediately a horde of weeds breach or break in the earth's surface makes room for a new group of plants. Note how the railway embankments and the newly graded roadsides take
or pasture, and

appears.

Any

on a covering of vegetation. Observe the ragweed. Whenever soil is formed at the base of a cliff, plants at once
secure a foothold.
335.

Fig. 345.

PLANTS AID IN THE FORMATION OF SOIL. This by breaking down the rock by they do in two ways Even on the passing into earth when they decay.
:

hardest rocks, lichens and mosses will grow.

Fig. 34G.

The rhizoids eat away the rock. A little soil is formed. Ferns and other plants gain a foothold. The crevices are Slowly the root acids corrode the entered and widened. Leaves and stems coPect on the rock and decay. stone. Water and frost lend their aic.. As the centuries pass, the rock is eaten away and pub erized. Note the soil which collects on level rocks in woods where wind and rain do not remove the accumulations. 336. In bogs and marshes and on prairies the remains In bogs the vegetable of plants form a deep black soil. matter is partially preserved by the water, and it slowly becomes solidified into a partially decayed mass known as

348.

landscape devoid of vegetiitiou.

W'eslcnii United tjlates.

34U.

l;ui.lM-apo

WilU VuiielHtimi.

]lU:ii,d.

202
peat.

WHEKE PLANTS GROW

When dug
it

out and dried,

i)eat

may

be used as fuel.
soil

Finally

may decay and make

a vegetable

known

as

muck.
table

When

thoroughly decayed, plants become vege-

New plants grow on peat or mold or humus. muck, and the accumulations year by year tend to raise the level of the bog, and the surface may finally become so

high as to support plants of the high lands. The chief agent in the formation of peat bogs is sphagnum moss. New moss grows on the old, and the bog becomes higher
as time goes on.

Fig. 347.

337.

PLANTS CONTRIBUTE TO SCENERY.

air,
;

Aside

from

sky and

natural scenery depends chiefly on two things:

the character of the

the physical contour of the earth

vegetation.
tion.

Attractive landscapes have a varied vegeta-

to be devoid of plants.

Imagine any landscape with which you arc familiar Compare Figs. 348 and 349.

Eeview. What is meant by environment? By habitat? Flora? What determines where plants shall grow? What is an aquatic plant? Explain immersed, emersed, free-swimming. What is plankton? ExWhy are some plants rare or local ? plain terrestrial. Amphibious. Why are some plants common? Name some unusual places in which
you have seen plants growing. Give examples of how plants occupy the new places. How do plants aid in the formation of soil ? Explain what is meant by peat, muck, humus. How are peat bogs formed ? Wliat relation have plants to scenery ?

CHAPTER XXVII
CONTENTION WITH PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
have seen grows is made up of two sets of faetors the physical environment of climate and soil, and the orgriDir mrironment of competing aninials and plant.s. 339. ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE IN GENERAL. Every
388.

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT.

the environment
in

We

(326) that

whieli

a plant

particular
plants.

climate causes particular

modifications

in

its

There are two general ways, however, in which plants are modified or adapted to climate: modification
in

the length of the period

of groivth;
in

modification

in

stature.
ible,

Any
it,

modification of the plant, visible or invisit

which adapts
is

to

grow

a climate at first inju-

rious to

acclimatization.
cliitiafes,

340. In

short -sedsoit

plants

hasten

their

growth.

They

quire five
countries,

mature quickly. Indian corn or six months in which to mature but only three months in very cold
garden
vegeta-

may rein warm

countries.

Nearly
bles
till'

all

mature
than

quicker
in

from

AM^>C^^^^^^S
^i

\.>....h\'.i,J.<

time of planting in the

the
raised

North

when they are seeds grown in

tive localities.

South from

I
=^*'**'*

their respec-

""
^""'"^^

(.uiMi.ntKMi

..i

,,.rn

"""

aware of

this

Seedsmen are and they like to

^"'^ ^""

'^'^ '^''^

'"'^ '" -''''^=''"*-

i-aise

seeds of early varieties

in the North, for such seeds usually give "early" plants.

Many

plants which are perennials in

in cold

warm

countries be-

come annuals or plur-annuals

1203)

countries(14).

204

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

341. Even germination is usually more rapid from northern-grown seeds than from soutlieni- grown seeds of the same kind. The plants "come up" quicker. Secure seeds of the same varietj^ of corn or bean grown in the Gulf states and in the northern states or Canada and make the experiment (Fig. 350). The same results

often
t

show

in

h e

vegetation
cuttings
of

of

trees

and grape vines from the

a n d Vegetation is quick in the North the "burst of spring" is usu-

South

North.

ally
.xjS?i

more
u
s

rapid.

'342.
a

Plants
u a
1 1

re

dwarf
-^i^*"^^
351.

or smal-

ler in stature in

short-season

cli-

Evergreen trees on windswept heights of the Rocky Mountains.

mates.
corn
is

Indian
a

conor

spicuous example.
ler

As one ascends high mountains

travels in high latitudes, he finds the trees

in

becoming smaland smaller, until finally he passes beyond the regions which the trees can grow. Many of the Esquimaux

doubt the statements of travelers that there are plants as high as a man. In these high altitudes and high latitudes,
plants tend also to become prostrate.
343.

PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY WIND. In regions

of

strong prevailing winds, as on lake and sea shores and on hills and mountains, tree-tops develop unsymmetrically

352.

Oue-sided holly tree growing near the ocean.

New

Jersey.

353.

Pines probably bent by winds fallinc from mountains

206

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

and are heaviest on the leeward side. Figs. 351, 352. Observe this fact in orchards in windy regions, and note that the most unsymraetrical trees are those on the exposed side
of the plantation. 344. Trees often

lean

the

away from prevailing

Fig. 353.
of
of

winds.

The tips branches

the
ex-

posed trees usuall}' indicate whether there are strong

prevailing
Fig. 354.
trees
in

winds.

Observe
pastures
road-

and
sides,

along

particularly

in

high places and

Avithin a

few miles
tip -top

of exposed shores.
354.

Note
tree tliat sliows wlii
;iy

the
of

t)io

wiiid blows.

Oklahoma.

spraj'
trees.

hemlock

345.

PLANTS ARE PROFOUNDLY INFLUENCED BY SOIL.

varies with the kind of soil; and the food supply determines to a large extent the character of the individual plant. On i)oor soils plants are small; on rich soils they are large. The difference between pojjr

The food supply

and good

yields of wheat, or
soil.

any other crop,

is

largely a

question of

The farmer

reinforces his poor soils

by

the addition of fertilizers, in order to

into larger or 34G.

make

his plants vary

more productive

individuals.

The moisture-content

of the soil exerts a

marked

influence on plants.

We

have found (154) that a large

PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY SOIL

part of the plant -substance
is

207
is

watei-.

The water

not

only

itself

plant-food, but

it

carries other foods into the

plant and transports them from tissue to tissue.

rich a soil

However
inert
if
it

may

be in mineral plant-foods,

it

is

contains no moisture.

The

cJiaracter of the plant is often

determined more
places.

hi/

the moisture in the soil than by all the

other food materials.

Note how rank the plants are in low Observe how the weeds grow about the barn where

355.

"Lodged"

oats. On ri(di gi-ouTid the grain is often broken by wind and rain, the plants having grown so hea\'y as to be unable to support themselves.

is not ouly rich but where moisture is distributed from the eaves. Contrast with these instances the puny plants which gi-ow in dry places. In dry countries irrigation is employed to make plants grow vigorously. In moist and rich soil plants may grow so fast and so tall

the soil

as not to be able to withstand the wind, as in Fig. 355.

347. PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY THE EXPOSURE OF THE PLACE IN WHICH THEY GROW. The particular site or outlook is known as the exposure or aspect. The exposure, for instance, may be southward, eastward, bleak, warm,

208
cold.

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

favorable exposure for any plant

is

one which

amount of warmth, room, sunlight, moisture, and plant-food, and immunity from severe winds Against the edge of a and other destructive agencies.
supplies the requisite
forest (Fig. 356) or at the base of a
cliff,

certain plants

thrive unusually well.

Note the plants of any kind grow-

356.

Tlie flowering

dogwood

is

seen

;it

its

best along

tlie

margins

ol the

ing in

different

exposures:

observe

that

they vary in

stature, time

of

maturity, color of foliage and flowers,

productiveness, size of leaves and flowers, longevity.

Review.

Contrast physical

plants modified of maturity is

and organic environments. How are by climate? Define acclimatization. Explain how time influenced by climate. How is germination influenced ?

Explain

how

climate influences stature.

t

How
soil

How

are plants influenced by soil

By

do winds affect plants moisture T Exposure ?

CHAPTER XXVIII
COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS
348.

THE FACT OF STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. We

have seen (Chapter IX) that branches contend amongst themselves for opj)ortunity to live and grow. Similarly, separate plants contend with each other. We shall observe that this is true; but we are compelled to believe it by considering the efforts which all plants make to propagate
for

themselves.

The earth

is filled tvith plants.

It

is

chiefly

when plants

die or are killed that places are

made

others. Every one of these plants It utmost effort to perpetuate its kind. by the score or even by the thousand. In it propagates also by means of vegetative earth is full and if every plant endeavors

puts forth its produces seeds

some instances
parts.
If the

to multiply its

kind, there
349.

must be struggle for existence. The effects of struggle for existence

(1)

are of three

general categories:

the seed or spore

may

find

no

opportunity to grow; (2) sooner or later the plant may be killed; (3) the plant may vary, or take on new characters, to adapt itself to the conditions in which it grows. Consider the crop of seeds which any plant produces: how many germinate ? how many of the young plants reach maturity ? Note the profusion of seedlings under the maples and elms, and then consider how few maple and elm trees there are. Count the seeds on any plant and imagine that each one makes a plant: where will all
these

new

plants find a place in which to

grow

350.

WHAT STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IS. Struggle

with
fellows
is

for

existence

competition for

room

or

(209)

357.

There

is

no opportunity tor

tield of

good whea

^P^^^s?^^^^'^-

WHAT STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE

IS

211

space, for food

and moisture in the soil, for

light.

We may
exameach of

consider
ples in

these three categories.

351.

If
is

the
filled
,

earth

with
The
tree hns appropriated the food and moisture, so that a large area remains hare of vegetation.

there

plants must be

tion for every inch of its surface.

If

sharp competiany good soil is

retill

not populated with plants

cently been moved.
If the

it

is usually because it has farmer does not move or

his soil frequently', various

plants get a foothold, and

these plants he calls weeds.

Determine how much room an apple tree, or other plant,

occupies
:

then
all

calculate

how much

space would be
the seed-

required for

lings of that tree or plant.

The

(jreafer Hip
(it'''<i,

popnhition
rJi(i)ire
</(iin

"/>'!/

fhc less
fo
tlie

hare other phmfs

foothold.

When
as
in

wheat
the
3.")

completely
ground,
seen.

covers
Fig.

7,

there are no

weeds

to

l)e

352. Plants of different form and habit may grow

3G0.

Tlie clematis elimhing into the sunlight.

Compare

Fig. 73,

361.

Low

shade-loving plants on the forest floor.

riG2.

A primeval

pine forest.
cniiio in.

Along the roadway foreign vegetation has

MidiiKJi

DTVEEGENCE OF CHARACTER
together,
iroiild be

213

and thereby

the area

may

support more plants than

it.

possible if only one kind ivere growing on

This

has been called by Darwin the divergence of When an area is occupied by one kind of character.
principle

303.

On

the top of an evergreen forest.

plant, another kind

may grow between

or beneath.

Oulj'
to-

rarely do plants of close botanical relationship

grow
is full

gether in compact communities.

field

which

of

corn

may grow pumpkins between. Fig. 358. A full meadow may grow white clover in the bottom. In a dense wood herbs may grow on the forest floor. When au.

214

COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS

orchard

can

more

trees,

support no weeds may grow

beneath.
353.

We

have

learned

(25, 26) that roots go far

and

wide for food and moisture.

The
food

plant that
to
itself

is

first es-

tablished

appropriates the

and

newin

comers

find difficulty

Note gaining a foothold. the bare area near the elm

tree
in

Fig.

359.
it

Recall
to

how
under
the
trees.

make phmts grow when planted

difificult
is

This

is

partly

due to the interceptmg of

by the tree-top, partly to shade, and partly to The lack of available food and moisture in the soil.
rain

farmer knows that he cannot hope to secure good crops near large trees, even beyond the point at which
the trees intercept the rain

and

light.

It is difiBcult to

establish

new

trees in the

vacancies in an old orchard.

354.

In Chapter VIII
the relation of
its

we studied

the plant and

parts to

sunlight. Plants also

com-

pete with each other for

light.

Plants climb to get

to the light (Chapter

XVI)
plants
to
The
forest centpr.

Fig.

360.

Some

Looking from the

woods, with the forest rim shown in

fig. 3C6 seen io tUe distasce.

have

become

adapted

STRUGGLE FOR SUNLIGHT

215

subdued or transmitted light, but no green plants can grow The low plants in forests are shade -lovers. in darkness. Note the plants which seem to be shade -lovers Fig. 361. and those which prefer full sunlight. Some plants adapt Most ferns are shadethemselves to both sun and shade.
lovers.

355. In

the midst

of

dense

plant

populations, each

individual

grows upwards

for sunlight.

Thus

are for-

366.

The

forest rim.

Lodking

tow.

ests

become long slender boles The side branches die for lack of light and food, and they fall from decay or are broken by storm the wounds are healed, and the bole becomes symmetrical and trim. Fig. 362 shows the interior of a primeval pine forest. Note the bare trunks and Fig. 363 is the sparse vegetation on the dim forest floor. the top of a great forest. With these pictures compare Figs. 75 and 76. Fig. 357 shows a deep wheat forest. A lone survivor of a primeval forest is shown in Fig 364.

made

the competing trees

with a mantle of foliage at the top.

367.

The

foliage

bank

of a tangle.

368.

View

just inside the tangle.

BTRUGGLE FOR SUNLIGHT

In dense plantations, plants tend to

217

grow
in

to a single stem.

open or cultivated grounds, thoj often become bushy or develop more than In what places have you seen trees with one trunk.

When

these

same phmts are grown

more than one trunk f 356. On the margins of dense populations, each indiNote the dense vidual grows outwards for sunlight. then plunge through it, and stand by the forest rim Figs. 365 and 366 show these two tall bare trunks. Note the kinds of trees and views of the same forest. other plants that grow in areas similar to those depicted Note the dense wall of foliage in in these illustrations. Pig. 367, and the thin brushy area just behind it in Fig. Observe the denser and greener foliage on the out368. Consider how the plants side rows in thick orchards. Note extend over the borders in dense flower-beds.
:

where
Notice

the

best

foliaged

plants

are

in

the
in

greenhouse.
a very thick

the

foliage

on

the

outer rows

cornfield.

Review.
affect

Why
Tell

is

there struggle for existeut-e

it is.

How

docs

it

do plants compete for space? What is meant by the phrase "divergence of character"? Give examples, flow do plants compete for food from the soil ? In what How do respects have plaiits become adapted to the light relation? plants pjrow in dense plantations? On the margins of these plantaplants?

what

How

tions?

You know some

itself to

tree or other plant

its

describe

how

it

has

adapted

competition with

fellows.

danileiiou knoll in stiade

and sun.

369.

hydrophytic society.

New

York,

370.

mesophytic society.

Michigan.

CHAPTER XXIX
PLAN! SOCIETIES
357.

WHAT PLANT

SOCIETIES

ARE. In

the long course

of evolution, in which plants have been

accommodating

themselves to the varying conditions in which they are obliged to grow, plants have become adapted to erenj
different environment.

Certain plants, therefore,

all

may

live

together or near each other,

ditions

and surroundings. which are adapted to similar conditions are known as

plant societies.
358. Moisture
in determining plant societies.

enjoying the same conThese aggregations of plants

and temperature are the leading factors The great geographical

chiefl}'

societies or aggregations of the plant

venience

associated

with

the

These are: (1) hydrophytic or comprising aquatic and bog vegetation (Fig. 3G9) (2) xerophytic or arid-region societies, comprising desert and most sand-region vegetation (Fig. 344); (3) mesophytic or mid-region societies, comprising the vegetation in
;

world are for conmoisture su])ply. wet-region societies,

intermediate regions (Fig. 370).

is

characteristic

of

Mesophytic vegetation most regions which are fitted for

agriculture.

also distinguished, comprising the seashore

The halophytic or salt-loving societies are and salt -area

371).
is

vegetation

(Fig.

Much

of

the

characteristic

due to its plant societies (337). Xerophytic plants usually have small and hard leaves,
appai-ently to prevent too rapid
also,

scenery of any place

transpiration.

Usually,
often

they are characterized by

stiff

growth, hairy cover-

ing, spines, or a

much -contracted plant-body, and

(219)

220

PLANT SOCIETIES
parts
for

by large underground

the

storage

of water.

Halophytic plants are often fleshy. 359. Plant societies may also be distinguished with reference to latitude and temperature. There are tropi-

cal societies, temperate-region societies, boreal or cold-

region

societies.

With

reference

to

altitude,

societies

might be

classified as

lowland (which are

chiefly hydro-

phytic), intermediate (chiefly mesophytic), subalpine or

mid-mountain (which are chiefly boreal), alpine or highmountain. 3G0. The above classifications have reference chiefly to But there are sociegreat geographical floras or societies. There are small societies coming ties within societies.
within the experience of every person tvho
plants groiving in natural conditions.

has

ever seen

There are roadside, fence-row, lawn, thicket, pasture, dune, woods, cliff, barnEvery different place has its characteryard societies. Note the smaller societies in Figs. 3G9 istic vegetation.

PLANT COLONIES
and 370.
In the former
is

221

a water-lily society and a catl)iisli

tail society.

In the latter there are grass and

and

woods

societies.

3G1. SOME DETAILS OF PLANT SOCIETIES. Societies

may

be composed of

scattered and intermin-

gled plants, or of dense

groups of Dense clumps or groups are usually A colony of weeds in a barny made up of one kind of plant, and they are then called colonies. Fig. 372. Colonies of most plants are transient: after a short time other plants gain a foothold amongst them, and an intei'mingled
or

clumps

plants.

society

is

the outcome.

Marked exceptions
for years

to this are

grass colonies and forest colonies, in which one kind of

plant

may

hold

its

own

and centuries.

37:i. The l)ef,'iiiiiinf of a forest, on a la' weeds, and here and there a young bush and a forest tree. The border is already forested.

222

PLANT SOCIETIES

374.

Tlie return to forest.

Bushes and trees now begin to crowd.

362.

Ill

establish

a large newly cleared area plants usnally themselves in dense colonies. Note

first

the

great patches of nettles, jewel-weeds, smart-weeds, clotburs, fire-weeds in recently cleared but neglected swales,
also the fire -weeds in recently burned areas, the rank weeds in the neglected garden, and the ragweeds and May-weeds along the recently worked highway. The competition amongst themselves and with their neighbors finally breaks up the colonies, and a mixed and interminfjU'd

flora

is

gener-

al J y the result.

oG3. In of

most parts
world
the

the

general tendency of

neglected areas
to

is

run into
cleared

forest.

All
the

plants rush for

area.

Here
hold.

and

there
trees

bushes gain a foot-

Young
:

come up
these

in time

shade

the

ROTATION OF FORESTS

223

bushes and gain tbe mastery. Sometimes the area grows to poplars or birclies, and people wonder why the original forest trees do not return; but these forest trees may be growing unobserved here and there in the tangle, and in

the slow processes

of time the poplars

perish

for they are

lived

short

and

the original forest

may

be

replaced.

Whether one kind

of forest or another

returns will depend

largely

on the kinds

which
vicinity

are
in

most

seedful

that and which, therefore, have

sown

themselves

most profusely.

Much depends,
also,

on

the kind

of

undergrowth
first

which

springs

up, for some

trees can

young
^"''-

endure

'""'

'"""'

"'^"^^ ^^""^ ^

''''

roadside.

more or less shade than others. Figs. 373 and 374 show two stages in the return to forest. 364. Pasturing and mowing tend to keep an area in This is because the grass will thrive when tlie tops grass. Note are repeatedly taken off, whereas trees will not. that the wild herbs and bushes and trees persist along the fences and about old buildings, where animals and mowing machines do not take them off. A sod society means grazing or moiving. Consider Figs. 96, 875, 37G. The farmer

224
keeps
sheep:
365.
sociate.
his

PLANT SOCIETIES
wild
pastures turning in

"clean"

by

the sheep are fond

of browsing.

Some plants They grow

This
is

asto-

gether. largely

possible

because

they

di-

verge or differ in character

(352).

Plants associate in
side
J

two ways: hy grotving

by side;
or beneath. In

hy growing above
sparsely

An .mu.itK s(KRtj 111 wliKh hi\i kinds of plants grow side by side,
(as in Fig.

populated societies
each other.

In most however, there is overgrowth and undergrowth one kind grows beneath another. Plants which have
377) plants

may grow

along- side

cases,

become
(354)

adapted
are

to

shade
under-

usually

growths.

In

cat

tail

swamp
and
plants

(Fig. 378), grasses

other

narrow

leaved

grow

in the bottom,

but they are usually unseen

by

the

(casual

observer.
of

Search

the

surface

the

ground in any swale or in a meadow. Note the undergrowth in woods or under Observe trees (Fig. 379). pine and spruce that in forests there is almost no undergrowth, because there
is

very
366.

little light.

Fig. 362.

On
. .

the

same area
differ at

378.

Grasses and narrow-leaved plants

grow between the

cat-tail flags.

the socicties

may

AUTUMN COLOKS
different times of the year.
fall

225

There are spring, summer, and The knoll which is cool with grass and strawberries in June may be aglow with goldenrod in September. If the bank is examined in May, look for the j-oung plants which are to cover it in Julj^ and October; if in September, find the dead stalks of the flora of May. What succeeds the skunk cabbage, hepaticas, trilliums,
societies.

phlox, violets, buttercups of spring? What precedes the wild sunflowers, ragweed, asters, and goldenrod of fall?
367. In lands which gradually rise from wet to dry,

may take the form of belts or zones. Starting at a shore, walk back into the high land note the changes in the flora. Thi-ee zones are shown in Fig. 380.
the societies
;

368. To a large extent the color of the landscape is determined by the character of the plant societies. Evergreen societies remain green, but the shade of green varies from season to season it is bright
;

and soft becomes

fall,

in spring,

dull

in

midsummer
and

and
usually

assumes a dull yellow-green in winter.

Deciduous
vary re -

societies

of

markably in color from the dull browns and grays

winter
to

Overgrowth and undergrowth

in three series,

the
olive
-

trees, bushes, grass.

brown -greens and

greens of
of

greens

of

spring,

the

staid-

summer and the brilliant colors of autumn, The autumn colors are due to intermingled shades
green, yellow and red. The coloration varies with the kind of plant, the special location, and the season.

226
Even
in the

PLANT SOCIETIES

same species or kind, individual plants differ and this individuality usually distinguis;lies the That is, an oak Avhich is maroonplant year by year.
in color;

red this
year.
is

autumn

is

likely

to exhibit that color every

The autumn
with

color
I

associated

he

natural

maturity
leaf,

and
it

death of the

but

is

most open

brilliant in lonj^'and
falls

largely

be-

cause the foliage ripens

more gradually and

sists

i)er-

longer in such seaIt is

sons.

probable that
tints

the

autumn
utility

are of

no

to

the plant.
to

The yellows seem

f

be

^^^p^ffi

due to the breaking down and disorganization of the

I'hlorophyll.

Some

of the

intermediate
*L

shades

are

'>'j'mM

pi'obably due to the un-

^
obscured
bj^

T^W^

chlorophyll in

masking or liberating (jf normal cell color -bodies which are covered with oiThe reds the growing season.

are due to changes in the color of the cell sap.

colors are not caused

Autumn

Because of the long, dry falls and the great variety of plants, the autumnal color of the American landscape is phenomenal. 369. ECOLOGY. The study of relationships of the plants and animals to each other and to seasons and environments is known as ecology (still written occology in the dictionaries). All the discussions in Part II of this

by

frost.

ECOLOGY
book are
siders
tlie

221
It

really different phases of this subject.

con-

habits,

habitats,
in

and modes of

life

of living

things the places

which they grow, how they migrate

or are disseminated,

means

of collecting food, their times

like.

and seasons of flowering, producing young, and the

Review. What
is

Wliy do plants grow in soName societies that are determined chiefly by molstnre. cieties ? What societies are most aluiiidant where you live? Name those determined by latitude and altitude. Name some small or local socieWhat are colonies ? Where are they most marked ? Why do ties.
a plant society?

they tend finally to break up? How are societies made up when colonies are not present? How do forests arise on cleared areas? What How do plants associate? What effect have pasturing and mowing? Explain how societies may differ at is undergrowth and overgrowth? different times of the year. What are zonal or belt societies? Discuss

autumn

colors.

What

is

ecology?

Note. One of the best of all subjects for school instruction in botany is the study of plant societies. It adds deflniteness and zest to excursions. Let one excursion be confined to one or two societies. Visit one day a swamp, another day a forest, another a pasture or

meadow, another a roadside, another a weedy field, another a cliff or ravine, etc. Visit shores whenever possible. Each pupil should be
assigned a bit of ground

say 10

or 20

ft.

square

for

special study.

showing (1) how many kinds of plants it contains, (2) the relative abundance of each. The lists secured in different regions should be compared. It does not matter if the pupil does not know all the plants. He may count the kinds without knowing the names. It is a good plan for tiie pupil to make a dried specimen of each kind for reference. The pupil should endeavor to discover why the plants grow as they do. Challenge every plaid society.
should

He

make a

list

rj
',-jigiiv.-y ?

i^.
Everj'oue should learn to grow plauts.

i^

CHAPTER XXX
VARIATION AMD ITS RESULTS
370.
alike

THE FACT OF VARIATION. No two

la
size,

(IG).

plants are form, color, weight, vigor, produccharacters, they differ.

tiveness,

season,

or other
anj^

The
be
its

most usual form of

type, that
is,

plant

is

considered to

its

representative form.
is

Any marked
is,

de-

parture from this type

371.

a variation, that

a difference.
of so

THE KINDS OF VARIATIONS. Variations are many degrees. The differences, in any case, may be
slight as to pass unnoticed, or they

may

be so marked as
If a red-flowered

to challenge even the casual observer.

plant were to produce flowers in different shades of red,

the variation might not attract attention
to produce white flowers, the variation

Whenever

the variation

is

but if it were would be marked. so marked and so constant as

;

to be worth

naming and

describing,

it

is
is

called a variety

in descriptive botany.
ter as to

If the variation
it

of such characcalled an agriis

have value for cultivation,

variety.

is

cultural or horticultural
line of

There

no natural

demarcation between those variations which chance to be named and described as varieties and those which do not. Varieties are only named variations.
372. Variations may arise in three ways: (1) directly from seeds; (2) directly from buds; (3) by a slow change of the entire plant after it has begun to grow. 373. Variations arising from seeds are seed-variations; those which chance to be named and described are seedvarieties. Never does a seed exactly reproduce its pni-eiitNeither do any if it did, there would be two plants alike.
1228)

THE KINDS OF VARIATIONS

229

two seeds, even from the same fruit, ever produce plants Even though the seedlings resemble each exactly alike.
other so closely that people say they are the same, nevertheless
leaves,
tures.

they will be found to vai-y in

shape, or other feaFigs.

size,

number of

381

and 382
arising

illustrate seed -variation.

374.
directly

Variations

from buds, rather than from seeds, are budmost variations, and the marked of them may be described and named as budWe have learned varieties. in Chapter V how the horticulturist

propagates

plants
!lrllOl-vita^ tree. Imiii

by means of buds: not one of these buds will reproduce exactly the plant from which
already

whuli seeds

were taken oue day

it

We have was taken. no two branches are Bud-varia alike, and every branch springs from a bud. tion is usually less marked than seed- variation, however,
discovered (17, 118)
that

382.

seeds of the tree

The progeny shown

of the
in Fig. 381.

No two

plants alike.

yet
like

now and then one branch on

a plant may be so unevery other branch that the horticulturist selects buds

from it and endeavors to propagate it. "Weeping" or pendent branches sometimes appear on upright trees; nee-

230

VARIATION

AND ITS RESULTS

on one or more branches, of and peaches may be borne on nectarine trees; rnsset apples are sometimes borne on Greening apple trees; white roses are sometimes found on red-flowered
tarines sometimes are borne

a peach tree,

plants.
;37r).

Frequently a plant begins a

it

new

kind of variaes-

tion long after birth, even after

tablished.
It
is

has become well

on this fact that successful agriculture depends, for the farmer makes his plants better by givdng them more food and care: and betterment (like deterioration) is only a variation as compared with the average Plants which start to all appearances equal may plant. end unequal: some may be tall and vigorous, others may some will be worth harbe weak, others may be dwarf vesting and some will not. 376. THE CAUSES OF VARIATIONS. rr//vV///o.s ate due
:

to

several aiul perhaps

many

causes.

One

class of causes

lies in

the environment,

derived from parents.

variation, the

and another lies in the tendencies Of the environmental causes of

food supply.

chief

is

Good

agriculture

consists largely in

increasing the food supply for plants

by giving
383.

each plant abundant room, keeping out com-

peting plants, tilling the

Fig. soil, adding plant-food. environmental factor is climate It is very difficult to determine the (Chapter XXVII). There is much difference exact causes of any variation.

Another strong

of opinion respecting the causes of variation in general.

The extent

of variation due to food supply

is

well illus-

The two pigweeds grew only five feet apart, one in hard soil by a walk, the other near a compost pile. They were of similar age. One weighed
trated in Fig. 383.

oz.;

the other

4%
is,

lbs.,

or 136 times as much.

variations
are

377.

HEREDITY. Marked
That

tend to be perto

petuated.

offspring

likely

retain

some

of the peculiarities ot their parents.

This passing over

SELECTION
of characteristics from

EVOLUTION
to

231
is

parent

offspring

heredity.

By

"selecting the best" for seed the farmer maintains and

his

improves
It is

crops.

said

that "like

jn-oduces like."
is

This

true of the general

or

average features,

but we have seen that the reproduction is

not exact.
to
It is

truer

say

that

similar
similar.

produces
marked
acters.

Fig. 384 represents a case

of
he-

redity of special char-

The plants on
:i8;!.

the right grew from a

parent 24

in.

high and

Variation. Big and little pigweeds of the same kind.

30

in.

broad.
in.

ami 9

broad.

Those on the left grew from one 12 in. high (For a history of these parents see

"Survival of the Unlike," p. 261.)

378. SELECTION.

There

is

intense struggle for existence:

Hve under the particular conditions. This persistence of the best adapted and loss of the least adapted is the process designated by Darwin's phrase "natural selection" and by Spencer's "survival of the Natural selection is also known as Darwinism. fittest."
there
is

universal variation: those variations or kinds

fitted to live

which are best

379.
plants.

By He

a similar process, the cultivator modifies his chooses the variations which please him, and

from their offspring constantly selects for seed -bearing In time he has a those which he considers to be the best. Plant-breeding consists chiefly of two new variety. things: producing a variation in the desired direction;
selecting, until the desired variety
is

secured.

232
380.
tion,

VAKIATION AND ITS RESULTS

EVOLUTION.

Variation,

heredity,

natural selec-

and other agencies bring about a gradual change in The hythe plant kingdom; this change is evolution. pothesis that one form may give rise to another is now universally accepted amongst investigators; but whether the vegetable kingdom has all arisen from one starting point is unknown. Only a few of the general lines of the unfolding of the vegetable kingdom, with numberless

384.

The progeny

of

little

and big plants.

details here

and there, have been worked out. Not every form or kind of plant can be expected ever to vary into Some kinds have nearly run their couix another kind. and are undergoing the age-long process of extinction. It is believed, however, that every kind of plant now living has been derived from some other kind. Evolution Variation and heredity are the wosi is still in progress.
important facts in organic nature.
Review.
ety?
gories.

What

is

a variation?

variety?

Agricultural vari-

How may

variations arise?

Explain each of the three cate-

Selection?

What are some of the causes of variation? What is heredity? What are essentials in plant-breeding? Wliat is evolution?

PART III HISTOLOGY, OR THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS

CHAPTER XXXI
THE CELL
381.

are

THE CELL AS A WHOLE. All of the higher plants made up of a large number of bodies or parts called
These are so minute that, in most cases, they are

cells.

invisible to the

naked

eye.

382. CELLS
cells

ARE OF MANY FORMS. In

assigned
to

general,

plant

may
:

be

some one

of

the

following

forms

spherical, as in protococcus (a minute alga to be found

on damp walls and rocks), and apple

tabular or
flat,

flesh;

polyhedral, or many-sided, as in pith of elder;

as in epidermis of leaves;
cylindrical, as in vaucheria, spirogyra;

fibrous, as cotton fibers;

vascular, as the ducts of

pea) and other plants.

wood

stellate, as in the interior of leaves of lathyrus (sweet

CELL. Every living, growing cell protoplasm (171), a colorless, semi-fluid substance, which is usually inclosed within a cell-wall. Within the wall, also, and sometimes closely surrounded by protoplasm, is a dense body known as the nucleus.
383.

PARTS OF A

contains

The nucleus usually contains a smaller central

(233)

part, or

234
nucleolus.

THE CELL
Cell- walls are so often absent that
it

is

quite

as well to think of a cell as a single nucleus with

its

attend-

ant protoplasm.
cell,

The nucleus

is

an essential part of every

and

is

intimately connected with the wonderful process

of cell -division.

In some very low forms of plants, as in

some of the made out.

384.

bacteria,

no nucleus has yet been clearly

its

NATURE OF PROTOPLASM. Protoplasm, with

all

nucleus, forms the essential part of

cells.
It is

living,

acting

possible in

many

cases to find a small

mass

of living protoplasm ivlth a nucleus hut

vnthout a rell-

Protoplasm is not entirely homogeneous, for when wall. examined with a microscope of very high power it is often found to be of a foamy or honeycomb nature. This mesh or network contains many minute granules, called microsomes, and lies in a clear "ground mass" composed of cellsap. On a glass slip mount in a drop of water some coml)ressed or brewer's yeast which has been growing in a thin
syrup of white sugar for twent3'-four hours; place over the drop a thin cover-glass, and examine with the compound microscope, first with the low power and then with the
high.

The individual

cells

should be visible.

Note the

shape and contents of the cells, and make a sketch of a few of them. A similar study may be made of the sol't pulp scraped from a celery stem; of hairs scraped from the surface of a begonia leaf;
of threads of spirogyra;
cells of

protococ-

cus
385. Cells in petiole

soft white cells of

an apple; the thin

the epidermis of

leavcs of various mosses;

of begonia

leaf.

Vacuoles

at

w.

waxy
(-

plauts.

l^yl'^uTl^.
cium oxalate.

385.

VACUOLES.- Protoplasm
fill

often does

There may be a These number of cavities or vacuoles in a single cell. In some vacuoles are filled with cell- sap {v., Fig. 385). parts, as in buds and root -tips, where the cells are most
entirely

the

cell.

MOVEMENTS OF PROTOPLASM
actively

235
fill

dividing,

the

protoplasm
j>i-e8ent.

may

entirely

the

space and no vacuoles he

886.

MOVEMENTS OF PROTOPLASM. Within the cellmany times the profopltisni shoirs a tt'ti(Je)\('y to move from place to place. This movement is
wall,

chiefly of

two kinds:
onl}'

(1) circulation, or

movement not

along the walls but

celandine;
in

also across the cell -body, as seen in the

long, thin- walled

cells of

the staminal hairs of tradescantia (Fig.

386);
the

in

the bristles of squash vines;

in

stinging hairs of nettle; in stellate

(2)

hairs of hollyhock.

rotation,
plauts,

or

movement along
in

the walls only, well seen

the

cells

of

many water

as

elodea, chara,

and

nitella (Fig. 387).

387. Besides these and other movements of protoplasm within the cell -wall, there are also movements of naked vroroplasm, of two main types: (1) amoeboid or creeping movements, such as may be seen in a Plasmodium of myxomycetes. or in an amoeba; (2) swimming by means

of

cilia

or

flagella,

illustrated

in

the

swarm -spores
algaB,
,

of water fungi,

and of some

and

in motile bacteria.
1

By
\

the last
386. circulation of pro-

type of

movement

the unicellular bodies

1

(swarm-spores and

bacteria)

are

often

toplasm in a cell of a stamen hair of trad-

moved very

rapidly.

in protoplasm, carefully

To see movement mount in water

7^t!\7J^eamo
*^*-

a few hairs from the stamens of tradescantia (spider-wort).

The water should not be too cold. Examine with a power high enough to see the granules of protoplasm. Make a
sketch of several
cells

and their contents.

It
is

may

be

necessary to

make

several trials before success

attained

236
in this experiment.

THE CELL
If

the microscope

is

cold, heat the

stage

gently with an alcohol lamp, or by other means;

the room.

or

warm
388.

See Fig. 386.

NATURE OF CELL-WALL. The cell -wall of very young cells is a delicate film or membrane. As a cell
remains thin and does not begin to The fundamental substance of cell -walls is a carbohydrate known as The cellulose generally stains blue with hemacellulose. Often by incrustations or deposits of one kind toxylin.

grows

in size the wall

ceil

thicken until the

has ceased to enlarge.

or another, the cellulose reaction

is lost

or obscured.

Two

:;

'a>--

'.'a.

.^ :-^ >)^ '.^B--@ '^; S

^ ^>

'^

387.

Rotation of protoplasm in Elodea Canadensis (often Anacharis). Common in ponds.

known

as

of the

most common additions are lignin, forming wood, and suberin, forming cork. The walls then are said to be
lignified or suberized.

389. In

all

the cells studied in the above experiments

In general, those cells which have thin walls are called parenchymatous cells. Some cells, as those of nuts and the grit of pear fruit, have
the ivalls are thin and soft.

very thick

ivalls,

and are called sclerenchymatous

the
cell -walls

cells.

In

many

cases

are

intermediate

between
to

these extremes.
390. Cell -walls
intier surface.

often

thicken
in

by additions
thickness

their

This increase

seldom takes
the

place uniformly in all parts.

Many

times

wall

re-

mains thin at certain places, while the most of the wall becomes very thick. Again the walls may thicken veiy much in angles or along certain lines, while most of the wall remains thin. As a result of this uneven thickening

MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS
the walls of cells take on certain definite markings.
of the

237

Some

names applied
little

to these

markings are:

Pitted, with

holes or depressions, forming very

thin places, as seen in seeds of sunflower,

and
pits,

in the large vessels in

the stem of the cucumber.

Bordered

when

the

pits

are in-

closed in the cell-wall, as in

wood

of
388.

pines and other conifers.

Fig. 388.

Spiral, with the thickening in a spiral

Bordered pits in pine wood.

band, as in the primary wood of most woody plants

and in the veins of leaves. Fig. 389. Annular, with thickening in the form of rings; seen in the small vessels of the bundles in stem of Indian
corn.

Fig. 389.
thin places in the wall,

Scalariform, with elongated

the rounds of a ladder.

alternating with the thick ridges which appear like

Fig. 389.

These are well

shown
391.

in a longitudinal section of the root of the

brake fern (Pteris).

MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS. Cells give rise to Thus does the plant grow. The most common method by which cells are multiplied is that called cell division. A modified form of cell division is called budding. Cell division is a process by which two (or more) cells are made from one

new

cells.

^ s
^

original

cell.

abiDidance

which have an of protoplasm are usually

Cells

most

active
is

in

cell

division.

The
one.

process

at first

an
the

internal
divides
cell
is

The
the
these

nucleus

gradually
of

into

two

masses
or
is

protoplasm

apportioned

and between

two

nuclei;

wall, is usually

a new cell -membrane, thrown across and the cell

partition

completely

238
divided into two
cell-wall.
cells.

THE CELL
Fig. 390.
In

some

cases, however,

the nucleus divides

many

times without the foruiatiou of a

mother

cell,

The cell which began to divide is called the and the resulting cells are daughter cells.
''
<-

'^

392.

Cell buda variety of

'

ding
he

is

cell division in
I

which

cell

is

vided
dle.
cell
liUO.

in

not dithe mid-

The
pushes

mother
our
a

Four

stt-ps

ill

procos.s of cell-iJivisiuii.

Mother

cell at left,

far advanced In division; daughter

cells at right.

protuberance, which

a constriction of the

becomes separated hy and the spores of many fungi multiply in this way. 393. lu no case, so far as we yet know, can the cell divide without a division of the nucleus and the protoplasmic mass. There are two methods of nuclear division: (1) direct, as found in the old cells of nitella, tradescantia, and others, in which the mass of the nucleus divides by simple constriction; (2) indirect, as found in all actively growing There are several tissue, in pollen grains, spores, etc.
ivalls.

Cells of the yeast plant

The nucleus divides in intriodd forms known as nnclear Mitosis and karyokinesis are names sometimes figures. given to indirect nuclear division. The study of this process is a very difficult one, as it requires a very high power They are easily microscope to see the different stages. seen in cells found in buds of convallaria and in pollen grains of that plant, but may be studied in all plants. The
stages in the latter process.
cate methods, giving rise to

process

is

too difficult for the beginner to trace, but

it is

outlined in the note on next page.

Fig. 390

is

not intended

to represent all the stages in indirect

nuclear division.

of a living cell.

Review. What are some of the forms of cells? Name the parts What part or parts are essential in all cnses? Give

KAKYOKINESIS

239

your idea of the naiui-e of piotoplasin. What differences did you find between the cells of yeast and those of green alga? In what ways do they resemble each other? Tell the same of cells of protococeus and What is a vacuole? What of apple, or of other material studied. does it usually contain? Name two kinds of movements of protoplasm within the cell -wall, and explain how each may be observed. Name and describe two movements of naked protoplasm. Tell something of the texture of cell-walls. What causes the markings found on cellDraw two figures to show walls ? Name five types of markings. structure of bordered pits. Make a sketch of spiral, annular, and scalariform markings. Name two methods of cell-multiplication. Describe the process of cell-division. How does cell-budding differ from cell-division? Name two methods of nuclear division. Which
is

the

more common method

Note to PARAGRAPrf

393.
is

Karyokinesis

(the indirect or mitotic

process of nuclear division)

an intricate subject.

The

details vary

in different plants, but the essential stages are as follows:

Duringthe restingstage the nucleus is surrounded by a very delimembrane. Within this inclosure is an intricate network of colorless {linin) threads bearing very numerous granules, which in stained preparations are highly colored, and for this reason have received the name chromatin. The network is surrounded by nuclearsap, and often incloses within its meshes a large body called the nucleolus. As the time for division approaches the chromatin network changes into a definite, much-coiled, deeply stained ribbon, in which tlie granular structure is much less noticeable, and this in turn segments transversely into a number of parts called chromosomes. The
cate but distinct

immediately surrounding the nucleus now gradtwo points lying on opposite sides of the nucleus and at a slight distance from the membrane. This is accomplished in such a way that a spindle of nearly colorless threads is produced, with the two previously mentioned points of convergence acting as poles. Meanwhile both the nuclear membrane and the nucleolus have disappeared, but whether these structures take part in the formation of the spindle is yet an open question. Radiations of pi-otoplasmic threads called asters sometimes occur around the poles, and in a few lower plants, as well as in most animals, the pole is occupied by a small spherical body termed a centrosphere. The steps so far are known as the prophase stages. The chromosomes now move to the equator of the spindle, where they an-ange themselves in a definite manner, forming the so-called nuclear-plate {metaphase stage). Each segment splits longitudinally, apparently on account of
protoplasmic
fibrils

ually converge towards

240

THE CELL
;

it is attached and one daughter- segment passes to each pole {anaphase stage). Each of the two groups of daughter- segments very soon becomes surrounded by a new membrane, the chromosomes gradually fuse end to end, the nucleolus reappears, and at length two resting nuclei are produced similar in every respect to the parent nucleus [telophase stage). Meanwhile each spindle fiber becomes swollen at the equator, thus producing a series of dots all arranged in one plane. These at length fuse, forming a delicate transverse cell-membrane, which by the peripheral expansion of the spindle at length reaches the lateral walls, and cell-division is thus complete. This process of indirect nuclear division is one of the most wonderful phenomena yet discovered in organic development, not only on account of its intricacy and beauty, but also because it has been found that hereditary characteristics are The in all probability transmitted solely through the chromosomes. longitudinal division and separation seem to be for the purpose of insuring equal apportionment of the hereditary substance to each daughter-nucleus. The subject, however, is still in its infancy, and authors disagree both as to details and as to theoretical considerations. Note on Scope, Apparatus, and Methods. The work outlined in Part III is sulficient, if well done, to occupy one period of the These chapters are pupil's time each school day for six weeks. intended only as laboratory guides. The pupil should work out each structure or part for himself before taking up the succeeding subject. The work in this Part deals with only the elements of the subject, but it is as much as the high school pupil can hope to take up with profit. Apparatus. The apparatus necessary for the work outlined in these chapters on histology may be obtained from dealers in microscopes and laboratory supplies at a low figure. Schools should obtain catalogues from the following and other reliable dealers: Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y. Eimer & Amend, New York. The Franklin Educational Co., Boston.

the contractive action of the spindle fiber to which

Queen &
Richards

Co., Philadelphia.

Co., Chicago and Spencer Lens Co., Buffalo.

&

New

York.

Williams,
Whitall,

Brown &

Earle, Philadelphia.

Geneva Optical Co., Chicago.

Chas. Lentz
Co., New York. & Sons, Philadelphia. Kny & Co., New York.

Tatum &

Richard

Cambridge Botanical Supply Co., Cambridge, Mass.

APPARATUS AND METHODS

The microscope should have

241

a one-inch and perhaps a two-inch two objectives of say |- and i-inch focal lengths. the laboratory study of the pupils at different times each microscope may be used by three, four, or even more pupils. There should be a microtome or section-cutter for use by the

eye-piece and

By arranging

class.

Each pupil should have

reagents, as follows:
1 1

his

own

individual tools and bottles of

good razor (hollow-ground on one side only),

small scalpel,

1 pair forceps,

2
1

sharp needles mounted in handles (as penholders) (Fig. 199), medicine dropper,
small camel's hair brush,
of slides
stains,

A number
following:

and cover -glasses.

and other cheinicals, there should be the

Of reagents,
Glycerine,

Ninety-five per cent

alcohol.

Formalin (40 per cent formaldehyde). Clearer (made of three parts turpentine and two
crystals of carbolic acid),

pai-ts

melted

Canada balsam.
Ether,
2 per cent

and "

5 per cent collodion,

Iodine dissolved in water,

" alcohol. Hematoxylin, Copper sulfate solution. Potassium hydroxide solution, Fehling's solution (see paragraph 397), Alcanin (henna root in alcohol).

"

The two per cent collodion

forty -nine parts ether,

is

made

of forty-nine parts alcohol,

This strength is use in sticking sections to the glass slide to prevent their escape during the staining and clearing process. It need not be used unless desired. Collodion is often useful for imbedding
suitable
to

two parts soluble cotton.

material, as

indicated under the

Pupils must exercise great care in using carbolic acid, as

the flesh.

head "Imbedding" on page 243. it burns

in

Hematoxylin stain may be obtained of dealers

a condition

242

THE CELL

ready for use, or may be prepared by this recipe {Gage's HematoxijUu]: Distilled water 200 cc. and potash alum 7^ grams, boil together Add enough boiled for five minutes in glass dish or agate ware. water to bring the volume back to 200 cc. When cool add 4 grams of chloral hydrate and nf gram of hematoxylin crystals which have been dissolved in 20 cc. of ninety-five per cent alcohol. This is quite permanent, and becomes of a deeper color after standing for

some time if left in a light place and frequently shaken. It stains the tissues which bear protoplasm and cellulose walls, causing them to stand out in contrast with the other tissues.
for the experiments outlined

Preparing and Keeping Laboratory Material. In preparing material in Part III., the pupil or teacher will find it best to get much of the material during the growing season Soft material should be and preserve it until the time for use.

dehydrated and hardened by placing it in about 40 per cent alcohol for several hours to two days, according to its size, and then placing it in about 70 per cent for the same lensrth of time. It can then be placed in 80 per cent alcohol, and is ready for use at any time. When thus preserved, the tissues containing protoplasm are sometimes much shrunken. For this reason it is well to preserve some One of of the material in a liquid containing a great deal of water. the best liquids is a 2 per cent or 2% per cent solution of formalin. Formalin This preserves material well but does not dehydrate it. burns the flesh. Free-hand Cutting and Mounting. To cut sections, the material may often be held between pieces of pith or smooth cork in the microtome or fingers. The material and sections should be kept wet with alcohol during the time of cutting. The sections when cut should be wet in water, then stained with hematoxylin for a few minutes; drain off the hematoxylin and rinse with water; then use ninety-five per cent alcohol to extract all the water from the stetions; then pour on clearer for a few Put a drop of Canada balsam on the sections, and they minutes. are ready for the thin cover glass. Mounts thus made are permanent. Some reasons for the steps in the process may be understood from the fact that hematoxylin does not mix readily with alcohol, Sections and balsam does not mix with water nor with alcohol. mounted before they are freed from water become cloudy and

worthless.

Fixing and Microtome Sectioning. For the purpose of preparing permanent miscroscopic sections of leaves, wood, or any other planttissues, select typical specimens of the part desired and cut them

FIXING
into pietH's as small

AND MICKOTOME SECTIONING

243

These may as cau be convenieutly handled. theu be prepared by the following processes: If the material is to be used simply for the study of 1. Fixing: tissue-arrangement, cell-structure, etc., the treatment with alcohol described in the paragraph relating to the preparing and keeping of
laboratory material
is sufficient

preparation for the imbedding process.

Protoplasmic structures, however, are likely to be distorted or disintegrated after this treatment, due to the slow process of killing. Some method of quickly killing or" fixing" the protoplasm is therefore necessary.

With hematoxylin staining only a few methods are

the following
is

available,

among which

perhaps the best. Cut the fresh material into very small pieces (the smaller tlie better) and drop into so-called absolute alcohol (96 per cent or stronger) after a few hours preserve
;

more accurate fixing be used, such as chromic acid, osmic acid, acetic acid, The treatment, however, etc., either separately or in combination. is in these cases rather complicated. The pieces must be imbedded in some substance 2. Imbedding: For this, collodion is in which tliey cau be held and sectioned.
in 90 or 95

percent

alcohol.

With

otiier stains

agents

may

Pour off the alcoliol, and add enough 2 used for harder tissues. per cent collodion to cover the material about three -fourths of an inch. After twenty-four hours tiiis may be poured back into the stock bottle, and an equal amount of 5 per cent collodion put on the
material.

The

collodion contains ether and

alcohol, both of

which

are volatile; therefore these operations must be pei'formed as quickly as possible, and the corks of collodion bottles should always be

by holding the bottle neck down for a few seconds. Leave in 5 per cent collodion twenty-four hours, and then pour the contents of the vial into a paper box, which may be made by folding a piece of writing paper. The size of the box must be judged so that each piece of material will be surrounded by a quantity of collodion, and the inside of thd box should be greased with vaseline to prevent the collodion from sticking. The pieces will sink to the bottom, where they may be arranged with a needle. If there is not enough collodion in the box add some from the stock bottle. The box should then be placed in a shallow vessel on the bottom of which a little alcohol has been poured, and covered with a pane of glass leaving a very small opening on one side. In about twenty-four hours the collodion will have hardened into a cake havsealed
the material

ing the consistency of cheese. The material may now be cut into small blocks and stored in 85 per cent alcohol. For cutting sections, either a hand microtome or a 3. Cutting:

244

THE CELL

small sliding microtome and a sharp razor are necessary. Cut one of the pieces of collodion into an oblong block with the imbedded

This can be clamped in the microtome, being held in place by a flat piece of cork on either side. The collodion must project above the cork. The razjr should be adjusted in such
material near one end.

a manner that the wiiole length of the blade is used in cutting. The blade should be tilted downwards so tha*-, only the cutting edge comes in contact with the block which should not be scraped by the lower flat surface of the razor back of the edge. Both the collodion block and the razor must be kept flooded with alcohol during the

When several sections have been cut they may be flouted out on a slide and arranged near the center. Then with a pipette place a drop of ether on the sections. This partially disThe solves the collodion and thus sticks the sections to the slide. slide is then covered with water to remove the alcohol, after which Sections are ruined if allowed to become it is ready for staining. dry at any time after cutting. 4. Stain with hematoxylin for from three to five minutes, and wash off the surplus stain with water. 5. Drain off the water and dehydrate by keeping the slide flooded witn alcohol for ten minutes, or by placing it in a vessel of alcohol. 6. Pour off the alcohol and cover the slide with a clearing mixture (see p. 241) and allow it to stand for ten minutes. The clearer removes the alcohol which cannot mix with balsam.
process of cutting.
7.

Drain and wipe

off

as

much

of the clearer as possible withof prepared

out touching the sections.

Then place a small drop

Canada balsam on the sections near the center of the slide, and with a pair of forceps lay on a clean cover-glass. If the proper amount of balsam has been used it will spread out to the edge of the coverglass without exuding. The slide is now ready to be examined. It should be cleaned and labelled and put away in a small wooden box which is furnished by dealers in microscopical supplies.

Box of microscope

slides,

aud a packet of collodion drying

iu a glass vessel.

CHAPTER XXXII
CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS
394.
cells are

THE LIVING CELL

IS

A LABORATORY. In

nearly

all

found one or more non- protoplasmic substances which are produced by the plant. Some of these are very useful to the plant, and others seem to be discarded or excretory products. There is considerable division of labor among the cells of higher plants, one cell or group of cells producing one product and another cell producing another
product.
395. CHLOROPHYLL. Cells may contain chlorophyll bodies if they are exposed to the sunlight. Chlorophyll is a green substance infiltrated in a protoplasmic ground mass. It imparts color to all the green parts of the plant.

necessary in all plants which have nourishment wholly or in part from the air and from mineral matter of soil. Review Chapter XII. Most parasites and saprophytes do not bear chlorophyll, but live on organic matter (Chapter XIII). The oval bodies in the cell of Figs. 411, 413, 414, are chlorophyll
Its presence is absolutely

to secure their

bodies.

396.

CELL-SAP. Often the most abundant of the

is

differ-

ent cell-contents

cell-sap.

It

may

contain a number of

different substances,

many

of which are in solution

and can
of these

be detected by the use of chemical reagents.

Some

substances are:
[

milk (lactose).
gra'pe (glucose or dextrose, Cell i-jOe).

Sugar,

fruit (levulose).

cane (saccharose, C12H22O11).

malt (maltose).
(246)

246

CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS

starch in compositae

Inulin, which takes the place of

and others. Fats and oils, as

in flaxseed

and castor bean.

Mucus

or mucilage, as in orchid roots, onions, quince

seed, ducts of

some

plants, as cycads.

Tannins, as
plants.

in

oak, hemlock

bark, and

many

other

Afropin, in belladonna.
Nicotin, in tobacco.

Emetin, in ipecac root.

Caffein, in coffee.

Alkaloids,

Strychnin, in nux vomica.

MorpMn,
(Jiiinin,

in

Papavcr somniferum (opium

cinchona
or

poppy).
in

Peruvian

bark

tree.

Resins, as

in Conifera}.

Gum-resins, Caoutchouc, as

in

India-rubber plant.

Formic, as in stinging nettles.

Acetic, as in fermented cider.
Oxalic, mostly in

form of calcium

Vegetable acids,

oxalate (see crystals. Fig. 383).

Malic, as in apple.
Citric, as in
I

lemon.

And many

others.

397.

Sugar

is

found

in almost all parts of the plant

and
as

at all periods of growth.

In a few
others.

it

is

crystallized,

in date-seeds, squills,

and
is

Sugar serves as a

reserve material in such plants as beet, cane, corn, onion.

Being readily soluble, sugar

to another, as

a convenient form for the

transportation of the food store from one part of the plant

from leaves to roots during the fall season and from roots to stems and leaves during the spring seaSee sou. It results from the digestion of starch (168). Su{;ar in fruits attracts many animals, and in iiote p. 251.

TESTS FOR SUGARS AND OIL

nectar of flowers
it

247
for f/lHcose
:

attracts insects.

To

test

Make
a few

a thick

section
it

of a bit

of

the edible

part of a

pear and place

in a bath of Fehling's solution.

After

moments

boil the liquid containing the section for

one or two minutes.

a
little

It will turn to an orange color, showing a deposit of an oxide of copper and perhaps

copper in

the

metallic

form.

thin

section

treated in like
scope,

manner may be examined under the micro-

and the fine particles, precipitated from the solution by the sugar of the pear, may be clearly seen. (Fehling's
solution
is

made by taking one

(2)

part each of these three

solutions and two parts of water:

grams
in

in 250 c.c. water;

c.c.

250

water; (3)
test

(1) Copper sulfate, 9 sodium hydroxide, 30 grams rochelle salts, 43 grams in 250 c.c.

water.)

To

of sugar beet

and

for cane sugar: (1) Make a thin section let it stand a few minutes in a strong

solution of copper sulfate.

the salt.
(2)

Then

carefully rinse off all

Heat in a very strong solution of potassium There will be seen a blue coloration in the hydroxide. section, gradually washing out into the liquid. To test for oil: Mount a thin section of the endosperm of castor-oil seed in water and examine with high power.
Treat the Small drops of oil will be quite abundant. mount with alcanin (henna root in alcohol). The drops This is the standard test for fats of oil will stain red.

and

oils.

To examine gum-resin : Mount a little of the "milky" juice of the leaf stem of the garden poinsettia (Euphorbia Examinapulcherrima). It is of a creamy consistency. tion under the microscope shows that it is not white, as it seems to the naked eye. The particles are yellowish These particles are gum or colorless and are insoluble. resin. They have been emulsified by the plant, making the juice appear white. 398. CONTE^^TS NOT IK SOLUTION. Starch is the most

248

CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS

abundant of the solid products of the cell. Starch grains have a definite form for each group of plants, and groups can be determined by the form of their starch grains.
Detection of adulteration of various products containing
starch
is

accomplished by the aid of the microscope.

In

potato starch the grains are ovate, with a "nucleus" near

one end, as shown in Fig. 391,

In poinsettia they are dumb-

bell-shaped, with two nuclei (Fig. 391).

In corn they have equal diameters, with

radial fissures.

In Egyptian lotus they

are

forked or
all

branched.
grains

So
are

far

as

known

starch

marked

with rings, giving a striated appearance,

laycrs.

a.

potato ;TpoTnsettia;
''"'^'^-

due to the difference in density of the When all water is driven out of
the

starch

the

rings

layers are

more or

less concentric,

disappear. The and are formed about

a starch nucleus.
399. Starch grains

may

be simple, as found in potato,

wheat, arrow-root, corn, and

in

many

others;

or they

may be

groups called

compound

grains, as in oats, rice (Fig.

391), and

many

of the grasses.

It

be found in all parts of the plant. formed in presence of chlorophyll, mostly in the leaves, and from there it is carried to some other part
400. Starch
first
is

may

of the plant, as to the roots or tubers, to be stored or to

be used.
liquid
plant.

When

found

in the presence of chlorophyll

it

it

is

called transitory starch, because

is

soon converted into

compounds

to be transported to other parts of the

When
it

deposited for future use, as in twigs and

of starch
in the proportion of

tubers,

is

stored starch.
is

The composition The grains are CeHioOs.

401.
saliva they are

insoluble in cold water, but

by

changed to sugars, which are soluble. Great heat converts them into dextrine, which is soluble in water.

STARCH

PROTEIN

249

Starch turns blue with iodine (75). The color may be driven away by heat, but will return again as the temperature lowers. To test for starch : Make pastes with wheat Treat a little of each flour, potato starch, and corn starch.
with a solution of rather dilute iodine.

crushed
color?

rice

with the same solution.

Try grains from Are they the same

Cut a thin section from a potato, treat with iodine To study starch examine under the microscope. grains : Mount in cold water a few grains of starch from potato, wheat, arrow -root (buy each of the following Study the sizes, at drug store) rice, oats, corn, euphorbia. forms, layers, fissures, and location of nuclei, and make a

and

drawing of a few grains of each, 402. Amylo-dextrine is a solid product of the cell much resembling starch in structure, appearance, and use. With the iodine -test the grains change to a wine -red color. Seeds of rice, sorghum, wild rice, and other plants contain Amylo-dextrine is a half-way stage in amylo-dextrine. These the conversion of starch into maltose and dextrine.
latter substances

do not react with iodine.

is

403. Protein or nitrogenous matter occurs largely in

the form of

aleurone grains, and

most abundant

in

seeds of various kinds.

less or yellowish in

The grains

are very small, color-

the

common
many

cereals they

layer of cells

most plants, rarely red or green. occupy the outer of the endosperm. Fig. 392.

In

In

other cases they are distributed

throughout the seed. The grains vary in size and form in different species, but are rather constant within each group. They are entirely soluble in water unless
.

392.

Aleurone grains
in

(ai)

kernel of

^^'**"

certain

present,

hard parts or bodies, known as inclusions, are The inand these may remain undissolved.

clusions
seed-,

may be

(a)

crystaloids, as in potato, castor-oil

(.h)

globoids, as in peach,

mustard

(c)

calcium oxa-

250

CONTENTS AND TRODUCTS OF CELLS

To stud)/ aleurone grains seed. Cut a thin cross-seetion of the of a grain of wheat and mount in alcohol.

late crystals, as in

gmpe

and

their inclusions:

peripheral cells

Stain with an alcoholic solution of iodine to color the grains

yellow,

and examine with the highest power.

cells, just

Make

sketch of a few layers of

beneath the epidermis.

a little water

Make
cells.

a sketch of a few of the grains removed from the

While looking
of

at the

mount run

under

the cover glass and watch the result.

Make

a similar

mount and study

of grape seed.

the endosperm of castor -oil seed, or

In the castor-oil seed look for inclusions

of large crystaloids

and small globoids. In the grape seed globoids should be found with crystals of calcium oxalate
This experiment will require the power of

within them.
404. Cells
tals

i- or i-inch objective.

may

contain crystals.

Besides

the crys-

which are found as inclusions of aleurone grains, many others may be found in many plants. In onion
they are prisms;
in in night -shade

skin
are

they
the

the

form of

crystal

flour;

in

petioles of the peach they are roundish, with

many

projecting angles

in the rootstock of

skunk cabbage and the bulbs of hyacinth they are needle -sliaped and are called raphides
(Fig. 393).

g^.

In the leaf of

R^phides of rhizome of skunk

'^^

the India-rubber plant (com-

^^^'

mou

in

greenhouses) are found compound

clusters

resembling bunches of grapes, which are called cystoliths (Fig. 394). These are concretions and not true crysIn saxifragc mineral matter appcars
.

391.

cystoiithiuieaf

|.^jg

"f rubber plant.

ficus eiastica.

as

lucrustations

on

the

surface

of

the

Towards autumn, crystals of calcium oxalate become very abundant in the leaves of many deciduous trees: examine cross -sections of peach petiole in June and again
plant.

REVIEW ON CELL -CONTENTS

in October.

251
:

To study crystals and cystoliths

section the

rootstock of skunk cabbage or Jack-in-the-pulpit, the leaf

of Ficns elastica, the leaf of ivy (Hedera helix)
;

make a

separate

mount

of each in water, the crystals

cells.

high power.
of a bit of 405.

When

and examine with the are found, draw them,

with a view of the adjacent

tliin

Make

a similar study

onion skin.
of cell-contents

Summary
1.

and products:

2. 3.

Chlorophyll. Cell-sap, and substances found in solution. Starch.

4.
5. 6.

Amylo-dextrine. Alenrone grains (crystaloids and globoids). True crystals, and other mineral matter.
six classes of contents or products of the cell.

Review.

Name
?

assimilation (170)? Give outline of the products of cells found dissolved in cell-sap. What are the uses of sugar to plants?

Where found use? What is

Of what use?

What

is

chlorophyll

What

is

its

Name some
in plants?

kinds of sugar found in plants.

Describe an experiment

find the oil Describe an experiment for the study of gum-resin. Why does the juice containing it appear white? Describe starch grains of

to test for glucose.

Same

for cane sugar.

How may we

potato.

Tell

those of potato.
is

how starch grains of other plants What are the uses of starch to

studied differ from

the plant's starch factory?

starch.

Name

the plant ? Where Describe an experiment to test for some plants in which we may find amylo-dextrine.

does its test differ from that for starch ? What are aleurone grains? In what cells are they found in kernels of wheat? Name some of the forms in which we find true crystals in plant cells.

How

Note to Paragraph 397. The digestion of starch is produced by means of enzyms or unorganized ferments (i. e., ferments which are not bacterial or fungal, but are chemical substances). These ferments, as diastase, are present in seeds and other living tissues containing starch. During dormant periods the enzyms either are not present, or their action is prohibited by the presence of other substances. There are various specific enzyms, each producing
definite chemical changes.

Grape sugar and its associate, fruit sugar, appear to be the forms most generally useful to plants. Cane sugar is readily inverted into
these
sufirars

CHAPTER XXXIII
TISSUES
The lowest plants are unicellular or composed of cell. Of such are bacteria (Fig. 128). All the higher plants are composed of collections or aggregations of innumerable cells: they are multicellular. If we examine the cells of the stem, the leaves, and the roots of any common garden plant we find that they differ very widely from each other in shape, size, and texture.
406.

only one

407.

Any group

of

similar

cells

is

called

a tissue.

Each
cells,

of the different tissues of a plant has its

although the

cells

in a tissue

own type of may differ from each

other in various minor ways.

PARENCHYMATOUS TISSUE. Thin -walled cells are parenchyma cells. When they unite they form parenchymatous tissue. These may or may not be elon408.

known
gated

as

and they usually contain protoplasm. found at the growing point is of a shoot or root (Fig. 395); in the mesophyll (soft pulpy part) of the leaves (Fig. 411); around the vascular bundles of stems and roots (Fig. 402/), and in a few other
in

form,

Parenchymatous

tissue

places, as pith, medullary rays, etc.

The

cells of this tis-

sue

may be
;

meristematic

in a

state of active division

and

growth
divide.

or

they

may

be permanent, no longer able to

of this tissue

tissues, as in growing points.

is to form other Near the end of any young root or shoot the cells are found to differ from each other more or less, according to the distance from the point. This differentiation takes place in the region just back of

409.

One important use

(362)

PARENCHYMATOUS TISSUE
the growing point.

253

In

the

mesophyll (or middle soft

part) of leaves the elaboration of plant-food takes place.

Intercellnlar spaces filled with air

mon

in this tissue of leaves, as well as in

and other gases are comparenchyma of

other parts of the plant.

410.

To study growing
about

points,

use

the

hypocotyl of Indian corn

which has grown

inch.
in

one -half

The material should be placed

40 per cent alcohol for a few

in

hours, then in 70 per cent for the

same length of time, and then

per cent until ready for use.
a
series

95

Make

of

longitudinal

sections,

stain with hematoxylin,

then

select

mount, and the middle or median

one for study with the high power. Note these points (Fig. 395): (a)
Growing point of root of Root-cap beyond the growing point. 395. Indian corn, d, d, dermatogen; e, enp, p, periblem; (h) The shape of the end of the dodermis; p plerome; initroot proper and the shape of the ial group of cells, or growing point proper; c, root-cap. cells found there, (c) The group of cells in the middle of the first layers beneath the This group is the growing point, root-cap. (d) Study
e,
J,
i,.

the

slight

differences

in

the

tissues

short

distance

back of the growing point. There are four regions: the plerome, several rows of cells in the center; the endodermis, composed of a single layer on each side the periblem, of several layers outside the endodermis, and the dermatogen, on the outer edges. Make a drawing of
;

the section.
cotyl should

If a series of the cross -sections of the

be

made and

studied,

hypobeginning near the

growing point and running back some distance, it would be found that these four tissues become more distinctly marked. The central cylinder of plerome will contain the

254
ducts and vessels
;

TISSUES
the endodermis remains as endodermis;
the derma-

periblem becomes the cortex of parenchyma;

togen becomes the epidermis of the root.

411.

EPIDERMAL TISSUE. This

and stems.

is

a special modification

of parenchyma, comprising the thin layers on the exterior of leaves

like

The

cells are often

tabular or plate(Fig. 115);

in form, as in the epidermis of leaves

and
tive

their outer surface bears a layer of cuticle, a protec-

substance which
little

is

insoluble even in sulfuric acid.

cell-

They do not bear chlorophyll and often contain only

sap, with a

protoplasm.

Their walls are

much

thick-

ened

in

some

cases, as in Figs. 394

and 414.

Hairs and

hrisfles are considered to

be modified epidermal tissue.

412.

COLLENCHYMATOUS TISSUE. Tisat the

sue composed of cells thickened

angles,

not

much

elongated
is

lapping at the ends,

and not known as coUcn-

chyma
tissue.
396.

CoUenchyma in wild jewel-weed Of touch-.ne-

It is strengthening examples are found in such vlucs as pumpkiu, cucumbcr and

(Fig. 396).

Good
The

gourd.

tissuc

is

slightly

elastic

Cut a few thin cross -sections of large stems of jewel -weed, and mount in water. Study with high power. 413. SOFT BAST OR SIEVE TISSUE. In the higher plants
is

and allows of some stretching.

a tissue

known

as soft bast or sieve tissue (this also

forms part of the bundle; 424). It is composed of two types of cells which almost always accompany each other. These are sieve tubes and companion cells (Fig. 397;. Both are elongated, thin -walled and blunt at the ends.

The

sieve

tubes are so called

because of the sieve -like

areas which they bear in various parts.

These areas, called

sieve plates, are commonl.y at the ends (as partitions) but

may be in the lateral walls. They serve to Fig. 397. connect the cell-cavities with each other, and through

PROSENCHYMATOllS TISSUE
them the protosplasra strands extend, as shown
figure.

25S

the

414.

PROSENCHYMATOUS

TISSUE.

Several

elongated
in

and strong tissues, which greatly strengthen the stems which they are found, are
collectively

known

as pros-

enchyma.

The cells of these tissues become much thickened by the addition

and
finally lose their

of layers to the inner surface,

protoplasm. They may, at

times, serve as store-rooms
for starch
trients,

and other nuand take an imthe

portant part in the transfer

of

plant juices.
call

Some

writers

this

group of tissues sclerenchyma. 415. There are four main varieties of tissues which may be included under proseuchyma. (1) Fibrous tissue, composed
of very thick -walled cells

{3||illl^l~^

3'J7.

with

very

small

central

F, Fig. 401. 3a vities. They are very long and tapering Sucli tissue is found in man^^

Biist-tissue. s, s, sieve tubes; c, comIJunion cell p, shows a top view of u sieve phite, with a fonipaiiion cell, c. at the side; o, shows sieve plates in the side of the cell. In s, s, the protoplasm is shrunken from the walls liy reagents.
;

at the ends,

plants

which lap. where it often

soft

wholly or in part surrounds the fibro-vascular bundles.

It
is

more often but not always found near the

hence the
bast.
cells are

bast:
iiiird

(2)

Wood
much

sometimes called hast fibers or tissue, or wood fibers. This is

like

composed of

cells

the preceding in

structure.

256

TISSUES
and the central cavity not so
part of the

but with thinner walls

nearly closed.
walls.

In some cases such fibers have transverse

cells constitute a large

Wood

wood

of

some plants and are

in other cases
(3)

among

the other prosenchyma.

found scattered only Tracheids. Cells of

being supplied with markings.

this tissue differ

from ordinary

cells in

numerous bordered

pits or other characteristic

398.

It

shows tracheids with bordered

Longitudinal tangentiiil section of Scotch pine wood, liighly magnified. pits. The dark cells are ends of medullary rays.

They constitute the largest part of the wood of the pines and other gymnosperms. Fig. 398. (4) Vascular tissue, composed of large cells which become confluent end to end, forming long tubes or ducts. TT', Fig. 401. From the thickened markings which these cells bear they are named
spiral, annular, pitted, scalariform, etc.

Fig. 389.

These

vessels are often of considerable length, but are never con-

tinuous through the entire plant.

2 or 3 feet long.

Cut a grape-vine stem

Place one cut end in a glass of water and

with the other end in the mouth, try to force air through the stem. If not successful, shorten the stem a little.

TISSUE

SYSTEMS

257

OR SCLEROTIC TISSUE. 416. SCLERENCHYMATOUS Sclerenchyma cells are hard, not elongated, often somewhat spherical, and their thickened walls are provided with simple or branching canals. The cells of this tissue are illustrated by the common grit cells of the pear and They are also found in the coats of some other fruits. many seeds, in nut shells, in the pith of some plants. Hold a large gritty part of a pear between two pieces of smooth elder pith or cork and make free-hand sections. Mount in water. Make a drawing of a single cell showing
thickness of wall, size of central cavity, wall markings.

Note the general shape of the

417. LATICIFEROUS

cells.

TISSUE. That

tissue
is

found

in

many

plants which contain a milky liquid

tissue.

called laticiferous

There

is

no fixed type for the vessels which carry

vary greatly in different plants, being

this fluid, as they

simple in the asclepias (milk weed), and complex in the

dandelion.
418. TISSUE

SYSTEMS. The

parts of

complex plants

may

be conveniently grouped into three tissue systems : This is composed of (1) Fibro-vascular tissue system. fibro-vascular bundles. The fibrous framework of roots,

and leaves is made of fibro-vascular bundles. (Fibro-vascular means fibrous or long and slender, and .having long openings or channels.) Each bundle is
stems,

composed of two fundamental parts: phloem and xylem. The bast fibers may or may not be present. Phloem is another name for the soft hast or sieve tissue, while xylem is the name of the lignified or woody part and is composed chiefly of the ivood cells, tracheids, and ducts. In stems of dicotjdedons (exogens), these two parts of the bundle are separated by cambium, a meristematic layer giving rise to xylem on one side and to phloem on the other. For types of bundles, see next chapter. (2) Fundamental tissue system. This is composed of the parenchyma-

258

REVIEW ON TISSUES
The
fibro- vascular

tous tissue already described.

system

may
(3)

be said to be imbedded in the fundamental tissue.

Epidermal tissue system. This is the covering of is composed of epidermal tissue, already described. It should be borne in mind that the types of cells and tissues as defined in this chapter are not all that may be found in plants. There are many intermediate forms, e. g., tracheids and ducts blend the one into the other; and the same is true of wood cells and tracheids,
the other systems, and

419.

Summary
1.

of tissues studied:
tissue.

Parenchymatous
a.

meristematic.

2.
3.

4.
5.

6. permanent. Epidermal tissue. Collenehymatous tissue. Soft bast or phloem (sieve tissue). Prosenchymatous tissue. a. Fibrous tissue or bast fibers. h.
c.

Wood

tissue or

wood

fibers.

Tracheids.
tissue.

6. 7.

d. Vascular tissue or ducts. Sclerenchymatous or sclerotic

Laticiferous tissue. 8. Tissue systems.

Review. What is a tissue? How may two tissues differ? What parenchymatous tissue? Name three places where this is found.. Distinguish between meristematic and permanent tissue. Name two uses of parenchymatous tissue. Of what use are the intercellular
is

spaces of leaves?
tip.

What

tissue.

Describe the parts studied in the section of root become vascular? Describe epidermal Collenchyma. Sieve tissue. Of what use are the sieve areas?
part of this tip will or

What wood

are the chief uses of prosenchyma?

cells

wood

fibers; tracheids; ducts.

air

Describe fibrous tissue, What does your ex-

periment in blowing
systems.

through a grapevine stem indicate?

Laticiferous tissue.

De-

scribe cells of sclerotic tissue.

What

are

fibro-vascular bundles?
?

Name three tissue What two classes of

phloem composed
f

tissue are found in each bundle

Of what

is

Xylem.

CHAPTER XXXIV
STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS
420. There are two

among

flowering

plants,

main types of stem structure found which have their differences

based upon the arrangement of the flbro- vascular bundles. These types are endogenous and exogenous. Plants with this form of 421. ENDOGENOUS STEMS.

The vascular bundles are stem are the monocotyledons. irregularly scattered through the fundamental tissue of the stem (Fig. 399), and are not arranged in circles about a common center. The bundles are not parallel with each
other

and are not of the same

Fig. 400 shows the direction often taken

in the stem.

On

or a false rind.

throughout their length. by the bundles the exterior there is either an epidermis The only trees which have this kind of
size

stem are natives of the tropics or of

warm
is

countries.

The

one of them, and these stems are sometimes In called the palm type.

palm

our own climate we find many examples, such as

greenbrier,

Indian

corn,
or-

asparagus,
chids,
iris,

grasses,
and
arrangement

cat -tail.

To study
390.

of

Cross-section of corn-stalk, showing

bundles in corn: Cut thin

sections
of a

the scattered fibro-vascular bundles. Slightly enlarged.

small

corn

served in alcohol.

stem which has been preExamine Stain with hematoxylin.

with the low power,

and make a sketch showing the

(259)

260

STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

arrangement of the bundles. The sections, if mounted in a permanent way, as in balsam, may be kept for further study of the bundles.

422.

Compare with Fig. 401. EXOGENOUS STEMS. The

fibro- vas-

cular bundles in exogenous

(or dicotyledoncircle

ous) stems are arranged in a

the center,

around

which

is

usually

filled
is

with pith.

Outside the ring of bundles

a cortex of

fundamental
layer of cork

tissue.

Around

this is either a

Layers of or an epidermis. parenchyma cells, called medullary rays, are found between the bundles and often extending from the central pith to the outer cortex.

'^^^^J'lhf course

l{^^il'i^^^tJ.
cotyledons.

These

usually are prominent in

young stems of woody plants and in vines. Fig. and 404. All trees nearly all other woody
plants of the temperate
regions, as well as

many
The

herbaceous plants, show

this plan of stem.

medullary rays are very prominent in oak wood.

These rays are lignified in the xylem part of the bundle and non-lignified To in the phloem part.
401. Fibro-vasciilar bundles of

Indian corn, much magnified. A, annular vessel; a', annular or spiral vessel; XT', thick- walled vessels: W, tracheids or woody tissue; F, sheath of fibrous tissue surrounding the bundle; ft, fundamental tissue or pith; s, sieve tissue;
p, sieve plate;

study

arrangement

of
Pre-

bundles in exogens:

pare thin cross -sections

of

cellular space,

Adjacent

cells;

companion cell; I, interformed by tearing down of w', wood parenchyma.

c,

the

spermum

stems of meni(moonseed),

OTHER STEMS

THREE

TYPES OF BUNDLES

261

one year old. Stain with hematoxylin. Make a permanent mount. Study with low power, and make a sketch showing the shape and location of the fibro- vascular bundles. If meniSave the mount for further study. Fig. 402. spermum stems are not easily obtained, ivy (Hedera helix) or clematis

may

be substituted.

423.

OTHER STEMS. Besides

the

two types of stems studied above, which are prevalent among phenogams, there are other structures of stems found among the cryptogams. A common arrangement of the bundles is in the form of a circle some distance from the center, with a few
other
-^,,.,,

bundles
,1

within
,

the

circle.
,.

Within the circle also are sometimes 2year-oid stem of moonseed. found large areas of fibrous tissue. l^jf^/J^^^^^i^:. vascular bundles are very Fig. 403. There are, however, wide prominent. variations from this arrangement, but this mode of arrangement is often called the fern
type of stem.

402.

Arrangement of

tissues in

424.

said (418) that every fibro-vascular bundle

THREE TYPES OF BUNDLES. It has already been is made up of

two parts: (1) phloem or soft bast; (2) xylem or tvood. The relative position of these two strands of tissue is very important. There a-re three plans of arrangement, on which three types of bundles are based. These plans
are collateral, bi-collateral

and concentric.

425. In collateral bundles, the phloem and xylem are

placed
of

side

the

stem

by side, the xylem being nearer the center and the phloem outside or nearer the cir-

cumference of the stem. We find this plan in the stems of phenogams. The collateral bundles may be either open or closed. Open bundles are those which continue to increase

262
in size

STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

during
life

the line of union of

of

by the presence of a growing layer at the phloem and xjlem. This layer

growing cells is called cambium. Dicotyledonous stems have open collateral bundles. Fig. 402. Closed bundles are those which cease growing very early and have no cambium or growing layer. They are called closed, perhaps from the fact that there is no means by which they

may become

larger. Stems of monocotyledons have bundles of the closed collateral type. Examine with high

403.

Cross-section of root of brake (Pteris aquilina), showing 12 concentric fibrovascular bundles. The two long dark strands are composed of fibrous tissue.

power cross -sections of menispermum stems and corn stems (see Figs. 401, 402, 404), which have been stained with hematoxylin. Study the tissues found in a single
bundle of each, with the aid of the illustrations. 426. In concentric bundles, the xylem is centrally placed in the bundle and the phloem is all around it, as in club mosses and ferns (Fig. 403); or the phloem is in the center of the bundle and the xylem surrounds it,
as in the

asparagus.

underground stems of some monocotyledons, as Figs, 405, 406. To see concentric bundles:.

SECONDARY THICKENING OF STEMS

2G3

Prepare cross -sections of the stem of pteris or aspidium. They shoukl be cut very thin and stained with hemaMake a sketch showing toxyliu. '^~^,cc>
f
(

the arrangement of bundles. Bicol-

V-

-^

{^^

^v>
^^

M
'^

from the colhaving additional phloem on the inner side of the xvlem
lateral bundles differ
lateral in

,'
I

'

i
T^\^
,*

strand; well marked and squashes.

in

pumpkins

;fc

427. In roots the phloem and xylem are not definitely arranged
in

^'

bundles,

but
or

in

alternating

radial
f
404.

strands

plates.

This

plan

is

typical in

rootlets,
cularUmdle
Fig. 402).
cp,

but

is

young roots and more or less ob-

Cross-section ot tibro-viisof moonseed (.see f, f, crescent-shaped sheaths of hast fibre;i). phloem;

sCUred lU oldcr OUCS.

428.

crushed phloem

c,

eam-

biuinjd, xylem ducts: , xylem tracheids; m, medullary rays of fundamental tissue; from
c to /

STEMS.
"^

DicotvIedoUOUS
'
''

SECONDARY THICKENING OF
(or 6X0-

bottom), xylem; 7, end of first year's growth; 2 end of second year s growth of
(at

wood.

they

may

geUOUs) stcmS witll OpCU Collateral buudlcs may Increasc in diameter each year. If they are perennial add a ring of growth each spring (Fig. 407).

These rings may be counted on the smooth

cross-cut surface of a
tree,

.^KKM~
j^^^^^^m.-

and the exact age

closel}'

/^9H|pH|^:
^
^^n-r-r^S
' .

J^^^^^^B^"
\.
-.

'

of the tree usually can

be very

deter-

--^^^

mined.

All growth in

'

;i

thickness

due

to

the
cells
\

formation of new

outside of the primary

wood

is

called second-

ary thickening.
4ZJ.
.QQ

As we

405.

Iiave

Part of cross-sectiiMi (f rni.t stock of asparagus, showing a few til.io-v^iMuhir bundles.

264

STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

is a cambium or growing layer in every bundle just between the xylem and phloem.

seen (425), there

open

collateral

Each spring the cells of this layer divide many times and form new cells both inside and outside the cambium ring. Those formed inside become thick walled and are xylem.
Those formed to the outside of the ring are gradually changed into phloem. The crowding of the cells within
the

cambium ring causes

the

ring

itself to

enlarge

its

406.

Enlargement of a single concentric bundle from

Fig. 405.

circumference
study

secondary thicJiening

To and move outward by this growth. : Cut thin cross -sections of

basswood stems of different ages (one to three years old). Stain and mount. Examine with low power and sketch the arrangement of bundles in the oldest and youngest. Test Note the effect of growth on the medullary rays. them with iodine for starch. Now wdth the high power study the peculiar character of the bast tissue. Note the abundance of fibrous tissue found all through it. Draw a single bundle from the stem one year old, carefully

B AK K

265

showing the location of the cambium and the different tissues found in the xylem and phloem strands (Fig. 408). It may be thought best to precede this experiment with a similar study of two-year-old stem of moonseed, ivy or
other vines.
430.

stem which

BARK. In most woody plants that is outside the cambium ring is

part of
called

the

bark.

407.

White pine stem

5 years old.

The outermost

layer

is

bark.

At
the

first it

contains the epidermis or outer layer of

cells,

phloem and the cortex lying between the epidermis and the phloem. The gradual growth of the stem causes the outer dead layers of bark to crack more or less irregularly and finally to split off. Examples of this can be seen on the trunks of any large trees. Before the tree is many years old the cortical cells of the bark become much crushed and are lost to view. The epidermis is shed
rather early in the
life

of the tree.

266

STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

life

431. Usually very early iu the

layer of bark
is

of the stem a corhj

produced.

This

is

the product of an active

is

layer of cells called phellogen.

This layer
at

first

found

those

places

where the stomates

or breathing pores

were located.
epidermis
is

The
first

crowded

off at these

places, and

the

rough corky spots

are called lenticels.

Phellogen

is

very

active in the cork

oak of Spain, but

we
all
408.

find

it

in nearly

woody

plants.
as

Section of basswood stem, j years old.

of phloem are plainly
i

In such plants

The cone-shaped growths

button wood (syca-

more), in which the bark peels off in thin, flat layers, the phellogen layer is nearly uniformly active in all
parts, while in

many

other cases there

it is

is

very

little

unifor-

mity.
rise to

In wahoo (burning bush)

in four bands, giving

four corner wings.

it

In the section of

menispermum

found only under the lenticel spots where the stomates have been located. Fig. 409 shows structure of the outer bark as found in the whole circumference of the three -year -old stem of red currant. To study phellogen Cross-section of red currant twig, showing bari. and corky tissue : Cut thin cross corky tissue; p, phellogen;
already studied,
is
c,

sections

of

red
least

currant from
several

g,

parenchyma or

cortex.

stems two or three years old which have been kept in

alcohol
stained.
at

hours.

With

the highest

The sections should be power make a careful study of

STEUCTURE OF ROOTS
the phellogen

267
of
is
it.

and the corky

tissue

tissue outside

The

relation of bark to

woody

tissue in pine

Draw. shown in

Fig. 410.

Cork

may

be studied to advantage in

the skin of the potato. the growing point compact cells) which protects the delicate tissues from injury (Fig. 395). Such a protection is not found in growing points (buds) 432. the root

STRUCTURE OF ROOTS. At
has
a

cap

(of

small

of

stems.

In

their

internal

structure roots differ

from

Traclieids
is

410. White pine stem in radial longitudinal section. on tlie left with medullary rays crossing them. Next to the the phloem, then fundamental tissue, then the dark hark.

wood

especially

when very young.

Young

roots

have

the radial arrangement of phloem and xylem (427).

The
differs

number
present

of

xylem strands radiating from the center

In roots also
tljere is

with the plant.

a

almost uniforml\

within

is found just and is composed of rather thickHowever, many rhizomes and stems have walled cells. a trne endodermis. To sfiuh/ corn roots: From the roots of Indian corn a few weeks old cut thin cross-sections; stain and mount. With the aid of the low power make a sketch showing the arrangement of the strands of

true

endodermis.

This

layer

the

cortex

268

STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

wood and
tissue.

bast, and also the amount of fundament al Use the highest power and draw a portion including one strand of wood and two of bast. In this portion draw the tissues from the center out beyond the

endodermis.

Sections may also be made of the roots of germinating pumpkins or squashes.

Review.
plants.

Name

two types of

stems

found

among flowenug
Give
types

Describe each and give examples to illustrate them.

the plan of arrangement of bundles in fern stems.

How many

of bundles are there? Upon what do their differences depend? Describe and give examples of collateral bundles. What difference is there betwpen open and closed collateral bundles? Give examples of each. Describe and give examples of concentric bundles. Radial arrangement. What is secondary thickening ? What plants show it ?
.

forms the new cells in a bundle? Describe the work of this layer. What part of each bundle of a dicotyledon is found in the bark? What are lenticels? What is phellogen? Describe the work of phelWhere is the root cap? logen in any plant you have studied. What is its use? Describe fully the structure of roots, telling how they differ from stems. Note to Paragraph 422. In woody stems tiie compression is such that the student is usually puzzled to understand the bundle structure. The subject will be simplified if he compares (on crosssection), the bundles in such a plant as the cucumber with that part of the vascular ring which lies between any two medullary

What

is

the

layer called which

When

is

this

layer most active?

rays in one-year old stems of peach, elm, oak, etc.

All material and apparatus should be kept under cover

when

not in

CHAPTER XXXV
STRUCTURE OF LEAVES
433. Besides the

framework or system
is

of veins found

in blades of all leaves, there

a soft tissue (408) called

mesophyll or leaf-parenchyma, and an epidermis which

covers the entire outside part.
434. MESOPHYLL. The mesophyll The upper layer of homogeneous.
is
it

not
is

all

alike or

composed of

elongated
leaf.

cells

placed perpendicular to the surface of the

The chloropJiyll These are called palisade cells. grains are most abundant in them, because they are on the side of the leaf most directly exposed to the sunlight. Below the palisade cells is the spongy parenchyma composed of
ties.

cells nior^ or less spherical in

shape, irregularly

arranged, and provided with

;

many

intercellular air cavi-

In leaves of some plants also Fig. 115. Fig. 411 exposed to strong light there may be more than one layer
of

palisade cells, as in

the India-rubber plant

and oleander. Ivy when grown in bright light will develop two such
layers of
cells,

but

in
411.

shaded places it may be found as in Fig. 411.

Cross-section of ivy leaf, which grew in

Such plants as iris and compass plant, which have both surfaces of

shade and has only one layer of palisade cells, w, upper epidermis; p, palisade cells; i, inc. a crystal sp, spongy parenchyma The tercellular space ?, lower epidermis. plant here intended is the tnie or English
; ;

ivy,

Hedera

helix.

the leaf equally exposed to sunlight, usually have a palisade

layer beneath each epidermis.

(269)

270
435.

STBUOTCRE OF LEAVES
EPIDERMIS. The outer or epidermal
cells of leaves

do not bear chlorophyll, but are usually so transparent that the green mesophyll can be seen through them. They often become very thick -walled, and are in most plants devoid of all protoplasm except a thin layer lining the walls, the cavities being filled with cell -sap. This sap is sometimes colored, as in the under surface of begonia leaves. It is not common to find more than one layer of epidermal cells on each surface of a leaf. The epidermis
serves to retain moisture in the leaf.

In desert plants

the epidermis
cuticle.

as a rule

is

very thick and has a dense

436. There are various outgrowths of the epidermis. Hairs are the chief of these. They may be (1) simple, as

on primula, geranium, naegelia (2) once branched, as on wall;

flower

(3)

com(4)

pound, as on verbas,
.

>aj|^^Bi&jp^N.ife^l^K

cum

or mullein;

r.'

^S-. ,^--''flpE^^^^I^^pr^J^^aB| disk-like, as on shepherdia(Fig.412); (5)

'

"^>r^^^^yf^!^^

stellate,
crucifers.

or

star-

shaped, as in certain
In
hairs

some
are

cases

the

glandular, as in Pri-

mula
412.

Sinensis

and

certain hairs of
Disk-like or radial hairs of shepherdi:

pump-

epidermal hairs
tuted.

For

this

kin flowers. To study study use the leaves of the

plants mentioned above or others which

may be

substi-

Cross -sections

may

be made so as to bring hairs

on the edge of the sections. Or in some cases the hairs may be peeled or scraped from the epidermis and placed

STOMATES
in

271

water on a
437.

slide.

Make

sketches of the different kinds

or

of hairs.

STOMATES.

Stomates

breathing-pores

are

small openings or pores in the epidermis of leaves and soft stems to allow the passage of air and other gases and vapors. They are placed near the large intercelFig. 413 413. stomate of gelular spaces of the mesophyll. ranium leaf, show shows the usual structure. There are two ''^''''^ '""^ guard cells at the mouth of each stomate, which may in most cases open or close the passage as the conditions of the atmosphere may require. In Fig. 414 is shown a case in which there are compound

guard
414.

cells,

that of ivy.

On
as

the
of

stomate of

ivy,

showing
cells.

compound guard

niargius of ccrtaiu leaves,

fuchsia, impatieus, cabbage,

...

are

modified stomates
the

known

as ivater- pores.

438. Stomates are very

numerous, as will be seen from numbers giving the pores to each square inch of leaf
:

surface

Peony
Holly
Lilac Mistletoe

Lower surface. 13,790

63,600
160,000

Upper

surface.

None

200
2,000

200
2,000
11,572

Tradescantia

Garden Flag

11,572

The arrangement of stomates 01: the leaf differs with each kind of plant. Figs. 415 and 416 show stomates on two plants, and also the outlines of contiguous epidermal cells. The guard cells contain chlorophyll. 439. FALL OF THE LEAi<", In most common deciduous

plants,

when

the season's
is

nutritious matter

work for the leaf is ended, the withdrawn into the stem, and a layer

272

STRUCTUKE OF LEAVES

of corky cells is completed over the surface of the stem where the leaf is attached. The leaf soon falls. It Deciduous leaves often falls even before killed by frost. begin to show the surface line of articulation in the early growing season. This articulation may be observed at any time during the summer. The area of the twig once

covered by the petioles has fallen.

is

called the leaf-scar after the leaf

Figs. 53, 83, 86

show

a numl)er of leaf-scars.

415.

Stomates of geranium

leaf.

416.

Grouped stomates on a begonia

leaf.

Fig. 417 shows the leaf -scar in the form of a ring sur-

rounding the bud, for in the plane tree the bud is covered by the hollowed end of the petiole; sumac is a similar Examine with a hand-lens leaf-scars of several case. woody plants. Note the number of bundle -scars in each leaf-scar. Sections may be cut through a leaf-scar and examined with the microscope. Note the character of cells which cover the leaf- scar surface. Compare 204.
Review. Name three tissues found in leaves. On the board draw a sketch showing the structure of a leaf as seen in cross-section. What cells of leaves bear protoplasm and chlorophyll? Why do some leaves have palisade cells near both surfaces? Describe epidermal cells. Why are their walls much more thickened in some plants than others? What is the purpose of epidermis? What are stomates? Draw on the board a section through a stomate showing epidermis and mesophyll. What is the work of guard cells? Give some idea of number of stomates in various plants. Name five

KEVIEW ON STRUCTURE OF LEAVES

types of epidermal hairs.

273

What use could be suggested for the dense coat of hairs on leaves of shepherdia? Fig. 412. Note. To study leaf tissues : A number of leaves can be compared by making free-hand cross-sections of leaves held between

two pieces of pith or cork, and mounting Study such leaves as ivy (Hedera
geranium, Note the number of layers of palisade cells, the spongy parenchyma, the epidermal layhelix), begonia, cyeas,

tiie

material in water.

and corn.

Which cells bear chlorophyll? Write a brief description of the tissues of each leaf and make a drawing of the geranium. To study stomates in cross
ers.

417.

section

In the cross-sections of
lih^,

Leaf-scar of the plane tree or sycamore. The scar surrounds the bud, which was covered by the hollow base of the petiole.

leaves of geranium, corn, ivy,

or spider-lily prepared for the above experiment, look for the stomates

and make a careful drawing from the one you can see best. Study of stomates in surface vieto : From the under surface of leaves of geranium and impatiens peel bits of epidermis by tearing the leaf. Mount these in water and examine under low power. Are With aid of a higher power the stomates scattered or in grcups? draw a few stomates showing their guard cells and the surrounding epidermal cells. Make a similar study and sketch of the epidermis torn from the under surface of a Begonia sangulnea leaf.
Breathing-pores are known as siomata, singular stoma; also as
stomates, singular stomate.

Looking for

light.

PART IV
THE KINDS OF PLANTS
NUMBER OF PLANTS. Above
125,000 distinct kinds or

species of seed -bearing plants are

known and

described.

Probably little more than one -half of the total number now existing on the earth are known. Even in the older coun-

and regions, seed -bearing plants heretofore unknown now and then. Outlying regions are relatively little known botanically. The larger part of Africa, South America, Central America, China, Central Asia, and the tropical islands are only imperfectly explored for plants. Crjptogamous plants are far more numerous in kinds than seed- plants, and many kinds as,
tries

to science are discovered

for

example,

various

bacteria

are

almost

infinite

in

numbers of individuals. In the lower ranges of cryptogamous plants, as in fungi and bacteria, many new kinds are constantly being described even in countries in which they have been most carefully studied. SPECIES. Each kind of plant is called a species.
is no absolute mark or characteristic of a species. Between many kinds there are intermediate forms, and some kinds vary immensely under different conditions.

There

What one botanist considers may regard as only species. No two botanists
botanist
species in

as a distinct species, another

a variety or form of another

agree as

to

the

number

of

any region. Species are not things in themselves. In practice, any kind of plant which is distinct enough to be recognized by a description, and which is
fairly constant over a considerable
(275)

territory,

is

called

276
species.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

We

make

species merely to enable us

:

to

talk

and to write about plants we must have names to call them by. The different kinds of plants are the results of evolution. Probably none of them were created in the
beginning as we
(since

now find them. NAMES OF SPECIES. For one hundred and

Linnus
published his "Species

fifty

years

Plantarum " in 1753), species have been known by two names, the generic and the specific. The generic name is the name of the genus or group to which the plant belongs: it corresponds to a surname. The specific name belongs only to the
particular species or kind
:

it

corresponds to a given or

Both names are necessary, however, to designate the species. Thus Querctis is the generic name
Christian name.
of all the oaks.

Quercus alba

is

one of the oaks (the

white oak), Q. virens (the live oak) another. All maples belong to the genus Acer, and all elders to Satnbucus.

The same specific name may be used in any genus, as the same Christian name may be used in any family. Thus, there is a Quercus nigra, Sambncus nigra, Acer nigrum, "niger" meaning black. By common consent, the oldest proper name of any species must stand. If a species happens to have been named and described twice, for example, the first name, if in the proper genus, must hold; the later name becomes a It sometimes happens that the same specific synonym. name has been given to different plants of the same genus. Of course this name can be allowed to stand for only one species, and the other species must receive another name. In order to avoid confusion of this and other kinds, it is
customary to write the author's name with the speciesname which he makes. Thus, if Gray describes a new Anemone, his name is written after the plant name: Anemone cylindrica, Gray. The author's name thus becomes an index to the history of the species -name.

USE OF KNOWING PLANT NAMES

277

Plant -names are thrown into the forms of the Latin When plants first were studied seriously, hmguage. knowledge was preserved in Latin, and Latin names were The Latin form is now a part of the used for plants. technical system of plant and animal nomenclature, and is accepted in all countries; and the Latin language is as good as any other. As in the Latin language, all plantnames have gender, and the termination of the word is The species -name must usually different in each gender. agree with the genus -name in gender. Acer is neuter: so Quercus and Sa^bucus are is A. ruhrum and A. nigrum. Masculine, femifeminine: so are Q. nigra and 8. nigra. nine, and neuter endings are seen in Buhus sativus, Pastinaca sativa, Pisum sativum. "Sativus" means cultivated. The name of a species not only identifies the species, but classifies it. Thus, if a plant is named in the genus Acer,
it

belongs to the maples

if

it

is

belongs to the strawberries;

allied to apples

if if

it is it is

named in Fragaria, named in Pyrus, it

it is

it

is

and pears;

HeliantJius,

one of
is

the sunflowers.

USE OF KNOWING PLANT- NAMES. The name

introduction to the plant, as
it

is

to a person.

index to

It its history and literature. and to speak about the plant with directness and precision. It brings us nearer to the plant and increases our

an an enables us to think
It is

interest in

it.

The name is a means, not an end. Merely to know the name is of little use or satisfaction. Knowing the name Of late should be only one step in knowing the plant. years, the determining of the names of plants has been
discouraged as a school -exercise.
quiry stopped

This

is

because

all

in-

when the name was secured. A name was a stone wall when it should have been a gate. HOW TO FIND OUT THE NAMES OF PLANTS. There can be no short -cut to the names of plants, for names cannot

278
be

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

known accurately until the plant is known. The name and the plant should be indissolubly associated in the mind. Study first the plant. If one does not know the plant there is no occasion for knowing its name. Learn first to classify plants: names will follow. Look for resemblances, and group the plants around some well-

known

kind.

Look

for sunflower- like, lily-like, rose-like,

mint-like, mustai'd-like, pea-like, carrot-like plants.

These

The families of plants are better recognized by studying a few representative plants than by memoiizing technical descriptions. Go to the botany and use the keys in these families, in order to run the plant down to its genus and species. If the family is not recognized, use the key to find the family. Use the keys
great groups are families.
at
first:

graduall}^

discard

them.

When

one looks for

relationships, the vegetable

tinuity

and meaning.
is

kingdom comes to have conMerel}^ to know names of plants

here and there

It is

of little use.

unwise for the beginner to try first to find the name of any plant. Let him first examine familiar plants or those which seem to be related to other plants which he knows. Let him get in mind the bold characteristics of the families which are most dominant in his locality. Names are secondary and incidental. After a time, in case of each new plant, he should be able to give a shrewd guess as to its family; then he may go to the book to verify the guess. In the following flora, twenty-five well-marked families are chosen for study. Some of them are not the most characteristic of the American vegetation, but they are such as afford easily accessible species, either in the wild or in cultivation, and which are not too difficult for the beginner. The pupil should begin with plants of tvhich he knows the common names or ivith tvhich he is familiar. Several plants should be studied in each family, in order
to enable

him

to grasp

the characteristics of the family

MAKING A COLLECTION
and thereby
clarify his
to lead luiu to

279

perception

compare plant -groups and to and widen his horizon. When

these families, or the larger part of them, are understood,

if

the pupil desire further knowledge of species, he

to the regular
classified

manuals

in

may go which species are grouped or

affinities.

according to their natural

It is well to

study more than one plant in a genus whenever possible,

for then close comparisons can be made.

MAKING A COLLECTION. The making

plants focuses

of a collection of

one's

attention, defines

one's

ideas,

and

affords material for study at

any season.

The

collecting

and preserving of plants should be encouraged. Not until one searches for himself, and collects with his own hands, can he know plants. The collection should not be an end, however. It should be only a means of knowing plants as they live and grow. Too often the pupil thinks it sufficient merely to have made a collection, but the collection of itself is scarcely worth the while. Plants are preserved by drying them under pressure. The collection, when properly arranged and labelled, is an herbarium. Each species should be represented by sufficient
fruits.

specimens
If the

to

display
is

the

stems,
its

foliage,

flowers,

plant

an herb,
or

root should be shown.

many specimens of each forms which it assumes. It is less important to have an herbarium of many species than to have one showing the life -phases of a few species. First make specimens of the common species: later one may include the rare ones if he choose, although an herbarium which selects plants merely because they are rare is of little account except as a collection of curiosities.
There
should be
several
species to

show the

different

The commonest plants

in herbaria.

are usually the least represented

wide

Dry the plants between and 18 inches long.

blotters

which are 12 inches

blotters

These

are

called

280
" driers."

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

The}'

may

be purchased of dealers in botanical

supplies, or thej^ can be cut

is

from

felt

"carpet paper."

It

well to place the specimen in a folded sheet of

newsIf

paper, and then lay the newspaper between the driers.

the specimens are large or succulent, three or four driers

should be laid between them. The sheets may be piled one above another, until the pile becomes so high (12-18
in.) that it tends to tip over.

On

the top place a board

and apply twenty to thirty pounds of stones or other weight. Change the driers but not the newspapers once a day at first, laying the driers in the sun for a time. In a dry, warm place, most plants will dry in a week or ten days. When thoroughly dried, they retain no soft, sappy, fresh -green areas, and they usually break if bent sharply. They will be perof

the

dimensions

of

the

drier,

fectly flat.

paper,

The specimen may now be secured to strong white known as "mounting paper." The regulation size
is

of the sheets

heaviest

ledger

paper.

11/2x16% inches. It is the By the ream, it can

to

quality of

be bought
large

for one cent or less a sheet.

The specimen should be

cover
in a

enough nearly or quite

tight, as

the
It

sheet,

unless

the

entire plant is smaller than this.

may be

glued

one pastes pictures

in

scrap-book, or

down it may
The
sheet.

be

held
is

place

by

strips

of

gummed

paper.

former

the better way, because

the plants are not so

easily broken.

Only one species should go on a

collecting,

In one corner, glue the label.

place and date of

This label should give the

name

of collector, and any

information as to height, color, nature of soil, and the like. Sooner or later, the label should contain the name
of the plant;
after the plant

name need not be determined until mounted. The sheets of one genus are laid together in a folded
but the
is

sheet of strong straw-colored paper.

This folded sheet

is

EXPLANATION OF THE FLORA

the "genus cover."
inches.
Its size

281

when

folded

is

ll%xl6%
name
of the

On
is

the lower left-hand corner the

If

genus

written.

one has

many

sheets in one genus

say more than 20 it may be necessary to have more The covers are laid in cupthan one cover for them. boards flatwise, one on the other, and the sheets then retain their shape and are always ready for use.

EXPLANATION OF THE FLORA. The following

tains 025 species of plants in 294 genera

flora con-

and 51 families. These species are selected from common and representative plants, in the hope that 50 to 100 of them may be secured by any pupil. The pupil should collect his own specimens as far as possible, and he should press and preserve them
after he has studied the structure.

Familiarity with 100

plants will give the pupil a good

grasp of plant forms,

provided he does not stop with merely acquiring the names

He should know how the and pressing the specimens. plants look, where they grow, how they associate with other plants, how long they live, and the like. Avoid the use of keys as much as possible: learn to
see the plant

as a whole:

go directly to the family,

if

But it may be necessary to use keys at first. In this book coordinate parts of the key are marked by the same letter: e.g., f, ff, fff, are three coordinate Coordinate entries are also introduced by the entries. Using same catch-word, as "flowers," "leaves," "fruit."
possible.

key
if

is
it

a process of elimination.

First try the plant in

Then repeat does not belong there, go to aa. the search in b, bb, etc., until the family is found. Synonyms are placed in parenthesis itn mediately folA;

Thus "Impatiens biflora, lowing the accepted name. Walt. (7. /ii'fl, Nutt.)" means that the accepted name is
Walter's
I.

biflora,
I.

but that the plant

is

is

also

known by

Nuttall's name,

fulva.

Proper pronunciation

suggested by the accent, which

282

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

and the length of the
the

indicates both the emphatic syllable

vowel.
acute

The grave accent (^)

(/
)
,

indicates a long vowel;

vowels are pronounced in Latin words. The word officinale is pronounced officin-dy-ly; aiirea with cm as in Laura; Virginiana with the a as in hay; alba, with a as in had; acutiloba with i as in hill; minor with i as in mine; halimifblia with o as
a short

vowel.

Terminal

in hole; Japonica with o as in coti;

rumex with u

as in

tune; fiinkia with

as in run.
pages

Key
A.

to

the families as represented in the following

CRYPTOGAMS:
of spores

no true flowers or seeds: propagating by means

Filice.s, p. 290

AA.

bearing flowers and seeds. B. Gysinosperms: seeds naked (not enclosed in ovaries), borne in cones or berries: no conspicuous flowers: Ivs. needleConiferce, p. 292 shaped or scale like: plants usually evergreen BB. Angiosperms: seeds borne in ovaries: flowers usually showy: leaves very various, mostly deciduous. c. Monocotyledons: cotyledon one: leaves mostly parallelveined, not falling with distinct articulation: stem with scattered flbro -vascular bundles (endogenous) and no separable bark: fls. mostly 3-merous. D. Flowers without true perianth, except sometimes small scales, or bracts, or bristles, but encloi^ed by green alternate glumes, or chaffy bracts: arranged in
E.

PHENOCtAMS:

Glumes

spikes or spikelets: grass-like plants. in pairs, of 2 sorts (glumes andpalets)

culms

round, hollow: leaf-sheaths usually split on one side opposite blade

EE.

Glume

Gramineoi, or Grass Family, not treated here. or scale single, with flower in axil: perianth
bristles:

none or replaced by
solid,

culm triangular,

sheath entire or closed

Cyperace(e, or Sedge Family, not treated here.

(For grass-like plants having flowers with 6 similar, green or chaffy bracts [glumaceous segments], culms solid. See Jnncacew, or Rush Family, not included here.) DD. Flowers without glumes, borne on spadix, small, inconspicuous, usually attended by spathe DDD. Flowers not on spadices, mostly conspicuous. E. Perianth free from ovary.

Araeew,

p.

294

KEY TO THE FAMILIES

F.

283

The

periiinth with all parts similiarly colored.

G. Parts

of perianth

6,

similar, green or chaffy

(bract-like) or glume-like

ments)
GG. Parts of perianth
FF.
6,

(glumaceous segJuncacem.

regular, colored Lillacece, p. 296

The
G.

perianth with parts differently colored.

verticillate
:

Leaves

stigmas 3 Trillium in Liliacece,

p.

300

GG Leaves

alternate: stigma 1

Connnelinacea;, p. 302

partly: EE. Perianth-tube adherent to ovary wholly or

flowers perfect.

Anthers 3 FF. Anthers C FFP. Anthers 1 or

F.

Amaryliidacece,
2,

Iridacece, p. 305 p. 303

..

united with

pistil,

gynandrous.

Orchiducece,

p.

307

mostly nettedOC. Dicotyledons: cotyledons 2 or more: leaves veined, usually falling with a distinct joint or articula-

stem with concentric layers of wood when more than one year old (exogenous), and a distinct separable bark: flowers mostly 5-merous or 4-merous (comprising the remainder of this key).
tion:
D. Choripetalse:

polypetalous,

petals distinct or wanting (i e., flowers apetalous or naked, in distinction

le.

from gamopetalous, dd, p. 287). Flowers characteristically apetalous; mostly small and often greenish, inconspicuous. F. Plants woody. or G. The flDwers monoecious or dioecious, one
both sorts in catkins.
H. Fertile flowers in short catkins or heads; calyx regular in the pistillate flower, becoming fleshy or juicy in the fruit (juice

Urticacew, milky) HH. Fertile flowers 1-3 in a cup-like involucre pistillate the of scale or 2 or 3 at each catkin: fruit dry, often winged, or a
:

p. 313

l-seeded nut:
catkins

sterile

fls.

in elongated

Cupulifeui', p. 310

a.

The

flowers not in catkins.

Arisiolochiacea', p. 316

H. Calyx-tube adherent to ovary: climbing

HH. Calyx-tube hypogynous. I. Leaves opposite. J Fruit a double samara, 2-winged

Sapindacete, p. 343

284

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

JJ.

Fruit a single-winged samara or

1-

JJJ.

seeded drupe: stamens 2 Oleacew, p. 388 Fruit not winged 3-seeded stamens 4 Euphorhiacece, p. 319
: :

II.

Leaves alternate.
J.

Styles or stigmas 2 or 2-cleft: stamens equal the calj-x-lobes and opposite

to tliem

Urticacew.
3,

p.

313

JJ.

Styles or stigmas

each 2-cleft: pod 3-celIed and 3-seeded: flowers 3parted: fruit a dry capsule: sta8 to

mens
S'F.

many ..

.Eiiphorbiucece, p. 319

Plants herbaceous:
G.

fls.

not in catkins or aments.

Ovary

inferior, 6-celled:

stamens 6 or

12

Aristolochiacece, p. 310

GG. Ovary superior,

H.

-celled.

Stamens indefinite HH. Stamens few (4-12).

I.

Hanunciilacece, p. 323

Styles 2-3: stipules sheathing stem at

nodes of the alternate leaves

Poljjgonaceo', p. 317
II.

Style

single

stipules

not

sheathing
Urficacece, p. 313

stem
GGG. Ovary superior, 3-celled

Euphorhiaceif, p. 319
generally

Flowers characteristically polypetalous, showy. F. Plants woody. G. The stamens numerous (more than
H.

10).

Leaves alternate.
I.

Ovary 1, simple or compound, or ovaries numerous: fruit a drupe or fleshy:

stamens distinct, inserted on the cup-shaped receptacle Rosacew,
p.

353

II.

Ovaries

many

or numerous:

stamens

many, mouodelphous
H. Leaves opposite:
fruit a

Malvacece, p. 340
Sarifragacece, p. 301

ovary single, 2-5-celled:

dry capsule

GG.

The stamens 10, or less than 10. H. Stamens 2 (rarely or accidentally

fruit a drupe,

3 or 4): or 2-celled berry or 2-

celled
IIH.

pod
5,

Oleacece, p. 388

Stamens
berry

alternate with petals: fruit a

Saxifragacew,

p.

361

KEY TO THE FAMILIES

HHH. Stamens
5
:

285
at

or

10

united
:

base,

some
axis

sterile

leaves simple

fruit

5-lobed,

carpels

separating

from central

when

ripe

GeraniacecK, p. 341

HHIIH. Stamens 5-10: leaves compound: fruit a leathery 1-3-valved pod and liower irregular: or, fruit a 3-celled inflated (bladdery) pod and flowers regular Sapindaceae,

p.

343

HHHHH. Stamens

usually 10, monadelphous, diadelphous, or distinct fruit a legume Legnniinosce, p. 347

:

FF. Plants herbaceous.

G,

H.

The stamens 10 or more. Ovary 1, simple: fruit a 1-2-seeded berry..

Berberidaceoe, p. 328

HH. Ovaries several, simple.

I.

Stamens Stamens

indefinite,

hypogynous Hanunculacea,
on cup-like

p. 323

II.

indefinite, inserted

receptacle

Bosaeexe, p. 353
floating, or

HHH. Ovary compound. I. Water plants: leaves flat and heart-shaped and erect
II.

Nymph(eace(v,

p. 329

Land plants. J. Ovary compound and 1-celled. placentae, manycentral K. With

ovuled: plants juicy (watery).
PortuJacacecB, p. 339

KK. With 2 or

more

parietal placentae:

colored or milky juice Papaveracece, p. 330

KKK. With 3 or more parietal placentae:

juice not opposite: leaves milky: flowers yellow, cymose.

HypericaceiK,
jj.

p.

338 340

Ovary compound,

several-celled: stap.

GG.

mens monadelphous.. .ilfaZfrtcecp, The stamens 10 or less in number. H. Ovary single, 1-celled, simple or compound.
I.

Corolla regular or nearly so. J. Sepals and petals 4-5 each.

K.

Leaves alternate. L. Stigma 1 LL. Stigmas 4

Leguniinosiv

p.

347

Saxifragacece, p. 361

286

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

KK. Leaves opposite, punctate: flowers yellow Hypericace(e, p. 338 KKK. Leaves opposite not punctate:
flowers pink, red, white

Caryopliyllacew, p. 320 Sepals 2: petals 4-5 Portulacacece, p. 339 JJJ. Sepals 6: stamens Lj-pogynous, opposite petals Berheridacew p. 328
J J.
,

II.

Corolla irregular.
J.
j.T.

Fruit a legume
H

Leguminosce,

p.

347

ruit a capsule.

K.

Petals 5: stamens 5: pod 1-celled,

3-valved

Violacece, p. 337

KK. Petals 4: stamens 6, diadelphous: fruit 2-valved (globular, 1seeded, indehiscent in

ria)

Fuma-

Fiimariacece, p. 331

HH. Ovary 2-5 celled: fruit dry. I. Fruit of 2 dry seed-like carpels: flowers small, umbelled or in heads stamens
:

5
II.

VmbelUferce, p. 366
silicle,

Fruit a 2-celled pod, silique or

or

sometimes loment; or indehiscent and

nut-like: flowers not truly umbelled,

but solitary or in racemes.

J.

Stamens

6: sepals 4: petals (0 or) 4..

Cruciferce, p. 333
jj.

Stamens

4-8,

distinct

or

nionadej-

phous: fls. very irregular: sepals 5, unequal and some of them colored
5, with 2 scale-like): pods 2-seeded Polygnlacece, Fruit (or ovary) a 4-celled capsule: sta-

petals 3 (or

p. 346

III.

mens
iiii.

2,

4 or 8: petals

0,

2 or 4

Onagracece,
Fruit (or ovary) a 5-eelled capsule.
J.

p.

364

Leaves simple, evergreen seeds minute, innumerable: plants white,

:

or yellowish
pliytic

parasitic

or saproEricaceae, p. 391

about the roots of trees

less lobed or

JJ.

Leaves simple, more or

divided, capsule 5-10 seeded; or

stem succulent and translucent: pod walls elastic, each cell several-seeded
Geraniacece, p. 341

KEY TO THE FAMILIES

Tjj.

287

Leaves conipouud, palmately S-folioOxalis in Geraniacea, late

juice milky

p. 342

mil. Fruit of 2 follicles, seeds hairy tufted:

Asclepiadacect', p. 386

DD.

Gamopetal^:

corolla in oiie piece, at least toward the

base (as if the petals were more or less united): calyx and corolla both present. Stamens more numerous than corolla-lobes. E. F Ovary 1-celled, 1 parietal placenta: fruit a Legiiviinosce, legume FF. Ovary 3, several-celled. G. The stamens nearly or quite free from corolla:
style 1

p.

M7

Uricace'e, p. 391
free from corolla: style.s 5

GG.

The stamens

Oxalis in Gernaiacece, p. 342 GGG. The stamens on base of corolla-tube: filaments Malvacece p. 340 monadelphous
EE.

Stamens as many in number as the lobes of the corolla and inserted opposite to the lobes: ovary 1-celled: style and stigma 1: pod several- to many-seeded.

EEE. Stamens equal in

number

to lobes of corolla

PrimulacecK and alter,

p. 390

nate with them, or fewer in number.

F.

Ovary
G.

inferior. distinct, inserted on corolla, 4 or ovary 2-5 celled. Leaves whorled or opposite with stipule.s
II.
".

The stamens
5:
I.

Hubiacece, p. 334
Caprifoliacece, p. 39G

Leaves opposite, without true stipules..

corolla

GG.

The stamens inserted on

anthers.
H. Flowers in a

and united by

head with involucre subtendin

:

ing

HH. Flowers

not

involucrate

heads,
:

Compositoe, p. 400 but

separate

corolla irregular

Loheliacew, p. 399 G<GG. The stamens not inserted on corolla and not united to each other: no stipules: juice

milky
FF.

Campanulaceit
4, in

p.

398

Ovary superior.
G
Corolla irregular: stamens
2 pairs: or 2

stamens: the ovary deeply 41obed around stem fruits 4 dry nutlets the style Lahiatw, square
: :

p.

368

288

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

GG. Corolla somewhat irregular:
serted on corolla.
H.

stamens

5,

in-

The ovary deeply 4-lobed about the

style

Echium

in Borraginacece, p. 383
fila-

HH. The ovary not lobed: pod many-seeded: ments all or some woolly

Verbascum
QG(i. Corolla regular:

in ScropJniUiridceie,

373

stamens equal
Ivs.

in

number

to

the lobes of the corolla.

H. Ovaries
2,

distinct:

opposite:

juice

I.

milky: styles or stigmas united Into 1. Stamens separate, inserted on corolla:

corolla bell-shaped, funnel- or salver-

formed: pollen granular, as usual.. Apocynacece,

p. 387

Stamens monadelphous, anthers attached to stigma: a crown of hood-like appendages each containing an incurved horn, borne on the stamen tube: pollen cohering in masses (waxy or grunular) .Asclepiadacece, HH. Ovary 1, deeply 4-lobed around style (2-lobed
11.
.

p. 386

in Heliotropium).
I.

Leaves alternate: plants usually rouglihairy

Borraginaceie, p.

.381

ir.

Leaves opposite: stems square

Mentha
HHH. Ovary
1.

in Liihiuf(t>, p. 370

1,

not deeply lobed, 1-celled: ovules

entire, opposite, exstipap. 385

parietal, or 2 parietal placentae.

Leaves simple,
late

II.

Gentianacew, Leaves toothed, lobed or pinnately compound, mostly alternate

Hydrophyllaceie,
lobed, 2-10 celled.

p.

383

HHHH. Ovary not deeply

I.

II.

Leaves none: parasites, twining Cuscuta in Convolvulacece, Leaves opposite, without stipules. J. Stamens free from corolla but inserted
with
jj.
it:

p. 381

style

Ericacew,

p. 391

Stamens inserted on tube of corolla. K. Number of stamens 4 in 2 sets:

ovary 2-4 celled
(cells 1-seeded)

Verbenactw,
KK.

p.

372

Number

of stamens 5 or

rarely)

more.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES

L.

289

Fruit 2 or 4 nutlets

LL. Fruit a pod,

Borraginacew, few seeded.

p. 381

M. Calyx 5-lobed: styles 3-cleft.

Polemoniacew, MM. Calyx 5-lobed: style 1 or 2, or2-cleft: ovary 2-celled

(rarely 3-celled): seeds

p.

384

good -sized,
cell:

or 2 per

generally twining
.

herbs

Convolviilacece, p. 379
p. 377

LLL. Fruit a pod, many-seeded, or a

jr.oG. Corolla

berry: style 1 ., Solan aceo', regular or irregular: stamens fewer than the corolla-lobes. H. Stamens 2: oviiry 4-lobed: corolla nearly Lycopus in Labiahe, equally 4-lohed

p. 3G9

HH. Stamens 2 (rarely 3): ovary 2-celled. plants, shrubs or trees: corolla I. Woody
regular, 4-eIeft
II.

Oleacece, p. 388

Herbs: corolla wheel-shaped or salverwith a 4-parted (rarely 5parted) bonier, or somewhat irregusliaped,
lar

Veronica in Scrophulariacece

p. 370

A.

CRYPTOGAMS.
FILICES.
Ferns.

I.

Herbaceous and leafy plants, ours without stems or trunks plants flowerless above ground, but producing perennial rootstoeks and seedless, but bearing spores in sporangia, the latter collected into sori which are usually borne on the under side or margins of the fronds and which are sometimes covered with an indusium. Most abundant in warm countries, of about 4000 species, of which about 165 are native to the United States. The leaflets of ferufrouds are pinnoe the secondary leaflets are jnnnules.
:

A. Fruit

borne in contracted panicles or on specially con-

tracted parts of the frond, these parts being devoid

of resemblance to green leaves.
B.

Sporangia large and globose, without a ring of special 1. cells running around their margin

Osmunda

290

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

BB. Sporangia with a ring of prominent elastic cells running around the margin, and which are concerned
in the dehiscence (as in Fig. 307)
2.

Onoclea

AA. Fruit borne on the back of green fronds (the fruiting pinnae sometimes narrowed but still leaf-like, as in Fig. 305): sporangia with a ring of elastic cells.
B. Sori naked (no indusium) BB. Sori borne under the reflexed margins of the frond,
c.
3.

Pohjijodium

FinnfB entire on the lower edge, somewhat triangular in outline 4. Adiantum Pinnae toothed on both margins, oblong in outline. ..5. Pteris BBB. Sori covered with a distinct scale-like indusium.
cc.
c.

CO.
1.

Shape of sori oblong Shape circular, indusium peltate or nearly so

C.
7.

Asplenium
Dryopteris

0SMl3'NDA.

Flowering Fern.

Strong ferns from stout creeping rootstocks, with large pinnate fronds: sporangia covered with interwoven ridges, but wanting the elastic ring of most ferns. Inhabitants of bogs and wet woods. Eoyal fern. Top of the frond contracted into a 0. regMis, Linn. fruiting panicle: frond 2-piunate, the pinnaa oblong, olituse, and nearly entire.
0.

Claytoniana,

Linn.

Fig. 418.

Two

to four pairs

of pinnae near the middle of

the

frond

contracted
:

into

^'

Awijy

^,;^-,

fruit-bearing parts
linear-lanceolote

pinnae

'^^f^W( -^

,p-^^!^^^*^
i/-?'6't*ak.

<^.*^^M|^
^^'"
,,
,

'^^^^^ J^S\'J^T^

and acute,

'^i#4,^^llllC!?\

deeply lobed.
0.

W^JFIlvC.^'^"^^^

cinnamdmea, Linn. '^'^^?^^^^^},'^^'^

419.

418.

^ ^, ClayOsmiinda
,

Cinnamon fern. Fig. Some fronds entirely

.

con,
, .

^ and these cinnamon color (whence the \ernacular name): sterile form with the fronds much those of O. Calytoniana in shape except more acute at top.
2.

..

a t tracted into fruiting parts,

4.-

like

ONOCLfiA.

Sensitive Fern.

Mostly rather strong ferns, with broad sterile fronds and with the fertile fronds rolled into hard contracted fruiting bodies, which remain after the steril3 leafy fronds have perished: sporangia with an elastic marginal ring of cells. Bogs and old springy fields. Sensitive fern. Brake. Fig. 310. Sterile frond 0. sensibilis, Linn. triangular-ovate, the pinnae not extending quite to the midrib and toothed: usually lower than th3 other (1-2 ft. high), with a few pinnae. fertile frond

Common

in old pastures.

Ostrich fern. Very tall (2-5 ft.), the sterile fronds narrow, once-pinnate, with long-lanceoUite acute lobed pinnaj: fertile fronds much shorter, blackish, with many pinnae.
0. 8trutlii6pteris, Hofifm.

FILICES
3.

291

POLYPODIUM.

Polypody.

rootstocks: sori round, borne at the ends of

Small ferns, with simple or ouce-pinnate fronds from slender creeping little veins. On dry cliffs. Common polypody or pohjpode. Figs. ,300, .307. P. vnlg^re, Linn. Fronds a foot or less tall, narrow-oblong in outline, pinnatifid, the lobes

nearly or quite entire: fertile pinnse not contracted.

4.

ADIANTUM. Maidenhair

Fern.

Fig. 309.

Small ferns with compound forking fronds and wedge-shaped or somewhat triangular pinnsB, shining stipes or petioles, and sori borne at the ends of the veins under the reflexed margins of the pinnae. A. pedd.tum, Linn. Common maideyihair. Plant 2 ft. or less high, the leaves forking into several or many long pirnae which bear broad pinnules notched on the upper margin. Cool, shady woods. Very graceful.

PT:RIS. Brake. Coarse ferns of mostly dryish places, with long pinnae: sporangia borne beneath the reflexed margin of the pinnules, on small, transverse veins. Common brake. Figs. 125, 308. Fronds broadly P. aquillna, Linn. triangular, twice- or thrice-pinnate, the pinnules long-lanceolate, acuminate, and lobed. Common in sunny places: perhaps our commonest fern. Two to 3 ft. high, growing in patches, particularly in burned areas.
5.

6.

ASPLfiNIUM.

Spleen WORT.

Middle-sized ferns, mostly with pinnate leaves: sori oblong or linear, borne on the upper side of a veinlet, or back to back on opposite sides of the veinlet, these veinlets not interwoven.

A. Filiz-foeiuiiia, Linn.

Lady-fern.

Large, the fronds 2-3

ft.

tall,

growing many together, twice-pinnate, the pinnules oblong-pointed and sharp-toothed: sori short and close together, at matiirity becoming more or less continuous. A very common fern in moist woods and copses.
7.

appearance, but the sori circular and covered with peltate or reniform indusia. D. acrostichoides, Kuntze. (Aspidinm acrostichoides, Swartz). Christmas fern. Figs. 304, 305. Fronds 2 ft. or less tall, narrow, oncepinnate, the pinnae serrate and bearing a larger tooth on the upper side near the base, the terminal part of the frond

DRYOPTERIS. Shield-fekn. Much like the last in general

somewhat contracted
woods.

in fruit.

[Common

la

Nearly or quite evergreen. D. Thelypteris, Gray. (Aspidium Thelypteris, Sv^&rtz). Marsh shield-fern. Fronds standing 2 ft. high, long-pointed, once-pinnate, the pinnae many-lobed, the margins of the fertile fronds revolute. ^- ^^^^i^^^^^, Gray. Fig. 420. Large, 420. Dryopteris^mTrginalis. , handsome fern growing in woods and ravines, 2 ft. high: fronds once-pin-nate, the pinnte pinna*itied and lance-acuminate: sori large and close to the margin of the frond: petiole chaflfy.

292

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

AA.
II.

PHENOGAMS: GYNOSPERMS.
Cone-bearing or Pine Family.

CONIFERyE.

Woody plants, mostly trees, with resinous sap and stiff needleshaped or scale-like, mostly evergreen leaves: plants bearing no
ovaries, the ovules lying naked and receiving the pollen directly: flowers diclinous (usually monoecious), generally in scaly catkins, those catkins bearing the pistillate flowers maturing into cones but

sometimes becoming berry-like (as in junipers). Above 300 species, one-third of which inhabit North America: particularly abundant in elevated and mountainous regions.
a.

Cone dry, with overlapping scales. B. Scales many and cones 1 in. or more long. C. Leaves long and needle-like, in sheaths or bundles of
2 to 5, persistent
1.

Pinus
Picea
Tsitga

cc.

Leaves short, scattered, persistent.

D. In cross-section, Ivs. 4-sided
:

sessile

2.

DD. In cross-section, Ivs.

ccc.

flat:

short-petioled

3.

Leaves short but very slender, in clusters, deciduous. 4. Larix BB. Scales few (3-12), the cones about }4 in. long 5. Thuja AA. Cone modified into a fleshy, berry-like body 6. Juniperus
1.

PlNUS.

Pine.

Trees with long, persistent, needle-shaped, angled leaves, in bundles of and with scale-like deciduous leaves on the young branchlets-. sterile catkins usually borne at the base of the new shoot: fertile cones maturing the v\'V/' '/ '^^^^ second year, often hanging on the tree \ \\\ CJ h; fW^ ^" for years: cotyledons several. ^^0!^\^\ f'n'y^-^ '^ P. Strdbus, Linn. WJiite pine. Figs. ^^'^s^ //.? Large forest tree, much used 145, 272. for lumber leaves long and soft, light green, in 5's: cones long and symmetrical, with thin-edged scales, terminal on ^!'^^j^l(^'^''^^^y^ ^. -^ "ONthe shoots and falling after shedding the t^^llj^-' /;' seeds. Grows as far south as Georgia. P. paliistris. Mill. Long-leaved pine. Very tall tree, with nearly smooth bark '*"^- P^^^is rigida. leaves very long and slender (usually a '^^^ "'^^'^ '"^ ^* ^^^ ^^" foot or more), clustered at the ends of the branches, in 3's: cones 6 in. or more long, the scales tipped with a short curved spine. Lumber tree. Virginia, south.
2 to 5,
'i

^\A

P. rigida, Mill.

Pitch pine.

Fig. 421.

Medium

sized or small tree with

CONIFEKJeJ
rough dark
liark
:

293
in. long,

leaves short and

stiff,

usually in 3's: cone 2-3

conical, the scales with a short spine.

Grows
barrens eastern
Fig. 422.

as far south as Va.

of

common

in pine

the

north

Atlantic

coast.

An

species.
P. 8ylv6stris. Linn.

Scotch pine.

Medium-sized tree, with glaucous green leaves in2's: cone short, the scales tipped with a Europe; very commonly prickle or point.
planted.

Hoss. Austrian pine. Fig. Large tree with very rough bark, and long, dark green stiff leaves (about 6 in. long)
P. Austriaca, 423.

in

2's:

cone

not

prickly.

about 3 in. long, the scales Europe, commonly planted; a

422. Pinus sylvest

coarser tree than the Scotch pine.

2.

PlCEA.

Spruce.

medium or large size, with short, scatcones maturing the first year, hanging at maturity, their scales thin.
Trees of
tered leaves
:

P. exc61sa, Link.

Norway
:

spruce.

Figs. 270,

27L

cones 5-7 in. long, the large Eur., but the commonest of planted evergreens. Until 25 to 40 years old, the trees are symmetrical cone-shaped specimens, holding their lower branches. 423. Pinus Austriaca. P. nigra, Link. Black spruce. Fig. 424. Becoming a middle-sized tree, with dull, dark foliage cones 1% in. or less long, usually hanging for several years, the edges of the scales often irregular.
tall

Becoming a

tree

scales very thin-edged.

Cold woods, as far south as North Carolina in the mountains.

3.

.MfMMMk:^^^^?^^^-^-

TStGA.

Hemlock Spkuce.
424.

flat

Differs from Picea in having 2-ranked petioled leaves: cones

last year's

Picea nigra.

hanging on the end of

branches.
T. Canad6n8is, Carr.

Hemlock. Large forest tree, with deep -furrowed, dark bark and coarse wood: leaves whitish beFig. 425.

>f

neath: cones not an inch long, compact. Coiiinion lumber tree,

J
423.

.;

'^^%

Bark much used

in tanning.

Tsuga CauaJeusis,

294
4.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Larch.

LARIX.
Trees of

medium

size:

leaves soft, short, in fascicles or clusters

oti

short branchlets, falling in autumn:

cones

much

like those of Picea, bu-t

standing erect at maturity.

L. decidua. Mill.

{L. J^uropivn,
scales, about

DC.)
1

European
long.

larch.

Leaves

in.

long:

cones of

many

in.

Planted for ornament and

timber.
L.

pale
5.

ill

Americana, Michx. Tamarack. Hackmatack. Leaves shorter and color: cones of few scales, \i in. or less long. Swamps.

THUJA.

Arbok-vit^.

Trees, becoming large: leaves opposite, closely appressed to the branchthe latter frond-like: cones small, oblong or globular, of few scales. Leaves awl-like on new growths and scale-like on the older growths. Arbor-vitw. White cedar ot some places. Fig. T. occidentalis, Linn.
lets,

42G.

Cones >^ in. or less long, bearing 2-winged seeds. Swamps and cold woods, as far south as North Carolina in the mountains. Very commonly planted as a hedge evergreen and as single specimens, but in the wild be-

coming very large trees and much used

for telegraph poles.
6.

JUNtPERUS.

Juniper.

Small trees or shrubs, with opposite or whorled awl-like leaves (often of two
kinds)
:

fertile catkin of 3-6 fleshy scales

which cohere and form a berry-like

containing 1-3 hard seeds.
J.
,
.

fruit
.

^ commtuns, Lmn. Common jumper.

,
. .

426.

,^.

, ^ Thuja occidentabs.

,.

Shrub, erect or usually spreading and lying close to the ground, with leaves in whorls of 3 and all alike (awl-like): berries large and smooth. Banks and sterile ground.
l?ed cedar. Savin. Small tree or large shrub, J. Virginillna, Linn. usually narrow pyramidal in growth, with leaves of two kinds (scale-like and awl-like, the former small and lying close to the branch berry glaucous
)
:

heart-wood red and highly scented.

Common

on banks and

in old fields.

B.

PHENOGAMS: ANGIOSPERMS: MONO-COTYLEDONS,

in.

ARACE^. Arum

Family.

juice

Perennial herbs, with rhizomes or corm like tubers and acrid flowers minute, often diclinous and naked, borne on a spadix
:

and surrounded or attended by a spathe: fruit usually a berry, the entire spadix usually enlarging and bearing the coherent berries in a

ARACE^
large head or spike.
regions,

295

many

about 1,000.

Miiny tropical plants, and some of temperate them odd and grotesque. Genera about 100; species Representative plants are skunk cabbage, jack-in-theof

pulpit, ealla, caladium, anthurium.

A.

Leaves often cetted-veined.

1.

Leaves eonipouiid AA. Leaves simple. B. Spathe hooded or roofed at the top BB. Spathe open or spreading at the top BBB. Spatlie open and spreading for its whole length BBBB. Spathe separated from spadix, appearing lateral
1.

A risiema
Symvlocarpus
liichardia

2.
'A.

4.

Calla

...5.

Acorus

AEIS^MA.

Indian Turnip. Jack-in-the-Pulpit.

1

Steiu arisinj; from a corn-like tuber, and bearing

or 2

compound leaves

with sheathing petioles: flowers naked and diclinous, the pistillate at the base of the spadix and the staminate above them (or the plant dioecious), the top of the spadix not flower-bearing: staminate flowers of a few sessile anthers, and the pistillate with 1 sessile ovary, -which ripens into a red few-

seeded berry. Plants of spring or early summer, in rich woods. very pungent, often used in domestic medicine.

Tuber

Common Indian Turnip. Jack-in-the-Pulpit. A. triph^llum, Torr. Fig. 226. Leaves usually 2, each bearing 3 oblong-elliptic pointed leaflets spathe purple-striped, curving over the spadix. A Dracdntium, Schott. Dragon-root. Leaf usually \, with 7-11 narrow
:

olilong leaflets: spathe greenish, shorter than the spadix.

2.

SYMPLOCARPUS.

Skunk Cabbage.
:

Leaves and flowers arising from a strong rootstock, the Ivs. very large and appearing after the spathes fls. perfect, each with 4 sepals, 4 stamens and single ovary which is sunk in the fleshy spadix: fruit made up of the fleshy spadix with imbedded fleshy seeds: spathe pointed and arching, inclosing the spadix. Common in wet meadows in the northeastern states.

x
Salisb.

-^svi^v

Spathes purple, arising in the earliest spring: leaves very large (often 2 ft. long), simple and entire, ovate, in tufts. The tufted leaves and fetid odor give the plant the name of skunk cabbage.
S. foetidus,
3.

iSv~--^!;>jL-!!li

RICHARDIA.

Calla Lily.

Leaves several from each short rootstock, their petioles sheathing the flower-scape: flowers naked and diclinous, the stamens above and the 3-loculed ovaries below on the spadix spathe large and showy, the top flaring and the
:

^27.

Richardia

Africana.
fol-

base rolling about the spadix.

li)wing
is

Several species are cultivated, but the

the only

common

one.

296

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

R. Africana, Kunth. Valla or Calla lily of gardens. Fig. 427. Leafblades broadly arrow-shaped, simple and entire, cross-veined, glossy: spathe white and wax-like. Cape of Good Hope.
4.

CALLA.
Differs

d()( >

from the above in having a spathe which not inclose the spadix, and mostly perfect flowers

upper ones sometimes staminate), each of 6 staand 1 ovary: fruit a red berry. One species. C palustris, Linn. True Calla. Fig. 428. Leaves about 1 ft. high, the blades arrow-shaped: spathe about
(tiie

niLii^

2 in 5

lung, white

on the upper face. In cold bogs, north

ACORUS.
Erect,

Sweet Flag.

Calamus.

having long, horizontal, branching rootstocKs, thick and aromatic: leaves sword-shaped, rising
428.

Calla palustris.

j^.^,^,

^j^g

rootstocks:

scapes 3-angled, bearing each a

leaf-like, causing the spadix to appear as if borne on the side of the leaf-like scape: flowers on a very dense spadix: ovary oblong, 2-4celled, with 2-8 ovules in each cell. A. Calamus, Linn. Sweet flag. Calamus-root. Along the margins of streams, in swamps and wet soils. Leaves 2 to .3 ft.: flowers greenishyellow, very small. May to July. The rootstocks supply "sweet flag roots"

cylindric spadix, but

much prolonged and

of the druggists.

IV. LILIACE.E.

Lily Family.
fls.

Herbs, with bulbs, corms, or large rootstocks:

mostly regular

and showy, the perianth of six separate or coherent parts, the stamens usually six and standing in front of the parts of the perianth: ovary superior, usually 3-loculed, ripening into a capsule or berry. About 200 genera, including more than 2,000 widely distributed species. Characteristic plants are lily, lily-of-the-valley, onion, Solomon's
seal, tulip, trillium, hyacinth,

asparagus, yucca.

A. Fruit a loculicidal capsule.

B. Style
C.
1,

undivided.
tall

Plant bulbous: root leavss not in large clumps.

D.

Stem
E.

and leafy

L Lilium
2.
."5.

DD, Stem short, with only 2 to G leaves.

Flower erect EE. Flower nodding

DDD. Stem naked, bearinir E. Perianth tubular.

Tulipa

Erythroninw

many

flowerf.

LiLiACE.i:
F.

297
throat

Flowers
lobes

fuiinel-fonii,

open:
4.

spreading: or recurved, as

long as the tube FF. Flowers urn-shaped, constricted at throat: lobes much shorter than tube
EE. Perianth parted nearly to base
cc.

Eyacinthns

5. 6.

Muxcari
Ornifhogahiiii

Plant with a rootstock, and large clumps of

leaves.
D.

Di).

Flowers yellow and paniculate on a somewhat branching scape Flowers white or bkie, mostly in a simple

7.

Remerocallis
Fioikia

raceme
BB. Style
1

8.

at

base, but 3-cleft or S-parted:

liowers

9. UrnUtria bell-like, drooping, yellow AA. Fruit an angled berry: styles or stigmas 3: leaves 10. Trillium broad and netted-veined AAA. Fruit a globular berry: style 1: fls. small, white, or

greenish.
B. Foliage

made up

of cladophylls, the true leaves

being mere scales: stamens borne on the base 11. Asparagus of the small corolla BE. Foliage of ordinary leaves: stamens borne on the
corolla-tube.

Perianth of 6 parts, separate cc. Perianth of 4 parts occ. Periantli gamosepalous, with 6 lobes. D. Flowers racemose on a scape
c.

12. 13.

Smilavina

Maiunthcmion
Cotivallaria

14.

DD. Flowers hanging from the axils of the leaves. 15. Polygonal urn

1.

LlLIUM.

Lily.

Strong-growing bulbous herbs, with leafy stems usually bearing several or many flowers: perianth bell-shaped or funnelform, the 6 divisions nearly or quite separate and spreading or recurving and having a honeyl)earing groove at the base: anthers attached by the middle (versatile).
a.

Flowers white.
lily.

L. longifldrum,

Thunb.

Faster

One

to 4 ft.,

with scattered long-

lanceolate pointed leaves: flowers 5-8 in. long, horizontal, scarcely widened

from the base to the middle, fragrant. Japan and China, now much cultivated under glass. Many of the bulbs are grown in the Bermuda Islands, whence the name "Bermuda lily." L. cAndidum, Linn. Common white lily. Leaves broad-lanceolate, scattered: flowers numerous, 5 in. or less long, widening gradually from
the base.

Europe.

Common

in gardens.

298
aa.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Flowers in shades
Fig. 429.
of yellow or orange.

Flowers 1 to 3, erect, 2-3 in. long, orange-red and spotted, the divisions separate: leaves whorled. Dry soil.
L. Pliilad61pliicum, Linn. L. Caiiadnse, Linn.

Two

to 5 f t

with leaves in whorls

and bulbs producing rhizomes or runners: fls. several or many, erect or horizontal on lone: stalks, the divisions spreading above the middle, orange or red and spotted. Meadows and swales. L. sup6rbum, Linn. Fig. 430. Very tall, bearing several or many nodding red-orange spotted flowers in a panicle, the segments all pointing backwards. Meadows and low
grounds. Tiger Vdij. Fig. 30. Four to 5 tt., L. tigrinum, Andr. bearing a loose cottony covering on the stems: leaves ses429. Liliuni

sile,

scattered,

lanceolate

flowers

many,
back.

Philadelphicu

nodding
divisions
;

in a panicle, orange-red
in.

and black-

spotted, the

China and Japan

2.

about 4 old gardens.

long and rolled

TtTLIPA.

Tulip.

plants with a few leaves near the ground on the 1-flowered stem: flower large, erect, the G divisions erect or flaring: capsule triangular. Common tulip. Leaves 3-6, T. Gesneri^na, Linn. divisions of the flower broad broad peduncle glabrous lateat the end, with a very short point in the center blooming tulips, originally from Asia Minor. Due Van Thol tulip. Early and dwarf, with T. suav^olens, Roth. fewer leaves, downy peduncle, and acuminate segments. Caspian Sea; com:

Low bulbous

mon

in cultivation.
3.

ERYTHRdNIUM.
Low

Dog's-tooth Violet.

herbs with deep-seated conical bulbs, and scape with 2 leaves near the ground flower nodding, the 6 divisions wide-spreading or recurved, the style long and clubshaped. Blooming in earliest spring. E. Americ^num, Smith. Common dog's-tooth violet, or
:

adder's tongue.
olate,

Fig.

43L

Leaves thickish, oblong-lance:

flower light yellow, nodding mottled with purple on a stem 3-6 in. tall. Low grounds. White adder's tongue. Leaves E. ilbidum, Nutt. 431. Erythroiiium flowers whitish. Low grounds. scarcely mottled Americjinum.
:

4.

HYAClNTHUS. nvACiNTH.

Low plants, with large bulbs, producing many flowers in spikes or dense racemes on a short scape, the leaves arising directly from the bulb: flowers bell-shaped or funnelform, the 6 lobes spreading or curling back.

LILIACE^
H.
orieiitd,lis,

299
Fig. 174.

Linn.

Common

hi/acinfh.

Early spring,

tlie

flowers of

many

colors and sometimes double, the perianth-tube swollen, the

oblong-spatulate lobes as long as the tube.

Greece to Asia Minor. Var. dlbulus, Baker. Moman hyacinth. Flowers fewer and usually smaller, white or nearly so, the perianth-tube scarcely swollen and the lobes
shorter.
').

France.

Much

cultivated.

MUSCARI. Gkape Hyacinth. Low herbs, with very narrow, somewhat

()

in a

fleshy leaves and sm vU flowers raceme: perianth deep blue or white, the tube ventricose or urn-shaped,

with

short l)lunt teeth.

Mill.

M. botryoides,

Gmpe
:

hynciuth.

Flowers faintly odorous, nod-

ding, deep blue: scape 4-10 in.

leaves linear, obtuse, erect, becoming longer

than scapes. In grass about gardens and lawns in very early spring; also escaped in some places to meadows and along roadsides. Asia.
6.

ORNITHOGALUM. Star

of Bethlehem.

Stemless low herbs, with narrow linear, fleshy, channelled leaves: flowers in terminal clusters, usually with conspicuous bracts: perianth of G parts, white, spreading, veined: stamens G, hypogynous: filaments flattened, subulate: ovary sessile, 3-celled: capsule roundish, 3 angled: seeds few, black. 0. umbellatum, Linn. Scape 4-10 in.; flowers 5-8, on long spreading pedicels: sepals white, each with green band outside. Common about gardens. Introduced from Europe. Early spring.
7.

HEMEROCALLIS. Yellow

Day-lily.

Strong-growing plants from tuberous roots, producing clumps of long sword-shaped leaves: flowers yellow or orange, erect, large and lily-like, in clusters or panicles on a tall, branching scape, the divisions widely spreading at the top. Olil World, but common in gardens, Flowers tawny H. fulva, Linn. Orange day-lily. orange, produced in early summer, the inner perianth divisions nearly or quite obtuse.

The commonest
Plant

species,

and often escaped along roadsides. H. fiava. Linn. Yellotv day-lily.

lew, inner divisions acute.
8.

somewhat

smaller, early-blooming: flowers fragrant, pure lemon-yel-

FUNKIA.

White and Blue Day-lily.

Medium-sized plants, producing dense clumps of broadbladed leaves from rootstocks: flowers blue or white, in racemes on scapes, each flower sheathed at the base by 1 432. Funkia sudeordata. or 2 bracts, the perianth-tube long and the limb sometimes irregular. China and Japan; planted by houses and along walks. F. subcordata. Spreng. White day-lily. Fig. 432. Leaves broadly cordate-ovate; flowers large and white, in a short raceme, not drooping.

300
F.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

ovata, Sprena:.

{F. aerulea, Sweet).

Blue

dui)

lily

Fig.

433.

Leaves broadly ovate: Howers deep blue,

!).

in a long

raceme, nodding.

UVULARIA.

Bellwort.

"Wild Oats."

Low, erect plants, with short rootstocks: stems

with leaves alternate above, sessile or perfoliate,
parallel-veined: flowers yellow, drooping, solitary
at

the

end of the forking stems, the perianth

elongated, bell-shaped, of 6 similar, distinct, nar-

row
base.

sepals, each bearing a nectar gland at inside

Spring-flowering wood plants.

grandifldra.

U.
wort.
4J3.

Smith.
ft. tall:

Large-flowered Bellleaves oblong, whitish-

Commonly

1-2

Funkia ovata.

on inner surfaces.
perfoliata.

Common

pubescent beneath, and perfoliate: perianth smooth in rich woods. Blooms a little earlier than U.
Smaller than the preceding: glaucous, leaves per-

U. perfoliata, Linn.
foliate: perianth

segments twisted, covered on inner surface with shining

flowers

grains (papillose):

somewhat fragrant, pale yellow.

Strnw
lilies.

Common

in

moist woods.
U.
sessilifolia,

Linn.

{OKki^sio
long.

sessile, lance-oval, thin,

smooth, pale beneath:

1 in.

Leaves stem angled, slender and

.^e.'<.'<ilifdlin).

zigzag: flower greenish-yellow, about

10.

Woods.

TRILLIUM. Wake-robin Low herbs from deep-seated

until

corm-like tubers: leaves 3 in a whorl, broad

and netted-veined: flower single, of

latter persistent

3 colored petals and 3 green sepals, the the angled, many-seeded berry ripens: stigmas 3,

often sessile.

Plants of earliest spring, growing in rich woods.

a.

Flower

sessile in the leaf-whorl.

Flowers dull purple, the parts narrow, pointed, and nearly erect: leaves sessile, ovate^ often blotched with purple. Pa.,W. and S.
T. sessile, Linn.
aa.

Flower stalked in

the leaf-whorl.

grandiflbmm, Linn. Common wake-robin, or birthroot. Fig. 221. Flowers large and white, the peduncle standing erect or nearly so, the petals broadest above the middle (obovate) and 2-2J^ in. long: leaves broadovate, sessile or nearly so. Flowers become rose-pink with age. T. er6ctum, Linn. Flowers smaller, ill-scented, varying from white to pink and purple, the peduncle erect or declined, the petals ovate or lanceolate and spreading: leaves broad-ovate. Frequent north, and south to Tenn. T. c6rnuum, Linn. Flowers not large, white, the peduncle declined under the broad leaves; petals ovate-lanceolate, rolled back. Range of the last. T. erythrocarpum, Michx. Painted wake-robin. Flowers on peduncles, erect, or partly declined: segments ovate, or ovate-lanceolate, margined, l!iiti, widely spreading, white, penciled with purple stripes at base: sepals
T.

LILIACE^
half as

301

long as petals: leaves ovate, taper-pointed, distinctly petioled, obtuse or rounded at the base. Cool damp woods, from New Brunswick to
Georgia, and west.
11.

ASPAEAGUS.
Mostly
tall,

ASPARAGU.S.
with
cladophylla and very small

often climbing plants

scale-like true leaves: flowers white or greenish, small, bell-shaped, scat-

tered or in groups of 2 or 3: fruit a 3-loculed and 1-G-seeded small berry.

A.

oiiicinalis,

Linn.

Common

asparagus.

Figs. 147, 148. Erect and branchy, the strong

young

shoots thick and edible: berries red.

Eur.

A. plumdsus, Baker.
434.

Fig. 149.

Twining, with

dark, frond-like foliage, small white flowers and

black berries. S. Africa; greenhouses. Asparagus medeoloides. ^ medeololdes, Thunb. Smilax of florists (but not of botanists). Fig. 434. Twining: foliage broad and leaf -like: fls. solitary and fragrant: berries dark green. S. Africa; much grown by florists.
12.

>

SMILACiNA.

False Solomon's Seal. Low, erect plants with many small white flowers

in

racemes or pani-

cles:

perianth 6-parted: fruit a 3-loculed berry: rootstock creeping. About 2 ft., tall, somewhat False s])ikenafd. S. racemdsa, Desf. downy, with many oblong or oval leaves: flowers in a panicle: berries pale
red, speckled.
S. stelld.ta,

Desf.

a simple raceme.
13.

Spring and early summer. Rich woods. Nearly or quite smooth: leaves narrower: flowers in Forms patches in low ground.

MAIANTHEMUM. Two-leaved
Neat
little

Solomon's Seal.
stems unbranched, few-

herbs, with

slender rootstocks:

leaved: flowers small, in an open raceme, with usually 2 or 3 pedicels together: perianth of 4 ovate, obtuse, spreading segments, united at base: fruit a globular 1-2 seeded berr}'. One species in eastern North America.

M. Canadense, Desf. Slender stem, 3-6 in. high, terminated by the many-flowered raceme: flowers white: leaves ovate, cordate at base, shortstalked. Common in moist woods and on shaded banks, making mats or
patches.

May

to July.

U. CONVALLABIA. Lily -of-the valley. Low, spring-rtowering herbs from brandling rootstocks: flowers ganiopetalous, white and waxy, nodding in a 1-sided raceme, the short lobes
(J

recurving: fruit a red berrj'.

Leaves obloug, numerous from the rootstocks, formC. majalis, Linn. ing mats, and about 2 with each scape: flowers very fragrant. One of the
best-known garden flowers.
15.

Europe.

The only

species.

POLYGONATUM. Solomon's

Seal.

of preceding stalks are very evident (whence the

Mostly strong plants from long running rootstocks on which the scars common name): stems

^>02
leafy, bearing

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

dark-colored berry.
P.

nodding gamosepalous flowers in the axils: fruit a globular, Rich woods, spring. giganteum, Dietr. Three to 5 ft. tall: leaves ovate, somewhat clasping: peduncles in each axil, 2-8 flowered: filaments not roughened.
P. bifldrum, Ell. One-:^ ft.: leaves oblong, nearly sessile, somewhat glaucous, hairy: iieduiicles usually 2-ttowered: filaments roughened.

V.

COMMELINACE^. Spiderwort

Family.

Herbs, annual or perennial, with flat, narrow leaves, sheathing at base: roots fibrous, sometimes thickened: flowers regular or irregular, perfect, usually showy, in terminal cymes, usually borne above a leafy or spathe-like bract: sepals 3: petals 3, soon decaying or falling; stamens 6, hypogynous, some of them often deformed or abortive: ovary 2-3-celled, style single, stigma entire or somewhat lobed: juice slimy or mucilaginous. More than 300 species, mainly belonging to tropical regions.
Flowers irregular, enclosed in cordate spathe-like 1. Commelina floral leaf perfect stamens 3 (rarely 2) bracts leaf- like; AA. Flowers regular, or nearly so: stamens 6 2. Tradescantia AAA. Flowers somewhat irregular, tubular, usually in pairs: .S. Zebrina trailing habit, easily rooting at nodes
A.
:

1.

COMMELlNA. Day Flower.

Plants ei-ect or partly procumbent and rooting at joints, succulent, branching: leaves petioled or sessile, the floral leaf or spathe cordate: flowers recurved on their pedicels and hooded by the floral leaf before and after flowering, open for a short time only. Stem glabi-ous or somewhat downy, ascending 1-2 C. Virginica, Linn. ft.: leaves lanceolate to linear, acuminate: flowers 1 in. wide, the odd petal very small. In moist soil.
2.

TRADESCANTIA.

Spiderwort.

Mucilaginous herbs, with stout, succulent stems, simple, or branched: leaves elongated, narrow, keeled, sometimes purple-veined: flowers in terminal and axillary umbelled clusters, with leaf-like bracts, not tubular: filaments glabrous or bearded. Plant green, erect, with linear leaves; flower T. Virginica, Linn. clusters showy, terminal: corolla over 1 in. broad: the 3 petals deep blue (rarely white), longer than sepals: filaments blue, and clothed with hairs. Cultivated and wild; mostly in rich soil. Very variable. Flowers quickly fading by becoming mucilaginous, but produced all summer.

COMMELINACE^
T. pilbsa,

AMARYLLIDACE^

303

Stout, more or less zigzag, stems soft-hairy or leaves lanceolate, tapering at apex, narrowed at base, hairy on both sides: cymes terminal and axillary, or on short axillary branches: flowers %-! in. wide. In rich moist soil, woods and thickets, or iu shaded

Lehm.

nearly smooth

places.

One of the greenhouse plants known as WanderT. flumiii6nsis, Veil. ing .Jew (see Zehrin.d), but leaves usually green and flowers white. S.
Amer.
.'!.

ZEBRiNA.

Wandering Jew.

at the nodes, and branching: leaves often striped with purple, green, white, thick and ovate: Howers small, more or less irregular, tubular, usually in pairs.

Low, trailing or partially climbing, rooting readily

Z.

p6ndala,
calyx

Schnitzl.

Stems
tube,

trailing,

perennial:

corolla

3-parted,

roseate:

with short

3-parted:

ovary 3-celled, 3-6

ovuled:

leaves ovate or oblong, heavy or succulent, green and silver stripes above,

purple beneath.

Much used

for vases and baskets.

native of Mexico.

VI.
DifEers

AMARYLLIDACE^.

Amaryllis Family.

bearing
in

its

from Liliacefe chiefly in having an inferior ovary and in flowers more uniformly on scapes. More than 600 species
genera,

nearly 70
first

widely dispersed.

narcissus, daffodil, snowdrop,

the

three genera

may

Representative plants are lilies. Plants of be grown from bulbs in the school-room.
tuberose, amaryllis

from coated bulbs; stem a leafless scape. B. Perianth with a crown or cup in its centre BB. Perianth with no cup. c. Anthers and style pointed cc. Anthers and style blunt Plants from tuberous rootstocks or corms. AA. B. Stem tall and leafy
A. Plants

1.

Narcissus
GaUintlius

2. 3.

Leucoium
PotiantJies

4.

BB.
1.

Stem a

low, leafless scape

5.

Hypoxis

NARCISSUS. Narcissus. Daffodil. Low plants producing from 1 to many

arises

or crown in
a.

6-parted flowers on a scape which from a tunicated bulb: Derianth with a long tube and bearing a cup its center. Old World, but frequently cultivated.

Crown as

long as, or longer than, the divisions of the perianth.

N. Pseddo-Narcissus, Linn. Trumpet narcissus. Common daffodil. Fig. 234. Scape 1-flowered, the flower large and yellow with a relatively short tube and a wavy-edged crown. Leaves fiat and glaucous. Double forms are common in gardens.

304
aa.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

CrotvH half or more as long as the divisions of the perianth.

Scape 1-flowered. the flower about 2 In. or 1 in. long, the crown plaited and usually a deeper yellow: leaves flat and glaucous.

N. incomparibilis, Curt.

more

across, yellow, the cylindrical tube

aaa.

Crown

less

than half the length of the division.

N. Taz6tta, Linn. Polyanthus narcissus. Chinese sacred lily. Fig. 435. Flowers several to many in an umbel, yellow or white, small, the crown usually darker colored and usually somewhat scalloped: leaves flat and

somewhat glaucous. One of the commonest kinds. The narcissus known to florists as " Paper-white " is a
white-flowered form of this species.

N. posticus, Linn.

Poet^s narcissus.

Scape rather
:

slender, usually 1-flowered, the flower white with the thick rim of the very short crown margined with red

435.

leaves

flat,

glaucous.

Narcissus Tazetia.

N. Jonquilla, Linn.

Jonquil.
the

yellow, the tube slender and

Scape 2-5-flowered, the flowers small and segments wide-spreading: leaves linear,

somewhat
2.

cylindrical.

GALANTHUS. Snowdrop.

Small, spring-blooming plants, with a single white flower nodding from the top of the scape, followed by grass-like leaves: perianth divisions C,

oblong and more or less concave, the three inner ones shorter, some of y them usually green-blotched at the tip anthers and style
:

pointed.
G. nivalis, Linn.

Snowdrop.

Fig. 43G.

^
\

\\

est of spring flowers, appearing as soon as the

One of the earlisnow is gone,

vrfilf

si

}fe

the flower and leaves arising from a small bulb: scape 6 in. or less high: inner divisions of the bell-shaped flower tipped

with green.
3.

Europe.

LEUCOIUM.

Snowflake.
:

Flowers often more than 1 divisions of the perianth all alike: anthers and style blunt: otherwise very like Galanthus. Taller than the snowSnowflake. L. v6rnum, Linn. drop (about 1 ft.), the scape usually 1-flowered, blooming Europe. later, the flowers larger.
4.

POLIANTHES.
Leafy-stemmed

Tuberose.
lily-like plants,

with a thick, tuberous rootstock (whence

the

name

tuber-ose not tube-rose), bearing an erect spike of white flowers:

perianth with a short slightly curved tube and G spreading nearly equal divisions: stamens included in the tube (not projecting). Two to 3 ft. bearing long-linear, chanTuberose. P. tuberdsa, Linn. nelled, many-ranked leaves: flowers very fragrant, sometimes tinted with

IRIDACE.1:
rose.

305

popular garden plant from Mexico, blooming in the open in late

are double.

summer and autumn; some forms

r>.

HYPCXIS.
Steuile.ss,

Star-grass.
with grass-lilie. hairy leaves, growing from a corm-like root-

stock: Howers yellow on filiform scapes: perianth 6-parted. H. er6cta, Linn. Scape 3-8 in., not so long as the grassy leaves, soft-

hairy;

flowers

1-4, yellow,

greenish without, about

in.

in

diameter.

Common

in dry soils.

VII.
Differs

IRIDACE.^. Iris Family.

from Amaryllidacese and Liliaceas in its inferior ovary, three stamens which are opposite the outer parts of the perianth, and 2-ranked equitant (bases overlapping) leaves: stigmas sometimes large and petal-like. About 60 genera and 700 species. Repiris or blue flag, crocus, gladiolus, freesia. Crocuses and freesias are easily grown in window-boxes for winter and spring bloom.

resentative plants are

A.

Lobes of the style expanded and colored, looking

petals

like
1.

Iris

AA. Lobes of the style thread-like. B. Plant steraless: flowers borne on scapes. c. From corms: spathe 1-flowered: flower large, and perianth tube long and slender
CO.

2.

Crocus

From mostly fibrous

perceptible,
if

roots

perianth tube scarcely

small: spathe 2- or
3.

at all:

fls.

more flowered

Sisi/rincJiium

BB. Plants with a leaf-bearing and flower-bearing stem. c. Flowers in a short 1-sided cluster: plant small ..4. Freesia
rr.

Flowers

in a terminal spike: plant large

5.

Gladiolus

1.

IRIS.

Fleur-de-lis.

Flag.

Mostly strong plants, with rhizomes or tubers: flowers mostly large and showy, the three outer segments recurving and the three inner ones usually smaller and more erect or sometimes incurving: the three long divisions of the style petal-like and often more or less hairy, covering the stamens: stigma on the under side of the style leaves long and sword-shaped. Several wild and many cultivated species. The following species have rhizomes,
:

a. 1.

Flouers yellow.

Pseudacorus, Linn. Common yellow flag. One to 3 ft., with severalflowered, often branching stamens: outer divisions of the perianth with no hairs or crests: flowers bright yellow. Europe.

306
:i;i.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Flowers in shades of blue (sometimes varying
to icJiife).
ft.,

I.

versicolor, Linn.
flat:

Common

wild blue

flag.

Two

to 3

stout: leaves

^-in. wide,

flowers about 3 in. long, short-stalked, violet-blue, the tube

shorter than the ovary, the inner petals small and the outer ones with no hairs. Swamps. I. laevigata, Fisch. & Mey. (/. Kcempferi, 8ieb.). Japan iris. Two to 3 feet, the stem much overtopping the thin, broad leaves flowers
:

437. Iris

Germanica.

438.

Crocus vernus.
flat,

439.

Freesia refracta.

large (sometimes several inches across),

the inner lobes spreading, the

:

outer ones very large and rounded, with no hairs or crests color mostly in shades of blue and purple. Japan; now one of the choicest of garden irises. I. Germdnica, Linn. Common blue flag of gardens (sometimes runs wild). Fig. 437. Two to 3 feet, with long sword-shaped leaves: flowers few or several to each stem, about 3 to 4 in. across, the drooping outer segments

with yellow hairs, the inner segments erect and arching inwards.
2.

Europe.

CROCUS.

Crocus.

arising directly from the coated

all alike

Small, stemless plant-, the long-tubed flowers and the grass-like leaves corm flowers with the G obovate divisions
:

and erect-spreading or the inner ones a little the smaller, opening only in sunshine. The following, from Europe, blooms in earliest spring. C. vernus, Linn. Common crocus. Fig. 438. Leaves 2-4 to each flower, glaucous on the under side: flower rising little above the ground; color in shades of lilac and variously striped, sometimes white.
3.

SISYRlNCHIUM.

Blue-eyed Grass.

Low, slender, perennial herhs with grass-like, linear, or lanceolate leaves and fibrous roots: scapes or stems erect, compressed, 2-edged or
ing, in terminal 2-5-flowered

winged, often branched: flowers small, usually blue or bluish, soon witherumbels in a 2-leaved spathe: perianth seg3,

ments spreading, bristle-pointed: stamens

monadelphous: style

long;

stigmas very slender; ovary 3-celled. S. angustifdlium, Mill. Grassy plants in tufts or clumps: scape 4 in. to 1 ft., spathe single, sessile: flowers blue to purple, "arely white; petals notched and mucrouate. In moist meadows, among grass. Summer. Common.

IRIDACE^ ORCHIDACEiE
4.

307

FKEfiSIA.

Freesia.

Small cormous plants with flat leaves: flowers white or yellowish, tubular, with a somewhat spreading limb, the tube generally curved: stem about Popular 1 ft. high, bearing several erect flowers on a sidewise cluster. florists' plants of easy culture and quick growth. F. refrdcta, Klatt. Fig. 439. Leaves narrow: flower usually somewhat 2-lipped or irregular, white in the most popular forms but yellowish in some, often with blotches of yellow; fragrant. Cape of Good Hope.
5

GLADIOLUS.

Gladiolus.
with
flat,
:

Tall, erect plants,

strong-veined leaves, the stem

"

more or less l-sidet terminal spike, short-tubed, the limb flaring and somewhat unequal: stamens separate (united in some related genera):
arising from a

conn

(Fig. 50)

flowers in a

440.

style long, with three large stigmas.

'

Gladiolus Gandavensis.

G. Gandav6nsis, Van Houtte. Fig. 440. Upper segments of the perianth nearly horizontal: colors various and bright: spikes long. Hybrid of

two or more species from the Cape of Good Hope. common gladioli of gardens are greatly hybridized.

Summer and

fall.

The

Vlir.

ORCHID ACE.5].

Orchid Fa.mily.

lar perfect flowers,

Perennial herbs, distinguished by singular and extremely irreguamong the most ornamental and interesting of

native and exotic plants, curiously adapted, in most cases, to insect

pollination;

many

air-plants (epiphytes) of the tropics and

warmer

regions also belong to this family. Leaves usually alternate, simple, entire, sheathing: perianth in 6 divisions, adnate to the 1 -celled

ovary: sepals

3,

the outer segments of the perianth usually colored

so,

and similar or nearly

generally alike;
logically,

appearing petal-like, the 2 lateral petals

third petal, the lip (the upper petal and,

morpho-

next to axis, but apparently next to bract, by a peculiar twisting of the ovary), very unlike the others, usually larger and
frequently lobed, spurred, or saccate:
together forming the column
inferior.

stamens one or two

fertile,

variously conherent with the style or with a thick, fleshy stigma, all

pollen in waxy or powdery masses ovary About 5,000 species and over 400 genera, of wide distribution but most abundant in the tropics; species rather difficult to determine, and therefore not described here in detail. Ours usually found in cool, damp woods, bogs, and meadows. Some of the rarest of greenhouse plants, and often very difficult to grow, are members of
:
:

this family.

308
A.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Lip sac-like or inflated, larger than the other p;irts. B. Anthers 2, one on each side of the stjle: a spreading sterile stamen over the summit of the style: flowers generally large and drooping
1
.

Cypripedium

AA. Lip not saccate, but spurred, and sometimes fringed: flowers in a terminal spike.
B.

Sepals more or less spreading

2.

Hahenaria
Orchis

BB. Sepals and petals somewhat arching together

3.

AAA. Lip not noticeably saccate or spurred.

B.

Flowers in spikes, appearing more or less twisted about the spike, in one or several rows: flowers small.
C.

Leaves not variegated

4.

Spiranthes

Leaves variegated with white veins 5. Goody era BB. Flowers 1 to several, in a spike-like loose raceme: or terminal on a leaf-bearing stem, c. Stem (scape) from one grass-like leaf: lip
cc.

crested with colored hairs

CC.

6. 7.

Ca lopogon
Pogonia

Stem 1-3-leaved
Lady's Supper.

1.

CYPKIPfiDIUM.

Moccasin Flower.

Distinguished by having 2 fertile anthers: pollen sticky, as though varnished on suiface, powdery beneath: lip a large, inflated, spurless sac, toward which the column bends: leaves, large, broad, manv-nerved: flowers
large, showy.

Fig. 225.

Swartz. Stem leafy, 1-2 ft., or more: flower solitary or two or three together; lip a globular sac, white, colored with purplish-pink, l>2-2 in. long. In swamps, bogs and woods, north, and south in mountains. June to September. One of our rare and beautiful wild flowers.
C. spect&bile,

C.

acaMe, Ait.

Scape

ft.

tall,

with two leaves at base, 1-flowered:

sepals greenish -purple, spreading: lip pink, veined with rose-purple, about
2 in. long, fragrant, split

down
Stem

the front, but edges closed.

Woods and

bogs.
C.
1-

May

to

June.
slender, leafy,
1-2
ft.,

pub^scens, Willd.

usually clustered,

to several-flowered: flowers yellow, lip

much

inflated,

with purplish stripes

several-flowered:

or spots,
C.

lK-2

in.

long: low woods, meadows.

May

to July.
1- to

parvifldrum, Salisb.

Stem

1-2

ft.

high, leafy,

flowers yellow, fragrant: lip usually

lines

than

preceding

and smaller, about

more marked with purplish spots or Low woods and 1 in. long.

thickets.
C.

May

to July.

cindidum, Willd. Lip white, with purple veins and stripes, not 1 in. long. A very rare species, found in bogs and wet meadows, New York and New Jersey to Minnesota, Missouri, Kentucky.

ORCHIDACE^

309

Slender, less than 1 ft., leafy stemmed: flower 1, C. arietlnum, K. Br. drooping, the 3 sepals separate and very narrow and greenish, the lip somewhat shorter than sepals one-half in. long, red with lighter veins. Cold

woods. North.
2.

HABENARIA. Fringed

or

Ragged Orchids.

Flowers several or numerous, in open terminal spikes, each flower in the axil of a foliaceous bract: corolla white, purplish or yellow, with lip variously fringed or 3-parted and cut-toothed, spur longer than lip: 1 anther: pollen-mass stalked, cohering. Growing, for most part, in wet Several places, borders of ponds, etc., through eastern United States. species, rather too critical for the beginner and therefore not described here By some, the genus is broken up into several genera.
3.

Orchis.

Very similar to Habenaria, differing in having the glands attached to the pollen masses, and enclosed in a kind of pocket: the petals are arched
and somewhat connivent over the column.
0. Bpectdbilis, Linn.

Stem

short,

from

2 large

and glossy root leaves,

and carrying

or 2 lanceolate bracts, with

several flowers above, in a

raceme: lip white, spurred at base: other petals purplish-pink, arching up over the flower. Woods.
4.

SPIRANTHES.

Ladies' Tresses.

Generally characterized by small flowers, whitish, yellowish or greenishwhite, bent horizontally and arranged in 1-3 rows spirally in a spike, appearing as if twisted: stem usually bearing leaves below, or at the base: lip of the little flowers not saccate but erect, oblong, recurved, channelled,
the base embracing the
1-2 celled:
S.
1

column and bearing 2 callous protuberances: anther powdery pollen mass in each cell. Several species.
Six to 20
in.

cernua, Richard.

high, having leafy bracts with the

spike dense, with flowers in 3 rows, inflorescence appearing but slightly twisted: leaves lance-linear. Common in moist meadows and swamps. Late summer and early autumn.
flowers;
S. gracilis, Bigelow. Spike and scape slender, with flowers in one straight oi' spiral row: leaves all radical, ovate to oblong, commonly withering away at or before flowering. Common in dry or sandy fields, open or billy woods. July to October.

5.

G00D7:RA.

Rattlesnake Plantain.

In spike and perianth similar to Spiranthes, but without the 2 lateral callous protuberances on the lip: leaves basal, tufted, thickish, petioled,
distributed, but not

dark-green, usually blotched or veined with white. A few species widely common, with handsome leaves. The genus is also

known

as

Peramium.

310
G.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Grass Pink.

CALOPOGON.

Scapes from round solid bulbs bearing several flowers in loose terminal spikes or racemes; leaf 1, grass-like. Distinguished b}- having the lip on the upper side (ovary or stalk not twisting), bearded. C. pulch611u8, R. Br. Scape 1 ft. high, 2-6 flowered: flowers 1 in. across, pink-purple; the lip, triangular at apex, created with colored hairs (yellow, orange, purple), club-shaped: anther lid-like: pollen-masses 4, powdery. Wet meadows and bogs. Very pretty.
7.

POGONIA.
Low, with
solitary, terminal,

odd flowers; alternate leaves:

lip spurless,

crested or hooded or 3-lobed; column not attached: calyx spreading: fertile

anther lid-liko: two pollen masses, granular.

oval near middle of stem:
in. from a fibrous root; leaf sessile, bearded and fringed: flower 1 in. long, sweet-scented, pale rose color, slightly nodding, with a leafy bract. Marshes or swampy places. Eastern United States. June to July.

P. ophioglossoides, Nutt.

Stem G-9
erect,

lip

BB.

PHENOGAxMS: ANGIOSPERMS: DICOTYLEDONS. D. CHORIPETALiE.

IX.

CUPULIFER^. Oak

Family.

and the

Monoecious trees and shrubs with staminate flowers in catkins Ivs. alternate, with stipules fertile in catkins or solitary early deciduous (mostly scale-like), and the side-veins straight or nearly so: stamens 2 to many: fruit a 1-seed nut, sometimes inclosed in an involucre. Ten or a dozen genera and upwards of 450 species. Representative plants are oak, chestnut, beech, birch, hazel, ironwood.
:

A. Sterile flowers in a

hanging head: fruits 2 three-cornered 1. Fagus nuts in a small, spiny involucre or bur

AA. Sterile flowers in cylindrical catkins. B. Fruit 1 to 4 rounded or flat-sided nuts in a large, sharp2. Castanea spiny involucre or bur 3. Quercus BB. Fruit an acorn a nut sitting in a scaly or spiny cup BBB. Fruit flat and often winged, thin and seed-like, borne

under scales
C. Fertile

in a cone
4.

flowers naked: mature cone-scales thin

Betula

CO. Fertile flowers with a calyx: cone-scales thick

1.

5.

Alrms

FAGUS.

Beech.

Tall forest trees with light bark, and prominent parallel side-veins in the leaves: sterile flowers in a small, pendulous head, with 5-7-cleft calyx

CUPULIFEK^
and 8-16 stamens:
fertile flowers 2, in a close involucre,

311
ripening into 2
tree,

three-cornered "beech nuts" in a 4-valved bur. Close-grained, hard-wood F. Americana, Ait. American beech.

with light colored bark: leaves ovate-oblong and acuminate, coarsely serrate, usually with 9 or more pairs of nerves: nuts ripening in the fall, and much sought by boys and squirrels. A common forest tree. r. sylvdtica, Linn. A'urojieanbeecli. Fig. 138. Often planted, particularly in the form of the Purple-leaved and Weeping beech foliage differs in being mostly smaller, ovate or elliptic, small-toothed, with 9 or less pairs of nerves.
:

2.

CASTANEA.

Chestnut.

Forest trees, with rough, furrowed bark: sterile flowers with 4-7-lobed calyx and 8-20 stamens in very long, erect or spreading catkins, which

appear in clusters in midsummer: fertile flowers about 3 in an involucre, producing "chestnuts " in a spiny bur. American chestnut. Fig. 241. Tall, straightC. Americana, Raf. grained tree, with large, broad and thin, oblong-lanceolate leaves, which are taper-pointed, and have large teeth with spreading spines nuts usually 1 in. or less across, sweet. Grows as far west as Mich., and south to Miss. European chestnut. Less tall: leaves smaller and C. sativa, Mill. narrower, more pubescent when young, not long-acuminate, the teeth smaller and their spines more incurved: nuts 1 in. or more across, not so sweet as those of the American chestnut. Europe. Very commonly planted.
:

3.

QUfiKCUS.

Oak.

Strong, close-grained trees, with mostly laterally-lobed leaves: sterile flowers in clustered hanging catkins, with a 4-7-lobed calyx, and 3-12 stamens: fertile one in a shallow involucre which becomes the cup of the
acorn, the stigma 3-]obed: fruit an acorn.

See Fig. 212, which represents

the English oak {Q. Bobur) often planted in choice grounds.

a.

White oak group, distinguished by

lobes or teeth of the leaves,

its light gray scaly bark, rounded and the acorns maturing the first year. (Q. virens has nearly or quite entire leaves.)

Q. dlba, Linn.

White oak.

Fig. 441.

long, the

lobes usually 7 and at equal distances

:

Leaves obovate, 5 or 6 inches apart, and the sinuses

5

deep or shallow acorn small, with a rather shallow and not fringed cup. The commonest ^ipccics.

^
w

\L
441.

Quereus alba.

412.

Quercus
oak.

ia;icrocarp;i

443.

Quercus Prinus.

Leaves obovate, downy or pale on the lower surface, toothed towards the tips and irregularly and
Q. macrocirpa, Michx.

Bur

Fig. 442.

312

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

acorn cups heavily fringed on the

often deeply lobed toward the base:

margins

young branches corky.

More common west.

Q, Prinus, Linn.
vate, toothed, with

Chestnut oak. Fig. 443. Leaves rather long-oborounded teeth and yellow-ribbed: acorn long and the cup
Eastern.

hard-scaled: bark dark with broad, deep furrows.

s.^

444.

Quercus

bicolor.

445.

Quereus rubr
wJiite

446.

Quercus coccinea.

Leaves obovate, white-downy on their lower surface, toothed with squarish teeth, the bases wedge-shaped: acorn small, with the margin of the cup finely fringed. Common in low grounds and along ravines. Leaves small, oblong, entire or sometimes I/ive oak. Q. virens, Ait. spiny-toothed, thick and evergreen: acorn oblong, the nut about one-third
Q. bicolor,

Wilkl.

Swamp

oak.

Fig.

444.

covered with
aa.

its

scaly cup.

Virginia, south.
lobes

Blatk oak group, distinguished by its dark furrowed bark, pointed of the leaves, and the acorns maturing the second year.
Q. rilbra, Linn.

Bed

oak.

shorter, the 7-9 lobes triangular

Fig. 445. Leaves obovate or sometimes and pointing toward the tips: acorn large,

flat-cupped.

Q. coccinea,

Common. Wang.
thin,

Scarlet oak.

scarlet in

autumn,

Fig. 446. Leaves obovate, bright smooth on the lower surface, the sinuses deep, wide, and rounded margin of the acorn cup rounding inwards and the scales close: inner bark
:

reddish.

Common.

447.

Quercus

tinctoria.

Black oak. Q. tinctdria, Bartr. Fig. 447. Leaves obovate, coarser, downy on the lower surface until midsummer or later, wider towards the tip, the sinuses shallow (or sometimes as in the scarlet oak): margin of the acorn cup not ^o^^^'^^S inwards and the scales looser: inner bark orange. Common.

4.

BfiTULA.

Birch.

Small to medium-sized trees, with sterile flowers in drooping, cylindrical catkins, 3 flowers with 4 short stamens being borne under each bract: fertile flowers in short, mostly erect catkins which become cones at maturity, 2 or 3 naked flowers being borne under each 3-lobed bract: fruit winged and seed' lik: leftvas simple, toothed or serrate: bark often aromatic.

CUPULIFER^-UKTICACE^
a.

313

Brown-barked birches
Cherri/ birch.

leaves ovate.

Sweet birch. Tall tree, the bark tight (not peeling in layers), the twigs very aromatic: leaves oblong-ovate, somewhat cordate at base, doubly serrate, becoming glossy above: bracts of the oblong-cylindric fruiting catkins with wide-spreading lobes. Rich woods. Bark grayer or silvery, peelYellow or gray birch. B. Idtea, Michx.
B. 16nta, Linn.
leaves scarcely cordate, dull, more downy: bracts of the short-oblong fruiting catkins with scarcely spreading scales: tree less aromatic than the other. Same range.

ing in layers:

aa.

White-barked birches: leaves triangular or broad-ovate.

B. papyrifera, Marsh.

Paper

birch.

Canoe

birch.

Tree of medium

to rather large size, with the bark peeling in very large plates or layers:

leaves broad-ovate and often

B. populifdlia, Ait.

somewhat cordate, dull green. Penn., north. American ivhite birch. Small and slender tree with
leaves triangular-acuminate, toothed,

rather tight, glistening, white bark:

dangling, and moving incessantly in the wind. Northeastern states. European white birch. A larger tree, with triangularB. dlba, Linn. ovate leaves which are pointed but not long-acuminate. Europe; the com-

mon
5.

cultivated white birch.

but smaller trees or bushes: flowers with a 3-5parted calyx, and the small, short, fertile catkins composed of thickened, woody scales. In the following, the flowers appear before the leaves in earliest spring, from catkins formed the previous year and remaining partly developed during winter. Common along streams.
A. inc^na, Willd. Speckled alder. Shrub or small tree, with pubescent branches: leaves oval to oblong-ovate, acute, doubly serrate, glaucous and downy underneath: cones about }4 i- long, mostly sessile. Leaves Smooth alder. A. rugdsa, Spreng. (A. serrulata, Willd.). elliptic or obovate, acute or rounded at the apex, finely serrate, the under side of the leaves smooth or pubescent only on the veins: cones short-stalked. Black alder. Leaves orbicular or very broadly A. glutindsa, Gaertn. obovate, not acute, irregularly serrate, dull and nearly smooth beneath: cones peduncled. Europe; planted, some varieties with divided leaves.

ALNUS. Alder. Much like Betula,

X.

UKTICACE^.

Nettle Family.

Trees and herbs, with small apetalous flowers in small clusters or solitary: leaves mostly straight-veined, with stipules, plants dioecious or monoecious, or flowers perfect in the elms: stamens usually as many as the lobes of the calyx and opposite them: ovary superior, ripening into a 1 -seeded indehiscent, often winged fruit. A very polymorphous association, by some botanists divided into two or three coordinate

14

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

families. More than 100 genera and 1500 species. Eepresentatives are elm, hackberry, mulberry, osage orange, nettle, hop, hemp.
A. Trees.
B. Fruit a

samara

Ulmus
Celtis

BB. Fruit a small drupe

2.

BBB. Fruit as large as an orange, formed of the whole mass of the pistillate flower-cluster 3. ToxyJon

BBBB. Fruit resembling a blackberry, formed of the

flower-cluster

pistillate
4.

Morus

AA. Herbs.
B.

Leaves digitately lobed or divided.

C.

cc. Plant

Plant standing erect twining

:

5.

6.
7.

Cannabis ffumulus
Urtica

Bb. Leaves not lobed

\.

plant with stinging hairs

tLMUS.

Elm.

Trees, mostly large and valuable for timber, with rough-furrowed bark: leaves alternate (2-ranked), ovate and straight-veined, dentate: flowers small in earliest spring, sometimes diclinous, the calyx 4-9-parted, the anthers 4-9 on long filaments: ovary generally 2-loculed,

and not showy, appearing

ripening into a 1-seeded wing-fruit.

a Leaves large, roitgh on the upper surface: fruit large, nearly orbicular.

U. fiilva, Michx. Slippery elm. Fig. 448. Middle-sized or small tree with inner bark mucilaginous or " slippery " in spring: leaves 6-8 in. long and half or more as broad, ovate elliptic and unequal-sided, doubly serrate,

448.

Ubnus

fulva.

449.

Ulmus Americana.

450.

Ulmus racemosa.

very rough above and softer beneath: samara ]4-% in. long, orbicular or nearly so, with the seed in the center: flowers in dense clusters. Common,
aa.

Leaves not very rough above:

Americd,na, Linn.

fruit oval, deeply notched at the apex.

.

IT.

Common or white elm

Figs. 91-95, 146, 449. Tall and

graceful tree: leaves elliptic-oval, serrate: samara small,

more or

less hairy

on the thin wing, the notch in the apex extending nearly to the seed: flowers banging on slender stalks. One of the finest of American trees.

URTIOACE^

315

V. racemdsa, Thomas. Cork elm. Fig. 450. Smaller tree than the last, with corky-winged branches leaves with straighter veins: samara with sharp incurved points at the apex: flowers in i-acemes. Less common. XT. ald,ta, Michx. Wahoo elm. Small tree, with wide, corky ridges on the branches: leaves small and rather thick, almost sessile, ovate to nearly lanceolate and acute: samara downy, at least when young. Virginia, south
:

and west.
2.

CflLTIS.

Nettle-Tree.

Hackbeery.

Elm-like in looks, but the fruit a 1-seeded, berry-like drupe: flowers greenish, in the leaf axils, mostly diclinous; calyx 5-6-parted; stamens 5 or 6: stigmas 2, very long. C. occident^lis, Linn. Common hackberry Middle-sized tree with rough- furrowed bark: leaves ovate-pointed, oblique at base, serrate: fruit
.

purplish, as large as a pea, edible in the fall

3.

when

ripe.

Low

grounds.

TOXYLON.
Small
tree,

Osage Orange.
:

with dioecious flowers in catkins, and alternate, simple deciduous catkins fertile flowers densely crowded in a head, with 4 sepals and 2 stigmas, the ovary ripening into an akene, the whole flower-cluster becoming fleshy and ripening into an orange-like mass. T. pomifenim, Raf. (Madura aurantiaca,
leaves:
sterile flowers in raceme-like,

Nutt.). Osage orange. Fig. 451. Spiny, low 451. Toxylou pomifer much used for hedges, but not hardy in the northernmost states: leaves narrow-ovate and entire, glossy: flowers in spring after the leaves appear, the fruit ripening in autumn. Mo. and Kan., south.
tree,
4.

MORUS.

Mulberry.

Small to middle-sized trees, with broad, alternate toothed or lobed leaves and monoecious flowers, with 4-parted calyx: stamens 4, with filaments at first bent inward, the staminate catkins soon falling: fertile flowers ripening a single akene, but the entire catkin become fleshy and blackberry-like, and prized for eating. Leaves very variable, often lobed and not lobed on the same branch. M. rtibra, Linn. Common wild mulberry. Often a large tree in the south leaves ovate-acuminate, oblique at the base, rough and dull on the upper surface
:

and softer beneath, dentate:

black-red, sweet.
452.

fruit

in. to 1 in. long,

Wood

yellow.

Most abundant south,

hut growing as far north as Mass. alba. M. Alba, Linn. WTiite mulberry. Fig. 452. Leaves and usually glossy above, the veins prominent and whitish beneath, the teeth usually rounded or obtuse: fruit of variable size, often 1% in. long, whitish, violet, or purple. China; planted for ornament and for its fruit, also <or feeding silkworms. The much-planted Russian Mulberry is a form of it.

Moms

light green

316
5.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Hemp.

CANNABIS.
with
1

Tall, strong, dioecious

ters,

herbs with 5 to 7 leaflets: fertile flowers in clussepal surrounding the ovary, and 2 long, hairy stigmas: sterile

flowers in racemes or panicles, with 5 sepals and 5 drooping stamens.

C. sativa, Linn.

Hemp.

Six to 10

ft.,

summer:
6.

leaflets lanceolate, large toothed.

strong-smelling, blooming all Old World; cultivated for fiber

and sometimes escaped in waste places.

Hop. Twining dioecious herbs of tall growth, with 5 sepals in the sterile flowers, the stamens erect: fertile flowers with 1 sepal, 2 flowers under each scale of a short, thin catkin which becomes a kind of cone or " hop." H. Lilpulus, Linn. Common hop.' Perennial, rough -hairy: leaves broadovate, deeply 3-lobed

HtMULUS.

(only rarely 5-7-lobed)

sterile

flowers in panicles

"hop" often 2 in. or more long. A native plant, cultivated for hops and sometimes for ornament. H. Jap6nicU8, Sieb. & Zuec. Japanese hop. Fig. 107. Annual: leaves
2-6
in.

long:

pistillate catkin enlarging into a

not less than 5-lobed

fertile catkin not

enlarging into a hop.

Japan;

much

cultivated for ornament.

7.

tRTICA.

Nettle.

Erect herbs with opposite simple leaves and stinging hairs, and monoecious or dioecious flowers in racemes or dense clusters, the calyx of 4

separate sepals: stamens 4: stigma sessile: fruit an ovate flat akene. The following are perennials with flowers in panicled spikes. U. gracilis, Ait. Common nettle. Two to G ft. leaves ovate-lanceolate, serrate, on long petioles. Common in low grounds. U. dibica, Linn. Not so tall: leaves ovate-cordate and deeply serrate, on rather short petioles, downy underneath. Weed from Europe, very stinging.
:

XI.

AKISTOLOCHIACE^.
Dutchman's Pipe Family.
tall

BiRTHWORT Family.

Low

aeaulescent herbs, or

twining vines

leaves basal or alterdull, valvate in

nate, without stipules, petiolate, roundish or kidney-shnped: flowers

regular or irregular, perfect: perianth-tube

brown or

bud, adherent to ovary: stamens 6-12, epigynous, and adherent to base of the styles: ovary 6-celled, pistil 1. A small family of about 200
species, sparingly represented in this country.

Many

of the

members

have aromatic or bitter-tonic properties.

A. Low stemless herbs aa. Leafy-stemmed herbs, or woody climbers
I. 1.

Asariim
Aristolochia

2.

ASARUM. Wild

Ginger.
leaves
large,

Perennial spreading herbs:

kidney-shaped, pubescent:

AKIRTOLOCHIACE.E

POLYGONACE^

317

flower brown, iuconspli'uous, borne on a short peduncle arising from lietween

the petioles: rootstocks creeping, elongated, very aromatic.

A. Canadense, Linn.

Leaves

in pairs, large, reniform, but

more or

less

pointed

at

tip,

soft-hairy with

a silky finish:

flower

greenish outside,

purple-brown within, consisting of a '!-lobed calyx, adnate to ovary: stamens 12, the tilanients longer than the anthers. Common in rich woods. April, May.
2.

ARISTOLOCHIA.
Herbs or
tall

Dutchman's

Pipe.

vines, with alternate, petiolate leaves, cordate, entire

and palmately nerved: flowers irregular, the calyx tubular, the lube oddly inflated above ovary and contracted at throat, shaped like a much-bent pipe, the margin reflexed or spreading, 3-6-Iobed or appendaged: sta-

mens

6.

A. macrophylla,

Lam.

long, curved to resemble a

purple: leaves large,

rich woods;

L'Her.) Calyx-tube about 1-1% in. Dutch pipe, the margin spreading, brownishsmooth, dark green, round kidney-shaped. Wild in
(.4. Siplio,

May; often

cultivated.

XII.

POLYGONACEJi:.
veith

Buckwheat Family.

Herbs, mostly
alternate

senting stipules) above them

:

enlarged joints or nodes and sheaths (repreleaves simple and usually entire,
:

flowers small, apetalous, usually perfect

:

and generally

borne in spikes or dense clusters stamens 4-12, attached to the very base of the 3-5-merous calyx ovary 1-loculed, ripening into a 3-4- angled akene. Thirty or more genera and about 600 widely dispersed species. Characteristic plants are buckwheat, rhubarb, dock, sorrel, smartwsed.
:

A. Root-leaves 1 ft. or

more

across, rounded

1.

Jilieum

AA. Root-leaves narrow or not prominent. B. Calyx of 6 sepals, often of two kinds

2.

Bumex

BB. Calyx of 5 (rarely 4) sepals, all alike. C. Flowers white and fragrant .3. Fagopyrutn cc. Flowers greenish or pinkish, not distinctly fragrant. 4. Polygonum
1.

EHl:UM.

Rhl'bakb.

Very large-leaved perennials, sending up stout hollow flower-stalks in early summer which bear smaller leaves with sheathing bases: sepals G, all alike, withering rather than falling, and persisting beneath the 3-winged akens: stamens 9: styles .3. Old World. R. Rhap6nticum, Linn. lihuhnrb. Pie-pJaut. Figs. 78, 79. Leav<s fls. white, in elevated 1 ft. or more across, the thick petioles eaten:
panicles.

318
2.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Dock.
Sorrel.

RtTMEX.

Perennial often deep-rooted plants with herbage bitter or sour: sepals 6, the 3 outer large and spreading, the 3 inner (knwn as "valves") enlarging after flowering and one or more of them often bearing a grain-like tubercle

on the back: stamens

6,

styles 3: flowers in pan-

icles or interrupted spikes.

a.

Docks: herbage
hearing
:

hitter

valves often grain:

floivers

mostly perfect

leaves

not arroiv -shaped.

long-cordate and

R, obtusifdlius, Linn. Bitter dock. Lower leaves obtuse, not wavy: one valve

usually grain-bearing.

R. crispus, Linn.
late,
453.

Weed from Europe. Curly dock. Leaves lanceovalves usually grain-bear-

wavy

or curled:

all

Rumex

Acetosella.

ing.

Weed from Europe.

aa.

Sorrels: herbage sotir: valves not grain-bearing: flowers dioecious: leaves arrow-shaped.
Fig. 453.

R. Acetos611a, Linn. Common or sheep sorrel. or less): leaves mostly arrow-shaped at base: flowCommon ers brownish, small, in a terminal panicle.
in sterile fields.
3.

Low

(1 ft.

Europe.

FAGOPtRUM. Buckwheat.

Fast-growing annuals, with somewhat trianguand fragrant flowers in flattish, paniclelike clusters: calyx of 5 parts: stamens 8: fruit a triangular akene. Old World. Common hucktvheat. F. escul^ntum, Moench. Fig. 454. Leaves triangular-arrow-shaped, long-petioled: flowers white, in a compound cluster: akene with regular angles. Flour is made from the grain. 454. India ivheat. F. Tatdricum, Gaertn. SlenFagopyrum esculentum. derer, the leaves smaller and more arrow-shaped and short-petioled: flowers greenish or yellowish, in simple racemes: akene notched on the angles. Somewhat cultivated.
lar leaves,
4.

or spikes (in the Knotweeds in the leaf -axils) calyx usually 5-parted: stamens 4-9: stigmas 2 or 3: black akene lenticular or triangular.
:

POL'tGONUM. Knotweed. Smartweed. Low weedy plants, or some exotic ones tall and cultivated, blooming summer and fall, the small pinkish or greenish flowers mostly in racemes

in

a.

Knotweeds: flowers

sessile in the axils of the leaves, greenish

and

very small.
P. avicul&re, Linn.
trate or creeping, bluish

Common knotweed. Dcorweed. Fig. 193. Prosgreen wiry plant, growing along the hard edges of

POLYGONACE.E

EUPHOEBIACE^
Annual.
Taller knotivecd.

319

walks and in yards, and commonly mistaken for sod: leaves small, mostly oblong, entire: sepals very small, green with a broad white margin: sta-

mens

5 or

more: stigmas usually

P.

3.

er6ctum, Linn.
annual.

One

ft.

or

more high:

leaves three or four times larger, oblong or oval and obtuse.

Common
aa.
b.

Smartweeds; flowers in terminal spikes, mostly pinkish.

Sheaths of leaves (surrounding stem) hairy on the edge, or the margin with a spreading border,
Prince's
feather.

P. orientals, Linn.

Several feet

tall,

nodding spikes: leaves ovate: stamens 7. India; cultivated. Annual. P. Persicaria, Linn. Smartweed. Lady's thumb (from the dark blotch near the center of the leaf). Fig. 455. About 1 ft. leaves lanceolate: spikes oblong, dense and erect: stamens usually 6: stigmas 2. Weed from Europe. P. Hydropiper, Linn. Smartweed. Herbage very pungent or"smarty:" leaves oblong-lanceolate: spikes short and nodstamens 6: stigmas 3. Low ding, the flowers greenish grounds. Annual. 455 Smartweed. Herbage not ^- iiydropiperoides, Michx. Polygonum pungent: spikes slender and erect, the flowers whitish: staPersicaria. mens 8: stigmas 3. In very wet places. Perennial. Smartweed. Herbage pungent: leaves linear or lanceoP. &cre, HBK. late, long-pointed: spikes slender and erect: flowers white or blush: stasoft-hairy: flowers in long cylindrical
:

mens

8:

stigmas
bb.

3.

Low

grounds.

Perennial.

Sheaths of leaves not hairy, nor the margin bordered.

P. Pennsylvdnicum, Linn.
:

Smartweed.
:

Pungent: plant with conspicuous

spikes short-oblong and erect, the

glandular hairs above leaves lanceolate flowers purplish: stamens 8: stigmas 2.

Low

ground.

Annual.

XIII.

EUPHORBIACE.E.

Spurge Family,

Trees, shrubs or herbs, often with milky, pungent juice, sometimes poisonous: flowers monoecious or dioecious, mostly apetalous, usually small and inconspicuous. The family is large, in warmer
parts of the world.
difficult.
A.

The determination

of the genera

and species

is

Euphorbia and Rieinus

will explain the flower structure.

Flowers in a cup-like involucre, wliich imitates a perianth: flowers dioecious, without calyx or corolla 1. Euphorbia AA. Flowers dioecious, not in an involucre, but in a terminal panicle: calyx present, but no corolla 2. Rieinus

320
).

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Spurge.

EUPHORBIA.

Flowers monoecious enclosed in au involucre, which is 4-5 lobed and often showj', resembling a perianth: starainate flowers each consisting of a stamen jointed to filament-like pedicel, subtended by a minute bract, attached on the inner surface of the involucre: the solitary pistillate flower, standing at tlie bottom of the involucre, is at length protruded on a stalk: capsule 3-lobed and 3 celled: styles 3, each 2-cleft: stigmas 6. Many of the species are cultivated for ornamental purposes, as E. splendens, Crown of Thorns; . Cyparissias, Cypress Spurge. E. corollata, Linn. Flowering spurge. Perennial, 2-3 ft., slenderbranclied: leaves mostly alternate, or the uppermost ones, or those on the branches opposite, whorled, oval, rather thick, usually pale beneath: flowering branches much forked: involucres terminal, or on peduncles, from the forks of the branches, the lobes snowy white, appearing like petals with oblong yellowish-green glands at base of each. In drj' or sandy soil, common. July to October. E. maculata, Linn. Small plant, prostrate or spreading, the branches slender and radiating, dark green, often dark red: leaves oblong-linear, usually with red-brQwn spots in centre: involucre minute, the corolla-like appendages narrow, white or red. A common inconspicuous weed throughout North America, except the extreme north. E. pulch6rrima, Willd. Poinsettia. Floralleaves brilliant red: flowers in a greenish involucre, with a large yellow gland on sujnmit. A Mexican species, well known as an ornamental greenhouse plant.
2.

FtCINUS.

Castor-oil Plant.

Figs. 288, 289, 290.

Tall stately, perennial heib (annual N.),with large, alternate, palmatelycleft leaves: flowers monoecious,

apetalous, greenish, in terminal racemes

styles large,

or panicled clusters, the pistillate flowers above the others; reddish.

B. commiinis, Linn. Caxtor bean. Palma Christi. Stem erect from 3-12 ft., somewhat branched: leaves very large, peltate, lobes acute, pointed, toothed: seeds smooth, black, mottled or variegated with gray and brown. Grown for medicinal and ornamental purposes. Tropical.

XIV.

CARYOPHYLLACE^.

Fink Family.

Herbs, with opposite, mostly narrow, entire leaves without conspicuous veins: flowers 4-5-merous, sometimes apetalous, with stamens
twice or less the nutnber of sepals or petals, and 2 to 5 styles which may be wholly separate or partially united: pod usually a 1-loculed

capsule

commonly

inclosed in the calyx, mostly splitting from the

top, the seeds usually attached to a central

column.

Genera between

30 and 40,

species about 1,000.

Representative plants are pink,

CARYOPHYLLACE^

321

carnation, bouncing Bet, catchfly, chickweed, corn-cockle, lychnis,

Bpurry.
A.

B.

BB.

Flowers polypetalous, with sepals united into a tube. Bracts at tlie base of tbe calyx No bracts at base of calyx.
c.

1.

Dianthus
Saponaria Lychnis
Silene

Styles 2 CO. Styles 4 to 5 ccc. Styles 3 AA. Flowers often apetalous, the sepals nearly or quite distinct. B. Styles 3 or 4 BB. Stjies 5
1.

2.
3. 4.

5.

ShUaria
Cerastium

6.

DIANTHUS.

Pink.

Showy-flowered small herbs, with striate, many-furrowed calyx and sepal-like bracts at its base: petals with slender claws or bases, the limb
usuafly toothed or fringed
a.
:

styles

2.

Flowers single on ends

of branches.

pink. Leaves short-lanceolate, not Rrass-like: calyx-bracts linear-acute and as long as the calyx: petals in white and shades of red, very showy. China. Perennial, but grown as an annual (mostly under the florists' name D. Heddewigi). D. plum^rius, Linn. Grass or Scotch pink. Common pink of old gardens, from Europe. Low, growing in mats, glaucous-blue leaves grass-like flowers very fragrant, deepfringed, white or pink. Perennial. D. Caryophyllus, Linn. Carnation. Two ft. or more, with wiry stems, glaucous-blue leaves grass like: calyx-bracts short and broad petals more or less toothed but not fringed
D. Chin^nsis, Linn.
florists'
: : : :

China or

'f

flowers fragrant.
aa.

Europe.

Flowers in compact clusters.

D. barbitus, Linn. Sweet William. Fig. 456. One ft. /^-::^-^Z or more, erect, green: flowers small, in dense clusters in red /^" and white. Old World: common in old " gardens. .- V. 4o6. Diantlms
2.

SAPONARIA.

SOAPWORT.

barbatus.

Calyx cylindrical or angled, 5-toothed, with no bracts at its base: stamens i^: styles 2: pod 4-toothed at top (Fig. 250). S. oHicin&.lis, Linn. Bouncing Bet. Perennial, forming colonies in old yards and along roads, 1-2 ft. high, glabrous, with ovate or oval leaves: flowers 1 in. across, white or rose, in dense clusters, often double, the petals with a crown. Europe. Common.
3.

Lt'CHNIS. Lychnis. Cockle. Annual or perennial, with styles usually 5, and pod opening by 5 or more teeth: calyx 5-toothed and 10- or more-nerved, naked at the base: stamens 10.

322

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

L. Githilgo, Scop, (or Agrostemma Githago, Linn.). Corn cockle, because it is a common weed in wheat fields (wheat is known as corn in Europe), its seeds not being readily separated from wheat because of tlieir similar size and its seasons corresponding with those of wlieat: annual, 2-.T ft., hairy: fiowers purple-red and showy, on very long stalks, the petals crowned and the calyx-lobes long and leafy: leaves very narrow. Europe.
L. Coron^ria, Desv. Dusty miller. Mullein pink. Biennial or perennial, white-woolly all over: leaves oblong: flowers rose-crimson, showy,

Europe.
4.

Old gardens and along roads.

SILN.

Campion.

Catchfly.

Annual or perennial, herbs, with white, pink, or red flowers, solitary or in cymes: calyx often inflated, 5-toothed, 10- to many-nerved, with no bracts at base: petals 5, clawed, sometimes with crown or scale at base of blade: stamens 10: styles 3 (rarely 4 or 5) ovary 1-celled (or incompletely
:

2-4-celled): fruit a capsule, or pod, 1-celled or 3-celled at base, dehiscent by

3 or G teeth at apex,

many-seeded. A viscid secretion covers the calyx and stems of certain species, by which creeping insects are caught, whence the name, "catchfly."
S. Btell&ta,

Ait.

Starry campion.
bell-shaped,

Perennial, 2-3
loose

ft.

high: leaves ovatein

lanceolate, acuminate, in whorls of 4, (at least the

upper ones): flowers

petals

panicled cymes,

calyx

and

inflated:

fringed,

crownless, white.

July, open woods.

S. Cucilbalus, Wibel. Bladder campion. Perennial, 1-2 ft.: leaves ovate lanceolate, acute, opposite: flowers in panicles, inclined or drooping:

calyx globular, thin and

white.

much

inflated,

Roadsides, fields and waste places. ized from Europe.

conspicuously veined: petals 2-cIeft, Common eastward. Natural-

8. Fennsylvdnica, Michx. Perennial, viscid-pubescent Wild pink. above, 4-10 in.: I)rtsal leaves spatulate or cuneate, narrowed into petioles;

stem leaves lanceolate, sessile, opposite: flowers in terminal, few-flowered eymes: calyx narrow: petals wedge-shaped, slightly emarginate (or eroded) on edge, pink-red, crowned. In dry soil in eastern states.
S. Virginica,

Linn.

Fire pink.

Perennial, 1-8

ft.:

lower leaves thin,

spatulate, the cauline oblong or lanceolate, sessile: flowers few in a loose

cyme, peduncled, showy, 1^2-2 in. broad: calyx bell-like, enlarged as pod matures: petals 2-cleft, crowned, bright crimson: stem viscid-pubescent. Open, dry woods. May-Sept.
Linn. Niglit-flowe>ing catchfly. Annual: lower leaves the upper linear: flowers large, few, pedicelled, opening at dusk for the night: very fragrant: calyx-tube elongated, noticeably veined, with awl-like teoth petals 2-cleft; white, crowned. Weed introduced from Europe. July-Sept.
S. noctifldra,

spatulate or obovate,
in loose panicle,

CARYOPHYLLACE^ RANUNCULACE^
5.

323

STELLARIA.

Chickweed.

Small, weak herbs with sepals 4-5, petals of equal

number and deeply

usually 3:

sometimes wanting: stamens 10 or opening by twice as many valves as there are

cleft or

less: styles.

styles

pod

Common chickweed. Fig. 457. Little prostrate S. media, Smith. annual, making a mat in cultivated grounds, with ovate or oblong leaves mostly on hairy petioles: flowers solitary, minute, white, the 2-parted petals shorter than the calyx, the peduncle elongating in fruit. Europe: very common. Blooms in cold weather.
G.

CERASTIUM, Mouse-eak

Cnit.KVk'EED.

Differs from Stellaria chiefly in having 5 styles and

pod splitting into twice as many valves. The two following gray herbs grow in lawns. From Europe. C.viscdsum, Linn. Annual, about 6 in. high: leaves
ovate to spatulate: flowers small, in close clusters, the petals shorter than the calyx, and the pedicels not longer

\^:i_0^
""T"

"^

""

CO
457.

than the acute sepals.

C.

Stellaria media.

vulgd,tum, Linn.

Perennial and larger, clammy-hairy: leaves oblong:

pedicels longer than the obtuse sepals, the flowers larger.

XV.

RANUNCULACE^.

Crowfoot, or Buttercup, Family.

Mostly herbs, with various habits and foliage: parts of the flower typically all present, free and distinct, but there are some apetalous

and dicEcious species: stamens many: pistils many or few, in the former case becoming akenes and in the latter usually becoming follicles. Upwards of 30 genera and 1,000 to 1,200 species. Characteristic plants are buttercup, anemone, meadow-rue, marsh-marigold or cowslip, adonis, clematis, larkspur, aconite, columbine, baneberry, peony. Known from Rosacete by the hypogynous flowers.
A.

Herbs: not climbing.

B.

Fruits akenes, several or

c.

many from each flower, True petals none, but the sepals petal-like (and
involucre often simulating a calyx).
D.

Penduneles 1-flowered, or
E.

fls.

in

umbels.
1.

Involucre of 2 or more Ivs. some distance

below the flower

EE. Involucre of 3 sepal-like leaves close to the

Anemone
Bepatica

flower

2.

EEE. Involucre of

compound
pistils

Ivs.,

sessile

at in
3.

base of umbel:

fewer than

Anemone

Anemonella

324

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

DD. Flowers in panicles or corj'inbs True petals present: yellow
4.
5.

cc.

ThaUctriim Banuiiculus

BB. Fruit, follicles.

c.

D. Petals each

Flowers regular. spurred

fls.

6.
7.

AqiiiJegia

DO. Petals none: sepals petal-like, j-ellow

Caltha
Pa'ou ia

DDD. Many petals:

red
cc.
:

very large and of shades of

8.

plant bushy

Flowers irregular: upper sepal spurred: 2 petals spurred

fls.

9.

Delphinium

BBB. Fruit, berries, red or white. o. Flowers with petals and 3-5 petal-like sepals:
small, white, in a short raceme AA. Plants climbing by the leaf-stalks: stem woody
1.

10.
11.

A ctcea
Clematis

ANEMONE. Anemony. Wind-flower.

Low
perennial herbs with mostly showy apetalous flowers and an invomore mostly divided leaves standing some distance below the

lucre of 2 or

flower: pistils ripening into a head of akenes.

a.

Akenes woolly or

silky.

& Zucc. Japanese anemony. Three ft., blooming in with pink or white flowers 2-3 in. across: leaves with 3 cordate-ovate notched leaflets. Much planted.
A. Japdnica, Sieb
fall,

A.Virgini^na, Linn.

Two

ft.,

with involucre of three 3-parted leaves:

5,

flowers on long stalks arising in succession from succeeding nodes: sepals

acute, greenish- white: head of fruit oblong, ^i in. long.
aa.

Woods,

Akenes not woolly or

silky.

A. quinquefdlia, Linn. (A. nemorosa of some). Common tvind- flower. Low, about 6 in., blooming in rich woods in early spring: involucral leaves 3,

each with 3 or 5 long

2.

leaflets: flowers white,

purplish outside, pretty.

HEPATICA. Liverleaf. Mayflower of some places. Differs from Anemone chiefly in having 3 simple sepal-like

bracts be-

neath the flower (but they are sometimes a half-inch removed from it): flowers in earliest spring, white, blush or blue, on simple hairy scapes:
leaves bread, 3-lobed.

H. triloba, Chaix. H. acutiloba, DC.

3.

Woods. Leaves with rounded lobes. Leaves with acute lobes.

ANEMONllLLA. Rue Anemone.

:

Attractive slender perennial herb, resembling Anemone: basal leaves compound involucre of 3 compound leaves at base of the umbel: leaflets petioled: flowers in a terminal umbel, on slender pedicels:
2 or 3 times

petals wanting: sepals 5-10, white or pinkish, 1 in. broad, petal-like: pistils 4-1,5: stigma broad, sessile on carpels, glabrous and deeply grooved, A. thalictroldefl, Spach. Hue anemone. Stem slender &-10 in., appear-

KANUNCULACE^

325

ing in earliest spring before the 2-3 ternately compound basal leaves, rising

from a cluster of tuberous roots: sepals 5-10, bright, quite lasting. A comspring flower of the woodland, appearing with the Wood Anemone or Wind-flower and easily confused with it.

mon

4.

THALtCTEUM. Meadow Rue.

Mostly smooth perennial herbs, erect, sometimes several feet high: greenish and inconspicuous, often dioecious, or polygamous: foliage light, graceful, the alternate leaves being 2t ternately compound, with the leaflets and divisions stalked: calyx of 4-5 petal-like greenish sepals, soon falling: stamens many: ovaries 4-15, one-seeded.
panicled flowers small,
T. didicum, Linn.
plish, in loose panicles: leaflets thin

Early meadoiv rue. Flowers dioecious, green or purand delicate, 15-7-loljed, pale beneath,

somewhat drooping on the

like tilaments: in

petiolules: anthers yellow, drooping on threadakenes about 8, sessile or nearly so: 1-2 ft. high. Common woodlands. April and May.
T.

polygamum, Muhl. Tall meadoiv

ft.

rue.

Coarser, ranker and later than

T. dioicuni, 4-8

high:

filaments of stamens

broad, spatulate:

akenes

.stalked: flowers polygamous, sepals white.

ally purplish:

Purplish meadow rue. Stem 2-5 ft. high usustem leaves almost sessile: leaflets thick, dark green above, pale and waxy or downy beneath, margins slightly rolled or thickened: flowers polygamous or dioecious, greenish and purplish: anthers drooping on filiform filaments. June-August.
T. purpurascens, Linn.

5.

KANtNCULUS. Crowfoot. Buttercup.

Figs.

2, 187, 188, 191, 242.

Perennials or annuals, with mostly yellow flowers: sepals 5: petals 5, and bearing a little pit or scale at the base inside: leaves alternate: akenes

many

in a head.

E. icris, Linn.
leaves 3-parted,
yellow.
all

Tall buttercup.

Two

to 3

ft.,

from a fibrous

root:

the divisions sessile and again 3-cleft: flowers bright

Europe, but now a

common weed.

Summer.

E. bulbbsus, Linn. Earlier, and only half as tall, from a bulbous base: leaves 3-parted, the lateral divisions sessile and the terminal one stalked:

peduncles furrowed: flowers bright yellow.

R. septentrionilis, Poir.
fox-ming long runners
:

Europe; common eastward.

less prostrate at base, often
all

Stems more or

leaves 3-divided, divisions -parted: petals obovate, yellow. Wet places.

stalked and 3-lobed or

R. abortivus, Linn. Glabrous, biennial herb; 6

in.

to 2 ft.,

branching:

basal leaves heart-shaped or kidney-form, crenate (S)metimes lobed), on

long stalks: later leaves, often 3-5-lobed or parted, and sessile or nearly so: petals small, yellow, not equal to the sepals: styles very short, curved. Shady woods and along stream-sides. April to June.
R. micr&nthus, Nutt.

Pubescent, smaller than preceding and basal

leaves ovate, but not heart-shaped,

some 3-parted:

fairly

common.

326

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

ft.:

K. recurv4tU8, Foir. Usually pubescent, erect, branching, 1-2

ail petiolerl
:

leaves

and similarly S-parted sepals longer than the pale yellow petals and recurved: l)eaks of akenes strongly hooked. Common. S[)ring.
6

AQUILfiGIA. CoiAMBiNE.
Upright herbs, with compound leaves which have petioles expanded base: sepals 5, somewhat petal-like: petals 5, each one produced
into a long nectary spur;
pistils 5:

at the

fruit

a severalis

seeded genus.

follicle.

Delphinium or larkspur
a.

an

allied

Spurs straight.

A. Canadensis, Linn. Common wild columbine. Often incorrectly called honeysucJcle. Fig. 458. About leaflets rounded or obovate, toothed at top: flowers about 2 in. long, drooping, scarlet and orange or nearly yellow, the stamens projecting. Common on rocks. A. chrysdntha, Gray. Yelloiv columbine. Flowers 458. bright yellow, erect or becoming so. New Mexico and AquUegia Canadensis. Arizona, but frequent in gardens.
2 ft.
:

aa.

Spurs hooked

at the end.

A. Yulg&ris, Linn. Bhie columbine. A European species, common in gardens, and often full double: flowers varying from blue and purple to white, with rather short and thick hooked spurs.
7.

CALTHA. Marsh Marigold. Cowslip (in America). Low tufted herbs with undivided leaves, and clusters

of yellow butter-

cup-like flowers: sepals 5-9, petal-like: petals none: pistils 5-10, ripening
into several-seeded follicles.
C. palustris,

Linn.

About

1 ft.

crenate or nearly entire.

8.

Wet

places, in early spring.

high: leaves rounded or kidney-shaped, Used for "greens."

P.ffiONIA.

Paeony. Piney.

Stems shrubby and perennial or, as in the commoner garden forms, herbaceous, from thick, fleshy roots: leaves ternately and pinnalely compound:
flowers large, terminal, solitary: sepals
als 5 to indefinite in
follicles.
5,

unequal, leafy, persistent: pet-

number: ovaries
Oriental.

3-5,

surrounded by a disk:

fruit,

many-seeded

P. o!ficind.lis, Linn.

Common

gat-den pceony.

red, pink, flesh-colored

many-seeded
9.

follicles.

to white: June.

carpels

2,

Large flowers, double: pubescent, forming 2 erect,

DELPHINIUM. Larkspur.
Stems

Figs. 208, 209, 210, 233, 243, 244.

erect, simple or branching, with alternate leaves, petioled, pal-

mately-divided or-lobed: flowers in a terminal raceme or panicle, white, blue, purple and showy, with irregular sepals and petals: sepals 5, colored, the upper spurred behind; petals 4 (rarely 2), the upper pair spurred, and en-

KANUNCULACE^
follicles.

327

closed in the spur of the sepal: carpels 1-5, sessile, forming many- seeded

Several wild and cultivated species. D. Aj^cis, Linn. Annual, 1-2 feet: Howers purple, roseate or white, sometimes double, many, in crowded racemes; pistil 1: follicle pubescent, with short, stout beak. Cultivated and a showy garden plant: sometimes escaped from giirdens. D. tric6rne, Michx. Perennial, 6 in. to 1 or 2 ft.: flowers blue or white, in few-flowered racemes (6-12): leaves 5-parted, the divisions 3-5-cleft: pistils 3: follicles widely diverging, short-beaked. In rich soil, west of
Alleghanies.
10.

April to June.

ACT.SA. Baneberry.
Erect, perennial plants, in rich woods, 2-3
steins
ft., with conspicuous red or mostly simple, bearing large, ternately compound

white berries:

leaves, the leaflets ovate but sharply cut- lobed or toothed: flowers small,

white, in thick terminal racemes: sepals 3-5, soon falling; petals 4-10, longclawed, flat, spatulate: stamens many, filaments white and slender: ovary 1, with a broad, sessile, 2-lobed stigma, manyovuled.

A. &lba, Bigel.

White,

haneherrtj.

Raceme oblong:

petals

truncate,
in

pedicels thickened, and usually red:

berries white, ellipsoid.

Common

woods. April
spherical:

to

June.

A. spicata var. rubra, Ait.

petals acute:

Eed
in

pedicels slender:

white), oval or ellipsoid.

April,
11.

Common

baneberry. Raceme ovate or hemiberries cherry -red (sometimes woods, especially northward. In bloom,

May.
Figs. 73, 166, .%0.

CLEMATIS. Virgin's Bower.

:

Herbs, or somewhat woody, generally climbing by clasping petioles* compound flowers apetalous, or petals very small sepals 4 (rarely more) and colored: stamens many, a number of them (sometimes all) usually sterile: pistils many in a head, bearing the persistent, plumose or silky styles. Many large-flowered cultivated forms. C. verticill&riB, DC. A woody climber, nearly smooth: leaves in whorls of 4's, each 3-foliolate: large, purple flowers 2-3 in. across, at each node. Not common, belonging mainly to the North and to mountainous districts: May, June. C. Vi6rna, Linn. Leaves mostly pinnately compound, with .3-7 leaflets, entire, or 3-lobed: flowers solitary and usually nodding on long peduncles. bell-shaped, having peculiarly thick sepals, with their points reourvcd: purplish-red color: the long akenes plumose. Climbing, Penn., W. May to August. C. Virginid,na, Linn. Common virgin^s bower. Old-man vine (from the heads of hairy styles). A common climbing plant, along fences, streams and in low woodlands: leaves compound, glabrous, with 3 leaflets cut or lobed and nearly heart-shaped at base: flowers small, in leafy panicles, polygamo-dioecious petals none, but sepals whitifh, thin, spreading: styles long-pluroed io fruit, making a feathery cluster. July, August.
leaves opposite, simple or
:

328
XVI.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

BERBERIDACE^. Barberry
Family.

Herbs and shrubs with alternate or radical leaves, sometimes with stipules: flowers regular, perfect (except 1 genus), hypogynous, solitary or racemed: sepals and petals usually in several rows of 3 each, and calyx colored: stamens as many as petals (rarely more) and one opposite to each petal: anthers opening at the top by two valves or lids (except in Podophyllum) pistil 1 fruit a berry or pod. About 20 genera and 100 species.
: :

A. Shrubs: flowers yellow: berries red or orange, remaining on branches into the winter 1. Berberis AA. Herbs. B. Flowers on leafless scapes: leaves radical, each 2-parted: fruit a pod, opening at the top by a lid. 2. Jeffersoiiia BB. Flower on short pedicel, in fork between 2 large leaves: fruit a large, oval, edible berry 3. Podophyllum
1.

BfiRBERIS.

Barberry.
6,

Figs. 156, 173, 205.

Slirubs, often spiny: flowers yellow, in drooping racemes: sepals C-9,

colored, bracted: petals

irritable,

bending inward when touched:

short petioles,

each with 2 basal glandular spots: stamens G, pistil 1: stigma circular, sessile:
usually spiny-toothed,

berries sour, 1-few-seeded: leaves simple or

jointed on
cleft spines.

compound, bases dilated and sometimes reduced to

B. vulgaris, Linn.

margins, teeth
in eastern

spines: berries oblong, scarlet, acid.

Common barberry. Leaves with repandly-toothed spinous-pointed or represented by branched (3-pronged) Europe: but cultivated and naturalized
states.

and middle

B. Canadensis, Pursh.

Shrub 1-3

ft.,

native to southern mountains,

with oval berries and few-flowered racemes.

Cultivated, low shrub with small entire leaves and B. Thunb6rgii, DC. handsome horizontal sprays: flowers solitary or in pairs, on slender pedii-els,

from

leaf-axils: berries bright red,

remaining on the twigs into the winter:

leaves
2.

K-1 in. long, also red in fall. Japan. JEFFERSONIA.. Twin-leaf. Rheumatism Root.

Perennial glabrous herb, from roots of matted, blackish fibers, with ample 2-parted leaves, rising on long petioles from the roots: scape bearing 1
terminal large white flower: sepals 4, soon falling: petals usually 8, oblong: stamens 8, with linear anthers on slim filaments: stigma peltate, with many

ovules on lateral placentae: pod green, leathery, becotning pear-shaped and dehisces by a lid, opening half-way round the upper part, from which the

many, rounded seeds,

J.

arilled

diphyila, Pers.

on one side, Scape erect to 8 or

spill forth.

12 inches: leaves divided longitu-

dinally into two parts, with usually entire margins.

Very interesting

little

plant in rich woods, spring: sometimes cultivated.

BEKBERIDACE^
3.

NYMPH^ACE^

329

PODOPHYLLUM. May Apple Mandrake.

Smooth perennials from
creepin;^ horizontal rootstocks, and thick, stems smooth, smpie, carrj'ing 'arge, peltate, glossy-green 6, petal-like, soon falling: petals concave, broad and large: stamens as many or twice as many as petals:

flbrou.s roots:

leaves and a solitary white flower: sepals

6-!),

pistil 1,

berry, filled by

with sessile, large, thick, stigma: fruit a large, fleshy, oval, 1-celled many seeds, each seed enclosed in a pulpy aril, edible.

Leaves 2, large, orbicular, peltate, deeply 5-9-lobed and few toothed: flowers fragrant, solitary from the common axil of the two stem leaves, borne on a short, recurved peduncle: petals, large, white, waxlike: common in rich, shady, woodland, often in large patches. May, June.
P. peltEltum, Linn.

(See tail-piece,

p. 23.)

XVII.

NYMPH.EACE^. Water- Lily

Family.

Aquatic, perennial herbs, with very large rootstocks under water: leaves large, peltate or heart-shaped, often floating: flowers solitary,

on axillary peduncles sepals 3-5 or 6 petals 5 to many stamens 5 to many, with large, erect anthers: carpels 3 to many, distinct, or united in a circle or with the receptacle: fruit indehiscent, or group of distinct carpels. Eight genera, of wide distribution in fresh water. The great Victoria Regia of the Amazon, and often cultivated, belongs
: : :

here.
A. Flowers white: sepals 4 AA. Flowers yellow: sepals 5 or more
1.

1.

2.

JSymplupa Ktiphar

NYMPHa;A. Water-Lilv.
Herbs with
floating leaves

and beautiful, large, many-petaled flowers:

without: petals large,
into the yellow

sepals

4,

white

within, green

wax-like, gradually

becoming smaller, and passing

to the many-celled

ovary:

stamens which are adherent stignuis radiate (as in a poppy head) from a

center: fruit ripens under water.

N. odor^lta, Ait.

White water-lily.

Flower 2-6

in. across,

very sweet-

scented: petals oftenest white, sometimes tinged with pinkish.

2.

Common.

NtJPHAR. Yellow Pond-lily.

Distinguished from the water-lily by the leaves, which are more or less heart-shaped, floating or erect: also by the flowers, which are 2-3 in. in diameter, with small, linear, yellow or purplish petals, becoming stamen-like toward center: fruit ripens above water. The name Nymphsea is sometimes
applied to this genus, Castalia being then used for the Water-Lily. N. Advena, Ait. Spalterdock. Leaves oval, thick, 6 in. to 1 ft., long, floating or erect: flowers yellow, sepals 6 or more, not equal: petals thick,
truncate, resembling stamens.

330

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

XVIII. PAPAVERACE.E. Poppy Family. Herbs with milky or colored juice (acrid and narcotic), alternate or radical exstipulate leaves, the upper rarely opposite: flowers mostly
single, regular or irregular, perfect: sepals 2 (rarely 3 or 4), falling as

the flower opens: petals 4-6 (or more), imbricated, often crumpled in the bud, and early falling: stamens usually many: ovary 1- to manyovuled, l-cel!ed: fruit a dry pod or capsule, 1 -celled or, in Poppy,

imperfectly many-celled, generally dehiscing by a pore or by valves. Small family of mostly small but usually showy herbs.
A. Plants with white (milky) juice 1. A A. Plants with colorless juice (watery) 2. AAA. Plants with red or orange juice. B. Flower-bud erect: flowers white, in earliest spring. .3. BB. Flower-buds generally nodding; flowers yellow. C. Stigma 3- to 4-Iobed, on a short style. Capsule ovoid 4. CC. Stigma 2-lobed, about sessile: capsule long 5.
1.

Papaver
iJ.schschnlzia

Savguinaria

Stylophomm CheUdoninm

PAPAVER.

Poppy.

Herbs with white juice: stems smooth or hairy, erect, and the terminal buds nodding, but erect in flower and fruit: sepals 2 (or3) soon falling: petals 4-6: sessile stigmas united to form a rayed disk. P. somniferum, Linn. Opium poppy. Annual, erect to \^A to 2 ft.,
branching, glaucous, with large, white or purplish-centered flowers on long peduncles: leaves sessile, clasping, variously incised: capsule smootli.
Cultivated for opium and for ornament.
P. Rhoeas, Linn.

Corn poppy.

Shirley poppy.

Annual,

bristly, hairy,

the leaves deeply lobed: flowers mostly red or scarlet with a dark center,

brilliant, sca'let: leaves scabrous,

varying in cultivation: pod small. P. orientd,le, Linn. Stem rough-hairy, l-flowered: flowers very large, deep green, about pinnate. A favorite |)ereiinial in gardens. P. nudicaille, Linn. Icihind poppy. Rather delicate, hairy, with leaves radical, pale green, and pinnately incised: flowers single, on slender, hairy scapes, orange or white. Gardens.

2.

ESCHSCHOLZIA.

Annual or perennial herbs: leaves glaucous, finely pinnatifled: sepals 2, cohering as a pointed cap, falling as flower opens: petals 4, yellow or orange or cream-colored: stamens many, adherent to petals: stigmas 2-G, sessile: pods long, cylindric, grooved, many-seeded.
E. Calif6rnica,

Cham.

California
leafy:

poppy.

Cultivated

in

flower-gar
receptacle

dens:

stem

branching,

flowers

showy

and

large,

PAPAVERACE.E FUMARIACE^
funnel-form, with a broadly dilated rim:- pod long
fornia.
3.

331
Cali-

and slender.

SANGUINARIA. Bloodroot.
Low, acaulescent perennial, from
thick, horizontal, pointed
in very early spring a

rootstocks, with juice red and acrid:

and scarred naked scape,

1 terminal white Hower, enfolded at first by long-petioled kidneyshaped or cordate, glaufous, palmately veined leaf, sepals 2, soon falling: petals 8-12, unequal, in 2 rows, not lasting: stamens many: fruit a capsule, oblong, swollen, 1-celled, many-seeded, 2-valved, dehiscent at base.

carrying

8.

Canadensis, Linn.
rich,

in. tall:

Flower large, white, fragile, on a scape about 6 glabrous and glaucous: leaves with rounded lobes and sinuses.

Common in
4.

open woods and on sunny banks; early spring.

Poppy.

STYLOPHOBUM. Celandine

Hairy herbs with yellow juice, and pinnately divided leaves: flowers large, yeliow: style 1: the stigma 3-4-lobed.
S.

diph^Uum, Nutt.

Low

perennial, usually with two opposite, pin-

nately parted leaves on the stem: leaves often

rich
5.

marked with white, 5-7-lobed:

Frequent in

flowers few, in umbels, large, 1)4-2 in. across, clear yellow.

woods

in central states.

May.

CHELIDONIUM. Celandine.
Rather weak, branching herbs: perennial: leaves alternate, pinnatified: bud nodding: sepals 2: petals

juice deep yellow: flowers yellow, small, the

4:

stamens many.

C. majus, Linn. Along roadsides, about fences, as a weed, growing 1-4 high: leaves thin, once or twice pinnatified: flowers in loose umbels, soon perishing, about >2-% in, in diameter.
ft.

XIX.

FUMARIACE^

Smooth, succulent herbs with noticeably delicate, finely dissected,

or lace-like leaves, alternate or radical, exstipulate: flowers small,
irregular, racemose: 2 very small sepals, scale-like: petals 4, small,

partially united

6 diadelphous stamens (2 sets of 3 each): ovaries 1-

celled, fruit a pod, 1-eelled, 1-seeded

and indehiscent, or several-

seeded with 2 parietal placentse.

A. Corolla 2- spurred at base, or heart-shaped:
fis.

pendent .A. Bicentra

AA. Corolla with

B.

spur at base.

BB.

Pod slender, several-seeded: seeds arilled, or crested... 2. Conjdalis 3. Fumaria Pod globular, 1-seeded, indehiscent

332
1.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

dicntba.
:

Low, acaulescent perennials, among the earliest and most delicate of spring flowers leaves compound in threes, finely dissected (lace-like), on tender pinkish petioles from the roots: the racemose, nodding flowers, borne on leafless, flesh-colored scapes: pedicels 2-bracted: corolla peculiarly irrejjular 4 petals in 2 pairs, the 2 outer spurred at base, somewhat united to form a 2-spurred corolla, the inner pair of petals spoon-shaped, crested,

meeting over the

pistil

and stamens: stamens

G,

in

two

sets, opposite the

outer petals. D. CucuU&ria, DC.

little

Dutchman's

hre<-ches.

Leaves from a cluster of

pinkish tubers, forming a bulb: flowers with straight spurs, longer than pedicel, and diverging, mostly creamy with yellow tips to petals, not
fragrant.

D. Canadensis, DC. Squirrel corn. Fig. 172. Similar to the preceding, but leaves usually glaucous: root tubers yellow, resembling grains of Lidian corn: flowers differing in shape fromX>. Cucnlluria in being more elongated, spurs short and rounded, and the crests of the inner 2 petals prominent: fragrant. Blooms a little later than preceding, but found in same situations.

DC. Bleeding-heart. A smooth, leafy-stemmed plant of stems much branching; leaves large, twice ternately compound: flowers many and showy in long racemes drooping from the curving stems, heart-shaped, bright rose or pink: no sepals when in full
D. spectdbilis,

many

gardens;

flower.
2.

Siberia.

CORtDALIS.
Biennial or perennial herbs with leafy stems, pale or glaucous: leaves

much

divided or decompound
united.

flowers small, in racemes: corolla 4-petal'd,

1

irregular: one of the outer pair of petals spurred at the base, a

erect and

somewhat
above,
all

C. glailca,

Pursh.

Stem, slender, erect, 6

in. to 2 ft.

leaves small, sessile

finely

dissected: flowers

horizontal in terminal racemes: spurs

short and blunt: corolla rosy, yellow-tipped: outer petals sharp-pointed: pods
erect, slender.

May

to

June.

C. atirea, Willd.

Low, diffuse or spreading: flowers yellow,

in.

long:

outer petals keeled, not crested: spur shorter than pedicel

(M

in.),

decurved:

pods hanging or spreading, knotty. March

3.

to

May.

FUMARIA. Fumitory.
Annuals, branched and leafy-stemmed leaves compound,
:

finely dissected

flowers small, in dense racemes or spikes: petals 4, unequal, 1-spurred at base: stamens 6, diadelphous: fruit small, globular, 1-seeded, indehiscent,

the style falling.

F. officinalis, Linn. Low, ranch branched, erect to 1 ft., glabrous flowers purple-tipped, pinkish, minute, in loose spikes: sepals acute, sharply toothed,
:

shorter than corolla.

Waste

places.

Summer. Introduced.

CRUCIFEK^
XX. CRUCIFER^. Mustard Family.
Herbs, mostly of small
stature, with

333

alternate

mostly simple

leaves: flowers 4-merous as to envelopes, the four petals usually stand-

ing 90 degrees apart and thereby forming a cross (whence the

Cruciferte, or

name

"cross-bearing"): stamens usually 6, two of them shorter: fruit a silique or silicle. A very natural or well-marked family, with about 180 genera and nearly 2,000 species. Familiar plants are mustard, shepherd's purse, honesty, cress, pepper-grass, wallflower, stock, cabbage, turnip, radish, horse-radish.
A. Fruit a silique

(much longer than broad).

1.

long point or beak, extending beyond the valves, the latter more than 1-nerved. BB. Silique not prominently beaked beyond the valves. o. Flowers yellow cc. Flowers white or purple. u. Valves with a midrib, or seeds in 2 rows. E. Stigma deeply 2-lobed: flowers large EE. Stigma but slightly, if at all 2-lobed DD. Valves without midrib. E. Seeds in 1 row. F. Stems leafless below, with 2 or 3 leaves near middle: rootstock scaly FF. Stems leafy: roots more fibrous EE. Seeds in 2 rows in each cell. (Water plants. See Nastiirfium). AA. Fruit a silicle (short and broad). B. Partition in the pod parallel to the sides. c. Fruit not much compressed: seeds minute, in 2 rows in each cell
B. Silique tipped with a

Brassica

2.

Barharea

3.

Matfhiola

4.

Arabis

5. 6.

Dentaria

Cardamine

7.

Nasturtium

CC. Fruit quite flattened, 2-8 seeded

8.

Alyssum

BE. Partition crosswise the pod.

Pod obcordate, many-seeded 9. Capsella Pod orbicular, 2-seeded: corolla regular 10. Lepidium ccc. Pod rounded or ovate: corolla irregular with unc.

oc.

equal petals

11.

Iberis

AAA. Fruit

fleshy,

indehiscent,

constricted

between

the
12.

seeds
1.

Baphanus

BRASSICA.

Mustard.

Erect branchy herbs, mostly annual, with more or less lyrate lower and small yellow flowers in racemes or panicles: petals clawed or narrowed below, the limbs spreading horizontally silique narrow, cylindrical or 4-angled, the valves 1-5-nerved and the seeds in 1 row in each locule.
leaves,
.

334

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Cabbage, cauliflower, and turnip also belong to this genus. The three following are common weeds introduced from Europe. B. nigra, Koch. Black mustard. Fig. 459. Leaves pinnatitid, somewhat hairy: pod short, strongly 4-angled, not hairy. Mustard (flour) comes largely from this species. B, dlba, Boiss. White mustard. Leaves pinnatifid and roughhairy: pods rather slender, hairy, but only the lower part seedbearing.
B. Sinapistrum, Boiss. Charlock. Leaves strongly toothed: pod knotty, hairy or smooth, the upper third indehiscent and

2-edged.
2.

BABBAII;A.

Winter-cress.

many small light yellow flowers, and lyrate leaves with the terminal division much the
herbs, blooming in early spring, with
largest:

Low

pod cylindrical or somewhat 4-angled, the valves having a

strong midvein: seeds a single row.

459.

B. vulglris, R. Br.
1 ft.

Common

winter cress.

Yellow rocket.

Brassica Biennial, about

nigra.

high, with smooth foliage and flowers in elon-

gating clusters:

lower leaves lyrate, upper ones cut or merely

toothed.
3.

Low

grounds.

MATTHlOLA.

Stock.

Gilliplower.

Cultivated garden or house plants from Europe: stems and leaves hoarypubescent: flowers showy, single or double, of many colors, fragrant, in

terminal racemes: stigma deeply 2-lobed: silique nearly cylindrical, with prominent midrib on each of the two valves: seeds winged.

M,
]\Iuch
4.

incitiia,

Br.

Biennial or perennial with stout, rather

l":ives lanceolate, entire: flowers white, varied

woody stem: shades of red, purple, etc.

grown

in

gardens and greenhouses.

AKABIS.

Rock Cress.

Mostly very small herbs with purple or white flowers: stems leafy: radthe stem leaves sessile: siliques very narrow, elongated, flat, the valves smooth, keeled or one-nerved in the middle, or veined lengthwise: seeds in 1 or 2 rows in each cell, flattened, usually margined or winged. A. Canadensis, Linn. Sickle-pod. Biennial with stems erect, 1-3 ft.: leaves lanceolate, pointed at both ends, simple, toothed or entire, sessile, pubescent: flowers small, white, petals twice as long as sepals: pods long, Comflat, sickle-shaped, pendent on hairy pedicels: seeds broadly winged.
ical leaves spatulate,

mon

in woods and rocky ravines. A. perfolid,ta, Lam. Biennial; tall, 2-4 ft., glaucous above, but pubescent at base, with many stem leaves, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, sagittate-clasping at base; petals yellowish white, scarcely longer than the calyx: pods narrow,

erect: seeds in 2 rows, marginless.

Fields and rocky places.

CRUCIFER^
5.

335

DENTARIA. Toothwokt. Low herbs, perennial, found

in

damp woodland, blooming

with the early

spring flowers, bearing flowers in corymbs, white, roseate or purplish, larger than the similar flowers of Cardamine: rootstocks long, horizontal, scaly or toothed, aromatic or with cress-like taste: stems erect, unbranched, leafless below, with 2 or 3 palmately divided or compound leaves on petioles, near the middle: fruit a linear silique, flattened, valves not nerved, with 1
of seeds in each cell: seeds not winged. Stem erect, from a D. diphylla, Linn. Crinkle -root. Pepper-root. toothed rootstoek: leaves usually 2: leaflets three-parted, wide-ovate, with

row

margins dentate: flowers white. D. laciniata, Muhl. Fig. 240.

Rootstoek deep, short, tuberous, con-

stem leaves 3, nearly verticillate, deeply 3-parted into lanceolate, linear or oblong leaflets, which are lobed or toothed, and some 2-cleft: flowers white or pinkish, smaller than preceding.
Btricted in several places (necklace-like):
6.

CABDAMINE.

Bitter-cress.

Very similar to Dentaria, the chief difference being in the stem, which is leafy, and the leaves simple, usually more or less lobed, alternate on stem. Glabrous perennials, growing in wet places and along waterways, from
fibrous roots or tubers (not scaly rootstocks), the flowers white or purple in

terminal racemes.

rhomboldea, DC. Stem simple, erect, 9-18 in., from a tuber: leaves petioled below, ovate or rhombic-oblong in shape: petals white, small, much longer than calyx. A variety purpurea, not so tall (4-6 in.), with rose-colored flowers, appears even earlier than the type.
C.

simple,

7.

NASTTJRTIUM.

Water-cre<s.

Horseradish.

Low, mostly aquatic or marsh plants, with pinnate or pinnatifled leaves, (sometimes simple); flowers small, white or yellow, with spreading sepals: stamens 1-6: fruits various, short and broad (siliele) or short-cylindrical:
valves convex, nerveless or 1-nerved. N. officinale, R. Br. Water-cress.

Glabrous, growing in or about water: stems spreading, rooting at the nodes: leaves pinnately lobed, with 3-11 lobes, the terminal segment largest: flowers small in racemes, which elongate as the fruits mature: petals white and twice as long as the sepals.

favorite plant for salads.

Annual or biennial, with simple, Marsh-cress. ft., glabrous or slightly pubescent: pinnately lobed leaves, the upper sessile: flowers small, yellow; pods oblong or ovoid, turgid, little if any lunger than the pedicels. Weed in marshy places. N. Armor&cia, Fries. Horse-radish. Cultivated, but sometimes escaped
N. palustre, DC.
fibrous roots: stem erect, 1-2 into waste grounds: perennial, the roots long

and thick: root leaves large,

thick petioles,

coarse,

glabrous,

oblong,

crenate,

rarely pinnatifled, on

the stem leaves sessile, lanceolate: flowers small, petals white, longer than
calyx.

336
8.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

ALtSSUM. Alyssum.
Small plants, mostly trailing, with entire and small leaves: pod small, two seeds in each locule: flowers in elongating racemes. A. maritimum, Linn. Sweet alyssum of the gardens (from Europe). Fig. 460. Annual, producing a profusion of small white, fragrant flowers,
9.

orbicular, one or

CAPSELLA. Shepherd's Purse. Low short-lived annuals, with very

small white

flowers in racemes: pod obcordate or inversely triangular,

the partition running across the narrow diameter,

containing several seeds. C. Biirsa-pastdris, Moench.

Common

shepherd's

^^-~^)^^
460.

V/^c5t^l<i^^
^

;j((r.se.

Fig. 259.

One

of the

commonest

little

weeds:

root leaves pinnatiftd or strong-toothed, in a rosette, the

stem leaves arrow-shaped.

Alyssum maritimum.
10.

Europe.

LEPlDIUM.
Small
stifiish

Pepper Grass.
annuals
(or biennials
) ,

which shed their

leaves late in the season: flowers very small, white or greenish, in elongat-

ing racemes:

pod small and roundish, the partition running across the narrow diameter. Plant peppery to the taste. Common pepper grass. About 1 ft. high, much L. Virginicum, Linn.
leaves
linear to lanceolate, tapering to the base, the

branched, glabrous:

lower mostly pinnatifld.

Common

weed; often fed

to

canary birds.

IL IBfiRIS.
petals

Candytuft.

Fig. 178.
in flat or elongated clusters: 2 outer
flattened,

Herbs with white or purple flowers

larger than 2
umbellElta, Linn.

inner:

silicles

truncate,

cells

1-seeded.

Cultivated.
I.

Annual,

ft.

or more: lower leaves lanceolate, the

lilac in flat

upper linear and entire:

silicles,

flowers

mostly purple or

clusters:

acutely 2-lobed.

June and July.

Leaves somewhat toothed; flowers

I. corond,ria, Don. Jiocket candytuft. white in spike-like racemes.

12.

RAPHANUS.

Radish.

Annual or biennial herbs, with lyrate, pinnately-lobed root leaves: flowers rather showy in long racemes: calyx erect: petals clawed: style long and slender: pod linear, indehiscent, constricted between the seeds, pithy:
seeds spherical.

Europe.

White charlock. A weed, common in the R. Raphanistrum, Linn. East: tap-root slender: petals yellow, fading to white or purplish: pod 4- to 10-seeded, long-beaked, constricted between seeds when dry.

Flowers pink or white: root fleshy, silique 2-3-aeeded, short and pointed, with fleshy partitions between seeds: seeds round and blackish.
R. sativus, Linn.
spindle- or turnip-shaped,

Garden radish.

red or white:

VIOLAOE^
XXI.

337

VIOLACE^.

Violet Family.

Ours herbs with or without stems, and simple, entire or cleft leaves, radical or alternate, with stipules: flowers showy, irregular, solitary on penduneles: sepals persistent: petals unequal, the lower one larger or spurred at base: stamens with filaments short, broad, continued beyond the anthers, usually coherent, joining over and around the pistil: ovary simple, 1-celled, 3 parietal placentae: fruit a 3-valved capsule, loeulicidal, and, after dehiscence, edges strongly inrolled in drying, thus dispersing the seeds. One genus is well-known.
VlOLA..
Violets.

Heart's-ease.

Johnny Jump-up.

Fig. 216.

Early flowers conspicuous and petaliferous, but frequently sterile: sometimes later flowers cleistogamous, concealed under the leaves, apetalous and self fertilized, usually developing seeds: sepals eared at base: petals unequal, the lower spurred or saccate at base: stamens 5, 2 with spurs which
project into the corolla spur.
a.

Sfemlesn: leaves basal: flowers on penducles from roofsfocks. 1. Flowers blue or violet: side petals beardless.
Bird'' s -foot violet.

V. pedi,ta, Linn.
stout, nearly

Not stoloniferous, rootstock

short,

smooth: leaves orbicular in outline, but palmately 3- or 5-11lobed or divided, segments linear not lanceolate: flowers large, 1 in. broad, pale violet or deep purple (varying to white): stigma large, not beaked. Sandy soil. Var. bicolor has 2 upper petals deep velvety violet, 3 lower pale
blue.
2.

Flowers blue or

violet: side petals bearded.

V. palmata, Linn.

Common,

or early blue violet.

earlj-

Pubescent

to nearly

glabrous: rootstock stout and scaly:

leaves rounded, cordate or kidney-

shaped, margin crenate, the later leaves various, palmately or pedately lobed or parted, on long stalks: flowers deeper pale blue': the spur short, saccate: stigma beaked.
V. cucullata, Ait. Common blue violet. A common form, variable and grading into I', palmata: leaves not lobed or toothed at base, merely crenate or dentate, kidney-form to broadly ovate. V. sagittata, Ait. Leaves sagittate-lanceolate, or often cordate, toothed near base: scapes bearing the flowers shorter than the leaves, 3 to 5 in.: sometimes all petals bearded: stigma beaked: flowers usually large. V. odorata, Linn. Sweet violet. English violet. Hardy, cultivated species from Europe: stoloniferous by creeping runners: leaves downy or glabrous, rounded or heart-shaped or broadly ovate: flowers fragrant, single or double, sometimes white.
3.

Flowers white.

Rootstock smooth, creeping: stoloniferous: leaves lanceolate to linear, erect, tlie blade decurrent on the long petioles flowers
V. lanceolata, Linn.
:

338

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

small white, the lower and side petals purplish-veined: petals beardless: cleistoganious flowers on erect pedicels, frequently from stolons. Wet
places.

V. bl4nda, Willd. Sweet wild violet. Stoloniferous from slender rootstock: flowers fragrant: petals beardless or nearly so, white veined with purple: leaves cordate or rounde<I: few cleistogamous flowers on curved
stalks.

Wet

places.

Plant small.
4.

Flowers yellow.

V. rotundifdiia, Michx.
gin somewhat

Stoloniferous: leaves rounded to cordate, rparcrenate, finally growing large, glossy and lying flat on the
lines: sepals

ground: flowers small: lateral petals bearded, and with brown hluiVo-pointed. Cool M'oodlauds.
b.

Stems evident, leafy: flowers showy on axillary stalks. 1. Flowers blue or violet

V. rostrata, Pursh. Plant 3-8 in.: leaves rounded heart-shaped, serrate, the upper acuminate: stipules fringe-toothed, lanceolate: flowers pale violet,

darker-veined: petals beardless: spur slender, longer than corolla.

Moist

woodland and shaded

v. canina, Linn.

hillsides.

Stems weak, 0-8

in.,

glabrous:

leaves heart-shaped

or kidney-form, margin crenate:

toothed: spur slender,
purple.

stipules

lanceolate,

somewhat

fringe-

as long as corolla.
differ

Swamps and wet

violet.

places.

Pale

American forms
2.

from the European.

Flowers white, tinged with pink or

Upright, G
in.

stems leafy, stipules broad-lanceolate, entire: leaves large, heart-shaped, serrate: petals white pinkish or violet beneatli lateral petals bearded. Common. Rich inside, woods. All summer. 3. Flowers yellow.
V. Canadensis, Linn.
to

ft.:

in., leafy:

V. pub6scens. Ait. Downy yellow violet. Pubescent: stems erect 5-20 leaves broadly heart-shaped, toothed: stipules large, entire: root

leaves soon wither up: lower petals veined, more or less obscurely, with

purple: spur short: stigma beakless: pod downy.

c.

Dry woods.

Anmial, biennial, or

short-lived perennial: various colors.

V. tricolor, Linn.

Garden pansy.

Stems angula

branching, leafy:

leaves roundish to cordate: stipules leaf like, incised: flowers widely varied Europe, Var. arvensis, in fields, is slender, and petals scarcely in colors.

exceeding sepals.

XXn. HYPERICACE^.

St.

John's-wort Family.

Herbs or shrubs (in our species), with leaves chiefly sessile, simple, opposite, some with translucent or black dots: flowers regular, usually in terminal cymes, and yellow: sepals and petals 4 or 5:

HYPERICACEiE
stamens few
to

PORTULACACE^
Figs. 192, 259.

339

many, often

in clusters of 3 or 5,

hypogynous: pod

1- to 7-celled.

HYPERICUM.
usiiall.v (lotifd:

St. John's wort.

Mojstly biiuiching plants with yellow flowers in

sepals and petals 5: stamens

cymes: leaves sessile, many, mostly in 3-5 groups.

H. perforatum, Linn. A common introduced species: stems upright, branching, 2-edged: leaves linear to oblong, dotted, sessile: flowers 1 in. iu diameter, the petals dotted with black and much exceeding the Spreads lanceolate se[>als: stamens grouped in 3 sets: capsule 3-celled.
1-3
ft.,

about
l)y

running shoots from base. H. macul^tum, Walt. Much like preceding, but leaves more broadlyol)long, sepals more ovate, and the petals often lined, as well as dotted, with
black.

XXIII.

PORTULACACE.^.

Purslane Family.

Herbs succulent or fleshy, with entire leaves, alternate or opposite, and dry stipules: flowers regular but not symmetrical: sepals 2: petals 4-5 or none: stamens equal to number of petals and opiiosite, or fewer, or more", ovaries free, each 1-celled: style 2-3-cleft, or divided, stigmatic on inner surfaces: fruit a 1-eelled pod, opening loeulicidally, or a pyxis, opening by a lid: seeds small, kidneyshaped, few or many.
A.

Stamens more numerous than

only, in sunshine

petals: flowers opening once

1.

Porfitlaca

AA. Stamens 5: flowers open for some time

1.

2.

Cluytonia

PORTULACA.

Purslane.

Fig. 254.

ovary:

Low, fleshy annuals, diffuse or ascending: terminal flowers, which open once only, in sunshine: sepals 2, joined at base and partially adherent to petals 4-G on calyx, not lasting: stamens 7-many, on calyx: style
3-8 parted.
P. oleracea, Linn. Common purslane. Pusley. A very common weed. Smooth, fleshy, prostrate: stems cylindrical, reddish: leaves obovate or wedge-form, thick, nearly sessile: flowers small, yellow, sessile, open iu morning sunshine. Sometimes used for greens. P. grandifldra, Lindl. Bose-moss. Stems erect 3-6 in., fleshy, smooth or hairy: leaves alternate, cylindrical, 3^-1 in. long: flowers open in morning: very gay colors, white, yellow, reds, 1-2 in. wide. South America. Gardens.

2.

CLAYTONIA.

Spring Beauty.

Low, glabrous, perennial herbs, from small tubers: flowers lasting some time: sepals 2: petals 5, distinct or slightly united: stamens 5, one on base

340

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

erect, usually bearing 2 leaves

of each petal: style 3-lol)ed: ovary 1-celled: capsule S-valved, few-seeded:

stem
the

and terminating

in a raceme.

Among

first

spring flowers in open woods.

Leaves thickish, linear-lanceolate, 3-6 in. long, C. Virginica, Linn. nearly sessile: stem about 3 in. from tuberous root, bearing 2 (3 or 4 occasionally) leaves: petals white or pink with darker veins, emarginate }4-%
in.

long: sepals and petals obtuse.

C. Caroliniana. .^lichx.

Leaves 1-2

in.

long, oblong or oval to spatulate,

short-petioled: Howers fewer than in preceding, white or pinkish, veined.

XXIV.
Herbs or shrubs simple leaves whicU

MALVACE^. Mallow
(trees in
:

Family.

the tropics) with alternate, mostly n;ive stipules flowers perfect and regular,

5-merous, often subtended by a calyx-like involucre, the petals 5: stamens many, united in a column which closely surrounds the several styles: ovaries several, eonnivent into a ring or sometimes united into a compound pistil, in fruit making 1- seeded 1-loculed more or less indehiscent carpels or a several -loculed capsule. About 60 genera and 700 species. Representative plants are mallow, hollyhock, abutilon, hibiscus, althea, okra, cotton.
at the top of the stamen-tube. forming a ring at the base of the styles. Involucre of 3 bracts cc. Involucre of 6-9 bracts BB. Fruit of several-seeded carpels AA. Anthers borne all along the side of the stamen-tube

A.

Anthers borne only

B. Fruits 1-seeded,
0.

1.

Malva
Althcea

2. 3. .4.

Abutilon Hibiscus

1.

MALVA. Mallow.

Herbs, with a 3-leaved involucre like an extra calyx: petals obcordate: many in a ring, separating at maturity, 1-seeded and indehiscent: leaves usually nearly orbicular in general outline. TrailCheeses. Fig. 224. M. rotundiJolia, Linn. Common mallow. ing biennial or perennial, rooting: leaves orbicular, indistinctly lobed, flowers small, white or pinkish, clustered in the axils. Yards toothed and roadsides; from Europe. A common weed.
carpels
:

2.

ALTHJEA.
Differs

Marsh Mallow.

from Malva chiefly in having a 6-9-cleft involucre.

A. rbsea, Cav. Hollyhock. Figs. 206, 207, 235. Tall perennial, with angled or 5-7-lobed cordate leaves, and large flowers in many colors. China.
3.

ABtTTILON.

Indian Mallow.

Fig. 170.

Mostly shrubs, often with maple-like leaves, and no involucre to the flower: ovaries and fruita several-seeded. Contams conservatory plaats.

MALVACE^ GERANIACE^
lobed, green:

341

A. Btri&tum, Dicks. Flowering maple. Fig. 4ol. Shrub: leaves 3-5flowers drooping, on long solitary axillary peduncles, bellshaped, veiny-orange or red. Brazil. A conservatory and

house plant.
A. Thbrnpsoni,
last,

Hon.

Spotted flowering maple.

Like

but the leaves spotted veith yellow, arid the column stamens strongly projecting from the flower. Common in
cultivation.
Velvet leaf. Indian mallow. Stout densely pubescent: flowers yellow, erect, on peduncles shorter than the long petioles: leaves large, roundish heart-shaped, taper pointed, and velvety: calyx 461. 5-cleft: carpels 12-15, united, pubescent, beaked, 2-valve with 3-9 seeds in each cell. August to October. Weed, from Asia.

A. Avic6nn8B, Gaertn.
ft.,

annual, 3 or 4

HIBISCUS. Rose Mallow. Herbs or shrubs, with an involucre of many narrow bracts: stamencolumn anther-bearing most of its length: styles, 5, united: pod 5-loculed, loculicidal: flowers large and showy. H. Syrlacus, Linn. AltJiea of cultivated grounds. Hose of Sharon. Shrub 10 ft.: leaves wedge-ovate and 3-lobed: flowers showy, in various colors, in the leaf-axils in summer and fall, often double. Asia.
4.

XXV. GERANIACE^. Geranium Family.

Herbs, chiefly with simple leaves: flowers perfect, in most genera nearly regular (but sometimes very irregular), 5-merous stamens as many or twice as many as the sepals, hypogynous: ovary single, the
:

A most diverse There are about 20 genera and 700 species. Common examples are geranium, pelargonium, nasturtium, balsam, jewel-weed or touch-me-not, oxalis.
locules usually as

many

as the sepals: fruit capsular.

family, often divided into several.

Flowers regular or very nearly so. B. Leaves simple (often deeply lobed). 1. C. Anther-bearing stamens 10 2. CO. Anther-bearing stamens about 7 3. BB. Leaves compound AA. Flowers very irregular. 4. B. Flower with one very long spur BB. Flower hanging by its middle, with a short hooked spur. 5.
A.
1.

Geranium Pelargonium
Oxalis

Tropceolum Impatiens

GESANIUM.
:

Cranesbill.
:

petals 5

Small herbs with forking stems and 1-3-flowered peduncles: sepals and stamens 10, glands on the torus 5, alternating with the petals fruit 5 1-seeded carpels separatusually all of them with perfect anthers
:

ing from the axis from the base upwards and curling outwards.

342
G.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

maculatum, Linn.

Common wild cranesbill. Fig. 18L Perennial, hairy erect: leaves orbicular, deeply 5-7-parted: petals entire, hairy on the claw: flower rose-purple, 1 in. across. Common; spring.
1-2-ft.,

Q. Koberti^num, Linn. Herb Robert. Annual or biennial, 1 ft. or sometimes less, somewhat hairy, spreading: leaves 3- or 5-divided into pinnatifid
divisions:
2.
fls.

in.

or less across, pink-red. of gardens.

Moist places; common.

PELARGONIUM. Geranium
Somewhat

fleshy, strong-scented
corolla,

having a somewhat 2-lipped

plants, differing from Geranium in and stamens with anthers less than 10.

Garden geranium. Fish geranium. Fig. 183. P. hortdrum, Bailey. Stem somewhat succulent and hairy: leaves orbicular or reniform, crenatelobed, often with bands of different colors: flowers in umbel-like clusters,

deflexed in
origin.
P.

bud of many

colors, often double.

South Africa, but of hybrid

peltatum, Ait.
sterile: petals

being

Ivy-leaved geranium. Trailing: filaments 10, some pink or white, nearly equal: leaves more or less peltate,

nearly or quite smooth, 5-angled or -lobed.

P. odoratlssimum. Ait. Nutmeg geranium. Stems somewhat shrubby, and the branches straggling, thick, and softly hairy: leaves small, rounded, very downy, fragrant: flowers small, white. P. gravdolens. Ait. Sose geranium. Somewhat shrubby filaments 10, some sterile: leaves divided palmately, the 5 or 7 lobes more or less toothed, revolute and rough-edged: petals not equal, but 2 upper larger: flow:

ers

umbelled,

small,

pinkish lavender, veined with darker:

plant very

fragrant.
3.

OXALIS.

OxALis.

Wood-sorrel.

Low

often tuberous herbs with small flowers which have no glands on

the torus-disk: leaves digitate, of 3 or

more

leaflets,

usually mostly radical:

flowers (opening in sun) with 5 sepals and petals and 10

:

somewhat mona-

delphous stamens, the alternate ones shorter pod 5-loculed, often opening elastically. The following have 3 obcordate leaflets, closing at night. 0. stricta, Sav. Common yellow oxalis. Fig. 273. Stem leafy and branching: peduncles bearing 2-6 small yellow flowers. Common in fields. 0. Acetos611a, Linn. Wood-sorrel. Scape 2-5 in. high, from a creeping rootstock- flowers white and pink-veined. Deep woods. Scape 5-10 in. high with an umbel of several bright 0. viol^cea, Linn.
violet flowers,

from a scaly bulb.

Woods

south, and a

common window-

garden plant.
4.

TROPJSOLUM.

Nasturtium

of gardens.

Tender, mostly climbing herbs (by means of leafstalks), with one of the 5 petals extended into a long, nectar-bearing yellow spur: petals usually 5, with narrow claws, often bearded: stamens 8, of different shapes: carpels
3,

indehiscent in fruit.

The following (from Peru) have

peltate orbicular

leaves (Fig. 126).

GEEANIACEiE SAPINDACE^
T. m&jus, Linn. red, cream-white,

343

T. minus, Linn.

Climbing nasturtium. Tall-climbing: flowers yellow, and other colors: petals not pointed. Dwarf nasturtium. Fip:. 195. Not climbing petals
:

with a sharp point.

5.

IMPATIENS.

Touch-me-not.

Jewel-weed
3 to
.5,

Soft or succulent tender herbs with simple alternate or opposite leaves

and very irregular flowers: sepals

usually
:

4,

into a large curving spur

petals apparently
:
:

one of them produced 2, but each

stamens 5 fruit 5-valved, elastically discharging the seeds (whence the names "Impatiens"and "touch-me-not"). Erect and stout, I. Balsdmina, Linn. Garden balsam.
consisting of a united pair
\-2}4. ft.:

leaves lanceolate, toothed: flowers in the axils,

colors, often full double.

of

many
I.

Impatiens

,.

,.^
biflora.

bifldra,

Walt. (/. Adva, Nutt.l.

Orange jewel-weed.
with alternate oval
in.

Fig. 462.

Tall branching plant

(2^

ft.)

or long-oval blunt-toothed long-stalked leaves: flowers

tal

long, horizon-

and hanging, orange-yellow with a red-spotted lower lip, the upper lip less spotted and of one piece, the two green sepals at the apex of the pedicel closely appressed to the tube, the tail of the spur curled under the spur: pod opening elastically when ripe, throwing the seeds (the valves quickly curling from above downwards). Common in swales. Yellow jewelI. ailrea, Muhl. (I. pallida, Nutt. ). Fig. 4G3. weed. Leaves usually stronger-toothed, the teeth usually ending in sharp points flowers 1 in. long and much broader than those of I. biflora, clear yellow, the upper lip of two parts, the lower also of two parts and nearly horizontal, the 2 sepals at apex of pedicel pods as large and not closely appressed, tail shorter <^^^ "" in the other. Less common than the other, but often growing with it. 463. Impatiens aurea.
.l
:

XXVI. SAPINDACE^.

Soapberry or Maple Family.

Trees or shrubs, of various habit: flowers polypetalous or apetalous, often inconspicuous, 4- or5-merous: stamens 10 or less, borne on a fleshy ring or disk surrounding the single 2-3-loculed pistil: fiuit a pod or samara. A various family, largely tropical. Genera about Maple, box-elder, buckeye, horse75, and species about 600 to 700. chestnut, bladder-nut, are familiar examples.
Herb: climbing by hook-like tendrils among the flowers in the cluster: fruit an inflated pcd 1. C'ardiospermum AA. Trees and shrubs.
A.

344
B.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Trees (or
C.
tall

shrubs).
less palmately lobed)
1

Leaves simple (more or

or (in
fruit a

species) 3-5 pinnately compound: samara (with 2 winged seeds) 2. Acer CC. Leaves digitately compound, 5-9 leaflets 3. ^sculus BB. Shrubs: leaves pinnately 3-7 compound: fruit a large bladdery pod 4. Staphylea
1.

CAEDIOSPfiRMUM.

Balloon-vine. Heart-seed. Vines climbiugiby axillary, hook-like tendiils among flower clusters:
:

leaves alternate, biternate, leaflets toothed

fect: sepals 4, 2 of

flowers dioecious, or

some

per-

dage

at

them smaller: petals 4, irregular, each with an appeninner base: stamens 8, filaments unequal: style short, 3-cleft: ovary
I

triangular, S-cplled,
inflated.

ovule to each cavity:

capsule membranous,

much

C.

Halicacabum, Linn.

slender:
white:

leaflets ovate-lanceolate, acute,

Climbing or spreading herb, delicate and cut and toothed: flowers small,
white scar,

fruit large, balloon-like, decorative: seeds black with

hard, round.
2.

Cultivated.

Summer.

ACER.
:

Maple.

Box-elder.

Trees or shrubs, with opposite lobed or parted leaves (pinnate in boxelder) flowers small and greenish or reddish, in early spring and often

from winter buds,

in box-elder dicecious, in true

:

maples

perfect (or imperfectly diclinous)

"^i^mlSe ^f^J'

calyx about 5-cleft:

petals 5 or none: stamens usually 3-8: fruit a samara

with 2 seeds and 2 wings.

are

common

in

Two shrubby woods maples some parts of the country.

the

b.

a. Maples: leaves simple, palmately lobed. Flowers from lateral winter huds, preceding

leaves: fruit ricAuring very early.

A. saccharinum, Linn. (A. dasycarpnm, Waugh). White or silver maple. Fig. 4G4. Flow^^^ greenish, with no petals: leaves iv>^> very deeply 5-lobed, silvery white beneath, the narrow divisions lobed and toothed: fruit with large spreading f ,^ wings, downy when young. Common along streams and in low grounds; much planted. There is a cut-leaved form known as Wier's maple, popular as a lawn tree. Wood white. Linnaeus thought it to be the sugar maple, hence his name "saccharinum." -^.oer rubrum. A. rtbrum, Linn. Bed, soft, or swamp maple. Fig. 465. Tree usually of only medium size: flowers red. with narrow-oblong petals:
*64.

Acer saccharinum.

leaves rather small, not deeply 3-5-lobed, whitish beneath, the lobes serrate

and toothed: fruit with nearly parallel or slightly spreading wings, not downy. Low grounds.

SAPINDACE^
bb. Flowers in rlnsters, with the leaves, some or all on shoots of
the season.

345

A. slccharum, Marsh. (A. saccharintim of some). Sugar, hard, or rock maple. Figs. 129, 4GG. Flowers greenish, drooping, on long pedicels, the
petals none and the calyx hairy at the top: leaves

bright green, firm, cordate-orbicular in outline,

3-Iobed and the side lobes again lobed,
all

lobes

and teeth ending in points, the basal sinus broad and open: wings of fruit somewhat spreading. Commonest of maples east. ^^- ^"^"^ saccharum. A. nigrum, Michx. Black sugar maple. Foliage dark and limp, the lobes broad and shallow, little toothed Fig. 467. and with only blunt points, the basal sinus nearly or quite closed: wings of fruit nearly parallel, large. Eastern Central States; by some regarded as a form of ^. sacchartim.

A. platanoides, Linn.
75, 76, 77, 144, 296-303.

Norway maple.
late,

Figs,

Flowers

in umbel-

like clusters, yellowish green, large,

with both

sepals and petals: leaves large and heavy, 3-5fruit with wide-spreadlobed and much toothed, all parts ending in points ing wings. Europe. Commonly planted: has milky juice.
:

A. Psetido-Platanus, Linn.

Si/cainore maple.

Tree from Europe, and

many varieties cultivated: leaves broad, 3-7-lobed, glabrous above, whitish and downy below: lobes acute, unequally toothed: racemes terminal, drooping:
flowers

yellowish-green

ovaries woolly:

fruit

downy, the

wings

rather spreading.
bbb. Flowers appearing after the leaves, in racemes: large hushes or bushlike
a..

small trees in cool woods and ravines.

flowers

Striped maple. Moose-ivood. Bark smoothgreenish, in terminal drooping loose racemes: leaves simple, thin, 3-lobed near apex, the lobes acuminate, with finely toothed margin all round: fruit greenish, smooth, with large, widely
Pennsylvd,nicum. Linn.
green, striped:
ish, light

diverging wings.
A. 8picS,tum,

Small

tree.

Shrub, 5-10 ft., usually forming clumps: bark green, not striped: flowers appearing after leaves, in dense
racemes, upright, compound,
small,

Lam.

Mountain maple.

greenish,

leaves

slightly 3-5-lobed,

coarsely serrate: fruit with narrow,

aa.

somewhat divergent wings.

Box-elder; leaves pinnate.

Box-elder. Tree A. Negundo, Linn. {Negundo aceroides, Moench). with greeu glaucous twigs and leaf-bases covering the bubs: flowers in long racemes, dioecious, with 4-5-cleft calyx and no corolla, and 4-5 stamens, the
sterile flowers

on long, slender pedicels:

leaves

pinnate, with 3-5 ovate-

pointed toothed leaflets: fruit with somewhat incurving wings.

Common:

much

planted in cold and dry regions west.

346
3.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

^SCULUS. Horse Chestnut. Buckeye.

Trees: leaves opposite, on long petioles, palmately compound, 5-7-folioterminal panicle, some often imperfect, most of
pistils

liate: flowers irregular, in a

them with some imperfect

and stamens: calyx 5-toothed: corolla stamens 5-8, usually 7: fruit a leathery capsule, smooth or spiny, 2-3-valved, each valve containing, usually, one seed only: seed large, with shiny brown coat and a large, round, pale scar,
irregular, with 4 or 5 clawed petals:

not edible.

Hippocdstanum, Linn. Common horse-cliesfiint. See Figs. 18^, 2 1. large and resinous: leaf-scars large, horseshoe-shaped: leaves large, palmately compound, usually with 7 leaflets: leaflets obovate, abruptly pointed at tip: corolla of 5 petals, white, spotted with purple and yellow: stamens long, exserted: fruit prickly. Blooms June to July.
JE.

Buds noticeably

S.
usually

rubicunda,
8.

Lois.

Hed

horse chestnut.

Small, round-headed tree,

I'.ultivated: leaflets 5-7: petals 4:

broad, on slender claws, ro-e-red: stamens

Tall tree, native in

M.

glabra, Willd.
5,

Ohio buckeye.

woods and along

river banks, west of Alleghanies: bark rough and ill-scented

when

peeled or

bruised: leaflets
petals
th.'in

oval or oblong: acuminate: flowers small, in short panicle:

April,

4,

narrow, on claws, nearly equal, erect, pale yellow: stamens longer

first.

petals: fruit prickly at

flS,va, Ait.

May.

Sweet buckeye. Large tree, rarely shrubby: bark dark brown, scaly: leaflets usually 5, sometimes 7: flowers yellow: calyx oblong: petals 4, very unequal, long-clawed, connivent, longer than stamens: fruit glabrous. Rich woods West and South. April and May.

M.

M.

Pavia, Linn.

fertile soil

Hed buckeye. Shrub or small tree, 3-10 ft., found in West and South: flowers red: calyx tubular: petals 4, unequal,

longer than the stamens: fruit nearly smooth.

4.

STAPHYLfiA.

Bladder-nut.

Upright shrubs with opposite leaves, pinnately compound, with 3-7 leaflets, stipulate: flowers small, white, in drooping clusters: sepals, petals and stamens 5: styles 2-3: capsule a large bladdery pod,2-3-lobed, 2-3celled, each cell several-seeded.
Linn. Shrub 6-10 ft., in thickets, in moist soil: leaflets 3, acuminate, serrate, stipules deciduous: flowers bell-like, white, in clusters at ends on branchlets.
S. trifdlia,

ovate,

XXVII.

POLYGALACE^. Milkwort

Family.

Herbs or shrubs, with leaves mostly simple, entire, without Represented by the stipules, and flowers irregular and perfect. genus

POLYGALACE^
POLYGALA.
Milkwort.

LEGUMINOS^

347

Mostly herbs, with bitter juice: flowers very irregular, some often cleistogamous: sepals 5, unequal, 2 of them winged and colored (petal like) petals 3, usually united into a tube, the middle petal hooded or crested, or otherwise appendaged: stamens 6 or 8, the filaments usually monadelphous, but the sheath split, more or less connate, within or hidden in the middle petal: ovary 2-celled. The irregularity of the flowers makes some of the species conspicuous, but others have very minute flowers, difficult to examine. i Frivged pohjqala. Flowering wintergreen. The paucifdlia, Willd. most striking of the common milkworts, the flower being large (about 1 in. long) and showy, rose-purple, with a fine, fringed crest on the central corolla lobe: plant low, 3-4 in. high, branching, from a creeping rootstock, with oval petiolate leaves clustered near the tips of the stems, the lower leaves scale-like: there are small, whitish and fertile (cleistogamous) flowers on the rootstock. In moist, rich woodland. East and North. P. S6nega, Linn. Seneca snakeroot. Flowers small in terminal, slender, spike-like racemes: stem erect, 8-15 in., simple and leafy: leaves lanceolate, alternate: flowers white, or greenish, on very short pedicels: corolla with
.

small crest.

Perennial.

XXVIII.

LEGUMINOS^.

Pulse, or Pea Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees, mostly with pinnately compound alternate leaves: flower papilionaceous in the species described below, fruit typically a legume. A vast family and widely dispersed, with many tropical species. Genera about 400, and species about 6,500. By some authors, the species with papilionaceous flowers are separated into the family Papilionacea?, and those of the acacia tribes, with regular flowers, as the Mimosacese. Familiar leguminous plants are pea, bean, lupine, clover, alfalfa, vetch, wistaria, locust, red- bud.
A.

Shrubs, twining

1.

Wistaria

AA. Trees, or erect shrubs. B. Leaves once or twice pinnately compound: flowers in racemes: often large trees.
C.

Flowers truly papilionaceous, rather large and showy, usually fragrant: leaves with sharp
spines or prickles often in place of stipules...
2.

Rohinia

Flowers small, greenish and inconspicuous, not truly papilionaceous: tree usually armed with large pronged thorns BB. Leaves simple, entire: corolla not truly papilionacecc.

3.

Gleditschia

ous:

fls.

in umbel-like clusters, before the leaves 4. Cercis

348
AAA. Herbs
B.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Plant climbing by tendrils.
c.

CC.

Calyx leafy-lobed Calyx not leafy-lobed. D. Style flattened, bearded down 1 side DD. Style slender, with a tuft of hairs at apex only, or about the upper part
D.

5.

Pisum
Lathijrus
Vicia

6.

7.

BB. Plant not tendril-bearing: leaves compound.

3-foliolate (sometimes simple in No. 9). E. Leaves digitately compound. F. Stamens diadelphous (9 and 10), and the flowers in heads, or spikes 8. FF. Stamens 10, distinct: flowers in racemes. 9. EE. Leaves pinnately compound (terminal 1stalked, and the stalk jointed), 3 leaflets. F. Flowers small, in a long raceme. G. Pod straight, exceeding calyx: flowers small, in very slender racemes. .10. GG. Pods curved or coiled fls. small to medium, in heads or short spikes. 11. FF. Flowers medium to large, clustered at the ends of the raceme. G. Keel of the corolla coiled into a spiral. 12. GG. Keel curved but not coiled 13. DD. The leaves more than 3-folioliate, or digitately
:

The leaves

Trifolium Baptisia

Melilotus

Medicago

Phaseolus Vigna

compound.
E.

Digitately compound, 5-7 leaflets

14.

Lupinus

EE

Pinnately compound.
F.

FF.

Even-pinnately compound: many leaflets: flowers yellow 15. Cassia Odd-pinnate (sometimes 3 leaflets) of .5-7 leaflets: flowers purplish or lavender. 16. Apios

1.

WISTARIA.
Tall shrubby twiner, producing long, dense racemes of

showy

flowers:

leaves pinnate, with several or

many

leaflets: 2

upper calyx-teeth shorter:

standard large and roundish: pod knotty, several-seeded. W. Chin^nsis, DC. Wistaria. Popular climber for porches, from China, with large drooping racemes of bright blue (sometimes white) pealike flowers in spring
2.

and summer.

ROBlNIA. Locust.
Trees or large shrubs with compound, odd-pinnate leaves, with stipules

or stipular spines, the base of the leaf-stalk covering the next year's bud:
fliwers showy, pea-like, hanging in axillary racemes: calyx 5-cleft: standard
of the corolla large, turned back, enclosing side petals in bud.

LEGUMINOS^
K. Pseudacd,cia, Linn.

349

Tree, native West and Bark nearly black, very rough: stiff spines at base of each leaf: leaflets 9-19, ovate or oval, somewhat mucronate at tip, on short stalks: racemes 3-5 in. long, from axils, pendulous, slender and loose, the flowers white, very fragrant: pod
black
locust. Soutli, everj'wliere introduced

Common

and valuable for timber.

smooth, 4-7-seeded. R. viscdsa, Vent. Small tree, native to southern states: cultivated: leafstalks, branchlets and pods grandular-viscid (clammy): prickles short: flowers roseate, in dense, erect racemes. April to June. R. hispida Linn. Bose acacia. A straggling shrub, to 10 ft.: branches, stalks, and pods bristly with flexible red spines: flowers pink, handsome, in loose pendulous racemes. Native of southern mountains. Cultivated. May
to
3.

June.

GLEDlTSCHIA. Honey Locust.

Trees, thorny with stout branching spines on branches and usually on trunk: leaves abruptly pinnate, frequently bi-pinnate, and all gradations often on same leaf: flowers in axillary, spicate racemes, greenish, inconspicuous, some imperfect, not papilionaceous: calyx-tube short, 3-5 cleft: petals
3-5, nearly equal, inserted

on calyx-tube: stamens 3-10,

flat

distinct, inserted

on

petals: fruit a large, leathery,

in.

pod, elongated, containing 1-many seeds. G. triacdnthos, Linn. Large tree with hard and heavy wood: pods, 6-18 long, an inch or so wide, twisted or hoop-like, filled with sweetish pulp
to

between the several4.

many-smooth, shiny seeds.

CfiRCIS. Redbitd.

Small trees with simple, rounded, heart-shaped leaves and tiny stipules soon falling: flowers roseate-purple, in numerous small clusters along branches, even on trunk, before leaves, thus giving the tree a striking appearance: calyx 5-toothed, canipanulate: corolla irregular, not papil onaceous; petals 5 and standard enclosed by wings: stamens 10, distinct: legume oblong, flat, many-seeded, margined on one edge. C. Canadensis, Linn. Bedbud. Judas tree. Native small tree of Middle and Southern states, 10-30 ft. high, irregularly branching: bark smooth and
dark.
5.

Cultivated as ornamental tree, April, May.

PlSUM. Pea.

Slender herbs, climbing by tendrils which are homologous with leaflets: leaves pinnate, with 1-3 pairs of foliar leaflets, and very large, leafy stipules: lobes of calyx leafy; flowers large, white, or pink, on axillary peduncles: pod
a typical legume, several-seeded. P. sativum, Linn. Garden pea.
leaflets

Figs. 190, 284.

Smooth and glaucous:

more-flowered. Old

usually 2 pairs,

broad-oval:

peduncles

2- or

World.
6.

LATHYRUS. Vetchling.
Much
like

told in general by the

Pisum, differing chiefly in very technical characters, but best narrow leaflets and pods, and not leafy calyx.

350

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Sweet pea. Figs. 165. 222. Annual, the stem hairy: leaflets one pair, narrow-oval or oblong: flowers 2 or 3 on a long peduncle, very fragrunt, in many colors. Southern Europe. L. latifolius, Linn. Everlasting pea. Fig 246. Perennial of long duration, sniootli, the slems winged; leaflets one pair, long-oval: flowers many in a dense cluster on long peduncles, rose-purple and white. Europe.
7.

L. odoritus, Linn.

VlCIA.

Vetch.

Tare.

Herbs, mostly trailing or climbing by tendrils from the ends of pinnately compound leaves: leaflets usually many, entire or emarginate: stipules half-sagittate: flowers in axillary racemes or pairs: calyx somewhat oblique, 5-toothed: wings adhering to keel: style slender, bent, hairy or with hairy ring beneath stigma: pods flat, 2-valved, 2-several-seeded. V. Americana, Mulil. Perennial, smooth: leaflets 10-M, oblong, blunt: peduncles 4-8-flowered: flowers purplish-blue, %-% in. long. Moist soil. V. Cricca, Linn. Perennial, more or less pubescent, with weak stems: leaflets 12-24, oblong to linear, mucronate: racemes: many-flowered, 1-sided, spike-like, on axillary peduncles: flowers blue to purple, %-K in. long. Dryish soil. V. sativa, Linn. Spring vetch. Annual, rather pubescent, not climbing: leaflets, 5-7 pairs, oblong or obovate, to linear, obtuse or retuse or mucronate: flowers in pairs, from axils, nearly sessile, violet-purple, %-l in. long: pod smooth, linear, 5-10-seeded. Cultivated or wild: from Europe. V. villosa, Roth. Hairy or winter vetch. Difl'use, very hairy: flowers showy in long axillary racemes, deep purple: seeds small and black. Cultivated and escaped. Europe. Annual and biennial, perhaps sometimes
perennial.
8.

TRIFOLIUM.

Clover.
digitate leaves of 3 leaflets (all 3 leaflets

Annual or perennial herbs with

joined directly to top of petiole):
teeth, in dense heads:

flowers small, with bristle-form calyx-

fruit a 1- to

few-seeded

little

pod which does not

exceed the calyx.

a.

Flowers sessile

in the dense heads.

T. prat6nse, Linn.

Common

red clover.

Fig. 82.

Erect, 1-2

ft.,

with

oval or obovate leaflets, which have a pale spot or band near the center

and usually a notch at the end: flowers rose-red, honey-sweet, the heads closely surrounded by leaves. Europe, but common everywhere in the
North.
T.

medium, Linn.

Medium

red clover.

Larger, the stem less straight,

the leaflets oblong, entire and with a spot: head stalked above the upper-

most

Otherwise like the last. Rahhit- foot clover. Annual; 5-10 in., erect: flowers sessile in dense, cylindrical heads, which become very soft and grayish, fur like, from the silky plumose calyx-teeth: corolla insignificant, whitish. Dry, sandy soils: introduced from Europe.
leaves.
T. arv^nse, Linn.

LEGUMINOSiE
aa.

351
the heads.

Flowers short-stalked in

Alsike clover. Slender, from a prostrate base, 1-3 fr. leaflets obcorclate: head small and globular, liglit rose-colored. Europe. White clover. Small, the stems long-creeping and T. rdpens, Linn. sending up flowering stems 3-12 in. high: leaflets obeordate: heads small, white. Common; native, also European. Crimson clover. Fig. 408. Stout, T. incarnatum, Linn. hairj', erect plant, I-'IY^ ft., with obovate-oblong leaflets and brilliant crimson flowers in a long stalked head. Europe; now
T.

h^bridum, Linn.

frequently cultivated.

Buffalo clover. Annual or biennial, T. refl6xum, Linn. pubescent, ascending 8-18 in.: standard purple, keel and wings whitish: leaflets oval or obovate, tinely toothed. Most common
in (Central States,

from Western

New

T. prociimbens, Linn.

Hop
in.
:

clover.

York. Annual, slender, procum-

brown and dry when old, finally reflexing: standard striate: heads small, rounded, 20-40 flowered: leaflets wedge-shaped and notched at end, terminal one stalked, stipules ovate. June. Dry soil,
bent or upright to 6 or 12
flowers yellow, turning
108.

introduced.
x. agfrarium.
oi,i,)g.^ t|,j,

Trifolium
incaniatura.

Linn. Hop clover. Larger: leaflets ovateterminal one not stalked, and stipules narrow and

joined for half their length to the petiole.

9.

Introduced.

BAPTtSIA.

False Indigo.
(or,

Perennial herbs: leaves palmately 3-foliolate, with stipules,

sessile, exstipulate, perfoliate leaves)
:

simple,

flowers racemed:

standard erect, rounded, the sides rolling back: keel and wings oblong, nearly straight: stamens 10, distinct: pod stalked in a persistent calyx, pointed, inflated, many-seeded. Plants usually blackened in drying.
calyx 4-5-toothed:
B. tinctdria, R. Br.

Bushy, erect

to 2

ft.,

some-

what glaucous: leaves

sessile or nearly so, with tiny

deciduous stipules; leaflets small, entire, wedged-ovate: racemes many, terminal, loosely few flowered flowers yellow, about K in. long, papilionaceous. Dry soil in woods.
:

10.

MELILOTUS. Sweet Clover.

Tall erect annuals or biennials, with sweet-scented herbage and small white or yellow flowers in numerous open racemes: leaflets 3, oblong: pod ovoid, somewhat exceeding the calyx, 1-2-seeded.

M.
clover.

ilba,

Linn.
to 5
ft.

Two

tall,

White sweet smooth

:

clover.
leaflets

Bokhara
truncate:

352

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Europe; common on
Leaflets obtuse:

flowers white, the standard longer than other petals.

roadsides.

M.

officinalis,

flowers yellow.
11.

Yellow sweet clover. Less common than the other.

Linn.

Fig. 469.

MEDICAGO. Medick.
Clover like plants with small flowers in heads or and toothed leaflets: particularly distinguished by the curved or coiled pod. Alfalfa. Lucerne. Fig. 470. M. sativa, Linn. Erect perennial, with ovate-oblong leaflets and short
short spikes

spikes or dense racemes of blue purple flowers.

rope, but

Eu-

grown

for

fc

rage.

470.

Medicago sativa.

Black medick. M. lupulina, Linn. Trailing clover like plant, with obovate leaflets and yellow flowers in heads or very short spikes: pod black when ripe. Europe; common weed East.
clover.

Hop

12.

PHASfiOLTJS. Bean.

Tender herbs, often twining, the flowers never yellow, and the pinnate leaves of 3 leaflets: flowers usually in clusters on the joints of the raccnio or at the end of the peduncle, the keel (inclosing the essential organs) coiling into
a spiral: fruit a true legume.
P.
Vlilg&,ris,

Linn.

Common

beau.

Figs. 282-3, 285-G, 471.

Annual: twining (the twining habit bred out in the "bush

beans"): leaflets ovate, the lateral ones 472. Phuscolus iunatus. unequal-sided: flowers white or purplish, the racemes shorter than the leaves: pods narrow and
nearly straight.
471.

Phaseolus vulgaris.

P. lunatus, Linn.

Probably from tropical America. Lima bean. Fig. 472. Annual:

flat

tall-twining (also dwarf forms): leaflets large: flowers

whitish, in racemes shorter than the leaves: pods

and curved, with a

South America. P. multifldrus, Willd. Scarlet runner bean. Perennial in warm countries from a tuberous root, tall-twining leaflets ovate flowers bright scarlet (white in the "Dutch Case-knife bean") and showy, the racemes exceeding the leaves: pod long and broad but not flat. Tropical America; cultivated for ornament and for food.
flat

few large

seeds.

13.

VlGNA. Cow-pea.
Differs

47

Vigna
ters,

from Phaseolus chiefly in technical characone of which is the curved rather than coiled keel

Sinensis,

of the flower.

LEGUMINOS^ ROSACEA

353

V. Sinensis, Endl. Cow-pea. Black pea. Sto:k pea. Fig. 473. Longtrailing or twining, tender annual: leaflets narrow-ovate; flowers white or pale, 2 or 3 on the apex of a very long peduncle, the standard rounded; pod slender and long, cj'lindrical: seed (really a beau raiher tbau pea; small, short-oblong. China, Japan; much grown South for forage.
14.

palmately compound, 5-15-folioliate, rarely simple: calyx decidedly 2 -lipped: standard round, sides rolled backward: keel incurved, sickle-like: wings lightly united above keel: stamens inonadelphous, with 3 alternate anthers, dift'erent in size and shape from others: pod oblong, flattened, often
flowers showy, in terminal spikes or racemes:

LUPIN US. Lupine. Low herbs: leaves

knotty.
L. per^nnis, Linn.
ft.:

Perennial,

somewhat downy: stem

erect to

or

IK

leaflets 7-11, large, radiating,

nearly sessile, oblanceolate, mucronate:

stipules small: flowers blue or whitish, in loose racemes:

hairy, 5-6-seeded.
1.').

pod linear-oblong,

Sandy

soil.

May

to

June.

CASSSIA. Senna.

Fig. 223.

Ours herbs with odd-pinnate, compound leaves and yellow flowers: sepals 5, nearly equal: coi-oUa not paplionaceous, nearly regular: petals 5: stamens 5-10, some anthers usually imperfect: pod often curved, many-seeded. U. Marilindica, Linn. Smooth perennial, 3-4 ft. leaflets 6-9 pairs, lance:

olate-oblong, mucronate, with a gland at or near base of petiole: stipules

imperfect, with deformed anthers, the anthers black: flowers showy yellow, short, axillary racemes. Summer.

deciduous:

stamens

10, 3

16.

APIOS. Groundnut,

Perennial, twining herb, with edible underground tubers: leaves pinnately 3-7-foliate: flowers in short, dense, often branching axillary racemes:
calyx rather 2-lipped: standard broad and reflexed
:

keel strongly incurved,

pushing into the standard, and finally coiled or twisted. A, tuberdsa, Moench. Flowers brownish purple, sweet-scented, racemes about 1-3 in. long: no tendrils: juice milky. Summer. moist ground and shady woods.

in

dense

In low,

XXIX. ROSACE.E. Rose Family

Herbs, shrubs and trees, much like the Saxifragaccas: leaves alternate, mostly with stipules (which are often deciduous): flowers mostly perfect and polypetalous, the stamens usually perigynous, mostly numerous (more than 20) pistils 1 to many: fruit an akene, follicle, berry, drupe, or accessory. A very mixed or polymorphous family, largely of temperate regions, of about 75 genera and 1,200
:

species.

By some writers,

divided into three or four families.

Common

354

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

rose,

rosaceous plants are

strawberry, apple,

pear,

plum, peach,

cherry, blackberry, raspberry, spirea, cinquefoil.

A.

Herbs.
B.

Torus not enlarging. c. Carpels many, in a head. D. Style deciduous DD. Style persistent on akene, usually jointed and plumose cc. Carpels 2: calyx prickly and lobes closing over the fruit 1 or 2 akenes BB. Torus becoming fleshy: flowers directly from the crown or root AA. Shrubs or trees. B. The ovary 1, superior: fruit a drupe BB. The ovaries more than 1. 0. Fruit 1-seeded drupes aggregated, or akenes. D. Ovaries many, free from calyx and torus, becoming drupelets DD. Ovaries 5-8: shrubs not prickly: leaves simple flowers yellow fruit akenes cc. Fruit akenes inside a hollow torus ccc. Fruit a pome: ovaries usually 5, immersed in the
: :
:

1.

Potentilla

2.

Geum
Agrimonia
Fragaria

3.

4.

5.

Prunus

(i.

Bitbiis

7.

Kerria

8.

Rosa

torus.
D. Petals oblong-spatulate: carpels 3-5-eelled, but

appearing about 10-celled

DD. Petals rounded: ovaries
E.
5.

9.

Amelanchier

EE.

EEE.

Pome Pome Pome

with 2-seeded carpels with many-seeded carpels

10. 11. 12. IH.

Pyrus Cydonia
Cratitgus
Spircea

with 1-5 stony kernels

cccc. Fruit 2-8 dry follicles, each several-seeded

1.

POTENTlLLA. Five Finger.

Cinquefoil,

Herbs (sometimes shrubby) with flat deeply 5-cleft calj'x and 5 bracts beneath it, and 5 obtuse, mostly yellow or white petals: stamens many: fruit an akene, of which there are many in a little head on the small, dry torus: leaves compound. P. Norv6gica, Linn. An erect (1-2 ft. tall) very hairy and coarse annual, with 3 obovate, or oblong serrate leaflets and small flowers in which the yellow corolla
with
five
is

usually not so large as the calyx.

leaflets,

Common

weed.

P. Canad6ii8i8, Linn.

narrow

Common five-finger. Trailing, strawberry - like, but the lateral ones deeply lobed: flowers solitary,

on axillary peduncles, bright yellow. Fields: common. P. arg^ntea, Linn. Perennial, with stem prostrate, branching above, white- woolly: leaflets 5, wedge -oblong, green above, white - pubescent beneath, with a few large, incised teeth, and margins revolute: flowers small, cymose, yellow: stamens about 20. June to September, in dry soil.

ROSACEA

355

p. frnticdsa, Linn. Stem erect (1-2 ft.), shrubby, diffusely branched: leaves pinnate, with 5-7 sessile leaflets, margins entire, revolnte: flowers axillary: petals yellow, orbicular, and longer than calyx, 1 in. broad.

Marshy and wet ground. June

2.

to

September.

GfiUM. AvENS.
Perennial, erect herbs, with odd-pinnate or lyrate leaves, with stipules:

flowers resembling those of Potentilla:

bracts: stamens,

many: akenes numerous, aggregated on a

Stems

calyx 5-cleft with five alternate conical recep-

tacle, with long persistent styles jointed, or bent, or

plumose.

G. rivals, Linn.
lyrate,

erect, 1 to 2 ft., several-flowered: root leaves

and irregularly pinnate, petioled: stem leaves few, usually of 3 or 3-lobed: flowers few, large, nodding, the calyx purplish, the petals clawed, erect, yellowish-purple: styles purplish, jointed and bent in middle, stigmas plumose: fruit stalked in the calyx. May to July. Bogs.
leaflets,

G.

Alburn, Gmelin.

From

2 to 3 ft., with

stem

erect, branching,

smooth

or downy: root leaves of 3-5 leaflets, or simple with smaller leaflets at base: stem leaves few, simple, lobed, or 3-divided or toothed and shortpetioled: flowers whitish, the petals not longer than sepals: head of

and bent near middle, the upper summer, from preceding in being hirsute: rootleaves various, but pinnate, with a very large rounded terminal leaflet; the upper leaves mostly 3-parted: flowers white or pale yellow: receptacle not bristly: heads of fruits on short, stout, hairy stalks. Low ground.
fruits sessile in the calyx:

styles jointed

part hooked: torus bristly. Late spring and

G. Virgini&,num, Linn.

Differs

Summer.
3.

AGRIMONIA. Agrimony.
Perennial, erect herbs, with alternate odd-pinnately

compound

leaves,

and slender, spike-like racemes, with yellow flowers: leaves wiib small segments intersposed, and large dentate stipules: calyx-tube contracted at the throat with a 5-eleft limb, and bristly on upper part: petals 5: stamens
slender, 5-15, carpels
2,

styles terminal: fruit dry, included in the prickly

calyx-tube.

A. Eupatdria, Linn.
ft.

higli): petals

yellow and

Spicate raceme terminating the stem (G twice longer than the

in. to 2

calyx.
4.

Dryish

soils.

Summer.

FRA6ARIA. Strawberry. Low perennials with 3 broad-toothed

^-^--^'S
leaflets

and
in
-,

^^^^^Sm

a few flowers on radical peduncles: torus enlarging fruit, usually becoming fleshy.
F. v6sca, Linn. hairy, Fig.
474.

Small, very sparsely

and rather light green, very sharply toothed: flower-clusters overtopping the foliage, small and erect, forking: fruit slender and pointed,
the leaves
thin

474.

Fragaria vesca.

356

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

^5

light

colored (.sometimes

white), the

akenes

not sunk in the flesh. North.

r. Virgini^na,

Cool woods;

common

berry.

Fig. 475.

Duch. Common field strawStronger, darker green, loose-

hairy, the leaves with

more sunken veins and

larger and firmer: flower-cluster slender but not

overtopping the leaves, in fruit with drooping pedicels: fruit globular or broad-conical, with akenes sunk in the flesh, light colored. Very
475.

Fragaiia Virginiana.

F. CMlo^nsis,

ing but stout,

common. Garden strawberry. Fig. 204. Low and spreadthe thick leaves somewhat glossy above and bluish white
Duch.

beneath, rather blunt-toothed: flower-clusters short, forking, the pedicels strong and long: fruit large and firm, dark colored, with sunken akenes.
Chile.
5.

PEtNTTS.

Peach.

Plum.

Cherry.

Trees and shrubs, mostly flowering in early spring: sepals, petals and stamens borne on the rim of a saucer-shaped torus, the calyx with 5 green spreading lobes and the petals 5 and obovate: pis- 476. Prunns Persica. til 1, sitting in the bottom of the flower, the ovary ripening into a drupe: leaves alternate.
a.

Peach and apricot

P. P6rBica,

ter buds, visually

flowers solitary from lateral winappearing before the leaves.

Sieb.

&

Zucc.

Peach.

Fig. 476.

Small
sol-

tree,

with oblong-lanceolate pointed serrate leaves and

itary fuzzy fruits

on

last year's

wood.

China.

The nec-

tarine
P.

is

a smooth-fruited form.

to round-ovate, serrate: fruits solitary,

Armeniaca, Linn. Apricot. Fig. 477. Leaves ovate on last year's shoots or on spurs,

smooth or nearly
aa.

so.

China.

Plums: flowers in umbel-like

clusters: fruit large and smooth, usually with a distinct suture (or "crease") on one side and covered tcith a "bloom," the stalk short.

P. dom^stica, Linn. Common plum. Figs. 194, 262. Small tree, usually with young shoots downy: leaves thick and relatively large, dull dark green, ovate, oval or obovate, very rugose or veiny, somewhat pubescent beneath, coarsely and unevenly serrate: flowers large: fruits various, usually thickmeated and with heavy "bloom." Europe, Asia. Wild plum of the North. Fig. 478. Twiggy P. Americana, Marsh. small tree, often tiiorny, the young shoots usually not downy: leaves obovate, dull green, abruptly pointed, coarsely toothed or jagged, not pubescent beneath: fruit small, red or yellow, tough-skinned and glaucous, the pit large and flattened. Common in thickets: improved forms are in cultivation.

ROSACEA

357

478.

Prunus Americana.

47y.

Prunus angustifolia.

Marsh. Chickasaw plum. Mountain cherry. Fig. 479. Smaller, the young growths smooth and zigzag and usually reddish: leaves lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, often trough-shaped, shining, finely serrate, cherry-like: fruit a small thin-fleshed shining plum on a long pedicel. Delaware, south also in cultivation.
F. angiiBtildlia,
;

Cherries

fla-ers

in umbel-like clusters

fruit

small and nearly globular, early -ripening, usually without a prominent suture and '^bloom," the
stalk slender.
'

480.

Prunus Avium
P.

Linn. Sour cherry. Round-headed with flowers in small clusters from lateral buds: leaves hard and stifiBsh, short-ovate or obovate, grayish green, serrate: fruit small, sour. Europe.
P. C6ra8U8,
tree,

Avium, Linn. Siceet cherry. Fig. 480. Straight grower, the "leader" in young trees, with flowers in dense clusters from lateral spurs: leaves oblong-ovate, dull and soft, on the voung growths hanging fruit
prominent
:

usually rather large, sweet.

aaaa.

Europe.

Wild

cherries, with small, scarcely edible fruits:

flowers umbellate or racemed.

Pennsylvdnicum, Linn. Wild red cherry. Pin or bird cherry. Small tree, 20-30 ft. high, with red-brown, peeling bark: flowers small, white, on long pedicels in umbel-like clusters, from lateral scaly buds, in early spring, before or with the leaves: fruit very small, globose, red, smooth, with thin,
P.

sour flesh.
P. Virginiana, Linn. Choke cherry. Small tree or shrub, 5-20 ft., with grayish spotted bark: leaves thin, oval or obovate, abruptly acute at tip, sharp-serrate: flowers white, in short racemes, terminating leafy branches, appearing after leaves in late spring: fruit small, globose, red changing to

dark crimson (nearly black), very astringent: usually found along banks and in thickets. P. serdtina, Ehrh. Wild black cherry. Tree 50-80 ft., with black, rough bark and reddish brown branches; leaves thickish, oblong or oblong-lanceo-

358
late,

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

acute or tapering at tip, serrate with incurving or bluntish teetb : flowers later than preceding, white, in elongated, drooping or spreading, termi-

nal racemes: fruit deep purple or black

bitter taste.
6.

{%

in. in

diameter) with a sweetish,

RtBUS. Bramble,
:

Shrubs, usually thorny, the canes or shoots dying after fruiting, with digitately compound leaves flowers white, in clusters, with 5-parted calyx and 5 petals: ovaries many, ripening into coherent drupelets.
alternate
a.

Ifaxpherrii's: drupelets or berry separating from the torus.

R. occident^lis, Linn. Black raspberry. Figs. 128, 263. Canes long and thorny, glaucous, rooting at the tips late in the season: leaves of mostly 3 ovate doubly-toothed leaflets: flowers in close, umbel-like clusters: fruits,

more or

(sometimes amber-color). Woods, and common in cultivation. R. Btrigdsus, Miehx. Med raspberry. Canes erect and weak-prickly, less glaucous, not rooting at tips, leaflets oblong-ovate: flowers in racemes: fruits soft, red. Woods, and cultivated.
firm, black
." Flowering raspberry Flotveriyuj R. odoratus, LiTin. " mulberry erect, branching, 3-5 ft., not prickly, but rather bristly and
.

Shrubby and

sticky-hairy: leaves large, 3-5-lobed: flowers large, 1-2

in.

broad, in terminal
fruit red,
in

corymbs, the petals orbicular and purplish rose (rarely whitish): ripe in August, flattened, sweetish but scarcely edible. Common
aa.

woods

Blackberries:

drupelets adhering

to the

torus (the torus forming the

"core" of the berry.

Common blackberry. R. nigrobdccus, Bailey (R. villosus of some). Tall, very thorny: leaflets 3 or 5, ovate and pointed, toothed, hairy beneath: firm, black when thimble-shaped and fruit large, open racemes: in flowers
ripe.

Woods, and

cultivated.

R. villdsus, Ait. {B. Canadensis of some). Northern dewberry. Trailing and rooting at tips, prickly: leaflets 3-7, ovate-acuminate or oblong-ovate, toothed: flowers 1-3, on erect, short peduncles, large: fruit like a small and shining blackberry. Sterile fields, and in cultivation. Long-trailing, Fig. 158. Southern dewberry. R. triviilis, Michx. very thorny and bristly: leaves 3-5, more or less evergreen, mostly lanceSands, Viroblong and small, strong-toothed: flowers 1-3: fruit black.
ginia, south; also in cultivation.
7.

E^RRIA. Globe Flower.

".Iapan Rose."

ShruVjby plants with calyx of 5 acuminate, nearly distinct sepals: petals 5 (or flowers double): ovaries 5-8, smooth, globose: leaves simple, ovate, acuminate, doubly serrate, with stipules: flowers terminal on branches, solitary or a few together.

K. Japdnica, DC. Bush 3-8

Cultivated.

ft.

with green winter twigs: flowers orange-

yellow, usually double: leaves sometimes variegated.

Late

May and

June.

ROSACEA
8.

359

BOSA. Rose.

More or less thorny erect or climbing shrubs with pinnate wing-petioled leaves, and flowers with 5 calj'x-lobes and 5 large, rounded petals: pistils many, becoming more or less hairy akenes which are enclosed in a hollow torus (fruit becoming a hip, Fig. 265). Most of the garden roses are too difficult for the beginner: they are much modified by the plant-breeder. R, Carolina, Linn. Swamp rose. Tall, often as high as a man, the few spines usually somewhat hooked: stipules (petiole wings) long and narrow: leaflets 5-9, narrow-oblong and acute, finely serrate: flowers rather large, rose-color. Swamps. R. lilcida, Ehrh. Usually low, with stout hooked spines: stipules rather broad: leaflets about 7, smooth and mostly shining above: flowers large,
rose-color.

R.

hiiinilis.

Moist places. Marsh. Three feet or less

tall,

with straight, slender spines:

stipules narrow: foliage usually less shining.

Dry

soils.

Sweet briar. Eglantine. Erect, 4-8 ft., curving, armed with stout recurved prickles, with weaker ones intei'mixed: leaflets 5-9, ovate or oval, coarsely and doubly serrate and resinous or glandular, pubescent beneath, very aromatic: flowers small, pink or white, solitary, single or double. Naturalized from Europe and in cultivation.
R. rubigindsa, Linn.
9.

AMELANCHIER.

Service Berry. June Berry.

Small tress or shrubs, with smooth, grayish bark: leaves simple, petioled, serrate: flowers white, in racemes, or rarely solitary: calyx-tube 5cleft: petals 5: stamens many, short, inserted on calyx-throat: ovaiy inferior, apparently 10-celled, with 1 ovule in each cavity: styles 5, united below: fruit a l)erry-like pome, 4-10-celled. A. Canadensis, Torr. & Gray. Shadbtish. Small tree or bush 5-50 ft. high, with showy white flowers in very early spring before the foliage: leaves ovate to oblong, sharply serrate, acute at apex, base cordate, soon smooth: stipules long and silky-hairy: fruit red or purple pomes, on slender pedicels, sweet and edible. Woods, common.
10.

PtRUS. Pear. Apple.

Small trees or shrubs with alternate leaves, and flowers in clusters in 5-merous: ovaries usually 5, immersed in the torus, the
a.

spring: flowers
styles free.

Leaves simple: pear and apple.

Pear. Figs. 63, 101, 102, 182, 266. Leaves ovate, and shining, smooth, close-toothed: fruit tapering to the pedicel. Europe. P. M&IuB, Linn. Apple. Figs. (!7, 267, 268. Leaves ovate, soft, hairy beneath, serrate: fruit hollowed at the base when ripe. Europe. P. coron&ria, Linn. Wild crab. Bushy tree to t.bout 20 ft., somewhat
P. commilnis, Linn.

firm

thorny: leaves ovate-triangular to heart-shaped, cut-serrate, or somewhat lobed, soon sraoothish: flowers large, strikingly fragrant, rose-colored, few

360
in a

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

cluster:

corymb or

pome

flattened at the ends, long-stemmed, indented

at the

York, West and South. P. Io6nsi8, Bailey. Prairie crab. Pubescent: leaves oblong or ovate, notched or parted along the sides, the petioles short: pome globular or oblong, short-stemmed, with light dots. Mostly west of Great Lakes.
aa.

attachment Open glades, from

to stalk, green,

becoming yellowish, fragrant but sour.

New

Leaves compound; mountain-ashes. (Sorbus.)

to

Americana, DC. American mountain ash. Treeor large shrub, native mountain woods in the east, but sometimes cultivated: leaves odd-pinP.

nately compound, with 1,3-15 leaflets that are lanceolate, taper-pointed, serrate, bright-green above: flowers numerous, small, white, in compound, flat

cymes: style 3-5: berry-like pomes globose, bright

size of peas.
P. Aucupd,ria. Gaertn.

red, or orange, about the

English mountain-ash.
diameter.

Ifowan.

Leaves pubes-

cent on both sides

when young,
in. in

the leaflets blunt: fruit larger than that of

preceding, about
11.

CYDONIA. Quince.
Small trees or shrubs: flowers and leaves much as in Pyrus: ovary flvemany seeds in each: fruit a pome, usually hollowed at top end,

celled, with

globose, or pyriform.
C. vulgaria, Pers. Quince. Six to 15 ft. high, with crooked branches; flower solitary, large, pale pink or roseate, on shoots of the season: leaves oblong-ovate, acute at apex, with obtuse base, entire. C.

Jap6iiica,

Pers.

Japan Quince. Shrub

3 to

ft.,

cultivated

for

hedges and flowers: branches armed with short, straight spines: leaves glabrous and shining, acute at each end, serrulate, the stipules conspicuously reniforra: flowers in axillary clusters, nearly sessile, crimson or scarlet.
Fruit globose, fragrant.
12.

CRATiEGUS.

Hawthorn.
trees,

Figs. 152 to 155.

much branched, the wood tough and hard, usually very thorny: flowers white or pink, in dense umbel-like clusters: petals 5, entire: stamens 5-10-many: fruit a small red or yellow drupe containing large bony stones: leaves simple, mostly toothed or lobed. Many species wild in North America, and some cultivated, too difficult of determiLarge bushes or small
nation for the beginner.
13.

SPIRilA. Fig.

179.

Hardy perennial herbs and many ornamental shrubs: leaves alternate: flowers white or roseate, usually small but many: calyx 5-cleft, short and open: petals 5: stamens many: fruit of about, 5 follicles, not inflated.
Following are small shrubs: Glabrous or nearly so, erect to 3 S. salicifdlia, Linn. Meadow-sweet. or 4 feet, stem often purplish: leaves simple, oblong-ovate to lanceolate, serrate, with stipules deciduous: flowers in terminal erect panicles, white

SAXIFRAGACE^
or pinkish-tinged, small, with

361

pods (follicles) 5, smooth, many-seeded. Moist or swampy ground. Summer. S tomentdsa, Linn. Hardliack. Erect, 2 to 4 ft. high, with pubescent stems, rusty or hairy: leaves simple, oblong or ovate, serrate, woolly on lower surface, without stipules: flowers in terminal thyrse-like dense panicles, pink or purple (rarely white), the follicles 5, pubescent or woolly: pastures and low grounds. Late summer. Bridal irreath. Large bush with long recurving S. trilobata, Linn. branches and bearing a profusion of showy flowers in flat-toi)ped clusters: leaves round ovate, crenately cut and 3-lobed. S. Van Houttei is an improved form. From 3 to 6 ft., leaves obovateS. hypericifdlia, St. Peter's wreath. oblong or wedge-shaped, obscurely toothed or lobed flowers white, in many small lateral sessile clusters, on short branches. Cultivated. S. Thunb^rgii, Sieb. Compact bush with very narrow leaves, sharply serrate and very light green: flowers umbellate, small, white. Handsome species from Japan.
:

XXX. SAXIFRAGACE^.
Herbs
inferior,

Saxifrage Family.
opposite or alternate

or shrubs

of various

habit, with

leaves that usually do not have stipules:

as

flowers with ovary mostly

5-merous, the stamens usually 10 or less (in a few cases

as 40):
pistils

many

10 or less, either

separate

or the

carpels

polymorphous family comprising some 600 species in about 75 fjenera. Comprises saxifrage, mitre-wort, hydrangea, mock orange, curi*ant and gooseberry.
united, the fruit a follicle, capsule, or berry.
A.

Herbs.
B.

Stamens twice as many as petals. C. Petals entire: stamens usually 10. D. Flowers in cymes or panicles (rarely
capsule 2-beaked
:

solitary)
. .

ovary usually 2-celled.

Saxifraga

DD. Plowf^rs in racemes: ovary 1-celled: capsule 2-beaked, with 1 beak the longer and larger 2. Tiarella
cc. Petals with

edges fringed or cleft

.'5.

Mitella

equal in number to the petals: clusters of sterile stamens opposite each petal ... 4. Parnassia AA. Shrubs. B. Jjeaves opposite,
BB.

Stamens

(fertile) 5, or

c.

Stamens

8 or 10.
:

5. D. Flowers all alike sepals 5 DD. Flowers usually of 2 kinds: the marginal ones C. enlarged and neutral, apetalous 7. CO. Stamens many: petals, 4 or 6, large, white BB. Leaves alternate b.

Deutzia
ITijdrangen.

Philadelphus Hibes

362
1.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

SAXtFBAGA. Saxifrage.

Herbs, with root-leaves in rosette: flowers perfect, small, whitish, in panicles, on leafy stems or leafless scapes: sepals 5, more or les 5, entire, inserted on calyx-tube: stamens mostly 10: styles 2 and capsule 2-beaked, or of nearly separate divergent pods. S. Virgini^nsis. Michx. Little perennial herb with spatulate or obovate, petioled, crenate, thick leaves: scape 3-12 inches, erect, viscid-pubescent, bearing many small, white flowers in a loose cyme, the petals exceeding the calyx. In early spring, on moist banks and rocks.

cjmes or

united: petals

2.

TIABtLLA. False Mitrewort.

Perennials, with small white flowers in racemes: calyx white, campan-

ulate, 5-lobed: petals 5, entire on claws:

from the calyx-tube:

stamens 10, with long filaments ovary 1-celIed, nearly superior: styles 2, long and

slender: capsule with two very unequal beaks.

T. cordifdlia, Linn.

leaves: stoloniferous

Scape slender, pubescent, leafless or with 1 or 2 from rootstocks: leaves cordate, lobed or toothed,

petioled, slightly hairy or

downy beneath:

flowers white, in short raceme.

Spring.
3.

Handsome.
Mitrewort.
Bishop's Cap.
perennials, with small, white flowers in a raceme or spike,

MITELLA.
Delicate

little

the basal leaves heart-shape or reniform: scape with two opposite leaves, or

one or none: calyx short, 5-cleft, adherent to base of ovary: petals 5, white edges daintily fringed, inserted on calyx: stamens 5 or 10, with short filaments, on petals: styles 2, short. M diphylla, Linn. About one foot tall: root leaves in a cluster, cordate, ovate, somewhat 3-5-lobed, toothed, hairy: scape rather hairy, with two opposite nearly sessile leaves near middle: flowers tiny, many, white. May to early June, in rich woods. M. nuda, Linn. Very delicate and slender: scape usually leafless: basal
leaves reniform, crenate: flowers few, greenish, very sniall, pedicelled; not

common. Damp,
4.

cold woods, northward.

Late spring and early summer.

PARNASSIA. Grass op Parnassus.

Low, glabrous perennials, belonging mostly
to

marshy or wet
1

situations:

root leaves in rosettes, rounded, entire: stem leaves

or few, alternate: or greenish: calyx

flowers solitary, terminal, on a

scape-like stem, white

5,

5-'obed to near base: fertile stamens

l-celled, with four parietal placentae,

alternating with the five whitish

petals, a cluster of sterile filaments at base of each petal: ovary superior

and usually four stigmas. Michx. One flower with sessile petals, white, with greenish veins, 1-1^ inches broad: root-leaf thickish, ovate or cordate, one leaf usually near liase of scape: 6-15 inches high. Wet places. Summer.
P. Caroliniana,
.5.

DEtTZIA.

Shrubs, having opposite, simple, exstipulate leaves: flowers pauicled or racemed, numerous, white or pinkish: calyx lobes 5: petals 5 to many: sta-

SAXIFRAGACE^
mens

363

10, five long and five short, the filaments flat, commonly with three prongs, the middle prong antlieriferous: ovary inferior, styles 3-5. D. grdcilis. Sieb & Zucc. Grows to 2 or 3 ft. flowers many, white, single or double: leaves oblong-lanceolate, sharply serrate, green and smooth.
:

June. Cultivated from Japan. D. scabra, Thunb. Tall, pubescent: leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, finely crenate or serrate: flowers pinkish. Later blooming than preceding, and much larger. China and Japan.
G.

HYDRANGEA.

Shrubs, with opposite, stalked exstipulate leaves, and flowers of two kinds in terminal corymbs or cymes, the outer ones usually sterile, often apetaious, consisting merely of a showy, flat or spreading 5-lobed calyx, the fertile flowers small, with calyx-tube 4-5 toothed: petals 4 or 5: stamens 8 to 10, filaments slender: ovary inferior, 2-eelled (rarely 3- or 4-celled):
styles 2-4.

H. arbor6scens, Linn.
flat

Leaves ovate, obtuse or cordate

at base,

acumi-

nate, serrate, green on both surfaces, nearly or quite smooth: flowers in

cymes, often all fertile, but sometimes with many large, white, sterile Along streams. June to July. H. Hortensia, DC. Smooth, with large, toothed, bright green oval leaves, and flowers nearly all neutral, pink, blue or whitish, in great roundish clusters. China and Japah. Cultivated in greenhouses. H. paniculata, Sieb. Somewhat pubescent, with oblong-ovate, longpointed, dull, sharp-toothed leaves, and whitish flowers in great elongated panicles. Japan. The common hydrangea of lawns.
flowers.
7.

PHILADfiLPHUS.

Mock Orange (from

the flowers).

Syringa.

Shrubs with showy corymbose or paniculate white flowers and opposite simple leaves: petals 4 or 5; stamens 20 or more: ovary 3-5-loculed, becoming a capsule.

leaves oblongTall shrub with erect branches P. coron^rius, Linn. ovate and smooth: flowers cream-white, fragrant, in close clusters, in late
;

spring.

Europe.
Tall, with

P. grrandifldirus, Willd.

ovate-pointed and somewhat

in loose clusters.
8.

downy beneath

long recurving branches leaves flowers pure white, scentless,

:

Virginia, south, and planted.

RIBES.

Gooseberry and Currant.

often prickly, with
alternate
digitately

Low

shrubs,

lobed

leaves:
5,

flowers small: sepals 5

and

petal-like,

on the ovary: petals and stamens

borne on the calyx: fruit a small globular berry.

a.

Gooseberries: flowers 1-3: usually spines heloiv the leaves.

Small bush, with long, graceful branches R. oxyacantholdes, Linn. and very short thorns or none: leaves thin, orbicular-ovate, about 3-lobcd, the edges thin and round-toothed; flowers on very short peduncles, the

364

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

calyx-lobes longer than the calyx-tube, the ovary and berry smooth, the Swamps N.; probable parent of Houghton and fruit reddish or green.

Downing

gooseberries.

Ettglish gooseberry. Stiffer and denser bush, R. GroBBuliiria, Linn. with firm and thickish more shining leaves, which have revolute margins:

Amerisanum.

483.

Ribes aureum.

ovary downy and the large fruit pubescent or bristly.

Europe; parent of

the large-fruited gooseberries. B. Cyndsbati, Linn. Tall, open, prickly bush, with thickish bluntly 3-lobed downy leaves and long peduncles bearing 3 or more flowers with
calyx-lobes shorter than the tube: leaves rounded

and 3-lobed:

fruit dull

purple, either prickly or smooth.

aa.

Common

in dry places.

Currants:

florvers in long

racemes: no spines.

B. rilbruin, Linn. Med and white currant. Fig. 48L Erect bush, with broad-cordate 3-5-lobed leaves with roundish lobes and not strong-smelling: racemes drooping, the flowers greenish and nearly flat open: berries (currants) red or white. Europe. B. nigrrum, Linn. Black currant. Stronger bush, with strong-scented leaves and larger oblong or bell-shaped flowers with bracts much shorter than the pedicels: berries black and strong-smelling. Europe. Wild black currant. B. Americinum, Marsh. [R. floridum, L'Her). Fig. 482. Straggling bush, with heart-shaped 3-5-lobed doubly serrate somewhat scented leaves: flowers in long racemes, whitish, with bracts longer than the pedicels: fruit black, scented. Woods. Fig. -18:!. Golden, buffalo, or flowering currant. E. ailreum, Rursh. Large bush, with racemes of long-tubular yellow very fragrant flowers: fruit blackish. Missouri, west, but common in gardens for its flowers.

XXXI. ONAGRACE.E.
Mostly herbs:

Evening Primrose Family.

alternate

leaves various,

or opposite,

without

stipules: flowers perfect, usually 4-parted, with calyx-tube joined to ovary and often prolonged, the margin 4-lobed, lobes valvate in the

ONAGRACE^

365

bud, usually reflexed in flower: petals 4 1,2 to 9), on throat of calyxtube: stamens as many or twice as many as petals: style one, slender, the stigma 4-lobed (sometimes 2-lobed): ovary 2 to 4-celled.

More than 300 species and 40 genera,

A. Calyx-tube

of wide distribution.

the ovary B. Lobes generally reflexed fruit a dry capsule, dehiscent. 1. (Enothera BB. Lobes large and spreading: calyx-tube highly colored: fruit a 4-celled berry flowers drooping 2. Fuchsia AA. Calyx-tube not much prolonged. B. Stamens 8: petals 4 3. L'pilobinm BB. Stamens 2: petals 2 4. Circteu
: :

much prolonged beyond

1.

(ENOTHfiRA, Evening Primrose.

Herbs, stems usually erect: leaves alternate: flowers brightly colored,

regular, axillary or in terminal spikes: calyx-tube prolonged beyond ovary,

the 4 lobes usually reflexed, sometimes soon falling: petals 4: stamens 8: stigma 4-lobed: capsule usually narrow and long, 4-celled, many-seeded. Common evening primrose. Fig. 249. Stem erect 2 (E. biennis, Linn. to 5 feet, hairy and leafy: leaves lance-oblong, somewhat repandly-toothed;
flowers pure yellow, fragrant, in terminal, leafy spikes, not remaining open
in

reflexed: petals obcordate:

broad sunshine: calyx-tube 2 to 3 times longer than ovary and lobes pod oblong bluntly 4-angled. A very common
(E. fruticosa,

biennial of roadside and pasture, opening quickly at nightfall.

Linn.

Sundrops. Biennial or perennial: stem

1

erect,

to

ft.,

leafy,

more or

less hairy: flowers yellow,

to 2 in. in diameter, in

corymbed racemes, open in daytime: pod decidedly 4-angled and 4-ribbed, rather downy, shortly stalked. Dry soil. (E. pvimila, Linn. Resembles preceding, but smaller, 5 to 12 inches high: corolla yellow, about J^in. across: pod smooth, 4-angled, sessile or short stalked. Dry soil.
2.

FtrCHSIA. Figs. 160, 189. Herbs or shrubby plants (some

trees)

leaves opposite, or 3 in a whorl:

drooping, axillary: calyx-tube colored, extended beyond ovary: margin 4-lobed, spreading: petals4 on throat of calyx: stamens 8, projecting:
flowers
of species of these ornamental South America. Smooth and tender: leaves simple, toothed, r. Magelldnica, Lam. slender-petioled flowers hanging on long peduncles from leaf axils: calyx red, lobes long, exceeding the tube and the petals: petals blue or purple or red, obovate, notched, convolute about the bases of the long filaments and style. The common window-garden fuchsias {F. speciosa) have descended from this species, more or less hybridized with others.
style long: fruit a 4-celled berry.

A number
to

plants in cultivation.

Mainly native

3.

EPILOBIUM. Willow-herb.
Mostly perennials, with leaves nearly sessile, alternate or opposite:
or
solitary:

flowers white or puiple, spicate, racemed,

calyx-tube

little

366
if

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

4-cleft: petals 4:

any longer than ovary, limb

fruit linear, 4-sided, dehiscent by 4 loculicidal valves,

stamens 8: stigma 4-lobed: many-seeded: seeds

with tuft of lent?, silky hair attached to tip. E. angustifdlium, Linn. Purple fireiveed. Stem simple, erect, 4-7 ft.: lower leaves alternate, lanceolate, nearly entire: racemes long, terminal, showy: flowers large, about 1 in. across, reddish purple. Common in woods.
4.

CIRCSA. Enchanter's Nightshade.

Low,
delicate,

and insignificant perennial herbs, with creeping root-

stocks: leaves opposite, very thin, petioled: flowers very small, in terminal and lateral racemes: calyx-tube slightly prolonged beyond ovary: parts of

the flower in twos.

C. Luteti^na,

Linn.

Damp, shady places. Summer. Stem erect, 1-2 ft. tall, pubescent:
]/g

leaves ovate,

slightly repand-toothed: flowers white or pink, about

inch in diameter, on

mon

slender pedicels, bractless: fruit small, round, 2-celled, bristly. species in damp, shady places in summer.

The com-

XXXn. UMBELLIFER.^. Parsley

Family.

Herbs, mostly strong-scented and with compound alternate leaves with petioles expanded or sheathing at the base: flowers small, mostly perfect, 5-merous, epigynous, in umbels or umbel-like clusters: stamens 5: fruit consisting of two carpels, which are dry

and seed-like and indehiscent.

Oil-tubes, in the

form of

stripes,

one

or several in the intervals of the ribs on the fruits, also sometimes under the ribs and on both faces of the fruit, are characteristic features
of the Umbelliferte.

well-marked natural family of about 1,500

species in about 160

genera.

Some

of the species are

poisonous.

Here belong parsley, parsnip,

Rather
A.

carrot, celery, caraway, sweet cicely.

difficult for

the beginner.
1.

Fruits bristly AA. Fruits not bristly.

B.

Daucns

The
c.

fruits winged.

single, surrounding the margin: flowers yellow 2. 3. CO. Wing double on margin flowers while BB. The fruits wingless. c. Fruit long and slender, tapering at base: no apparent oil-tubes: flowers white 4. OC. Fruit ovate or orbicular. D. Plant low and delicate: blooms in earliest spring: stem with 1 or 2 leaves, if any 5. DD. Plant tall, stems leafy. E. Axis not splitting in two when the carpels
:

Wing

Pastinaca Angelica

Osmorrhiza

Erigenia

fall

from

it

6.

Apium
Carum

EE. Axis
"

splitting

in

two when the carpels or

7.

seeds

" fall

UMBELLIFER^
1.

367

DAttCUS.

Carrot.
bristly, slender

Annuals or biennials,
flowers in
fruit oblong, ribbed

compound umbels, the rays

and
bristly.

of

and branching, with small white which become inflexed in fruit: the

Fig. 180. Leaves pinnately decompound, the Europe; ultimate segments lanceolate: outer flowers with larger petals. run wild. extensively and root, the for cultivated

D. Cardta, Linn.

Carrot.

2.

PASTINACA.
Tall,

Parsnip.
strict habit

smooth biennials of

leaves: flowers yellow, in

fruit oval, very thin,

compound umbels with

and with pinnately compound scarcely any involucres:

P. satlva, Linn.

low: leaflets ovate or oblong, sharp-toothed.

roots and also run wild.
3.

wing-margined. Parsnip. Flowering stem 2-A ft. tall, grooved, bolEurope; cultivated for its

ANGELICA.

Strong, tall, perennial weeds, with great compound leaves and large umbels of small white flowers, with involucre and involucels none, or only a few small bracts: fruit ovate or oval, flattened, with rather broad, marginal wings: oil-tubes many.

A. atropurpilrea, Linn.

great weed, 3-8

ft.

tall,

in moist, rich soil or

swampy ground, with stem

stout, smooth, strong- scented, often

purple:

leaves large, 3-compound, on petioles with broad, inflated bases: umbels

large, flowers greenish white.
4.

OSMOKRHlZA. Sweet
Herbs 1-2
feet or

Cicely.

more, perennial, glabrous or pubescent, from thickclustered, aromatic roots: leaves two or three times pinnately compound: leaflets variously toothed, the whole leaf fern-like: flowers many, small, white, in compound, rayed umbels: fruit linear to linear-oblong, attenuate at base, short-beaked, compressed, with 5 bristly ribs: no oil-tubes.
0. brevistylia.

DC.

Stout, downy, 1-2 or 3

f*^.

style conical, shorter

than the ovary.

0. longistylis, DC. Glabrous or nearly so, otherwise much like the preceding: style slender and about as long as the ovary: root aromatic.
5.

ERIGfiNIA.

Little, glabrous perennial, early flowering: simple stem, springing from a rounded tuber: leaves finely compound: flowers in small clusters, in leafy bracted umbels, small, white: calyx-teeth wanting: petals obovate or spafulate: fruit nearly orbicular, compressed on sides, glabrous, notched at both ends. . bulbdia, Nutt. Harbinger of spring. A delicate and pretty but inconspicuous plant, 4 to 10 inches high, springing from the ground in earliest

spring, on sunny slopes of woodlands. The little white petals and brown or purplish anthers give a "pepper-and-salt" appearance.

368
6.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

APIUM. Celery.

Annuals or biennials, with large pinnate leaves: flowers white, in small umbels: fruit small, usually as broad as long, each carpel 5-ribbed: axis, from which the carpels fall, not splitting in two. A. gravfiolens, Linn. Celery. Biennial, smooth: leaflets 3-7, wedgeshaped or obovate, the lower ones about 3-divided, round-toothed, Europe: cultivated for its petioles, which have become greatly enlarged.
7.

CAKUM. Caraway.

Slender and erect, smooth annual and biennial herbs with pinnate leaves; compound umbels provided with involucres: axis bearing the carpels, splitting in two at maturity. C. Carui, Linn. Caraway. Stem furrowed, 1-2 ft. leaves cut into thread-like divisions: flowers white. Europe. Cultivated for its fruits, known as "Caraway seed," and also run wild. C. Petroselinum. Benth. Parsley. One to 3 ft. leaflets ovate and 3-cleft, often much cut or "curled" in the garden kinds: flowers yellowish. Europe,
flowers white or yellowish, in
: :

cc.

GAMOPETAL^.
Mint Family.

XXXin. LABIATE.

Herbs, usually of aromatic scent, with 4-eornered stems and opposite usually simple leaves: flowers typically 2-lipped: stamens 4 in 2 pairs, or only 2: ovary deeply 4-lobed, forming 4 indehiscent nutlets in fruit. A well-marked family of some 2,700 species, distributed in about 150 genera, of both temperate and tropical regions. To this family belong the various mints, as peppermint, spearmint, catnip, hyssop, thyme, pennyroyal, savory, rosemary, sage, hore-

hound, balm, basil. Flowers mostly in whorls in the axils of leaves or bracts, sometimes forming interrupted spikes.
A.

Stamens
B.

2.

Calyx nearly equally toothed. C. Lobes 5: throat hairy CO. Lobes 4-5: throat naked BB. Calyx 2-lipped. C. Throat naked within CC. Throat hairy: plants very pungent-scented
AA. Stamens 4. B. Corolla scarcely 2-lipped: lobes nearly equal. C. Border of corolla 4-lobed: upper lobe broadest
00.

1.

Monarda
Lycopus
Salvia

2.

3. 4.

Hedeoma

and emarginate Border of corolla 4-lobed, with a deep fissure between the two upper lobes

5.

Mentha
Teucriiiin

6.

LABIATE
BB. Corolla strongly 2-lipped.
c.

369

Calyx 2-lipped.
D. Lips of calyx toothed
:

flowers in dense terminal spikes or heads DD. Lips of calyx entire, the upper humped, or appendaged: flowers axillary in bracts or leaf axils, solitary or raceraed cc. Calyx nearly or quite regular. D. Upper pair of the stamens the longer DD. Upper pair of the stamens the shorter. E. Stamens short, included in the tube of the
corolla
EE.

7.

Brunella

8.

Scutellaria

9.

Nepeta

10.

Mnrrubium
Leonurus

Stamens long, projecting from the

tube

corolla11.

1.

MONARDA.

Horse-mint.

Rather stout, mostly perennials, with flowers in close terminal heads:

calyx tubular, 15-nerved, hairy in the throat, the teeth nearly equal: corolla

strongly 2-lipped, the upper

lip erect,

the lower spreading and 3-lobed.

M.
1

fistuldsa, Linn.

Two

to 5 ft., in

clumps: leaves ovate-lai.eeolate:

flowers in a clover-like flattish head: calyx slightly curved: corolla about

in.

long, purple.

Common

in dry places.
tea.

M. didyma, Linn. Oswego

ing:

Bee halm. Stem 4-angled and branchwild, but cultivated.

leaves petioled, shortly ovate to lanceolate, those about the terminal

Lead tinged with red: not very

2.

common

L"?COPUS,

Water Hoarhound.
much
like the

Low

perennials, with stolons or suckers,

in

mints (Mentha)

and growing
small, white

similar moist
in

or

shady places:

clustered

leaf

axils:

not aromatic: flowers calyx bell-shaped, 4- to 5-toothed:

corolla campanulate, with 4 nearly equal lobes: fertile stamens 2, the other
2

rudimentary or wanting: flowers small, white or purplish, braeted and whorled in axillary clusters. L. Virginicus, Linn. Stem G in. to 2 ft., obtusely 4-angled, green or often purplish: Stoloniferous: leaves oblong or ovate-lanceolate, serrate, except at base, short-petioled or nearly sessile. In moist places. Summer.
?,.

SALVIA. Sage.

Annuals or perennials, mostly with large and showy flowers: calyx and upper lip of corolla large and usually arched, entire or nearly so, the lower lip spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 2, short, the anther locules separated by a transverse bar. S. officinalis, Linn. Common sage. Erect low perennial, with gray
corolla 2-lipped:

pubescent foliage: leaves oblong-lanceolate, crenulate, very veiny: flowers blue, in spiked whorls. Europe; used for seasoning. S. splendens, Sell. (5. coccinea of gardens). Scarlet sage. Tender l>erennial from Brazil, but much cultivated for its bright scarlet floral leaves, calyx, and corolla: leaves ovate-pointed.

370
4.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Pennvroval.

HE DEO MA. Mock

Low, aromatic-fragrant lierbs, with small bluish flowers in loose axillary clusters, often forming terminal racemes or spikes: calyx tubular 13-nerve(l, swollen on lower side, hairy in throat, 2-lipped: corolla 2-lipped, upper lip er^et, flat, emarginate, the lower spreading and 3-cleft, 2 perfect stamens: two shorter sterile stamens sometimes present. H. pulegioldes, Pers. Small annuals of pungent fragrance and taste, with slender stem 6 to 12 in. tall, erect, branching, pubescent: leaves ovate
to oblong, about
1

in.

long, few-toothed, petiolate: whorls few-flowered, the

In dry fields and woods.

corolla bluisli, pubescent.

5.

Summer.

MflNTHA. Mint. Low perennials:

nearly or quite regular, 4-cleft: stamens

calyx with 5 similar teeth: corolla 4, equal: flowers

in heads or interrupted spikes, purplish or white.

tall,

M. piperita, Linn. Peppermint. Straggling, 1-3 ft. the plant dark colored (stems purplish): leaves ovate,

oblong, or narrower, acute, sharply serrate: flowers light

Europe. Cultivated and escaped. M. spic^ta, Linn. {M. viridis, Linn.). Spearmint. Fig 484. Erect and sniootli, 1-2 ft., green: leaves lanceolate and sharply serrate: flowers whitish or tinted, in Along roadsides, and long, interrupted spikes, Europe.
purple, in thick spikes 1-3 in. long.
cultivated.

ir^^
-f

^^ cent:
6.

M. Canadensis, Linn.
leaves lanceolate:

Wild mint. One

grounds.

to 2 ft.,

pubes-

flowers tinted, in whorls in the

axils of the leaves.

484.

Low

TEtrCRIUM. Germander.

Perennial herbs (or shrubs) with small, pinkish, rather spkes (or heads) or verticillate in the upper axils of the stem leaves: calyx 5-toothed, 10-nerved: corolla somewhat equal, and turned forward, the .51obed, with 4 upper lobes oblong,
irregular flowers, in terminal bracted
fissure
4, in 2 pairs, projecting from a deep between the two upper lobes of the corolla. Erect, pubescent. 1-3 ft.: leaves ovate-lanceoT. Canad6nse, Linn. bracts under the flowers linearlate, irregularly serrate, short-petioled lanceolate, about as l'>ng as calyx: spike long and slender, the few oMdlooking purplish or pinkish flowers in crowded verticels. Damp ground. Late summer.

Mentha

spicata.

lowest lobe large, rounded: stamens

7.

BRUNI&LLA. Self-heal.

Low, usually unbranched perennials without aromatic odor: calyx about 10-nerved, 2-lipped: corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip arched and entire, the lower one 3-lobed: stamens 4, in pairs, ascending under the upper lip. B. vulgaris. Linn. Self-heal. Three to ten in. tall, with ovate or oblong,

LABIATE
usually slightly toothed leaves:

371

flowers small, violet (rarely white), in a dense, oblong, clover-like head or spike. Common in grassy places.

8.

SCUTELLARIA. Skullcap.
Perennials, bitter, not aromitic: flowers solitary or in pairs, axillary or

in bracted spike-like racemes: calyx bell-shaped, two-lipped, the lips closed

upper one appendaged on the back (at maturity the calyx splits bottom, the upper lip usually falling off): corolla-tube elongated, curved and ascending, swollen above the throat, 2-lipped, the upper lip arched and notched: stamens 4, ascending in pairs under the upper lip, the upper pair shorter.
in fruit, the

to the

S. laterifolia, Linn. Mad-dog skullcap. Smooth, 1-2 ft. high: stem nearly or quite erect, much branched, slender, leafy: leaves thin, ovatelanceolate, pointed, serrate, petioled: flowers blue (rarely white), small,

^-i^

in. long, in axillary,

Summer. Several related but most of them will not be likely

places.
9.

one-sided racemes (some terminal). Wet, shaded species in bogs and along slow streams,
to attract the attention of the beginner.

N^PETA. Catmint.

2 lipped, the

Perennials, mostly sweet-scented: calyx nearly equally 5-toothed: corolla upper lip erect and somewhat concave, the lower .3-Iobed stamens 4 in pairs under the upper lip, the outer pair the shorter. N. Cataria, Linn. Common catmint ov catnip. Pig. 197. Erect, 2-3 ft.,

leaves cordate-ovate, crenate, grayish: corolla tinted: flowers Introduced from Europe. N. Glechoma, Benth. Ground ivy. Gill-over-the-c/round. A weed from Europe, but familiar almost everywhere: creeping, with rounded, crenately margined, petioled leaves: flowers bluish purple, small.
ill

pubescent:

interrupted spikes.

10.

MARKtBIUM. Horehound.

Erect perennials, with white-woolly aspect: calyx nearly equally 5-10corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip erect and r.fitched, the lower one spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 4, included in the corolla-tube. There are a numlter of Old World species, but only the following seems to have run wild in this country: M. vulg^re, Linn. Common horehound. Leaves broad-ovate and crenate: flowers small, white, in dense whorls. Europe, but common.
toothed, the teeth very sharp:
11.

LEONtRUS. Motherwort.
Erect perennials with green aspect: calyx about equally 5-toothed, the somewhat arclud 4, ascending under the

teeth becoming spine-like: corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip

and entire, the lower spreading and 3-lobed: stamens upper lip: nutlets 3-angled.

Common motherwort. Tall: leaves rounded and L. Cardiaca, Linn. lobed: corolla purple, the upper lip bearded: (li)wers in axillary whorls. Introduced from Europe. Coiumon. Other introduced species may now and
then be found.

372

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

XXXIV. YERBENACE/E.
Vervain Family.

Herbs, shrubs or trees: leaves opposite or whorled (in our species), exstipulate: flowers monopetalous, often irregular, in bracted cymes or panicles: calyx free from the ovary, 4-5- cleft: corolla sometimes regular, but often more or less tvvo-llpped: stamens 4 (rarely
2), in
1:

unequal pairs, inserted on corolla, alternate with lobes: style ovary mostly 2- to 4-celled (not lobed\ with style from summit: fruit dry or drupe-like. About 1,200 species, mostly tropical.
Vervain.

VERBENA.

Herbs with simple, opposite, serrate or pinnately-Iobed leaves: flowers

usually sessile, bracted, in terminal spikes: corolla salver- or funnel-form,

with border somewhat unevenly 5-cleft. V. urtlcaBfolia, Linn. Perennial, common coarse weed
4-6
ft. tall:

in

waste ground:

leaves oval, coarsely serrate, stalked: flowers minute, white, in

slender spikes.

V. angustifdlia, Michx.
to 2 ft.,

sessile base: flowers small, in spikes: corolla purple: fruits overlapping

A perennial, roughish weed, with stems 6 in. mostly simple, leafy: leaves sessile, narrow-lanceolate, tapering to on
fields.

spike.

Dry

Perennial, hoary-hairy: stem 1-3 ft., very leafy: leaves obovate or oblong, serrate and nearly sessile: spikes thick and densely flowered; flowers blue-purple, rather larger than in other common Vervains, %-'m. across, but few open at one time. Westward. V. hastata, Linn. A common, rather pubescent weed of the waysides: stem 2-6 ft. tall, branching with many slender spikes of the small, bracted, blue-purple flowers, few flowers in bloom at one time: leaves lanceolate, acuminate, petioled. V. Aubl6tia, Linn. One of the species from which the garden Verbenas have come: stems rather prostrate and creeping: flowers in a corymb or pedancled spike and showy, of various colors and considerable size: leaves on petioles, ovate in outline, but pinnately cut or 3-parted. Wild from Indiana west.

V. stricta. Vent.

XXXV. SCROPHULARIACE^.
Herbs
(trees in

Figwort Family.

warm

countries), of various habit: flowers perfect,

irregular, usually imperfectly 5-merous: corolla usually 2-lipped and personate: stamens 4 in 2 pairs, inserted on the corolla, with sometimes a rudiment of a fifth: ovary single, 2-loculed, ripening into a

several- or

many-seeded capsule. About 160 genera and 2,000 species. Representative plants are figwort, snapdragon, toad-flax, foxglove,

mullein, pentstemon, monkey-flower or musk-plant.

SCROPHULARIACE^
A. Corolla very shallow and nearly regular AA. Corolla very irregular, often personate. B. Flowers with long spur BB. Flowers spurless, but saccate or swollen
1.

373
Verbascum
Linaria

2.

at the
3.

base BBB. Flowers not spurred, saccate, or much swollen. c. Stamens 5, hut the fifth sterile, often a scale only. D. Sterile filament a little scale on th.e upper side of the corolla: flowers small and dullcolored DD. Sterile filament elongated: corolla 2-lipped E. Filament shorter than the others: the 2 lips of the corolla but slightly open: seeds winged EE. Filament about the same length as the others: corolla lip open: seeds wingless

Antirrhinum

4.

Scrofjhtilaria

5.

Chelone

6.

Penfstemon

DDD. Sterile filament, not conspicuous: corolla almost 2-parted, the middle lobe of the lower lip keeled, enclosing the 4 stamens.
cc.

7.

Collinsia

Stamens plainly
drooping

4.

D. Corolla 2-lipped: calyx

5-angled

flowers not
8.

MimnJus
Digitalis

DD. Corolla slightly 2-Iipped, irregularly 5-lobed: flowers drooping DDD. Corolla with upper lip narrow and erect, much longer than the lower, and keeled anthersacs not alike: floral leaves colored like
:

9.

petals

10.

Castilleia

ccc. Stamens 2 (or 2 others rudimentary or wanting).

D.

Corolla 2-lipped

11.

Gratiola

DD. Corolla rotate, lobes unequal

1.

12.

Veronica

VERBASCUM.
Tall

Mullein.
with
alternate

biennials,

decurrent leaves

calyx

and corolla
5,

5-parted, the latter shallow and nearly or quite rotate: stamens

all of

some or
ft.,

the filaments woolly.

V. ThApsus, Linn.

Common

mullein.

Figs. 22, 133.

Two

to 5

stout

and usually unbranched, white-woolly: leaves oblong and acute, felt-like: flowers yellow, in a very dense spike. Weed from Europe. V. Blattiria, Linn. Moth mullein. Slender and branching, green and nearly smooth: leaves oblong, serrate, often laterally lobed, somewhat clasping: flowers yellow or cream-colored, in a loose raceme. Weed from Europe.
2.

LINARIA. Toad-Flax. Low herbs, of various

habit:

corolla personate, the throat nearly or

4:

entirely closed, spurred

from the lower side: stamens

capsule opening

by apical pores.

374
L. vulgaris, Mill.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Toad-flax.

mon

perennial weed (from Europe), 1-2 flowers in racemes.

L.

Bntter-and-eggs. Figs. 255, 485. Comft., with linear leaves and yellow

Cymbalaria, Mill.
:

Kenilworth
:

ivy.

Fig.

486.

Trailing

leaves orbicular, o-7-lobed

flowers solitary

Linaria vulgaris.

on long peduncles, lilac-blue. Europe; very in greenhouses and sometimes runs wild. L. Canadensis, Duinont. Common annual or biennial in dry flowering stems or sandy soil slender and erect, gener^Uy gj^^pig ^nd few:

common

leaved:

also prostrate shoots,

flat,

more

leafy:

leaves narrow,

entire,

sessile, opposite

or wliorled: flowers small, blue, in a terminal,

loose, slender raceme.
3.

ANTIRRHINUM. Snapdragon.

486. Linar From Linaria differs chiefly in having no spur, but only a swelling at the base of the corolla. A. m^jus, Linn. Snapdragon. Fig. 220. Erect biennial or perennial:

leaves oblong, smooth, entire: flowers erect or ascending, 2 in. long, purple
or white, in a raceme with
4.

downy

axis.

Europe.

SCROPHULARIA. Fiowort.

Herbs perennial, rank and generally ill-smelling, with opposite leaves, and very odd-looking small, greenish-purple flowers, in simple or compound loose terminal cymes: calyx deeply 5-parted: corolla irregular, with a globular tube, the limb 5-lobed, 4 upper lobes erect, but the lower one horizontal or reflexed: stamens 5, 4 fertile, in two pairs, the fifth sterile and a mere rudiment at the top of the corolla-tube. Smooth, 3-6 ft., much branchS. noddsa, Linn. var. Marildndica, Gray. ing, in thickets and damp woods, blooming in late summer and early fall; stems 4-angled: leaves ovate, oblong or lanceolate, coarsely toothed, 3-9 in. long, on slender petioles: flowers small, ilull-colored.
5.

CHELONE. Turtlehead. Snakeheau.

Smooth, erect perennials, with opposite, serrate and stalked leaves: flowers large, sessile, white or rose-tinged, of curious shape, in the upper leaf axils, forming a terminal spike: calyx 5-parted, segments acute, bracted at base: corolla irregular, with inflated and elongated tube concave underneath, the limb two-lipped, but lips only slightly open, the upper lip broad, usually emarginate, lower lip 3-lobed, bearded within: stamens
5,

the fifth sterile and smaller, the filaments woolly.

to four feet high, in

C. gUbra, Linn. Two ^et places. Late summer.

swamps and by brooks

or in

SCKOPHULARIACE^
6.

375

PNTSTM0N. Beard-Tongue.

Perennial herbs, with opposite leaves, the upper sessile or clasping: calyx 5-parted: corolla irregular, with tube more or less inflated and two-lipped, the lower lip 3-lobed: stamens 5, 4 in two pairs each bearing an anther, the fifth filament conspicuous but sterile, sometimes longer than the others and bearded: fruit a globose capsule with many wingflowers showy:
less seeds. P. pub6scenB, Solander. Stems hairy, rather viscid above, 1-2 feet: leaves narrow-oblong to lanceolate, minutely toothed or entire; panicle open:

corolla about

in. long,

two-lipped, with a bearded palate in the throat, dull

bluish violet or purplish.

7.

Dry

situations.

May

to July.

COLLtN()IA. Innocence. Blue-eyed

Pretty
little

Mary

annuals or biennials, branching and diffuse with opposite irregular flowers, blue and white, on pedicels, whorled or solitary in the axils of the upper leaves: corolla two-lipped with the upper lip 2-cleft, the lower lip 3-cleft, with the middle lobe keeled and saccate, enclosing the 4 stamens and the style: a fifth stamen reduced to a mere rudiment. C. v6ma, Nutt. Stem 8-16 in., branching: leaves small, various, the lower ovate, the upper more lanceolate and clasping, margins crenate or toothed: flowers on long peduncles, in whorls of 4-6: corolla to in., twice longer than calyx: 3 lower petals sky-blue or pink, upper two petals, white. An extremely attractive plant in woods, blooming April to June.
or verticillate leaves, and

8.

MfMITLUS.

Monkey-flower.

Small herbs with opposite leaves, with usually showy solitary flowers on axillary peduncles: calyx 5-angled and 5-toothed: corolla tubular, the 2 lobed upper lip erect or spreading: stamens 4: stigma 2-lobed. M. ringens, Linn. Wild monlcey -floiver. Erect perennial, with square stem and oblong or lanceolate clasping serrate leaves: flowers blue
or light purple,

somewhat personate. Wet

Motikey-flower.
yellow,

places.

M.
flower.

Idteus, Linn.

Tiger-

Fig. 487.
:

Annual, with ovate serrate

large,

leaves

flowers

blotched
often

with
coni-

brick-red or brown.

Western America, and

Mimulus

luteus.
''

monly
9.

cultivated.

To gardeners
Foxglove.

known

as

M.

tigridioides.

DIGITALIS.

Stem simple and strict: leaves alternate: flowers with a long expanding tube and a very short indistinctly lobed limb, the throat wholly open:
stamens
4.

D. purpurea, Linn.

Common

foxglove.

(2-4 ft.): leaves oblong, nearly or quite entire,

Usually biennial, tall and stout rough and downy: flowers

376
many, drooping
spotted inside.
10.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

in a Ions, erect

raceme, 2

in. long,

white to purple and

Old garden plant from Europe.

Painted-cup.
partially parasitic

CASTILLfilA.
Herbs,
at

least

on roots of other plants: flowers

sessile in leafy, often brilliantly colored bracts: calyx tubular, 2-4-cleft;

corolla very irregular, tubular, the tube included in the calyx, the upper lip very long, arched and keeled, enfolding 2 pairs of stamens; lower lip
short, 3-lobed.
territory.
C. cocclnea,

Late spring and summer.

Spreng.

Four or

five

species in

our

Annual or

biennial, 8-12

inflorescence, of

scarlet or yellow

3-cleft

Damp meadows
IL GKATiOLA.
peduncles
equal:
fertile

or thickets, not

common

in., with very striking bracts surrounding the flowers. but conspicuous.

Hedge Hyssop.
in

Low, mostly perennial herbs, found

axillary,

damp

situations: leaves opposite:

I-flowered

each:
lip

calj-x

5-parted,

segments scarcely
lower 3-lobed:

corolla 2-lipped,

upper

emarginate or

2-cleft,

stamens

2.

G. Virginiina, Linn. Stems branching, or creeping at base, more or less viscid, 4-6 in. tall: leaves oblong or lanceolate, few-toothed, sessile: flowers with yellowish corolla, Yz-Vt. in. long: sterile filaments not present.

Wet
12.

places.

All

summer.
Speedwell.

VEBONICA.

Ours herbs with leaves mostly opposite or whorled, blue or white flowers solitary or in racemes from the leaf axils, or terminal: corolla wheel-shaped, the border irregularly 4-lobed: stamens 2, inserted on corolla tube, with
slender long filaments: ovary 2-celIed, style slender: capsule flattened, notched at apex, 2-celled, few-numerous-seeded. V. Americana, Schw. Perennial, weak and decumbent at base, rooting at nodes, finally erect: leaves opposite at base, mostly petioled, thickisb,

oblong

to lance-ovate, serrate racemes axillary, opposite, 2-3 in. long: flowers small, pale blue, on slender pedicels: capsule swollen, many-seeded.

and about brooks and swampy ground. June through summer. Little pubescent prostrate perennial, 6 in. to 1 ft., in dry fields and woods: leaves wedge-oblong, or obovate, short-petioled, serrate: racemes spike-like, longer than leaves: flowers pale blue. July. Annual, glabrous, erect 4-9 in., branched: lower V. peregrina, Linn. leaves thick, oval, toothed, petioled; others sessile, entire: flowers very

Common

in

V. officinalis, Linn.

small, whitish, axillary and solitary: capsule orbicular, slightly notched.

common weed.
V.

serpyllifdlia,

April to June. Linn. Perennial,

creeping;

leaves

small,

rounded,

almost entire: flowering stems, smooth, simple, ascending 2-6 in.: flowers very small, in terminal racemes: corolla pale blue or whitish with purple stripes, exceeding calyx. Common in lawns and grassy fields. May through

?ummer,

SOLANACEJE

377

XXXVI. SOLANACE^.

Nightshade Family.

Herbs or shrubs, with alternate often compound leaves: flowers perfect and regular, 5-merous, mostly rotate or open-bell-shaped in form and plaited in the bud: stamens 5, often connivent around
the single 2-loculed
pistil, borne on the corolla: fruit a berry or capsule (the latter sometimes 4-Ioculed by a false partition^ the

seeds borne on a central column.

Some

70 genera and 1,500 species.

Common

representatives are nighshade, potato, tomato, husk tomato,

tobacco, jimson-weed, petunia.

A. Fruit a fleshy berry. B. Fruiting calyx bladdery-inflated

and wholly enclosing

the fruit: anthers not connected, opening length-

wise 1. Physalis BB. Fruiting calyx not inflated. c. Stamens with anthers equaling or exceeding the
filaments.
D.

Anthers separate or barely connected, opening at the top

2.
3.

DD. Anthers united, opening lengthwise

cc.

Solan um Lycopersicnm

Stamens withanthersmuchshorterthan filaments. 4. Capsicum

5.

AA. Fruit a capsule. B. Calyx 5-parted to near base BB. Calyx toothed, not deep-parted.
c.

Petunia

cc.

Pod usually prickly, large Pods not prickly, small

6.
7.

Datura
Nicotiana

1.

PHtSALIS. Ground Cherry.

Herbs, flowering through the summer:
flowers
solitary,

nodding on

axillary peduncles:

leaves alternate or often

somewhat

paired, margins

entire or sinuate: calyx enlarging after flowering,

and finally enclosing the pulpy berry as a much-inflated papery sac: corolla yellowish or white, often with dark center, wheel-shaped, with short tube, the border obscurely 5lobed, plaited in bud.

Perennial by rootstocks, viscid: fruiting calyx P. Virginid,na, Mill. pyramidal, closed, more or less 5-angled and indented at base: berry reddish yellow, edible, not filling the loosely inflated calyx: corolla yellow, nearly

an inch
yellow.

in diameter, with

brown

center,

and edge

5- to

10-angled: anthers

Open

places, in rich soil.

Summer.

annual, more or less pubescent and clammy: stem generally difl'use in branching, 9-18 in. tall, often somewhat swollen at nodes: corolla small, about J^ in. across, yellow or greenish, with a dark,
P. pub^scens. Linn.

Low

spotted center: anthers purple: the green or yellow berry does not
closed, 5-angled calyx.

fill

the

In low or

damp

places.

378
2.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Nightshade.
:

SOLANUM.

Perennials or annuals calyx and corolla 5-parted, the latter rotate stamens 5, exserted, the anthers separate and opening by a pore in the top:
:

berry 2-loculed.
a.

Plants not prickly.

tuberdsum, Linn. Potato. Figs. 42, p. 35, 219. Low, diffuse-gro'^^ing perennial, producing stem-tubers on slender underground rootstocks: /eaves
S.

pinnate, the leaflets differing in size and ovate: flowers bluish: berries globular,

yellowish green. S. nigrunii Linn.

Warm

Common

temperate elevations of tropical Ameri<3a. nightshade. Branchy annual, 1-2 ft., nearly

smooth: leaves ovate, wavy-margined: flowers small, white: berries small,

black.
S.

Waste

places.

Dulcamara, Linn Bittersweet. Tall, loosely clirabiug: leaves cordate-ovate, sometimes 3-lobed, of ten with 2 or 4 small leaflets at the base:
flowers small, violet-purple: berries oval, red.
aa.

Perennial.

Common,

Plants prickly.

S. MeWngena, Linn. Egfjplant. Guinea squash. Fig. 201. Stout annual with large, ovate, somewhat angled pubescent leaves: flower large, purplish, the calyx prickly: fruit a very large purple or white berry (often weighing

several pounds).
3.

India.

LYCOPfiRSICUM. Tomato. Differs from Solanum chiefly in having the anthers united tips by a membrane and opening by lengthwise slits.
L. escul6ntum, Mill.

at their

Common

tomato.

Fig. 186.

Tall, hairy, strong-smelling herb,

with pinnate leaves,

the leaflets ovate

and unequal-sided and of different sizes: flowers small, yellow, in short forked racemes: South America. fruit a large red or yellow berry.

"^4.

CAPSICUM.

Red Pepper.

Erect, branchy, smooth herbs: stamens with slender filaments which are much longer than the separate
488 Capsicum

aunuum. anthers, the latter opening by lengthwise globular, long or irregular, firm.

slits

fruit

caie calyx
5.

Common ted pepper. Fig. 488. C. innuum, Linn. with ovate entire leaves: flowers white, with very short -toothed or trunTrop. Amer. fruit very various in the cultivated varieties.
biennial,
:

Annual or

PETtTNIA.

Petunia.
:

Clammy-hairy diffuse herbs calyx-lobes leaflike and much longer than the tube; corolla funnel-form, showy, the stamens not projecting South America. fruit 2-loculed, capsular.
P. nyctaginillbra.Juss.
489.

Corolla

white,

White petunia. Fig. leaves very long-tubed

:

oval-oblong,

narrowed

into

petiole.

Old
489.

gardens.

Petunia njctaginiflora.

SOLANACE^
p. violJlcea, Lindl.

CONVOLVULACE^
Weaker and more
or Jimson-weed.

379

Fig. 490.

diffuse: corolla purple

or rose, the tube

sessile.
6.

short and broad: leaves ovate or oval, nearly or quite

are mostly hybrids of the two species.

The garden petunias

DAT&RA. Jamestown-weed

lar,

Very strong bushy herbs, with large, long-tubushort-lived flowers from the forks of the

branches: stigma 2-parted: fruit a globular usually

prickly capsxile, opening by 4 valves.

D. Stramdnium,
ft.,

Linn.

Fig. 248.

Annual, 3-5

the stem green: leaves ovate, sinuate or angled:

corolla white. Tropics;

com-

mon

weed.
D. Tdtula, Linn.

Stem

and corolla purple.

7.

NICOTIANA.

Tobacco.
large

490.

Petunia.
original

Tall herbs, with

"^'--^'^-^^s^

Very near the

pubescent leaves: corolla funnelform or salverform, the tube usually long: stigma not lobed: pod 2-4-valved, not very large, contained within the persistent calyx. N. Tabdcum, Linn. Tobacco. Robust annual, 4-6 ft., with very large ovate decurrent entire leaves and rose-purple panicled flowers. Trop. Amer. 491. Nieotiaua alata. N. al^ta, Link & Otto (^V. affinis of gardens). Slender but tall (2-4 ft.) plant with clammy-pubescent herbage: Fig. 491. leaves lanceolate or obovate, entire: flowers white, with very slender tube 5-6 in. long, the limb unequal. Brazil; common in gardens.
usually

P. violaeea.

XXXVII.
Herbs,

CONVOLVULACE^. Convolvulus

Family.

mostly twining, with alternate chiefly simple leaves: flowers regular, 5-merous, the tubular or trumpet-shaped corolla mostly twisted in the bud, the stamens 5 and borne on the corolla: ovary commonly 1-, mostly 2-loculed, with 2 ovules in each locale, becoming a globular capsule in fruit (which is sometimes 4-loculed by the insertion of a false partition). The family contains between 30 and 40 genera, and nearly 1,000 species. Common convolvulaceous plants are morning-glory, cypress vine, sweet potato, bindweed, dodder.
A. Plants

with normal foliage.

B. Stigma 2-3-lobed, knobbed: calyx not bracted 1. Ipomaea BB. Stigmas 2, thread-form: calyx sometimes enclosed by 2 2. Coitroh'i<h<s leafy bracts 3. Cuscuta AA. Plants leafless, parasitic

380
1.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

IFOM^A. Morning-glory.

corolla with a long tube

Mostly twining, with showy flowers on axillary peduncles and a flaring limb: pistil 1, with one Btyle, and the stigma 2-3-lobed fruit a capsule, with 1-seeded
:

locules.
a. I.

Leaves compound, with thread-like divisions.

Cypress vine.
Fig. 492.

Qu&moclit, Linn.

Leaves pin-

nace: flowers solitary, red, small, narrow-limbed, with projecting style

and stamens. Tropical America, but run wild South; also cultivated. Annual.
aa.

Leaves simple or deeply lobed, broad.

I. Bdna-N6x, Linn. White moonflower. 492. Ipomoea Quamoclit. Fig. 493. Tall: leaves heart-shaped, or angled or lobed: flowers 1 to few, white, opening once at night, with a slender tube and a large limb 4-6 in. across. Trop. Amer. Perennial. Morning glory. Fig. 217. Leaves I. purpiirea. Roth. broadly cordate-ovate, entire: flowers 2-4, large and funnel-shaped, 2-3 in. long, purple to streaked and white. Trop. Amer. Annual. 493. IpomcBa I. heder^cea, Jacq. Leaves heart-shaped, 3-5-lobed: Bona-Nox. flowers 1-3, rather smaller than those of /. purpurea Trop. America. Annual. I. Batatas, Poir. Sweet potato. Creeping: leaves heart-shaped to triangular, ustially lobed: flowers (seldom seen) 3 or 4, light purple, funnel-form, 1}4 in. long. Tropics; grown for its large edible

root-tubers.
2.

CONVOLVULUS. Bindweed.

Herbs (or shrubs) twining or erect: flowers large, on axillary peduncles: sepals 5: corolla funnel form or bell-form, limb entire, 5-angled or .Globed: stamens inserted on corolla-tube, included: style 1: stigmas 2, long: ovary and pod 2-celled, 4seeded. C. B^pium, Linn. Rutland beauty, perennial: twining or trailing stem: leaves heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, auricles often toothed: flowers axillary and solitary^on a peduncle: calyx with 2 large bracts at base, enclosing it: corolla morning-glorylike, white or pink, 3^-2 in. long, margin quite entire. Wild in low grounds. Summer. C. arv6nsi8, Linn. Bindweed. Perenniai, nearly glabrous, prostrate or climbing leaves entire, arrow-shaped, with basal ears acute-lobed, but variable: calyx not bracted at base: corolla pink, nearly white, small, not over 1 in. long. Europe. Bad weed. May to September,
:

CONVOLVULACE^
3.

BORRAGINACE^
fruit 2-loculed, 4-seeded.

381

CCSCUTA. Dodder.
Parasitic twiners without foliage (leaves reduced to scales): flowers in

clusters, the cai.yx

p. 89.)

and corolla with 4-5 lobes:

(Fig. 494),
is

(See

the commonest species, twining its slender coral-yellow stems over coarse herbs in swales: corolla bell-shaped,
C. Grondvii, Willd.

the tube longer than the blunt and spreading lobes.

XXXVIII.

BORRAGINACE^. Borage

Family.

Generally rough herbs, with round stems, leaves usually alternate and hairy, exstipulate: inflorescence commonly one-sided, in coiled terminal racemes, straightening as flowers open: sepal 1-lobe 5: lobes of corolla 5, usually regular: stamens 5, on corolla-tube: ovary

deeply 4-bbed, with style in center: stigmas 1 or 2: fruit usually 4 separate 1-seeded nutlets at bottom of persistent calyx. About 1,500
species and 80 genera.
A.

Ovary

entire,

style

terminal

fruit

dry

nutlets
1.

(2 or 4)

HeJiotropium

AA. Ovary deeply 4-parted, or 4-divided, the style rising from the center.
B. Corolla
c.

and stamens regular.

by apex, or laterally, all over by hooked
2.

Fruits (nutlets) bur-like, priclily or spiny.

D. Nutlets oblique, fixed

to

style,

covered

prickles

Cynoglossum

DD. Nutlets erect, fixed by base or side to the

central column: prickles in one or

more
3.

rows on the surface

cc. Fruits (nutlets) not
D.

Ech inospernnim

armed with

prickles.

Nutlets attached laterally to the receptacle:

flowers rather large
4.

Mertensia

DD. Nutlets attached by bases to receptacle. E. Flowers not bracted, in racemes EE. Flowers bracted, in racemes
BB. Corolla irregular: stamens unequal
1.

5.
G. 7.

Myosotis

Lithospermum
Ecliium

HELIOTROPIUM. Heliotrope.
Perennial or annual herbs (or shrubs) with white or purplish, small

flowers in 1-sided spikes: flowers alternate, usually entire: stamens short,

nearly sessile: style short, with conical stigma: ovary 4-celled: two 2-celied nutlets. H. Peruvianum, Linn. Common garden heliotrope. Pubescent or rough, often rather slirubby: leaves lance-ovate to oblong, short-petioled, veiny and wrinkled: flowers very fragrant, white to lilac.
antliers
fruit, 4 nutlets or

382
2.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Stick-tight.

CYNOGLCSSUM. Hound's Tongue.

Tall, coarse, usually

rough and unpleasantly scented hairy weeds, with large entire alternate leaves: flowers small, inconspicuous, in racemes or forked cymes, some bracted: corolla short, nearly wheel form, with Sconverging, blunt scales closing the throat: ovary deeply 4-parted, with style from center: fruit of bur-like nutlets, covered with hooked prickles. C. oKicin&le. Linn. A coarse, pubescent, troublesome dock-like weed from Europe, dull green, smelling like mice, grows to 1 or 2 ft., leafy to the top: leaves softlj' pubescent, lance-oblong, mostly sessile: corolla dull reddish-purple, not K in. across: nutlets margined. Biennial. C. Virginicum, Linn. Stem stout, 2 to 3 feet tall, bristly hairy, leafless above: leaves oblong oval with clasping bases; flowers pale blue, bractless, short pedicels in terminal short spikes: nutlets not margined. Perenon
nial.
3.

ECHINOSPfiKMUM.

Stick-seed.

Bur-seed.

Anniial or biennial weeds in dry soils, grayish with hairs: leaves alternate,

narrow, entire: flowers small, blue or white, in terminal, leufybracted racemes: corolla with 5 scales in throat: nutlets erect, bearing 1 to

rows of stout prickles, and fixed by side to the central column. E. Virginicum, Lehm. A troublesome biennial or annual weed of thickets and open woods, 2 to 4 ft., slender and branching: leaves thin, oblongovate, tapering at both ends: flowers small, whitish or bluish, on pedicels, in racemes 1 to 3 in. long, reflexing in fruit: nutlets small, globose, covered with barbed prickles.
4.

MERTENSIA, Lungwort.

Perennial, usually glabrous herbs, with leaves, entire, pale green and often dotted, the radical ones many-veined and the stem leaves sessile: flowers in tei'minal racemes: calyx short, 5-eleft: corolla funnel form or trumpet-shape, often with 5 small folds in throat, and stamens inserted

between: style long and slender: nutlets erect, smooth, finely wrinkled. M. Virginica, DC. Leaves entire, obovate, sessile on stem: flowers large, trumpet-shaped, 1 in. long, spreading or hanging on slender pedicels, light blue or pinkish: corolla throat not crested, limb entire. Perennial. Rich soil. May, June.
5.

MYOSdTIS. Forget-me-not.
Low, usually villous herbs, with stems erect or
reclining, branching:

leaves small, alternate, entire: flowers small in bractless racemes: corolla

salver-form, 5-lobed, lobes spreading, rounded with appendages at base:

nutlets smooth or hard, fixed by base.

Several species. With. True forget-me-not. A favorite garden-plant introduced from Europe, but also escaped to field and moist spots: racemes 1-sided: leaves lance-oblong, obtuse: calyx open in fruit, the lobes shorter than the tube: corolla light-blue, with yellow center. Perennial, native.

M.

paliistris.

BORRAGINACE^
M.
Idxa,

HYDROPHYLLACE^

383

long: habit lax.

fruit
C.

Lehm. Flowers smaller, Swamps.

paler, on long pedicels: calyx-lobes

M, arv6n8i8, Hoflf. Hairy: leaves lance-oblong, acute: calyx closing and beset with minutely hooked bristles. Fields, native.

in

LITHOSPfiRMUM. Gromwell. Puccoon.

fy-bracted racemes or spikes: calyx-segments

Hairy herbs with roots usually red: leaves alternate, entire: flowers in 5, narrow: corolla funrielcr salver-form, 5-lobed, sometimes crested in throat: stamens 5, with short filinients, included on corolla-throat: stigma 2-lobed: nutlets 4, smooth
1-^

or wrinkled, usually stony. L. arv6nse, Linn.

Rough weed from Europe,

8-12 in.: leaves small, lan-

ceolate to linear: flowers insignificant: corolla white, hardly as long as calyx,

without appendages in throat: nutlets roughly wrinkled, dull gray. L. hirtum, Lehm. A rough, native perennial, with simple stem, 8 in. to on dry, sterile ground: leaves lanceolate or linear, hairy: flowers densely crowded in short terminal leafy racemes: corolla bright orangeyellow, showy, longer than calyx, with little appendages in throat, and woolly. June. L. can68cens, Lehm. Not so rough as preceding, but hoary (also native), 6-18 in. high flowers smaller and corolla-throat appendaged, but not bearded: yellow flowers axillary.
2 ft.,
:

7.

CHinM.

Viper's Bugloss.

Stout and coarse herbs: leaves alternate, entire: flowers rather large, iually blue or purplish, in spicate or panic'ed racemes: calyx-segments 5,

narrow: corolla irregular, with 5 unequal lobes, short-tubed, and throat not bearded: stamens 5, unequal, and long-exserted: stigmas 2 or 2-lobed: nutlets 4, erect, rough-wrinkled. E. vulgare. Linn. Stems 1-3 ft. erect, leafy, very bristly hairy: leaves lanceolate, sessile on stem, 4-8 in. long: flowers showy, purplish, changing
to bright blue in one-sided spikes.

Biennial; early summer.

Naturalized

from Europe.

XXXIX. HYDROPHYLLACE^.

Waterleaf Family.

Mostly hirsute or scabrous herbs, with good -sized mostly alternate, simple or compound leaves: flowers regular, 5-parted, in 1-sided cymes, spikes or racemes: ovary superior, 1-celled, with 2 parietal placentae, or apparently 2-celled: styles 2 or 2-cleft: capsule usually loculicidally 2-valved. Nearly 200 species, but only 1 genus frequent
in northeastern states.

HYDROPH'S'LLUM.
cymes more or

Waterleaf.
in rich, low

Perennial, usually found

less coiled: calyx often with small

woods: leaves large, petioled: appendages at the notches

384
of the lobes:

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

corolla bell-shape, 5-cleft, usually convoluted in bud and bearing 5 folds or scales inside the tube: stjie and stamens (with hairy

filaments) projecting.

H. macrophyllum, Nutt.
or bluish, about
1 in.

hoary-hairy plant, about

1 ft. tall,

branching:

leaves pinnately cut: flower-cluster on long stout peduncle: corolla white

across: sepals not appendaged at base: stamens longer

than corolla. H. appendicuUtum, Michx.

5-lobed or angled,
loose: corolla blue: sepals

Hairy, 1-1 J^

ft.

tall:

leaves large, mostly

some of the lower ones pinnately parted: flower clusters appendaged at bases, bristly hairy: stamens not

if any longer than corolla. H. Canad6nse, Linn. About 1 ft. high, smoothish: leaves all rounded, with 5-9 shallow lobes, and heart-shaped bases, or with small leaflets on the petioles: corolla white or purplish.

much

XL.

POLEMONIACE^. Phlox

Family.

Herbs, mostly annuals or perennials: flowers regular, in ternoinal clusters, 5 -parted, with corolla monopetalous: stamens on corollatube, alternate with lobes: ovary 3-eelled: style simple and 3-lobed: About 200 capsule 3-celled, with 3, mostly loeulicidal, valves. species in several genera. Phlox is the leading genus.
A.

Leaves

entire,

mostly opposite: stamens unequally

in1.

serted on tube of the corolla

Phlox

AA. Leaves pinnately compound, alternate: stamens equally 2. PoJeynonium inserted on the corolla-tube
\.

PHL6X.

Fig. 218.

Erect or diffuse herbs, stems leafy: leaves without stipules, entire, mostly sessile, opposite, or alternate above: flowers of different colors, in stamens 5, unequal, corolla salver-form, tube long terminal clusters included in tube. P. Drummondii is annual; the others perennial. Stems 2-4 ft. high, usually stout and in clumps: P. paniculita, Linn. leaves ovate-lanceolate, or oblong: flowers on short pedicels in many-flowered panicled cymes, terminal, white to various pinks and reds: calyx-teeth sharp-pointed: lobes of corolla rounded and entire. One to 2 ft. high: stem spotted with purple: lower P. macul^ta, Linn. leaves the heavier, lanceolate-linear: upper taper-pointed with a heartshaped sessile base: panicle elongated, pyramidal, of many pink-purple flowers: calyx-teeth less pointed than in preceding: corolla lobes entire. All summer. This and the preceding species are the originals of the common perennial phloxes of gardens. P. divaric&ta, Linn. Ascending or diffuse to 1 ft., or more, terminating
: ;

in loose

corymb, rather sticky-pubescent: leaves ovate-oblong or broad-Ian-

POLEMONIACE^
ceolate,

GENTIANACE^

385

rounded

at base, acute at tip, sessile,

pubescent: corolla large, gray-

ish blue

or lilac, the lobes notched:

calyx-teeth slender and longer than

tube. Moist woods. Spring. P. Bubul^ta, Linn. Ground or moss pink. Stems creeping, tufted, much branclied and leafy, forming a moss-like carpet over the ground: leaves about /^ in. long, rigid, linear to awl-shaped, spreading in clusters: flowers
3 to 6 in

depressed clusters, white than tube. Spring.

to

pinkish-purple: lobes of corolla shorter

P. Drummbndii, Hook. From Texas, now the common annual phlox in gardens: stems branching, spreading, about 1 ft. high, rather <lownyclamray: flowers showy, in corymbs; various colors and patterns on the

corolla and lobes variously notched.

2.

POLEMdNIUM.
Perennial herbs, with alternate pinnately

compound

leaves: calyx com-

panulate, segments erect over fruit: corolla bell-form or rotate: stamens

slender, declined, hairy at base, inserted on corolla base.

The following

native perennials are often cultivated:

P. r^ptans, Linn.

Greek valerian. Stems rather weak, diffusely branch-

ing (not creeping), 6 in. to l}4 ft.: leaves smooth, of 7 to 13 leaflets, occasionally a simple one: leaflets lance-ovate or oblong, about 1 in. long, with entire margins: flowers nodding, light blue: corolla three times as long as
calyx, not over >^ in. broad.
P. caeriileum. Linn.
1 to 3 ft., smooth or crowded: flowers bright blue, in erect stamens and style longer than corolla lobes: corolla 1 in,

Jacob's ladder. Tall, erect to

hairy:

leaflets 9 to 17, lanceolate,

long panicles:
broad.

XLI.

GENTIANACE^. Gentian Family

Generally smooth herbs, with bitter, colorless juice (tonic properties): entire leaves mostly opposite, sessile and without stipules: flowers regular, solitary or in clusters calyx persistent corolla monopetlaous, with 4- to 8- lobed margin, and with 4 to 8 stamens, inserted on tube: capsule 2-valved, many-seeded. Some 600 species, many very showy.
: ;

GENTIANA. Gentian.
woods and damp grounds, flowering mostly in autumn in clusters and showy, usually blue: corolla tubular, open or closed, some having a membranous fold in each of the notches of the limb: stamens 4 to 7: style short or wanting. G. crinlta, Froel. Fringed gentian. Annual, in moist soil, blooming in September and October: distinguished by the beautiful flowers, solitary and terminal on erect stems (stems about 1 ft. tall), pure blue, 1]^ to
Herbs
in low

flowers

solitary or
7,

lobes 4 to

386

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

spreading lobes, having the margins cut into around: leaves clear green, lanceolate, acute, sessile. Gunner. Similar to the preceding, but smaller and corolla

2 in. long, funnel-foriu, with 4

a fringe

all

G. serr^ta.

less fringed: leaves linear.

G. Andr6w8ii, Griseb. Closed gentian. Perennial: stems simple, smooth, about 1% to 2 ft.: leaves ovate to lanceolate, with narrow base: flowers in terminal, sessile clusters: corolla blue with notched folds or appendages on the margin, never opening.
to

XLII. ASCLEPIADACE.5:.

Milkweed Family.

Perennial herbs or shrubs, often vines, with milky juico: leaves

opposite or sometimes whorled, e.xstipulate: flowers generally in umbels,
regular and 5-parted, but very peculiar in the structure and connection
of stamens, stigma and pollen: hood-like appendages are borne behind the anthers, forming a corona about the stigma: stamens 5 with very short filaments, and mostly monadelphous: the anthers press against the fleshy 5-angled stigma, and the pollen coheres in waxy or granular masses, one or two to each anther sac: fruit of one or two follicles: seeds bearing long silk (Fig. 277). About two thousand species and two hundred genera.

ASCLilPIAS. Milkweed. Silkweed.

Erect perennial herbs, with mostly opposite, thick simple leaves and flowers in simple umbels: calyx and corolla each with 5 lobes, bent downward, leaving the crown of 5 hood-like appendages, each bearing a horn, conspicuously surrounding the stamens: filaments generally united, and the anthers adherent to the fleshy stigma: anther 2-celIed and each cell containing a firm, waxy, elongated mass of pollen: adjacent pairs of the pollen masses are connected and suspended from one of 5 glands resembling a pair of saddle-bags. The flower is peculiarly adapted to insect pollination, the pollen masses being carried on the feet of insects. A. tuberosa, Linn. Butterfly weed. Pleurisy root. About 2 ft., with most conspicuous erect clusters of brilliant orange flowers: leaves irregularly scattered on stems, or alternate, linear or lance-oblong, hairy, sessile: pods nearly erect, finely pubescent. Dry fields and hillsides. Summer. A. incarnata, Linn. Swamp milkweed. Fig. 245. A handsome milkweed of wet grounds: stems leafy, 2-5 ft.: leaves lanceolate or lance-oblong, acuminate, rather smooth, opposite: flowers rose-colored to white, sweetscented, in somewhat paniculate umbels: follicles erect, smooth. A. Cornuti, Decaisne. Common milkweed. Fig. 277. Stems 3-4 ft. high,
stout, very milky, usually simple, leafy: leaves large, oblong,
stiff',

downy beneath,
long, greenish-

4-8

in.

long, opposite, short-petioled

la

flowers }4

in.

lavender to or warty.

ender, with strong, sweet, but unpleasant odor: pods rough

ASCLEPIADACE^
A. purpurdscens, Linn.
long: flowers large

APOCYNACE^

387
brandling:
,'{-0

Stems

erect, 1-3 ft., leafy, simple or

leaves oblong or ovate-oblong to elliptical, pointed, short-petioled,

in.

{%

in.)

deep dull purple: pods smooth.

Stems simple, smooth, leafy: leaves oval, to lanceoval, opposite or whorled, petioled, pale beneath, umbels on downy peduncles: corolla white, hoods roundish, sometimes purplish. Dry woods. A. quadrifdlia, Linn. Stem 1-2 ft., nearly smooth, and leafy below: one or two whorls of 4-ovate, taper pointed, petioled leaves near middle, and above or below, a pair of smaller ones: umbels few, loose-flowered: flowers small, crown white, corolla white, tinged with pink. Slender.
A. varieg^ta, Linn.

XLIII.

APOCYNACE^. Dogbane

Family.

Herbs and woody plants, some of the commoner ones resembling Milkweeds, in having milky, acrid juice, and seeds crested with silky hairs, but filaments distinct, pollen granular, and corolla twisted (rather than volvate) in the bud: hairs: leaves chiefly opposite, entire, simple, without stipules: flowers regular and monopetalous, solitary or in cymes, 5-parted: ovary of 2 freo carpels: stigmas united. About one thousand species and one hundred and twenty genera.
A. Herbs erect: flowers in terminal cymes or corymbs AA. Half shrubby, trailing or erect plants: flowers solitary in axils
1.

Apocynum
Vinca

2.

AAA. Cultivated house and garden shrubs: erect: leaves opposite, or whorled in 3's
1.

'.

Neriutn

APOCYNUM, Dogbane.

Upright branching herbs, with reddish, fibrous bark: flowers small, white or pink, in terminal corymbs: leaves opposite, entire, acuminate: corolla bell-shaped, 5-Iobed, with 5 small, triangular scale-appendages within the tube, each alternating with one of the flve stamens attached at base of tube: ovaries 2, distinct: stigma 2-lobed: pods long, slender and full of seeds which are tufted with silky hairs at one end. Smooth plants, 2 to 4 or 5 ft. tall, with A. androssBiuifdlium, Linn. branches widely spreading, stems usually purplish leaves 2 to 4 in. long, ovate-acute, short-petioled: corolla small, % in. long, bell-form, with lobes, spreading or recurving, the tube exceeding the calyx. A very common
:

weed along hedge-rows,

in light

woodlands and clearings.

A. cann^binum, Linn, Indian hemj). More erect: leaves oblong or oblong-ovate: flowers erect, with the corolla lobes scarcely spreading, the tube about the length of the calyx.
2.

Banks and shores.

VINCA. Periwinkle.

Herbs, creeping or erect, and more or less woody: leaves mostly evergreen and opposite: flowers solitary, axillary, 5-parted: style 1: follicles 2,
erect, slender.

dao

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

V. minor, Linn. Periwinkle. Myrtle (improperly.) A familiar trailing plant of the garden, lawns and cemeteries, growing in shady places, and spreading by creeping sterns: leaves evergreen, oblong-ovate, shiny: flowers
solitary in axils, blue (rarely white), the corolla salver-form, about
1

in.

across.

Spring and early summer.

Erect, often 20 to 30
in.

V. rdsea, Linn.

high, rather

leaves ovate, obtuse, on long petioles:

flowers large, on

woody at base: slender axillary

all

pedicels, white, white with rose eye, or plain rose color: blooming

season

when grown
Trojdcs.
"A.

in the

house or conservatory, or

all

summer

in the garden.

NfiKIUM.

Oleander.

Shrubs from warm climates, much cultivated in windows and greenhouses: leaves lanceolate, leathery and stiff: flowers in terminal cymes, white or pink, single or double: corolla large, 1 to 2 in. salverform, the throat bearing 5 fringed or toothed scales: ovary of 2 carpels: stamens 5,
the anthers tipped with awn-like bristles. Common oleander. N. Olednder, Linn.
large, rose-color or white, not fragrant, with

Leaves lanceolate: flowers crown segments not fringed. Sweet oleander. Flower fragrant, and bearing crown segments which are more fringed, and long anther appendages.
N. oddrum, Soland.

XLIV. OLEACE^.

Olive Family.

Trees or shrubs: leaves simple or pinnately compound, opposite:

flowers various, but regular: calyx free from ovary, usually small and

4-lobed, or none: corolla regular, 4-parted, or of 4 distinct petals, or

none: stamens 2, with separate filaments inserted on petals, or hypogynous: ovary 2-celled: style one, if any.
A.

B.
^

Shrubs or very small trees: leaves simple: flowers perfect. 1 Flowers yellow

Forsythia

BB. Flowers white or lilac. c. Fruit a dry pod, loculicidal

CO. Fruit berry-like. D.

2.

Syringa

Klowers practically polypetalous: petals long, 3. Chionanthns narrow: flowers drooping lowers gamopetalous: corolla tube funnel4. Ligustrum form. 4-lobed: flowers erect AA. Large forest trees: leaves pinnately compound: flowers 5. Fraxinus imperfect, mostly dioecious: fruit a samara
DD.
H
1.

FORSYTHIA.
Ornamental shrubs from the Orient, with opposite simple or
trifoliolate

leaves: flowers perfect, the deciduous calyx and the bell-shaped corolla in 4
parts: stamens 2 on base of corolla: style short: pod 2-celled, many-seeded.

olleaceje

389

F. Tiridissima, Lindl. Strong hardy shrub, with green branches covered with showy yellow flowers, separate on pedicels in early spring before leaves appear: leaves simple, lance-oblong: corolla lobes narrow oblong' and spreading: style twice as long as stamens.
F. susp6n8a, Vahl. Branches slender and drooping: corolla-lobes larger and more spreading and style shorter than in preceding: leaves simple, broadly-ovate, also frequently trifoliolate on same bush.
2.

SYRlNGA.

Lilac.

tall, with leaves simple, entire, small fragrant flowers in close terminal panicles or thyrses: calyx 4-toothed: corolla salver-form, tube long: limb 4-lobed: stamens 2, on summit of corolla-tube: fruit a 4-seeded flattened pod, 2-valved: seeds flat-

Common

ornamental shrubs, usually

opposite:

many

somewhat winged or margined. No native species. The name Syringa sometimes popularly applied to Philadelphus. S. vulgS,ris, Linn. Common lilac. Well-known bushy shrub from eastern Europe: flowers purple, lilac to white in dense upright thyrses, very fragrant: leaves heart-shaped, entire, smooth. Persian lilac. Less bushy, and more slender than S. P6rsica, Linn. the common lilac: leaves lance-ovate, the bases tapering: and pale lilac or white flowers in loose clusters, appearing later.
tened,
is 3.

CHIONANTHUS.
Shrub or small

Fringe-tree.
tree

with

opposite,

simple, entire,

petioled

leaves:

flowers in large loose axillary rather drooping panicles: calyx small, per-

narrow petals, scarcely united at base: stamens 2-4, but scarcely adherent to corolla bxse: drupe usually 1-seeded. C. Virginica, Linn. Native to moist southern woods, but cultivated for ornament: leaves oval to oblong, 3-5 in. long: panicles with some leafy bracts: flowers conspicuous, in spring, appearing with leaves: petals
sistent: corolla white, with 4 long,
1

in.

long.

4.

LIGtSTRUM.
Stiff

Privet.

Prim.

shrubs or very small trees: leaves simple, entire, firm and thickish, flowers small, white, in terminal tliyrses or panicles: calyx small, minutely tootlied or truncate: corolla funnel-form, 4-lobed, spreading: stamens 2, inserted on corolla-tube: ovary 2celled:
short-petioled, opposite:
fruit a 1-4-seeded, black berry.

L. vulg&,re, Linn. Leaves thick, elliptic-lanceolate, abundant, persistent, but deciduous: flowers i<i'-in. wide and white: calyx smooth: berries black. Eastern Europe. Used mostly for hedges.
5.

FRAXINUS. Ash.
Deciduous
trees,

(Fig. 127.)

some

of

them valuable

for timber: leaves odd-pinnate,

petiolate: flowers small, insignificant, dioecious

(polygamous in some species), racemed or panicled the American species apetalous, appearing before or with the leaves: calyx 4-toothed, small, seldom wanting: stigma 2-clett: fruit a flat 1- (or 2-) celled key, winged. Several species.

990

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

F. Americana, Linn. White ash. Forest tree, 40-80 ft., with rough, blackish bark, and gray, smooth branches: leaflets 5-9, ovate or lance-oblong and acuminate, entire or sparingly serrate, pale or downy beneath, smooth above, the lateral leaflets stalked: flowers mostly dia?cious, apetalous: calyx

present in fertile flowers, and persistent: fruit with lanceolate wing at apex, base nearly cylindrical, the key l}^-2 in. long. F. pub6scens, Lam. Ked ash. A smaller tree than the white ash: young shoots and leaf petioles and lower leaf surfaces velvety -pubescent: calyx persistent on fertile flowers: fruit narrow, flattened at base, the edges dilated
into the oblanceolate wing. F. excelsior, Linn. European ash, often planted: leaflets 9-13, ovatelanceolate or oblong, acute, serrate: fruit oblong, often notched at end.

XLV. PRIMULACE^.

Primrose Family.

Low herbs with leaves radical or opposite: flowers perfect, regular, 5 parted, monopetalous: stamens 5, inserted in corolla-tube, each
opposite a lobe:
style

three central placentae.

A. Plants

and stigma 1: ovary 1-celled, superior, with About 300 species in sonae 25 genera.
Primula
Dodecathi'on

with

all

leaves basal: flowers on a scape.

B. Corolla-lobes

spreading

1.

BB. Corolla-lobes reflexed. C. Several fls. on the scape: stamens protruding

cc.

2.
3.

One

flower on the scape: stamens included

AA. Plants with leafy stems

4.

Cyclamen Lysimachia

L PElMULA. Primrose. Cowslip (of England). Auricula. Low perennial herbs, with radical leaves: flowers in an
umbel
in

involucrate

most

species, terminal

on a scape: calyx

5-cleft: corolla salver-

notched: stamens 5, with short of different lengths: capsules ovoid, opening by valves or teeth at the top. Native species rare, but a number of exotic primroses are much cultivated. P. Sinensis, Sabine. Downy greenhouse plant: flowers in umbels, large
sliaped, with 5 spreading lobes, entire or filaments included in corolla-tube, often

and showy, of different

colors, single or double: calyx large

and

inflated:

leaves cordate, 7-9-lobed, on long petioles. China. P. obc6nica, Hance. Leaves ovate-cordate: scapes a foot high, bearijig

notched

pink, purplish or whitish flowers in large clusters, the petals obconical and at the end: tube twice longer than the shallow-spreading calyx. The hairs on this plant are poisonous to some persons. Greenhouses. China. P. Fdrbesi, Franch. Bahy primrose. Scapes many and very slender,
in., loosely hairy, bearing small lilac or rose flowers in successive whorls on slender pedicels: leaves small and crowded at the crown, oblong, somewhat sinuate-toothed. Greenhouses. China. P. Poly^ntha, Hort. Polyanthus. Hardy Primulas, grown in borders foi

6-12

PRIMULACE^

ERICACE^
:

391

the early spring bloom, of hybrid origin leaves upright, oblong, tapering into a winged petiole, shallowly toothed, rugose beneath: flowers not much overtopping the leaves, tubular with spreading limb, in shades of yellow and red.
2.

DODECATHEON.
Smooth perennial herbs: leaves radical, simple, oblong or spatulate: umbel on erect, unbranching, leafless scapes,

flowers nodding in a terminal

with involucres of small bracts: calyx 5-cleft, lobes reflexed: corolla-tube very short, 5-parted, and the segments strongly reflexed: stamens 5, with shorts filaments, united at base, the anthers long, acute and uniting at tip, forming a cone: style exserted. D. Meadia, Linn. Shooting star. Wild in open woodland in Central States and South and West, also cultivated: resembles Cyclamen in the flowers, which are white or rose-purple, nodding on slender pedicels: scape 6 in.
to 2
3.
ft.

high.

CYCLAMEN.
:

ovate:

Glabrous plants from fleshy corm leaves all basal, rounded, cordate or scapes bearing (each) one nodding flower: corolla-limb 5-parted, lobes turning back: anthers 5, sessile, not exserted. Cultivated as house
plants, flowering in winter.
tate, thick, often

& Sm. (C. Persicmn). Leaves ovate, crenate-denmarked with white: flowers large, white, rose or purple, sometimes spotted, oblong. The florist's cyclamen.
C. latifdlium, Sibth.

4.

LYSIMACHIA.

Loosestrife.

Perennials with leaves opposite or whorled, entire, often glandulardotted: flowers yellow, solitary in axils, or panicled: calyx 5- to 7 parted corolla wheel-form: petals 5-7, nearly distinct: stamens 5-7, the filaments

somewhat connate

at base.

Wild

in

low grounds.

downy: leaves 3 or 4 in a whorl: flowers in terminal leafy .panicles; corolla-lobes glal)rous. Europe. CultiL. vulgaris, Linn.

Erect 2-3

ft.,

vated and escaped.

L. quadrifolia, Linn.
sile,

Erect, 1-2
in a

ft.,

hairy: leaves lanceolate-ovate, ses-

dotted,

commonly four

whorl: flowers yellow, with dark lines, on

slender pedicels, solitary from axils of upper leaves. Damp soil. L. nummul^ria, Linn. Moneywort. Trailing glabrous perennial: leaves round, opposite, on short petioles: flowers pure yellow, axillary, solitary, on
short peduncles: stamen filaments glandular, connate at base.
in

Running wild

moist places, often a weed in lawns.

XLVI. ERICACE.5:.

Heath Family

Plants of various kinds, many of them shrubs or shrubby herbs, some trees, perennial herbs, and parasites: leaves simple and often evergreen, or scale-like: flowers mostly perfect: corolla usually

392

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

monopetalous and 4- or 5-cleft: stamens hypogynous, as many or twice as many as petals, anthers usually opening by terminal pores: style 1 ovary generally as many celled as corolla has lobes. A large family, represented by Heaths, Cranberry, Azaleas, Arbutus, Laurel.
:

A. Shrubs, or creeping
B.

shrubby plants.
1.

Ovary
o.

inferior: fruit a berry.

cc.

Berry lO-seeded Berry many-seeded

2.

Gaylussacia Vaccinium

BB. Ovary superior.

c.

Low

creeping or procumbent.
3. 4.

D. Fruit berry-lilse: leaves aromatic

DD. Fruit dry

cc. Shrubs, erect.

GauUheria Epigwa

little pouches holding the anthers .5. Knlmia bell-shaped, no pockets: flowers from terminal, scaly buds 6. Azalea AA. Parasitic herbs, destitute of green fol'age, about the

E.

Corolla broadly open, with 10

EE. Corolla

roots of trees

7.

Monotropa

1.

GAYLUSSACIA. Low-bush Huckleberry.

Shrubs low and branching, leaves and branches sometimes witn resinous

dots: leaves alternate, entire or serrate: flowers in lateral racemes, small,

white or pink, nodding on bracted pedicels, in late spring: corolla bell-like or ovoid, with 5 lobes erect or reflexing: stamens 10, usually included: ovary 10-celled: fruit berry-like, containing 10 little stones, blue or black, sweet and edible, ripe in late summer. G. resindsa. Torr. & Gray. Highland huckleberrij. Shrub, 1 to 3 ft., with stiff branches and deciduous entire oval leaves, sprinkled with resinous dots: flowers, in one-sided racemes: corolla white, tinged with pink, cylindrical or somewhat 5-angled, and contracted at margin: berry
bhick, not glaucous.

Tangle-berry. Shrub 1 to 3 ft., with stiff G. fronddsa, Torr. & Gray. spreading branches: leaves oblong to obovate, thin, smootli and pale below, resinous-dotted: corolla white, tinged with pink, short: berry large, dark blue, with a bloom.
2.

VACClNIUM. Blueberry. Cranberry. Bilberry. High-bush Huckleberry.

Shrubs much resembling Gaylussacia, but the ovary only 4- to 5-celled, although appearing to have twice as many cells by false partitions: fruit a many-seeded berry, generally edible. Fruit ripe in summer and autumn. V. Pennsylvinicum, Lam. Divarf earl;/ blueberry. Shrub, 6 to 20 in., with sinootli green warty branches: leaves deciduous, lance-oblong, smooth and glossy, but edges serrated and tipped with little bristly spines: flowers

ERICACE^

393

in clusters, with corolla cylindrical, wliito or pink-tinged, 5-toothed: anthers 10, included: berry many seeded, blue-black with a bloom, edible. V. corymbdsum, Linn. High-bush, or swamp, huckleberry. Blueberry. Tiill busli, witli obloni^ or elliptical leaves: berries blue, sweei, usually with

a thick

l)Iooiii.

Cranberry. Creeping, slender, scarcely woody: lonj;;, evergreen, oval or oblong and margins rolled: flowers solitary, on slender erect pedicels, pale pinkish, deeper colored within, with 4 narrow reflexed segments.
V. macrocdrpon, Ait.
}/i

leaves small, about

in.

3.

GAULTHfiRIA. Wintergreen. Checkerberry.

Stem procumbent, with leafy branches erect: leaves alternate, evergreen and tasting spicj' and aromatic; flowers wliite or pink, nodding on axillary pedicels: corolla oblong or short-cylindrical with 5 short lobes; anthers 10,

awned

at top: fruit berry-like,

with capsule inside the thickened calyx.

all

G. procumbens, Linn.

Leaves oval or obovate, much sought for their

winter.
in.

spicy Havor, as well as the edible red, mealj' berries, which last
In low and evergreen woods, 6
4.

or less

tall.

EPIG.ffiA.

Trailing Arbutus.

Mayflower.

Trailing close to the ground, with rusty-hairy stems, and alternate

evergreen rounded leathery leaves: flowers dimorphous, in clusters at ends of branches, bracted, sessile: sepals 5, persistent but scale-like: corolla salver-forra, with 5 lobes: stamens 10: ovary 5-lobed. . ripens, Linn. A favorite flower of very early spring, white to pink, /4-in. broad, spicy-scented and wax-like, in small clusters from axils of the rusty leaves. Mostly North.
5.

KALMIA.

American Laurel.

Shrubs, native (belonging to East and South), with entire evergreen leaves: flowers in umbels: corolla open, saucer-like, 5-angIed with 10 little pits in which the anthers of the 10 stamens are caught until mature, or disturbed by insects, when the curved filaments spring upward, discharging the pollen: style long and slender. K. latifolia, Linn. Common mountain laurel. Stout shrub, 4-20 ft.: often forming great patches on wild or rocky hillsides; also cultivated: flowers about 1 in. across, rosy, or white and red-spotted, in terminal c( mpound corymbs: leaves mostly alternate, thick, acute, green on both sides, lance-ovate: lilooms in early summer. East and North. K. angustifblia, Linn. Sheep laurel. LambkiU. Low shrub with flowers about >2-in. across, crimson or purplish, in lateral corymbs: leaves narrow, obtuse, short petioled, opposite or in threes, pale beneath. Hillsides.
6.

AZALEA.
Shrubs, with deciduous leaves: flowers showy,
in terminal,

umbel-like

clusters: calyx minute, 5-parted

ally 5:

corolla cylindrical-tubed:

stamens usuclosely allied,

style

long,

slender,

exserted.

Rhododendron

is

394

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

10,

having evergreen leaves, stamens usually

exserted.

stamens and style usually not

A, viscdsa, Linn.
veins:
flowers in
plant.

Swamp

hnneysnckle.

leaves obovate, short-petioled, mostly smooth

Stems 4-10 ft., branching: above and downy on under

in.

summer

after the

leaves, fragrant, white. 1-2

long,

with slender tubes rather sticky-coated, the tube longer tlian the lobes.

swamp

A. nudifldra, Linn. Plnrter floiver. Shrub .3-6 ft., in swamps: flowers before or with leaves, rose-pink or white, fragrant, 1-2 in. across, the tube

about the length of the lobes. Bhodbra Canadensis, Linn., or Bhodod6ndron Rhoddra, Don, of New England, is a low shrub, 2-.'? ft., with fine large (1 in. wide) rose-colored flowers appearing before leaves.
'

7.

MONOTROPA.
Low
:

Indian Pipe.

Pine-sap.
in

herbs, parasitic on roots or saprophytic, no green about them, but

stem bearing small scales: flowers solitary or

racemes: sepals

2,

bract-

like petals 4 or 5 erect or spreading, wedge-shaped: stamens 8-10, hypogynous, anthers kidney-shaped: ovary 4-5-eelled, stigma radiate or disk-like. M. unifldra, Linn. Indian pipe. Corpse plant. Odd fleshy waxywhite little plants, turning black when drying: stem, 3-6 in. high, bent

over at the top with one nodding terminal flower. M. Hypdpitys, Linn. Pine-sap. In oak and pine woods: stems scaly, white or tawny red, 4-8 in. high, single or in groups: flowers several, small, rather fragrant, in a scaly raceme.

XLVII. RUBIACE.E.

Madder Family.

large and important family of herbs, shrubs, trees (including

Cinchona
in threes

Peruvian Bark, and Coffee) leaves opposite, or with stipules between, or apparently whorled without
or
:

stipules:

flowers perfect,

sometimes dimorphous (of two sorts) or

trimorphous: calyx-tube adherent to ovary, margin 3- to G-toothed: corolla regular, inserted on calyx-tube, and of same number of lobes: stamens of equal number as corolla- lobes and alternate with them: ovary 1- to 10-celled: fruit a capsule, berry or drupe. A large family

(some 5,000 species), largely

A.

tropical.

Leaves 4-8 in a whorl: no apparent stipules: fruit 2 nutlets, bur-like, or sometimes berry-like 1. Galium Leaves aa. opposite (or whorled), with stipules. B. Flowers in pairs, axillary: fruit a double berry:
creeping
BB. Flowers solitary, or in terminal clusters: not creep2.

Mitchella

ing BBB. Flowers in round heads

3. 4.

HnHston ia
VephaUtnlhia,

RUBIACE^
1.

395

OALIUM. Cleavers. Bedstraw.

Frail herbs, with square stems, often priciily or roTig:h on angles and edges of leaves, usually diffusely branching: leaves apparently whorled and without stipules: flowers small or minute, sometimes dioecious, in cymes or panicles, axillary or terminal: calyx minutely 4-Iobed: corolla 3- to 4-lobed: stamens 3 to 4: ovary 2-ceiled: fruit small, double, dry or fleshy, berry-like, indehiscent, or sometimes with only 1 carpel ripening. Many species. G. aspr611um, Michx. Weak, reclining, or nearly erect branching perennial, the angles of stems with backwark-pointing prickles: leaves small, not 1 in. long, whorled in 4's or 5's on branches, usually 6 on stem: edges and mid-ribs rough with prick es: flowers tiny, white, numerous, loosely clustered at end of branches: fruit small, smooth. G. circa^zans, Michx. Wild liquorice. Perennial, branching, ascending stems with leaves in 4's, not prickly: leaves oval to oblong, obtuse, more or less pubescent, an inch or more long: flower.s dull greenish or brownish, on very short pedicels in branched cymes: fruit on reflexed pedicels, bristly: root and leaves with sweetish taste. Dry woods. Common. G. Aparine, Linn. Cleavers. Goose orass. Annual, stems weak, prostrate, scrambling, and diffuse, with backward-pointing barbs on angles: small lanceolate leaves, 6 to 8 in a whorl, about 1 in. long, rough on edges and midrib: peduncles axillary, 1- to 3-flowered: flowers tiny, white or greenish: fruit a dry little bur, covered with hooked prickles, on erect pedicels. Low ground or thickety woodland.
2.

MITCHflLLA. Partridge-berry. Squaw-vine.

Trailing, evergreen-leaved herb: leaves opposite, round-ovate, dark-green,

smooth and glossy, entire, on short petioles: flowers small, dimorphous, in pairs, on a double ovary (2 ovaries united) from leaf axils: corolla funnelform, 4-parted, bearded within, white with pink tips to lobes: stamens and
stigmas
4: fruit a

M. rdpens, Linn. fragrant and delicate,

3.

double scarlet berry, each berry with 4 seeds or stones. A pretty little creeper of woods in the North: flowers in June, the double scarlet berries found all winter.

HOUSTONIA. Bluets.
Low,
delicate little herbs, with stems erect, simple or branching; leaves

opposite, entire, stipules entire and short, or a

of the opposite leaves; flowers generally

mere

line

connecting bases

dimorphous in respect to anthers and stigmas, small, solitary or clustered: calyx 4-toothed: corolla tubular, rotate, 4-lobed: stamens 4 on corolla: fruit a short pod, 2-eelled, manyseeded, opening at the top, upper part free from calyx. H. coeriilea, Linn. Perennial, 3-6 in., the stems erect, very slender, in tufts, from slender rootstocks: leaves sessile, oblong or spatulate, M-3^ in. long, often hairy: flowers blue to white, with yellow centers, solitary on peduncle. Early spring to summer, very floriferous.
4.

CEPHALANTHUS.

Button-bush.

Shriihs (or small trees): leaves entire, opposite or verticillate: flowers

small and many, white or yellow,

close

round heads, on peduncles: calyx

396

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

4-toothed: corolla tubular, with 4 short lobes: stamens 4 on corolla throat: style long and exserted: fruit, small, dry, inversely pyramidal.
C. OCcidentEllis,

Linn.

Tall shrub with leaves in 2's or 3's, oval-pointed,

1

petioled. with

diameter.

stipules between: heads of whitish flowers about Usually along streams and pond banks.

inch in

XLVIII.

CAPRIFOLIACE^.

Honeysuckle Family.

Erect or twining shrubs, or sometimes herbs, with opposite mostly simple leaves: flowers epigynous, 5-merous, regular or irregular,
tubular or rotate: stamens usually as

many

as the lobes of the corolla

and inserted on
plants
are

its

tube: ovary 2-5-loculed, ripening into a berry,

drupe, or capsule.

honeysuckle,

About 15 genera and 200 species. Characteristic viburnum, snowberry, weigela, elder,

twin -flower,
A, Corolla long-tubular.
B.

Fruit a berry (often two together) several-seeded: leaf

margins entire or wavy edged: sometimes connate.

leaf

.1.

Lonicera
Diervilla

BB. Fruit a linear-oblong capsule, 2-valved, many-seeded:

margin serrate

2.

AA. Corolla shallow, usually rotate. B. Leaves simple

BB. Leaves pinnately
1.

3. 4.

compound

Viburnum Sambucus

LONlCERA. Honeysuckle.
Erect or twining shrubs, with tubular, funnelform, more or less irregular corolla bulging on one side near the base: stamens
:

flowers (often 2-lipped)

5: fruit

a berry, usually 2 together from 2 contiguous

flowers.
^.

^-^-^^
Ere.i.
'-'

Muhl. Open, smooth bush, 3-5 ft. leaves

L. ciliata,
:

C'"'^->P^

dfl^'^?^
^~

^^^\% fX^T "

(7^^--

cordate

oblong, not sharp-

pointed, entire: flowers less

than 1 in. long, soft yellow the lobes nearly equal ber:

ries red.

Common
in

in woods.

"95.

Loniceia Japonica.

Blooms

very early spring. Tartarian honeysuckle. L. TatArica, Linn.

Fig. 85.

Tall shrub (to

12 ft.):

leaves cordate-oval, not long-pointed, entire: flowers pink or red Asia, but com(sometimes nearly white), 2-lipped, all the lobes oblong.
in yards.

mon

Spring.

CAPKIFOLIACE^
aa.

397

Twining.
Fig. 495.

L. Japbnica,

Thunb. (L. Halliana of gardens).

Weak

twiner,

with oblong or ovate entire nearly evergreen leaves: flowers small, on short pedicels, fragrant, opening white or blush but changing to yellow. Japan;

much

cultivated.

Probably the commonest of the old-fashioned climbing honeysuckles (from Old World) strong and woody: leaves oblongovate, not joined by their bases, entire, dark green above and pale beneath: flowers large, reddish outside and yellow inside, very fragrant, in a dense,
L. Pericl^menum, Linn.
:

Trumpet or coral honeysuckle. Fig. 134. Glabrous twining shrub, with leaves evergreen, oblong, entire, glaucous, upper pairs joined at base about the stem, appearing perfoliate: flowers nearly sessile, in rather distant whorled clusters on terminal spikes, the corolla trumpet-shape, tube almost regularly 5-lobed, lK-2 in. long, scarlet without, yellowish within: stamens and style not much, if any projecting. Moist or
low ground, often cultivated.
2.

long-stalked cluster. L. semp6rvirens, Ait.

DIERVlLLA.

Pu.^h Honeysuckle.

Erect, low shrubs or bushes: leaves simple, opposite, ovate or oblong,

acute-pointed, serrate, deciduous: flowers in axillary or terminal cymes, or

calyx-tube slender, limb of 5 slender, persistent lobes: corolla funnel-form, 5 lobes almost regular: stamens 5: ovary inferior, 2-celled, 1 filiform style: fruit slender 2-cened many-seeded pod, crowned with
solitary:

calyx.

D. trifida, Moench.

Bushy shrub,

1-4

ft.:

leaves oval to ovate, taper:i-

pointed, on short petioles: peduncles terminal or in upper axils, mostly

flowered: corolla slender, tubular, greenish-yellow {honey color), not over

in. long.

Banks. Summer.

Weigela. Shrub, 2-8 ft.: leaves oval, acute coarsely rough above and soft below, short-petioled: flowers funnellong: tube downy without: 5-lobed: the limb spreading. A group of common garden shrubs, derived from two or more Japanese
D. h^brida, Hort.
in.

serrate, rather

form, 1-1^

species, with white, pink or red

3.

showy

flowers.

VIBURNUM. Akrowwood.
Erect shrubs, with simple leaves and small whitish flowers in broad 5: stigmas 1-3: fruit a small 1-seeded drupe
a.

cymes: stamens

Flowers

all alike in the

cyme.

Fig. 279. Tall shrub (to 20 ft.): leaves ovate-pointed, finely and sharply serrate, shining above, on long margined petioles: fruit >^ in. or more long, black. Common. V. acerfdlium, Linn. Dockmackie. Arrowwood. Six ft. or less: leaves 3 lobed and maple-like, downy beneath: cyme small and slender-stalked fruit flat and small. Woods.

V. Lentigo, Linn.

Black haw.

Sheepberrij.

398
aa.

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Flowers lanjer on
(he

margin

of the

cyme.

v. Opulus, Linn. Uigh-bush cranberry. Erect, 10 ft. or less: leaves 3lobed and toothed: outer flowers sterile and large: fruit an acid red edible

Swamps. In cultivation all the flowers have become sterile, resulting in the "snowball." Compare Figs. 23G, 237. V. tomentdsum, Thunb. V. plicafum of gardens). Japanese snoxvbaU.
drupe.
(

plicate: heads of sterile flowers Japan. Uohbhbush. About 5 ft., with straggling V. lantanoides, Michx. branches, often arching to ground and rooting, thus making loops or "liobbles": flowers resemble those of wild hj-drangea, in flat topped-eymes, with marginal flowers larger, sterile and showy, white: leaves very large, rounder heart-shaped, finely serrate, petioles and veinlets scurfy: drupes
axillary, globular.

Leaves not lobed, shallow-toothed, thickish,

coral-red,
4.

becoming purple, not

edible.

Cold woods and swamps.

SAMBtJCUS.

Elder.

Strong shrubs, with pinnate leaves and sharp-serrate leaflets: flowers in dense corymbose cymes: calyx- teeth very small or none: corolla shallow, open: stamens 5: stigmas 3: pith prominent in the stems. Common. Jfed elder. Pith and berries red- flowers in spring S. racemdsa, Linn. in pyramidal clusters: leaflets lanceolate, downy beneatn. S. Canad^nsiB, Linn. Common elder. White elder. Pith white: berries black-purple, in late summer, edible: flower-clusters convex or nearly flat, in summer: leaflets oblong, smooth.

XLIX.

CAMPANULACE^. Bell-flower

Family.

Herbs (with us): leaves alternate, simple, without stipules: flowers regular

and perfect, mostly bell-shaped

5, distinct:

angled: calyx 5-lobed: stamens

corollas, 5-lobed or 5ovary 2-5-celled: style 1:

stigmas 2 to 5: fruit a capsule.

Some

1,200 or

more

species.

A. Corolla (of the conspicuous flowers) wheel-shape: early 1. Specularia flowers not opening (cleistogamous) 2. Campanula AA. Corolla bell-form: flowers all alike

\.

SPECULARIA.

Animal herbs, with erect, angled stems, simple or branching: leaves entire or toothed: flowers sessile or nearly so, axillary, solitary or clustered, the early ones cleistogamous and small, the later expanding, light blue, 51obed, wheel-shaped corolla: stamens with flattened hairy filaments,
shorter than the anthers.
S. perfoli&ta,

leafy, the leaves

flowers solitary,

DC. Stems erect, simple or branched, 10 in. to 3 ft, tall, rounded heart-shaped or broadly ovate, with clasping bases: More or less weedy. 2 or 3 together in leaf axils.

CAMPANULACE^

LOBELIACE^

399

Venus^ looking-glass. Low garden annual, with stem S. Speculum, DC. branching diffusely: flowers purplish lilac to rose-colored or white, solitary and terminal: leaves oblong, crenate.
2.

CAMPANULA. Bell-flower. Harebell.

Flowers solitary or racemed or spiked, blue or white, not cleistogamous:

calyx 5-lobed: corolla bell-shaped: pod roundish, opening at sides (Fig. 25G;. C. aparinoides, Pursh. A weak, reclining, perennial, Galium-like, found among grasses in moist meadows: stem very slender, triangular, angles

bearing rough backward-pointing prickles: leaves snuill, lance-linear, entire: flowers very small, about }4-m. long, white, on spreading pedicels. Common harebell. Perennial from slender rooi C. rotundifdiia, Linn. stocks, nearly or quite glabrous, 5-12 in. high: root-leaves rounded or cordate, often withering before blooming season, the stem-leaves linear to narrow lanceolate, entire: flowers few or solitary on slender pedicels, nodding when open: corolla bell-shaped, with pointed lobes, J^-%-in. long, blue. Rocky places, northward. C. Medium. Linn. Canterhurg hell. Cultivated from Europe, annual or biennial, erect to 3 ft., rather hairy, branching or simple: leaves lanceolate, rather coarsely-toothed: flowers 2-3 in. long, single or double, blue: ttigmas 5: sepals leafy-appendaged at base.

L.

LOBELIACE^.

Lobelia Family.

Herbs: leaves alternate or radical, simple: flowers scattered, racemed or panieled, often leafy-bracted: calyx-tube adherent to ovary: corolla irregular, monopetalous, 5-lobed, usually split on one side: stamens 5, usually united, at least by anthers, about the one style: stigma 2-lobed: fruit a capsule, loculicidally 2-valved.

LOBELIA.
Flowers often showy, axillary and solitary, or in terminal bracted racemes: corolla as if 2-lipped: stamens generally unequal, monadelphous, 2 or all of the 5 anthers bearded at the top. Many species. Cardinal flower. Indian pink. A showy plant L. cardinalis, Linn. of swamp}- or moist soil, also cultivated: tall, simple stem, 2-4 ft., with showy, deep-red flowers (rarely pale colored), about 1 in. long, bracted, in terminal racemes: leaves sessile, lance-oblong, slightly toothed. L. Erinus, Linn. The common, pretty, annual trailing or spreading Lol)elia of gardens and greenhouses: flowers many, small, very blue, usually with white throats (varying to whitish): lower leaves spatulate: upper narrow, toothed. Stem erect to 1-3 ft., angular, heavy: loaves L. syphilitica, Linn. oblong-ovate, irregularly serrate: flowers in terminal, leafy raceme: flowers
intense blue (or white),
1

in.

or

more long: calyx hairy

or hispid, lobes

400

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Perennial, in low or marshy grounds or along Late summer. L. spicita, Lam. Erect smoothish stems, 1-3 ft., sparingly leafy, the terminal raceme with linear, small bracts: leaves oblong, upper small and narrow: flowers small, pale blue: calyx-lobes not auricled at base, entire. Dry, sandy soil. L. inflata, Linn. Indian tobacco. Erect, 9-12 in., rather hairy, branching: leaves ovate, toothed: flowers small, /^-in. long, pale blue, in loose, racemes, leaf y-braeted capsules inflated, large. Common in fields: juice purgentpoisonous.
auricled at base, dentate.

streams.

LL COMPOSITE.
Mostly herbs,

Composite or Sunflower Family.

many

of

them very

flowers small, densely packed into

large, very various in foliage: an involucrate head, 5-merous:

the corolla of the outer ones often developed into long rays: stamens
5,

the anthers united around the 2 styles:

largest of all

fruit

dry and 1-seeded,

indehiscent, usually crowned with a pappus which represents a calyx.

The

phenogamous

families, comprising about one-tenth

of all
specie^.
set,

flowering plants,

Common

dahlia,

about 800 genera and 11,000 to 12,000 composites are sunflower, aster, goldenrod, bonechrysanthemum, marigold, compass plant,

dandelion, lettuce.
A.
all flowers strap-shaped (with rays) and perfect: juice milky: leaves alternate. B. Flower heads terminal on leafless, hollow stalk from radical leaves BB. Flower-heads terminal on leafy stalks: leaves parallel-veined BBB. Flower-heads in corymbs or clusters. c. Heads never yellow (usually blue or white):

Head with

1.

Tarazacnm
Tragopogoti

2.

cc.

pappus of blunt scales* Heads usually yellow (in one case blue), pappus copious, white, u. Akeues beaked:
:

3.

Cichorium

soft, hair-like leaves sometimes bristly or prickly edged DD. Akenes not beaked. E. Pappus soft, white: leaves usually auricled and clasping at base, and prickly on edges and under ribs EE. Pappus stiff, brownish, leaves not spiny. AA. Heads with tubular and mostly perfect disk flowers, the rays, if any, formed of the outer strap-shaped and imperfect flowers: in cultivated species, all the flowers may become strap-shaped (head "double "): juice not milky.

4.

Lactuca

5. 6.

Sonchus Hieracium

COMPOSITE
B. Fruit a completely closed

401

and bur-like involucre,

containing 1 or 2 small akenes: flowers imperfect (see also No. 23). c. Involucre-bur large, and sharp-spiny cc. Involucre-bur small, not sharp-spiny IB. Fruit not formed of a closed and hardened involucre (although the involucre
as in Arctium and Cnicus).
c.

7.

8.

Xantliium Ambrosia

may

be spiny,

Pappm
D.
E.

none: akenes not awned.

The leaves opposite.

Leaves simple: ttovver-heads small: flowers blue or white
9.

Ageratum

compound: flower-heads large, various colors, mostly of ray florets. 10. Dahlia EEE. Leaves dissected: heads showy 11. Cosmos EEEE. Leaves various: rays usually about 8, neutral and yellow. (See CoreopEE. Leaves
sis 21).

DD. The leaves alternate.

E.

Foliage finely divided.

F.

Heads small (about

flattened

in.):

akenes
12.

Achillea

PF.

Heads

good - sized (about 1 in.): akenes oblong, angled or ribbed. 13. Anthem is

BE. Foliage leaves entire, toothed, or broad-

lobed.
F.

FF.

Akenes curved or horse-shoe-shaped. 14. Calendula Akenes straight. 15. Chrysanthemun) G. Torus flat or slightly convex
GG. Torus conical. H. Rays yellow:
2-3 in
flowers
large:

]G. Rudbeckia HH. Rays not yellow: flowers abo.t 17. Bellis lin. acriss: plant low 18. Helianthus CO. Pappus of 2 thin early deciduous scales ccc. Pappus a short crown, or akenes awned at the top with 2 (or more) awns, n. Akenes angled or ribbed, crowned with cuplike or loKed pappus: foliage strongly
" tansy " scented 19. Tanacefum DD. Akenes more or less flattened, and awned at summit, with usually 2 or 4 awns.

E.

Awns barbed downward akenes

:

various,
20.

narrowed
EE. Teeth

at

top,

and awned, but

not really beaked

Bidens

not downwardly barbed: (sometimes akenes awnless) 21. Coreopsis

402

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Plant very prickly
E.

cccc. Pappus of luauy bristles.

D.

22.

Cnicus

DD. Plant not prickly.

Involucre prickly and bur-like

F.

23.

Arcthim

EE. Involucre not bur-like or prickly.

Torus bristly (chaff or bracts amongst

the florets) 24, Centaurea Torus naked. G. Rays present. H. Flowers yellow. I. Leaves all radical rays numerous and fertile ..25. Tiissilago II. Leaves on stems, alternate.
:

FF.

J.

Heads

small,

in

large

clusters or panicles. 26. Solidago

jj.

Heads large and broad:

leaves large on stem

and
I.

in a basal

clump. 27. Inula

HH. Flowers not yellow.

Scales of the involucre un-

equal
II.

28. 29.

Scales equal in length

Aster rigeron
CaUistephtts

III.

Scales in several rows, more

or less leafy
GG. Rays none.
H. Plants cottony-white, or

30.

downy-

looking.
I.

Heads mostly
J.

dicecious.

Leaves basal and also on stem: pappus thickened at sun)mit and more or less barbed

JJ.

Stems

plumed ..31. Antennaria leafy: pappus not thickened at summit some sterile flowers,
or

usually in center of the fertile heads 32. Anaphalis

n.

Heads not
perfect

dioecious: outer

flowers pistillate, central

33.

Onaphalium

HH. Plants not cottony-white. showy, spiI. Flower -heads cate or racemed, rosepurple:
nate
leaves
alter-

34. Liatris

COMPOSIT.E
II.

403
small,
in

Flower
J.

heads

cymes or corymbs,
Flowers
white
or pale

purple:
33.

leaves
:

mostly opposite 35. Hupatorium leaves Flowers purple alternate 36. Vernonia

1.

TABAXACUM.

Dandelion.

Stemless herbs, the 1-headed scape short, leafless and hollow: florets all perfect and strap-shaped: fruit ribbed, the pappus raised on a long beak. T. officinale, Weber {T. Dens-leonis, Desf.). Common dandelion. Figs. 8, 275. Perennial, introduced from the Old World: leaves long, pinnate or lyrate: heads yellow, opening in sun.
2.

TKAGOPdGON. Goat's Beard.

Biennials or perennials, stout, smooth, often glaucous, with long, grassstem: flowers all ligulate, in large solitary heads,

like leaves clasping the

bracts, which
series, long
5- to

purple or yellow, terminal on long peduncle, with single involucre of many are equal and lanceolate, joined at bases: pappus in one

and plumose: akenes

linear,

mostly with long slender beaks,

10-ribbed or angled: flowers open in early morning, usually closed at

.Juice milky.

midday.

much

Salsify. Oyster plant. Biennial; involucral bracts longer than the rays: stems 2 to 3 ft. high, hollow and thickened upward: flowers purple. Europe. Cultivated for the edible tap-root. SomeT. porrifdliuB, Linn.

times wild.
T.

prat^nsis,

Linn.

Similar

to

preceding,

but

flowers yellow

and

involucral bracts not longer than rays.

Europe.

Fields and waste places,

Eastern and Middle States.

3.

CICHORIUM. Chicory.
Tall,

strap-shaped:
chaffy scales.

branching perennials, with deep, hard roots: florets perfect and fruit lightly grooved, with sessile pappus of many small,

C. tntybus, Linn.

Common

chicory.

Runs wild along roadsides (from

lowest pinnatifld:

Europe):
branches.
4.

2 to 3 ft.:

leaves oblong or lanceolate, the

flowers bright blue or pink, 2 to 3 together in the axils on long nearly naked

LACTtCA. Lettuce.

Coarse weedy plants: stems tall and leafy, simple or branching, carrying small panicled heads of insignificant flowers: juice milky: stem leaves alternate, entire, or pinnately divided with lobes and margins and under midrib often spine-tipped: involucre cylindrical, with bracts in 2 or more unequal rows; flowers all lig\ilate and perfect, with the ligules truncate and
5-toothed
:

akenes oval to linear, flattened,

3- to 5-ribbed

on each face, smooth,

404

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

pappus abundant, white or brownish and
in rich soil, 3 to 9
ft. tall:

abruptly narrowed into a beak:

soft.

L. Canadensis, Linn.

Common

leaves smooth,

lanceolate

sinuate, or runcinately pinnatified, the radical leaves petiolate all smooth and glaucous; flowers pale yellow, in small heads (/4 to K in- long), the heads more or
to

spatulate,

sessile or

clasping, margins

entire,

Biennial or annual. acuminata, Gray. Three to 8 ft. leaves ovate to lanceolate, pointed and serrate, teeth mucronate, sometimes hairy on under midrib, the petioles winged, more or less sinuate or clasping and arrow-shaped: inflorescence a panicle of numerous small heads: rays bluish: akenes short-beaked or beakless: pappus brownish. Biennial or annual. L. Scariola, Linn. Prickly lettuce. Glabrous and rather glaucous-green, with tall, stiff, erect stem, branching, usually somewhat prickly: leaves oblong or spatulate, dentate or pinnatified, sessile, or auricled and clasping, with margins and under midrib spiny: heads small, 6 to 12-flowered, but numerous, the rays yellow: involucre narrow, cylindric: akenes flat, ovateoblong, with long filiform beak. Europe. A common coarse biennial weed. L, sativa, Linn. Garden lettuce. Cultivated for the tender root-leaves as a salad: flowers yellow on tall small-leaved stems.
less diffusely panicled.
L.
:

5.

S6NCHUS. Sow Thistle. Milk Thistle.

Coarse, succulent weeds, smooth and glaucous or spiny, with leafy stem, resembling wild lettuce, but akenes truncate, not beaked, and the flowers always yellow: involucre bell-shape in several unequal series: rays truncate, 5-toothed. All from Europe. S. oleraceus, Linn. Annual, from fibrous roots, 1-5 ft., with pale yellow flowers in heads %-l inch in diameter: leaves various, mostly on lower part of stem, petiolate or clasping by an auricled base, the lobes acute: in shape lanceolate to lyrate-pinnatified, margins spinulous. Perennial with creeping rootstoeks: flowers bright S. arv6nsi8, Linn. yellow in showy heads: leaves various, but spiny on nuirgins, and generally with clasping, auricled bases: bracts of the involucre bristly. Annual weed: resembles S'. 8. dsper, Vill. Spiny -leaved sow thistle. oleraceus closely, but the clasping auricles are rounded at base, stem leaves

not so divided and more spiny.

C.

HIERACIUM. Hawkweed.
Hairy, or glandular-hispid, or glabrous perennials, with radical or alter-

nate entire leaves: head of 12-20 yellow or orange ligulate flowers, solitary or panicled: involucre in one or several series, unequal: rays truncate and
5-toothed: akenes oblong, striate, not beaked: pappus single or double, delicate,

tawny, or brownish,

stiff,

not plumose. Large

number of

species widely

spread.

vendsum, Linn. Rattlesnake-weed. Smooth, slender, leafless or with 1 or few leaves, 1-2 ft., forking into a loose, spreading corymb of heads: leaves thin, glaucous, radical and tufted, or near base on stem, oblong or

COMPOSITE
oval,

405
sometimes purplish or

nearly entire,

slightly

petioled or sessile,
linear, not nar-

marked with purple veins: akenes rowing upward. Dry woods.

H. aurantiacum, Linn. Oroiige hawktveed. A very bad weed in meadows east, from Europe: hirsute and glandular: leaves narrow: heads deep orange: akenes oblong, blunt.
7.

XANTHIUM.

Clotbur.

Coarse homely annual weeds with large alternate leaves, flowers monoecious in small involucres
:

sterile

involucres composed of separate scales, in

fertile involucres of
,

, 496.

^ ,, Canadense. Xanthium
.

,,

short racemes:

united scales

forming a closed body, clustered in the leaf axils, becoming spiny burs. X. Canad6nse, Mill. Common clotbur. Fig. 496. One to 2 ft., branching: leaves broad-ovate, petioled, lobed and toothed: burs oblong-conical, Waste places. 1 in. long, with 2 beaks. X. spindsum, Linn. Spiny clotbur. Pubescent, with three spines at the base of each leaf: bur 3^ in, long, with 1 beak. Tropical America.
8.

AMBROSIA.

Ragweed. Homely strong-smelling weeds, monoecious:

sterile

involucres in racemes on the ends of the branches, the

scales united into a cup: fertile involucres clustered in

the axils of leaves or bracts, containing 4-8 horns or projections near the top.

1 pistil, with Following are

annuals:

A. artemisiaefdlia, Linn. Common ragweed. Fig. One to 3 ft., very branchy: leaves opposite or alternate, thin, once- or twice-pinnatifid fruit or but globular, with 6 spines. Roadsides and waste places.
497.
:

497.

Ambrosia artem
isisefolia.

A. trifida, Linn. Great ragweed. Three to 12 ft., with opposite 3-lobed serrate leaves: fruit or bur obovate, with 5 or 6 tubercles. Swales.

9.

AGERATTTM.

Ageratum.

Small diffuse mostly hairy herbs, with opposite simple leaves: heads small, blue, white or rose, rayless, the involucre cup-shaped and composed narrow of bracts torus flattish pappus of a few rough bristles. A. conyzoides, Linn. {A Mexicanum of gardens). Annual pubescent herb, with ovate-deltoid serrate leaves: cultivated (from tropical America) for small and numerous clustered soft heads.
: :

10.

DAHLIA.
Stout familiar garden herbs,
tall

and branching, from tuberous roots:

leaves opposite, pinnately divided: ray flowers in natural state are neutral
or pistillate and fertile: disk flowers perfect: involucre double, outer scales

406

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

pappus

distinct and leaf -like, the inner united at base: receptacle chaflfy:

none. In the big cultivated dahlias, most of the flowers are rays. D. variflbilis, Desf. Fig. 232. Several feet, with fine large heads of flowers, colors various: heads solitary: leaves pinnate, leaflets unequal, Mexico. 3-7, ovate acuminate, coarsely serrate.
11.

C6SM0S. Handsome

tall

plants, 4-5

ft.

high, cultivated for the fine foliage and late

flowers: leaves opposite, very finely dissected, thrice-compound, the leaflets extremely narrow, and sessile: flower head with double involucre: the outer bracts dark green, calyx-like, 8 in number, the inner scales erect, with recurved tips: ray flowers, usually 8, neutral, white, pink: disk flowers perfect, tubular, yellow: receptacle chafi'y: akenes flattened, beaked. Mexico. C. bipinn^tus, Cav. Rays 1 2 in. long, crimson, rose or white, the disk

yellow.
C.
12.

The commonest

species.

sulphureus, Cav.

Both rays and disk yellow.

ACHILLEA. Yarrow. Low perennial or annual

:

or rose, with fertile rays

flattish, chaflfy:

scales of involucre overlapping

herbs: heads corymbose, many-flowered, white imbricated) torus

(
:

Stems simple below, but branching at the top into a large rather dense umbel-like flower cluster: leaves very dark green, twieepinnatified into very fine divisions rays 4-5. Fields everywhere.
:

pappus none. Farrow. A. Millefdlium, Linn.

13.

ANTHEMIS. Chamomile.
Strong-scented, branching

herbs

raany-flowered heads, solitary on peduncles:

pistillate or neutral, the

with finely pinnatified leaves and ray flowers white or yellow,

2- to

edge of corolla entire or

3-toothed

disk flowers

perfect, fertile, yellow, corolla 5cleft:

receptacle convex, partially chaflfy:

involucral bracts small, dry, in several series, outermost shortest: akenes round or ribbed, smooth: pappus none or a slight border. A. Cdtula, DC. May-weed. Annual, bushy, erect, 1-2 ft.: heads terminal, corymbed, 1 in. broad: rays usually white, neutral: disk flowers yellow: leaves alternate, mostly sessile, finely pinnatified. Roadsides. Europe.
14.

CALENDULA.

Pot Marigold.

Erect, quick-growing annuals, with terminal large yellow or orange heads

with pistillate rays: involucre of many short green scales: torus flat: pappus none: akenes of the ray florets (those of the disk florets do not mature) curved or coiled. C officinalis, Linn. Common pot marigold. A common garden annual from the Old World, with alternate entire sessile oblong leaves: 1-2 ft.
15.

CHRYSANTHEMUM. Chrysanthemum.

Erect herbs, annual or perennial, with alternate lobed or divided leaves i rays numerous, pistillate and ripening seeds: torus usually naked, flat or

convex: pappus none,

COMPOSITiE
a.

407
winged.

Akenes

of

ray

florets

C. morildlium,

Ram.

(C. Sinense, Sabine).

Greenhouse chrysanthemum.

Tall and mostly strict, with lobed, firm and long-petioled alternate leaves:

flowers exceedingly various.

aa.

China.

C.
nial,

Akenes not winged. Leucdnthemum, Linn. Whiteweed. Ox-eye daisy. Fig. 169. Perenwith many simple stems from each root, rising 1-2 ft., and bearing al:

heads terminating the ternate oblong sessile pinnatifid leaves stems, with long white rays and yellow disks. Fields everywhere
in the East,
16.

and spreading West.

KUDBfiCKIA.

Cone flower.

Perennial or biennial herbs, with alternate leaves and showy yellow-rayed terminal heads: ray florets neutral: scales of involucre in about 2 rows, leafy and spreading torus long or coni:

cal,

with a bract behind each floret: akenes 3-angled, with no prominent pappus. B. hirta, Linn. Brown-eyed Susan. Ox-eye daisy in the East. Fig. 498. Biennial, 1-2 ft., coarse-hairy, leaves oblong or oblanceolate,

nearly entire, 3-nerved

rays as long as the involucre or

longer, yellow, the disk brown: torus conical.

Dry

fields.

B. lacini^ta, Linn. Two to 7 ft., perennial, smooth, branching: leaves pinnate, with 5-7-lobed leaflets, or the upper ones 3-5. 493 jjy^. parted: rays 1-2 in. long: torus becoming columnar. Low places, beckiahirta.
17.

BfiLLIS.

Garden Daisy.

Low

tufted herbs with many-flowered heads, solitary on scapes: leaves

spatulate, petioled: flowers both radiate and tubular, mostly double, with margins of the rays various, quilled, and otherwise modified in the cultivated forms: ray flowers white or pink, pistillate: disk flowers yellow, perfect with tubular corolla, limb 4- to 5-toothed: akenes flattened, wingless, nerved near margins. B. per^nnis, Linn. English daisy. European garden daisy. Fig. 185. Flower-head on a scape 3 to 4 inches high, from radical leaves, % to 1 in. in diameter with numerous linear rays, white, pink, bluish. Europe. Perennial. Cultivated in gardens or on lawns. April to November.
18.

HELIANTHUS. Sunflower.

Stout, often coarse perennials or annuals, with simple alternate or opposite leaves and large yellow-rayed heads: ray florets neutral: scales of involucre overlapping, more or less leafy: torus flat or convex, with a bract

embracing each floret: akene 4-angle(l: pappus of two scales (sometimes 2 other smaller ones), which fall as soon as the fruit is ripe.
a.

Disk

broicn.

H. dnnuus, Linn. Common sunflower. Tall, rough, stout annual, with mostly alternate stalked ovate-toothed large leaves: scales of involucre

408

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

ovate-acuminate, ciliate. Minnesota to Texas and west, but everywhere in gardens. H. rigidus, Desf. Prairie sunflower. Stout perennial (2-6 ft.), rough:
leaves oblong-lanceolate, entire or serrate, rough and grayish, thick and Prairies, Michigan, west. rigid: heads nearly solitary, with 20-25 rays.
aa.

Disk yellow {anthers sometimes dark).

Tall,

H. ^gant^us, Linn.

to 10

ft.,

rough or hairy

leaves mostly
:

alternate, lanceolate-pointed, finely serrate or quite entire, nearly sessile

Low grounds. Small for the genus, 1-4 ft. leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate, 3-nerved, sessile, serrate, rough and rays 8-12, 1 in. long. Common in dry thickets. thickish H. tuberdsus, Linn. Jerusalem artichoke. Bearing edible stem-tubers below ground: 5-10 ft.: leaves ovate to oblong-ovate, toothed, long-petioled: scales not exceeding the disk: rays 12-20, large. Penn. west, and cultivated.
scales linear-lanceolate, hairy: rays pale yellow, 15-20.

H. divaricitus, Linn.
:

Figs

3, 4, 23, 27.

19.
/.

TANACfiTUM. Tansy.

Tufted perennials, with finely divided leaves and strong odor: involucre of overlapping dry scales: heads small, nearly torus convex
:

or quite rayless, the fiowers all seedbearing: akenes angled or ribbed,

bearing a short crown-like pappus. Common tansy from Europe, but run wild about old houses: 2 to 4 ft.: leaves 1- to 3-pinnately cut: heads yellow, papT. vulgare, Linn.

pus-crown 5-lobed.
20.

BIDENS. Bur-marigold. Beggar's

Pitchforks.

Ticks.

Annual or perennial, similar to Coreopsis, including weeds known as Spanish-needles or leaves opposite: flowers mostly stick -tights yellow: involucre double, outer scales large and leaf -like: heads many-flowered: ray flowers 4 to 8, neutral, or none: disk flowers perfect, tubular:
:

akenes flattened or slender and 4-angled, crowned with 2 or more rigid downwardly barbed awns. Smooth or sparsely Linn. Fig. 499. hairy, 2 to 6 ft. tall, branching: leaves 3- to 5-divided, or upper simple: leaflets stalked, lanceolate, serrate: outer akenes bracts foliaceous involucre longer than head wedge-ovate, flat, 2-awned. In moist places. Annual. Smooth branching anB. chrysantbemoides, Michx. nual, 6 in. to 2 ft., usually abundant along ditches: leaves
fronddsa,
:

COMPOSITE

409

sessile, simple, lanceolate, acuminate, serrate, the bases sometimes united: outer involueral bracts exceeding the inner, but shorter than the yellow, oval or oblong raj-s: raj's about 1 in. long, 8 or 10 in number: akenes small,

wedge-shaped, truncate, prickly on margins, with 2 rigid downwardly barbed awns. B. bipinntlta, Linn. Annual: stem quadrangular, erect, branching freely: leaves 1 to 3 times pinnate, leaflets lanceolate, pinnatified: heads small on slender peduncles: rays short, pale yellow, 3, 4 or more: akenes smooth, 3-4 grooved, 2- or 6-awned (awns barbed).
21.

COREOPSIS.

TicKSEED.

with opposite, sometimes alternate leaves: heads of tubular and ray flowers solitary, or corymbed on long peduncles: involucre double, bracts all united at base, the 8 outer ones usually leafy: the inner erect:
receptacle chaffy: ray flowers neutral, usually yellow: disk flowers tubular, perfect, yellow or purple: pappus of 2 short teeth or a crown-like border, or none: akenes flat, often winged, 2-toothed or 2-armed. A number of rather

Low herbs

showy but somewhat weedy

C. tinctdria, Nutt.
ft.:

plants.

Calliopsis.

Annual or

biennial, glabrous, erect, 1-3

8,

disk flowers dark purple: ray flowers about

yellow with purple bases,

the edges coarsely 3-toothed:

leaves alternate, 2 or 3 times pinnatelydivided: the lower petioled, the upper sessile and often entire: heads 1-1 in. wide, on slender peduncles. A favorite in gardens. Ray flowers variable
in shape

and coloring.

Linn. Tall and leafy stems, 4-9 ft.: disk and ray flowers all yellow: heads small, numerous, l-lj^ in. broad, corymbed, giving a spicy odor when bruised. Perennial. Weed, common. Perennial, native and cultivated: nearly or quite C. lanceolita, Linn. glabrous: leaves oblong or linear, mostly entire, obtuse: heads large, yellow rayed, on very long stems.
C. tripteris,

22.

CNlCUS. Thistle.
tubular and usually
Perennial or biennial herbs, with pinnatified, very prickly leaves: florets all perfect: scales of the involucre prickly: torus

all

bristly:

pappus of soft

bristles,

by means of which the

thistle.

fruit is carried in the

wind.

Several species in our territory.

C. lanceol^tus, Ilollm.
:

Common

Figs. 228-230, 276.

:

Stror.g,

branching biennial leaves pinnatifid, decurrent, woolly beneath neads large, purple, with all the involucre-scales prickly. Europe. arv6nsi8, C. Hoffm. Canada thistle. Lower, perennial and a pestiferous weed: leaves smooth or nearly so beneath: flowers rose purple, in small, imperfectly dioecious heads, only the outer scales prickly. Europe.
"3.

ABCTIUH.

Burdock.

Coarse biennials or perennials, strong-scented, with large dock-liko imple leaves: head becoming a bur with hooked bristles, the florets all tubular and perfect: torus bristly: pappus of short, rough, deciduous bristles.

410

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

A. L&ppa, Linn. Common burdock. Fig. 280. Common weed from Europe, with a deep, hard root and bushy top 2-3 ft. high; leaves broadovate, somewhat woolly beneath, entire or angled.
24.

CENTAURfiA.

Star-thistle.

Centaurea.

Alternate-leaved herbs, the following annuals, with single heads terminating the long branches: heads many-flowered, the florets all tubular but the outer ones usually much larger and sterile: scales of involucre over-lapping: torus bristly:

akenes oblong, with bristly or chaffy pappus.

Cultivated.

500.

Centaurea Cyanus.

At the

left is

an outer or ray

floret;

then follow three

details of a disk floret; then follows the fruit.

C. C^anus, Linn. Corn-flower. Bachelor's button. Figs. 231, 500. Gray herb: leaves linear and mostly entire: heads blue, rose or white. Europe. C. moshAta, Linn. Sweet sultan. One-2 ft., smooth: leaves pinnatified: pappus sometimes wanting: heads fragrant, white, rose or yellow, large.

Asia.
25.

rootstocks: scapes simple in early bearing a single dandelion-like head: leaves radical, appearing later, orbicular-angled or toothed, white-woolly at first: ray flowers in several rows, pistillate, fertile: disk flowers tubular, staniinate, sterile: involucre nearly simple, or 1-rowed akenes of ray flowers,
spring, scaly-bracted, each

TUSSILAGO. Coltsfoot. Low stemless hairy perennials from

pappus abundant, soft, hair-like, white. Yellow heads in very early spring before the leaves. A common weed East, found in low, damp places and along cool banks. Europe.
cylindrical, 5-10-ribbed:

T, F&rfara, Linn.

26.

SOLIDAGO.

Goldenrod.
with

Perennial herbs,

narrow, sessile leaves:

heads yellow, rarely

whitish, few-flowered, usually

numerous

in the cluster, the ray-florets 1-16

COMPOSITE
and
pistillate:

411
leaf -like:

scales of involucre close, usually not green and

torus not chaffy: akene nearly cylindrical, ribbed, with pappus of

bristles.

many

soft

plants of
27.

Of goldenrods there are many species. They are characteristic the American autumn. They are too critical for the beginner.

Inula,

elecampane.

Large and tall coarse perennial herbs, with large, showy yellow flowerheads 2-4 in. diameter, sunflower-like: leaves large, simple, alternate, and also radical in clumps: heads contain both perfect tubular, and pistillate ray florets, in one row: receptacle not chaffy: akenes 4-5-ribbed pappus in one row, bristles hair-like. Four to 6 ft., rising from a clump of large, ovate, I. Hel6nium, Linn. dock-like leaves on heavy petioles: stem leaves sessile or clasping; heads
solitary, terminal: involucre bracts ovate, leaf -like, woolly.

Weed

in

damp

pasture and along roadside.

28.

Summer.

Aster, aster.

Fig. 227.

Perennial herbs, with narrow or broad leaves: heads with several to many white, blue or purple rays in a single series, the ray florets fertile: scales of involucre overlapping, usually more or less green and leafy: torus flat: akenes flattened, bearing soft, bristly pappus. Asters are conspicuous plants in the autumn flora of the country. The kinds are numerous, and it'
is difficult to

draw

specific lines.

The beginner

will find

them

too critical.

29.

ERlGERON.

Fleabank.
:

Annual, biennial or perennial erect herbs, with simple, sessile leaves: heads few- to many -flowered rays numerous in several rows and pistillate: scales of involucre narrow and equal, scarcely overlapping, not green-tipped: torus flat or convex, naked: pappus of soft bristles.
a.

Rays

very inconspicuous.

E. Canadensis, Linn.
Tall, erect,

Horse-weed. Mare's-tail. Fig. 501. weedy, hairy annual, with strong scent leaves
:

linear and mostly entire or the root-leaves lobed: heads small

and very numerous

aa.

in a long panicle, the rays

very short,

Rays prominent : common

fleabanes.

Usually annual, 3-5 ft., with spreading hairs: leaves coarsely and sharply toothed, the lowest ovate and tapering into a margined petiole: rays numerous, white or tinged with purple, not twice the length of the involucre.
E. dnnuus, Pers.
E. strigosus, Muhl.

Usually annual, with appressed hairs

or none: leaves usually entire and narrower: rays white and

numerous, twice the length of the involucre.

E. bellidifdlius, Muhl.

stemmed herb,
601.

Erigeron

^''"''^fis

Robin's plantain. Perennial leafysoftly hairy, producing stolons or rooting from the base, the simple stems, from a cluster

Canadensis,

o^ ratlier large, roundish, short-petioled, serrate, root leaves:

412

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

stem leaves few, entire, sessile and partially clasping: heads 1-7. on long peduncles: rays numerous, linear or spatulate, purplish or pinkish: April
to June.
30.

CALLtSTEPHUS.

China Aster.
numerous white,

Erect, leafy annuals, with large solitary heads bearing

rose or purple i-ays: scales in several rows or series, usually leafy: torus
flat

or nearly so, naked: pappus of long and very short bristles.

C. hort^nsis, Cass. in

garden annuals,
31.

Common China many forms: leaves

Everlasting.

aster,
sessile

now one

of the

commonest

of

and coarsely toothed. China.

ANTENNARIA.
Perennial
little

herbs with cottony leaves and stems: flowers dioecious, in many-flowered small heads, solitary or racemose or clustered (much invoresembling Gnaphalium, but distinguished by the dioecious heads)
:

lucre with dry imbricated bracts in several rows, usually woolly-white or

colored: pappus in a single row, that of the sterile flowers thickened and plumed at summit. Several confused species, or forms of one species. Noticeable on dry A. plantaginifolia. Hook. Mouse-ear everlasting
.

open places, as white cottony patches: stoloniferous root-leaves soft-white when young, later green above but hoary beneath, oval to spatulate, petioled, 3-veined: flowering stem simple scape-like, 4 to 8 in. high, bears small, bract-like, appressed leaves, and heads in a small, crowded, terminal corymb: scales of involucre whitish.
soil

and

in

32.

ANAPHALIS. Everlasting.

Cottony-white herbs, very similar to the preceding, but pappus not thickened at summit, and usually a few perfect but sterile flowers in center of the head: stem leafy. Perennial. Peart]! everlasting. One to 2 ft.: A. margaritacea, Benth & Hook. heads in corymbs at summit, dioecious, but a few imperfect staminate taper-pointed, leaves sessile, fertile heads: the flowers in the center of broad ovate to linear lanceolate: involucre scale, pearly white, rounded.

Common
33.

in dry soil.

GNAPHALIUM.

Everlasting. Cudweed.

Cottony-white herbs, with small head of many whitish flowers, surrounded by involucre of white or colored scales, in many series: flowers all fertile, outer pistillate, central perfect: no chaff on receptacle: pappus a

row

of slender bristles.

Common

in

dry

fields.

Annual, with leaves lanceolate, margins wavy, upper surface not very Cottony: scales of involucre white or yellowishwhite, a few perfect flowers in the center of each head. G. deciirrens. Ives. Biennial or annual, with many perfect flowers in center of each head: stem erect, 1 to 2 ft.: leaves lance-linear, both side*
G. polyc6phalum, Michx.

cottony, bases partially clasping and running

down

the stem.

COMPOSITE
34.

413

LIATRIS.

Blazing Star.

Button Snakeroot.

Perennial herbs, with simple erect stems from tuberous or corm-like roots: leaves entire, alternate, rather rigid, sometimes vertical on the stem, tmd resinous-dotted: flowers few to many, in raceraed or spicate heads:

long and akene slender, tapering to base: involucral bracts in several rows, unequal. L. scaridsa, Willd. Stem stout, 2-5 ft. tall: leaves lanceolate, the lower long-petioled, the upper more linear and rigid: heads few to man\-, 30-40 flowered, about 1 in. broad: scales of involucre numerous, with rounded tips, often colored and rather rough on the margins: flowers bright purple.
flowers
all

alike,

rose-purple,

tubular:

corolla

5-lobed,

lobes

.slender:

pappus of

nianj' hair-like

bristles,

plumose or barbed:

Dry

soil.

L. pycnostHchya, Michx.

Heads

3-15-fio\vered: flowers rosy-purple on a

high: flowers begin to open at top of the spike and continue opening downward: scales with purplish tips. A western species, cultivated;
spike 3-4
ft.

very showy.
35.

EUPATORIUM.

Boneset.

Erect perennials, with simple leaves: heads small and rayless, clustered, all the florets perfect: scales not leafy; torus flat or low-conical, naked: ukene 5-angled: pappus a single row of soft bristles. Low grounds. E. purpiireum, Linn. Joe Pye weed. Tall, with purplish stem and lanceolate-toothed leaves in whorls of 3-G: heads flesh -colored, in dense corymbs, Swamps, growing 3-10 ft. E. perfoliatum, Linn. Boneset. Thorough wort. Fig. 159. Two to 4 ft.,
hairy: leaves opposite and sessile, lanceolate: flowers white, in clusters.
30.

VERNONIA. Ironweed.

Coarse perennial herbs, with tall strong leafy stems: leaves alternate (seldom opposite), sessile: flowers 15 to many in a head, heads eorymbed, tubular, perfect, purple (rarely white or pink): involucre shorter than flowers, with several series of scales: receptacle not chaffy: pappus double, the inner series bristle-like, the outer of short, small, scale-like bristles: akenes cj'lindrical, several-ribbed. V. Novaborac6nsis, Willd. A coarse weed, 3 to G ft.: heads about K in. long: bracts of involucre, some or all, with slender long or awned flexuous points, brownish-purple: leaves many, rough, lanceolate or lance-obloTig, 2 to 9 in. long, serrulate, sessile, all along stem: flowers deep purple in spreading, flat-topped cymes: akenes somewhat hairy. Late summer. V. fasciculElta, Michx. Tall, coarse weed, 3 to 10 feet, with deep purple flowers in heads (20 to 30 flowered), eorymbed: involucre campanulate, scales usually obtuse, not awn-like. Summer and autumn.
all

j'~.i

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Numbers
in parenthesis refer to paragraphs

Aborted: crowded out, (291). Abronia, Fig. 19. Absorption by roots, 70. Abutilon striatum. Fig. 461; Thorn psoni,
341; avicenna?, 341. Acacia, 104, 105, Fig. 151.

Alternation of generations, 174. 194.

Althffia rosea, 340, Figs. 206, 207, 235.

Alyssum maritimum, Amaranthus, 163.

152, 336, Fig. 460.

Accessory buds: more than one in an

axil,

(87).

fruit: other parts grown to the pericarp, (286), 153. Acer, 344, Figs. 464-7. Acetic acid, 246. Achillea millefolium, 406. Acids, 246. Acclimatization: adaptation to a climate at first injurious, (339). Acorn, 147. Acorus, 296. Aetata, 327. Acuminate: taper-pointed, (199). Acute: sharp-poi'ited, (199). Adder's-tongue, 298; fern, 191, Fig. 341. Adiantum pedatum, 291, Fig. 309. Adventitious buds: those appearing on occasion, (54, 123). jEcidia, 185. .^cidiospore, 185. Aerial roots, 10. .feculus, 346. Ageratum conyzoides, 405. Aggregate fruit: one formed by the co-

Accessory

Amaryllidacea?, 303. Ambrosia, 405, Fig. 497 Amelanchier, 359. Amceboid, 235. Ampelopsis, leaves of, 95, Fig. 142.

Amphibious, 199.
Amylo-dextrine, 249. Anacharis. experiment with, 78, 235. Analogy, related in function or use,
(211).

Anaphalis, 412.

Anaphase, 240.

Anemone, 324;

fruit, 148.

Anemonella, 324. Anemophilous: pollinated

(267).

by

wind,

Angelica, 367.

Annual: of one season's duration, (10). Angiosperms, 294. Antennaria, 412. Anther: pollen-bearing part of the sta-

men, (254). Anthemus, 406.

Antheridia, 174, 180.
187.

.\ntheridiophore,
of

Anthodium: flower-head
posita>, 116.

the

Com-

herence of

pistils

which were distinct

in the flower, (296).

Antirrhinum majus, 374, Fig. 220.

Antitropic: against the sun, (231"). Apetalous: petals missing, (257). Aphyllon, 85, Fig. 118. Apical: at the apex or top, (292). Apios, 353. Apocynaceae, 386. Apparatus, 240. Apple, 359, Figs. 267, 268; acid, 246; anther, 129; bud, 36, 40, Fig. 67; budvariation, 229; cells, 233, 234; fruit, 155, Fig. 268; infloresence, 118, Fig. 267; leaf -scar, 37; -pear graft, 28; phyllotaxy, 48, 49; thorns, 104; tree, 15, Fig. 18. Apricot bud, 37, 39, 356, Figs. 51, 65, 477. Aquatic, 198. Aquilegia, 326, Fig. 458. Arabis, 334.

Agrimonia, 355.

Agrimony, 162, 355.

Ailanthus buds. Fig. 53;
Air-plants, 12, 88.
fruits, 160.

Akene: dry, indehiscent 1-seeded

peri-

carp, (288). Alcanin, 241. Alcohol, 241. Alder, black, 313; smooth, 313; specklsd 313. Aleurone grains, 249. Alfalfa, 352, Fig. 470. Algae, 176, 178, 235. Alkaloids, 246.

Almond bud,

39, Fig. 64.

Alnus glutinosa, 313; incana, 313; rugosa, 313. Alpine plants, 220. Alsike clover, 351.

(415)

416

INDEX AND

GLOSSARY
Beard-tongue, 375. Bedstraw, 395. Bee palm, 369. Beech, 310; drop, 85; fruit, 147; Fig. 138; monoecious, 133.

Araceae, 294. Arbor-vitae, 294, Fig. 426. Arbutus, trailing, 393. Archegoniophore, 187. Archegonium, 174. Arctium Lappa, 410, Fig. 280. Arisffima, 295, Fig. 226. Aristolochiaceae, 316. Arrow-root, starch, 249. Arrowwood, 397. Artichoke, Jerusalem, 408. Arums, 141. Asarum, 316.

leaf.

Ascending, 15.
Asclepiadaceae, 386. Ash, 389, 390; branching, 54; fruit, 148, 159; leaf. Fig. 127; mountain, 360;

Beet, 7; starch in, 31; sugar, 246. Begonia, hairs, 234; leaf, Fig. 130; cuttings, 22; root-pressure, 73; stomates, 273. Beggar's Ticks, 408, Fig. 499. Bell-flower, 399. Bellwort, 300. Berberidaeeae, 328. Berry: pulpy indehiseent few- or manyseeded fruit, (294). Betula, 312.

Bi-compound, 91.
Bidens, 408, Fig. 499. Biennial: of two seasons' duration, (10). Bilberry, 392. Bindweed, 380. Birch, 312, 313, Fig. 6. Birth, variation after, 229. Birthroot, 300, Fig. 221. Bitter-cress, 335. Bittersweet, 378; climbing, 108; twiner, 111. Blacl >erry, 20, 358; cuttings, 24; fruit 153; and birds, 161. Black haw, 397, Fig. 279. Blade: expanded part of leaf or petal. Bladder-nut, 346.
(194).

phyllotaxy, 49.

Ash

in plants, 72. 3, 103, 259, 301,

Fig.'^.

Asparagus,

147-

Aspen

150, 434. (poplar), expression, 61.

Aspidium, 172, Figs. 304, 305. Asplenium Filix-fcemina, 291. Assimilation: making of protoplasm,
(170, 171). Aster, 411; China, 412; flowers, 142, Fig. 227; society, 225; (in cell), 239. Atropin, 246. Attachment of flowers, 144. Autumn leaves, 225, 271. Avens, 355. Axil: upper angle which a petiole or peduncle makes with the stem which

bears it, (86). Azalea, 393; anther, 129, Fig. 204. Bachelor's button, 143, 410, Figs. 231, 500.

Bleeding heart, 3, 332. Bloodroot, 3:30. Blueberry, 392, 393.

Blue

Bacterium

(pi. bacteria), 87, Fig. 123.

Ballast plants, 163. Balloon-vine, 344.

Balsam, 158, 241,343. Baneberry, 327.

Banyan,

12, 21, Figs. 15, 16.

Baptisia, 351.

Barbarea vulgaris, 334.

Barberry, 328; anther, 129, Fig. 205;
inflorescence. Fig. 173; spines, 105, Fig. 156.
riist,

flag, 297, Fig. 437. Bluets, 395. Bog plants, 199, 219. Boneset, 413, Fig. 159; bracts, 106, Fig. 159. Boreal plants, 220. Borraginacese, 380. Boston ivy leaves, 95, Fig. 142; tendril 109. Bougainvillea, 106, Fig, 161. Bouncing Bet, 321, fruit. Fig. 250.

184;

Box,

leaf of. Fig. 137.

Box-elder, 345; phyllotaxy, 46, 49.

Bark, 265; form of, 60. Basal: at the base or bottom, (292). Basidium, 184. Bass wood, 37, 49, 264.
Bast, 254, 255.

Brace

roots, 9, 12.

much reduced leaves, (219). Brake, 173, 237, 290, 291, Figs. 125, 308.
Bracts:
310.

Bramble, 358.
3, 204,

Bean, common,

352, Figs. 472; flowers, 138; germination, 167, 171, Figs. 282, 283, 285, legume, 151; Lima, pod. Fig. sleep of, 50; twiner, 111. 112.

471,
164, 286; 247;

Brassica, 333. Briars, climbing, 108; prickles, 105.' Bridal wreath, 361, Fig. 179. Bristles, 105; nature of, 254. Brown-eyed Susan, 407, Fig. 498.

INDEX AND
Brunella vulgaris, 370.

GLOSSARY
CampanulaceiE, 398.

417

Bryophyllum, leaf cuttings, 22. Bryophyte, 176. Buckeye, 346. Buckwheat, 318, Fig. 454; flower, 125,
136;family, 317;
fruit, 148.

Campion, 322. Canada balsam, 241. Canada thistle, 20, 23, 409.
Candytuft, 336, Fig. 178.

Cane sugar, 245-247.

Cannabis sativa, 316. Canna, 19, Fig. 28.

Bud, winter, 36; and light, 51; and seed.s, 161; dormant, 54; propagation, by 22;
struggle for, 52; -scales, 36, 107; -scars,
old, 54, Fig. 86.

Canoe

birch, 313.

Caoutchouc, 246.
Caprifoliaceae, 396.

Bud-variations, 229. Bulb: thickened part, made up of scales or plates, (79), 37, 49. Bulbel: bulb arising from a mother bulb,
(80).

Capsella Bursa-pastoris, 336, Fig. 259. Fig. 488. compound pod, (291). Caraway, 368.

Capsicum annuum, 378,

Capsule:

Bulblet: aerial bulb, 22, (80). Bulb scales, 107. Bundles, 257. Burdock, 7, 62, 162, 410, Fig. 280. Burning hush, 266. Bur-marigold, 408, Fig. 499 Bur-seed, 382. Burs, 161. Burst of spring, 40, 204. Butter-and-eggs, 132, 137, 374, Figs. 255, 485. Buttercup, 1, 325, Figs. 2, 187, 188, 191, 242; akene, 148, Figs. 191, 242; flower, Figs. 187, 188; pistil, Fig. 191; society, 225. Butterfly weed, 386.

Carbohydrate, 77. Carbon, 72, 74; dioxid, 74, Cardamine, 335. Cardinal flower, 399.

76.

Cardiospermum, 344.
Carnation, 321; cutting. Fig. 33. Carpel: a simple pistil; one of the units of a compound pistil, (255).
Carrot, 3, 367, Fig. 180; umbel, 117, 118. Carum Carui, 368; Petroselinum, 368. Carophyllaceff, 320. Cassia, 353; flower, 138, Fig. 223. Castanea Americana, 311, Fig. 241; sativa, 311. Castilleia, 375. Castor bean, 320; germination, 167, Figs

Butternut Buds, 37. Button-bush, 395.

Buttresses, 9.

287-290.
Castor-oil, 247; inclusions, 249. Catalpa seeds, 159, Fig. 274.

Cabbage,

13, 17; fruit, 152; head, 38, Fig. 55; skunk, 295; water pores, 271. Cacti, Fig. 344. Caffein, 246.

Calamus, 296. Calcium, 72; oxalate, 246, 249, 250. Calendula officinalis, 406.
Calla, 296, Figs. 427, 428; inflorescence, 142; lily, 296, Fig. 427. Calliopsis, 409.

Catchfly, 322. Catkin: scaly-bracted deciduous spike with declinous flowers, (239). Catmint, 371. Catnip, 126, 371, Fig. 197. Cat-tail, 3; seeds, 161, Fig. 278; stems, 259; swamp, 224, Fig. 378. Caulicle; stemlet of the embryo, (305). Cedar, 161; and light. Fig. 71; fruit, 156. Celandine, 235, 331.
Celastrus, twiner, 112, Fig. 167. Celery, 368; stem, 234. Cell, 233; budding, 238; multiplication, 237; sap, 245; wall, 233, 234, 236. Cellulose, 236. Celtis occidentalis, 315. Centaurea Cyanus, 410, Fig. 500; moschata, 410.

Callistephus hortensis, 340. Callus, 27. Caltha palustris, 326.

Calypogon, 309. Calyptra, 190. Calyx: outer circle of

(250).

floral

envelopes,

the growing or nascent tissue lying between the xylem and phloem of the fibro-vascular bundle (418), and therefore on the outside of the woody trunk, since the active fibro-vascular bundles are in the young outer tissues (71); 257, 262, 264. Campanula, 399; capsule, Fig. 256.

Cambium:

Centrosphere, 2:i9. Cephalanthus, 395. Cerastium viscosum,

323.
Cercis, 349.

323;

vulgatura,

Chamomile, 406.
Chara, 235.

AA

418

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Coltsfoot. 410.

Charcoal, 74. Charlock, 333. 336. Oheledonium, 331. Chelone, 37 Cherries and birds, 161. Cherry, 20, 356, 357, Fig. 479; fruit, 153; inflorescence. 118; phyllotaxy, 49. Chestnut, 311, Fig. 241; fruit, 147. Fig. 241; monoecious, 133; -oak graft, 28. Chicory, 403. Chickasaw plum, 357. Chickweed, 323, Fig. 457. Chinese sacred lily, 304, Fig. 435. Chionanthus, 389. Chlorine, 72. Chlorophyll, 75, 245. Choke cherry, 357. Choripetalae, 310.
.

Columbine. 326. Fig. 458;

Columella. 181.

fruit. 151.

Column: body formed of union of stamens and pistil in orchids, (279).

CoUinsia, 375.

Commelinacese. 302.

Companion cells, 254. Compass plant, 50, 269.

Complete flower: all parts present, (257) Complete leaf: having blade, petiole,
stipules,

(194), Fig. 131.

Compositae, 400.

Compositous flowers, 142.

Compound Compound

leaves, 91. pistil: of more than

one car-

pel united, (255).

Chromatin, 239. Chromosome, 239.

Chrysanthemum,
Cider acid, 246.
Cilia, 235.

142, 145, 406, Fig. 169.

Cichorium Intybus, 403.

Concentric, 261. Cone-flower, 407. Cones, 156, Figs. 271. 272. Conifer cells. 237. Conifers;. 292.

Cinquefoil, 354. Cion: the bud or branch used in grafting,

(69). CircasB, 366.

Conjugation. 179. Connate. 93. Fig. 134. Convallaria majalis, 301.

Convolvulaceffi, 379.

Convolvulus, 380.
leaf -like

Citric acid, 246.

Cladophyllum:
Claytonia, 339. Clearer, 241.
Cleft, 92.

branch, (213).

Cleft-graft, 28.
self-

Copper sulfate, 241. Coral root, 85, Fig. 119. Coreopsis, 409. Cork elm, 315. Fig. 450. Corm: a solid bulb-like part. (81).
Cormel: a corm arising from a mother corm, (81). Corn, ash in, 72; cells, 237; field, 213, 217, Fig. 358; germination, 168, Figs. 291-295; monoecious, 133, Fig. 214; North and South, 203, phyllotaxy, 49;
root cap, 253, Fig. 395; roots of, 8, 12, Fig. 14; water in, 72; wilting, 83; roots 267; stalk, 18; starch, 248, 249; stems, 259; suffocated, 70; sugar, 246. Corn cockle, 322. Cornflower. 410; flowers. 143. Figs. 231. 500. Corolla: inner circle of floral envelopes.
(250). Corte.x. 260.

Cleistogamous flowers: small closed

fertilized flowers, (269).

Clematis, 327, Fig. 360; and light, Fig.

73; tendril. 111, Fig. 166.

Climate and plants, 203. Climbing, 15; nasturtium, 314,

plants, 108; plants

P'ig.

195;

and

light, 43.

Close

fertilization:

secured

by pollen

from same
(260).

flower;

self-fertilization,

Clotbur, common, 405, Fig. 496; spiny, 336. Clover, 7, 350, 351; Bokhara, 351, Figs. 468, 469; chlorophyll, 75; inflorescence
116; .sleep of, 50, Fig. 82. Cnicus, 409, Figs. 228-230, 276. Cockle, 321. Coffee, 246; tree, 96. Cohosh anther, 129. Coleus, chlorophyll, 76; cuttings, 24, 26; in window, 163; root-pressure, 73. Collateral. 261 Collection, making a. 279. CoUenchyma. 254. Collodion. 241.243. Colonies, 221. Color of foliage, 225.

Corydalis. 332.

Corymb: short and broad more or

less

flat-topped, indeterminate cluster, (241). Corymbose inflorescence: outer flowers opening first; indeterminate, (236). Cosmos, 406. Cotton, 146; fibers, 233. Cotyledon: seed-leaf, (305). Cowslip, 326, 390. Cowpea. 353. Fig. 473.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Crab apple, 359, 360.
Cranberry, 393; high-bush, 398.
Cranesbill, wild, 342. Fig. 181. Crataegus, 360.

419

Daughter

cell. 238. Day-flower. 302.

Deciduous:

Day-lily. 299, Figs. 253, 433; Fig. 432. falling, (204).

Creeper: a trailing shoot which takes root throughout its length, (56), 15. Crenate: shaliowly round-toothed, (200). Cress fruit, 152; winter, 311. Crocus, 34, 35, 306; Figs. 48, 49, 438. Cromwell, 383. Cross-fertilization: secured by pollen
flower, (260). Cross-pollination: transfer of pollen from flower to flower, (263). Crowfoot, 325, Figs. 2, 187, 188, 191,

Decompound, 91. Decumbent, 15.

Decurrent:

running

down

the

stem,

(195), Fig. 133.

Dehiscence: opening of seed-pod or anther, (264), (287).

from another

Deliquescent: tnmk or leader lost in the branches, (40). Delphinium, 326. Dentaria, 335; pod, 147, Fig. 240. Dentate: sharp-toothed, (200).

242;

Crown: that part of the stem at the

surface of the ground,
(37);

Dependent plants, 85. Dermatogen, 253.

Desert vegetation. Fig. 344 Determinate: definite cessation growth at the apex, (243).
Deutzia, 362.
of

tuber,

33. Crucifera;, 333; hairs, 270. Cryptogam: flowerless plant,

as fern,

moss, fungus, 178, 284, (325).

Crystaloids, 249. 254; fruit, 155; pits, 237; squirting, 159. Cupulifera>, 310. Currant, 363, 364, Figs. 481, 482, 483; bud. Fig. 54; cuttings, 24, 27, Fig. 38; fruit, 153; stem, 266, Fig. 409. Cuseuta Gronovii, 381, Fig. 494. Cutting: severed piece of a plant designed to propagate the plant, (51),
Crystals, 250.

Dew,

83.
29, 158; fruit,

Dewberry, 21, 358, Fig.

153.

Cucumber collenchyma,

Dextrose, 245, (231). Diadelphous; in two groups, (277). Dianthus, 321, Fig. 456.
Dicentra, 332. Dicentra inflorescence. Fig. 172.

Dichogamy: stamens and

pistils

matur-

(61).

Cutting-box, 26, 30. Cutting sections, 242, 243. Cyclamen, 391. Cycloloma platyphyllum, 163. Cydonia, 360. Cyme: broad more or less flat-topped determinate cluster, (244).

Cymose

inflorescence:

central

flowers

opening first: determinate, (243). Cynoglossum, 382. Cypress vine, 380, Fig. 492. Cypripedium, 308.
Cystolith, 250. Daffodil, 303, Fig. 234. Dahlia, 405; double, 145, Fig. 232. Daisy, 407; flowers, 142; ox-eye, 407, Fig. 169; rays, 143; scape, 120, Fig. 185. Dalibarda, 134. Damping-off, 25, 30. Dandelion, 3, 7, 14, 257, 403, Fig.s. 8, 275; flowers, 142; rays, 143; scape, 120; seeds, 158, 160, Fig. 275. Darwin, quoted, 213, 231. Datura, 379, Fig. 248. Daucus Carota, 367. F-g. 180.

ing at different times, (265). Diclinous: imperfect; having either stamens or pistils, (257). Dicotyledons, 310. Diervilla, 397. Digestion: changing of starchy materials into soluble and transportable forms, (168). Digitalis purpurea, 375. Digitate, 91. Dioecious: staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants, 133. Dispersal of .seeds, 158. Divergence of character, 213. Divided, 92. Dock, 3; bitter, 318; curly, 318. Dockmackie, 397. Dodecatheon, 391. Dodder, 85, 89, 112, 381, Fig. 494. Dogbane, 387. Dog's-tooth violet, 298, Fig. 431. Dogwood bracts, 106; tree. Fig. 356. Doorweed, 318, Fig. 193.

Dormant buds,
Double

54. flowers, 144.

Dragon-root, 295. Dragon's head inflorescence. Fig. 175. Drupe, fleshy 1-seeded indehiscent fruit; stone fruit. (295).

420

INDEX AND GLOSSAKY

Esquimaux, 204. Essential organs: stamens and
(250).

Drupelet: one drupe in a fruit made up of aggregate drupes, (296). Dryopteris, 172, 291, Figs. 304, 305, 420. Ducts, 233, 257. Dusty miller, 322, Dutchman's breeches, 332. Dutchman's pipe, 112, 317.

pistils,

Ether, 241.

Eupatorium, 90, 413, Fig. 159.

Euphorbia pulcherrima, 247. Euphorbiacea'. 319 Eutropic; in the direction of the sun's
course, (231).

Dwarf plants, 204. Earth parasites, 2. Echinospermum, 382. Echium, 383. Ecology: habits and modes animals and plants, (369).
Eglantine, 359.

Evening primrose, 365.

Evergreen: remaining green, (204).
of
life

of

Everlasting, 412. Everlasting pea, 350, Fig, 246. Evolution, 232.

Egg-cell, 180. Eggplant, 153, 378, Fig. 261. Elater, 189. Elder, 119, 398; red; 39S; pith, 233 Elecampane, 411. Elliptic, 94. Elm, 15, 314, Figs. 448-450; flower, 125, 136; fruit, 148, 159; germination, 171; leaf. Fig. 146; phyllotaxy, 46, 49; trunk of, 60; shoot, history, 58, Figs.

Excretion by roots, 71. E.xcurrent: the trunk or leader continued through the top, (39).

Exogenous stems, 260.

Explosive fruits, 158. Exposure, 207.
Expression, 60.

Fagopyrum, 318, Fig. 454. Fagus Americana, 311; sylvatica, 311.

Fall of leaf, 97, 271. Fastigiate trees, 60, Fig. 97. Fats, 246. Fehling's solution, 241, 247. Fern, 19; cells, 237; Christmas, 291, Figs 304, 305; cinnamon, 290, Fig. 419; flowering, 290; lady, 291; maidenhair, 291, Fig. 309; ostrich, 290; royal, 290; sensitive, 290, Fig. 310; fronds, 172; in good and poor light, 42, Figs. 68. 69; stem, 261, 2S4; discussed, 172, 191. Fertilization: impregnation of the ovule,
(2.59).

91-95. Elodea, 78, 235, Fig. 387.

Embryo:

the plantlet in the seed, (305).

Embryology, 102. Embryo-sac, 175. Emersed, 198. Emetin, 246. Endodermis, 253. Endogenous stems, 259. Endosperm: food in the seed outside the embryo, (306).
Enchanter's nightshade, 366. Entire: margin not indented, (200) Entomophilous: pollinated by insects,
(266).

Fertilizer, 69.

Envelopes,

floral, 122.

Fibrous root, 7; tissue, 255. Fibro-vascular bundles, 257. Ficus elaiica, 251.
Fig, climbing. Fig. 74. F^gwort, 374; family, 372. Filament: stalk part of the stamen, (254).
Filiees, 284.

Environment: surroundings; conditions in which organisms grow, 203, (326). Eosin for staining, 70.
Epicotyl: that part of the caulicle lying above the cotyledons, (312). Epidermis, 254, 259, 260; of leaf, 270. Epigaea, 393. Epigeal: cotyledons rising into the air in germination, (311) Epigynous: borne on the ovary, (283).

Fireweed, purple, 366. Five finger, 354. Fixing sections, 242, 243. Flag, 305, Fig. 437.
Flagella, 235. Flag, sweet, 296.

Epiphyte, 88, 200. Epilobium, 365. Equisetum, 192, Fig. 342.

Eregenia, 367. Ericacese, 391. Erigeron, 411, Fig. 501.

Fleabane, 411.
Fleur-de-lis. 305.

Erythronium, 298, Fig. 431.

Eschscholzia, 330.

Flora: plant population of a country ot place; also a book describing this population, (327). Floral envelopes, 122. Florets: individual flowers of composites and grasses, 146, (281).

INDEX AND
Flower, parts of, 122; -branches, 114; -bud, 39; -cluster, 114; -stem, 119.
Foliage, (6), 90.
Follicle:

GLOSSARY
Gilliflower, 334.

421

dry dehiscent pericarp opening

(289).

on the front suture,

Food

materials, 72; reservoirs, 31; sup-

ply, 230.

Forest, Figs. 361-368, 373, 374; light, 43; beginning of, 222. Forget-me-not, 382. Formalin, 241. Formic acid, 246.

and

Forms

of plants, 59.

Forsythia, 388. Foul-gas 75. Foxglove, 3, 375. Fragaria, 355, Figs. 264, 474, 475.

Gill-over-the-ground, 371. Ginger, 19. Ginger, wild. 316. Glabrous: not hairy,!; Gladiolus, 34, 35, 307, Figs. 50, 440. Glaucous: covered with a "bloom" or a whitish substance. Gleditschia, 349. Globe-flower, 358. Globoid inclusions, 249. Glomerule: dense head-like cyme, (244). Gloxinia, leaf cuttings, 22. Glucose, 245, 247.

Glume, 146.
Glycerine, 241.

Framework,

100, 262, Figs. 3, 4.

Gnaphalium, 412.
Goat's-beard, 403.

Fra-xinus, 389.

Free-swimming, 198.
Freesia refrarta, 307, Fig. 439. Fringe-tree, 389. Fringed wintergreen, 134.

Frog spittle, 178. Frond: leaf of fein, (317).

Fruit-bud, 39; -dot, 172; sugar, 245.
Fruits, 147.

Goldenrod, 3, 142, 225, 411. Goodyera, 309. Gooseberry, 27, 153, 363. Gourd, collenchyma, 254. Graft: a branch or bud made to grow on another plant, 27, (60), Figs. 31, 3941.

Grafting wax, 30.

Fuchsia, 18, 365; and light, 42; bracts,

160; cuttings, 26; flower, inflorescence, 115; 189; phyllotaxy, 49; water pores, 271.
106, Figs. 123, Fig.

Grape
fruit,

crystals,

250; cuttings, 24, 27; 153; leaves of, 95; sugar, 245;

tendrils, 100, 113, Figs. 164, 168. Grass. 3, 18; flowers, 146; pepper, 312;

Fumariacea>, 331. Fumitory, 332. Function: what a plant or a part does;

its vital activities.

Fundamental

tissue, 257. Fungi, 85, 176, 180. Funiculus, 164. Funkia, 299, Figs. 432, 433.

Galanthus nivalis, .304, Fig. 436. Galium, 395; climbinc:, 108 Gametophyte, 174, 194. Gamopetalus: corolla of one piece, (251). Gamosepalous: calyx of one piece, (251)
Gaultheria, 393. Gaylussacia, 392.

Gemmae,

187.

Genealogy, 16, 106. Generation: period from birth to death,

(8).

Gentian, 385, 386.

Geraniaceae, 341. Geranium, 18, 341, 342; chlorophyll, 75;
cuttings, 24, 26, Figs. 32, 36, 37; family, 341; fish, 314; inflorescence. Figs. 181, 183; and light, 42; kinds of 313; in window, 121, 163. Germander, 370. Germination, 164, 165.
,

pink, 310, 321; stems, 259. Grasses, framework, 62; phyllotaxy, 49; pollination, 132. Grass of Parnassus, 362. Gratiola, 376. Grazing, 223. Greek valerian, 385. Greenbriar tendril, 111; tissue, 259. Grevillea in window, 163. Ground cherry, 377. Ground-nut, 353. Ground pink, 385. Guard cells, 271, Figs. 413, 414. Guinea squash, 378, Fig. 261. Gum-resin, 246, 247. Gymnosperm: .seed naked (not in an ovary); applied to pines, spruces, etc., (299), 155, 292. Habenaria, 309. Habit: the looks, appearance, general
style of growth, (36). Habitat: particular place plant grows, (327).
in

which a

Hackherry, 315.

Hackmatack, 294.
Hair-gra.ss, 163.

Hairs, J05; nature of, 254, 270.

Geuni, 355.

Halophytic societies, 219, Fig. 371. Harbinger of spring, 367.

422
Hardback, 361

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Horsetails, 192, Fig. 342.

Hardwood

cuttiiiK, 27.

Harebell, 399. Hanstoria, 86 Haw, lilack, 397, Fig. 279. Hawkweed, -404, 405. Hawthorn. 104, 360, Figs.
graft, 28.

152-155;

Horse-weed, 411, Fig. 501. Host, 85. Hound's tongue, 162, 382. House-leek, 21; phyllotaxy, 49. Houstonia, 395. Huckleberry, 392; anther, 129. Humulus Japonicus, 316; lupulus, 316.

Hazel, 133, 158. Head: short dense spike, (239), Fig. 176. Heart -seed, 344. Heart's-ease, 337. Hedera Helix, 251, 261, 269, Fig. 162. Hedeoma, 370. Hedge hyssop, 376. Helianthus. 407. Heliotrope, 381. Heliotropism: turning towards the light,
(100).

Humus,
299; 120.

202.
inflorescence,

Hyacinth, 35, 299; crystals, 250; grape,

Fig. 174;

scape,

Hydrangea, 119, 363; doubling, 145. Hydrogen, 72. Hydrophyllaces, 383. Hvdrophytic society, 219, Figs. 369,
377. Hypericacea>, 338. Hypericum, 339. Hypocotyl: that part of the caulicle lying below the cotyledons, (311). Hypogeal: cotyledons remaining beneath the ground in germination,
(311).

Hemerocallis, 299. Hemerocallis flava, 299; fulva, 299.

Hemlock, 293, Fig. 425. Hematoxylin, 241.

Hemp, Henna

316, 387.
root, 241.

Hypogynous: borne on the

der the ovary, (283).

torus, or un-

Hepatica, 148, 324. Herbaceous: not woody, (11).

Hypoxis, 305.
Iberis, 336.

Herbarium, 279.

Herb Robert, 342.

Heredity, 230. Heteropcism, 185. Hibiscus, 341, Fig. 139. Hickory, 39, 51, 147, Figs. 59, 60, 83; inflorescence, 117, 133.

Imbedding, 243. Immersed, 198.

Impatiens, 343, Figs. 462, 463; collenchyma, 254; root-pres.sure, 73; water
pores, 271; seeds, 158.

Imperfect flower, having either stamens

or pistils, (257). Inclusions, 249

Hieracium, 404.
Ililum or seed-scar, 165. Hip: fruit of the rose, 155, Fig. 265. Ilobblebush, 398. Hog-peanut, 134, Fig. 215. Hollyhock, .340, Figs. 206, 207, 235; flower, 130, 139, Figs. 206, 207, 235;
hairs, 2,35.

Incomplete flower: any parts wanting,

(257).

Indehiscent: not opening, (287).

Independent plants, 85. Indeterminate: growing on from the

apex, (236). Indian pink, 399. Indian pipe, S5, 394. Indian turnip, 141, 295, P'ig. 226. India-rubber plant, 246. 250, 251, 269. India wheat, 318.
Indigo, false, 351

Holly, phyllotaxy, 49; tree, Fig. 352. Homology: related in origin or structure,
(211).
fruit, 152. locust, 349; buds, 37; leaves, 95; thorns, 105; tree, 63. Honesuckle buds, 37, 53, Fig. 85; family, 396, 397; leaves. Fig. 134; phyllotaxy, 49; swamp, 394; Tartarian, 396; Fig. 85; trumpet, 397; twiner, 112. Hop clover, 351, 352. Hop, 111, 112, 316, Fig. 167. Horehound, 371. Horse-chestnut, 346; bud, 36; fruit, Fig. 251; leaf-scar, 37; thyrse, Fig'. 184. Horsemint, 369. Horseradish, 335.

Honesty

Honey

Indusium, 173. Inflorescence: mode of flower-bearing: less properly, a flower-cluster, (246). Innocence, 375. Insects and flowers, 131. Internode: space between two joints or
nodes, (64). Inulin, 246. Involucre: a whorl of small leaves or bracts standing close tmderneath a flower or flower-cluster, (278).

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Inula, 411.
Leaflet: one part in (192). Leaf-scars, 37, 273.

423
a compound
leaf,

Iodine test for starch, 31, 249. Ipeoac, 246. Ipomopa, 380, Figs. 217, 492, 493. Iridacecn, 305. Iris, 30o, Fig. 437; leaf, 269; stems,
Iron, 72.

Leaves, arrangement of, 46; fall of, 225 271; general account, 90; propagation
2.59.

by, 22; structure, 260.

Legume: simple pericarp dehiscing on

flower:

Ironweed, 413.
Irregular
series

some parts
(258).

in

one

both sutures, (290). Leguminosce, 347.

different, Irrigation, 207.

LsoiJtes,

Lemon

acid, 246.

Lens, 126, Figs. 198, 200.

Lenticels, 266.

193 Ivy, 251, 261, 269, Figs. 162,411; Kenilworth, 374, Fig. 486. Jack-in-the-Pulpit, 141, 251, 295, Fig. 226. Jacob's 1 dder, 385. Jamestown-weed, 378, Fig. 248. Japan quince, 360. Japan rose, 358. Jeffersonia, 328. Jerusalem artichoke, 408. Jewel-weed. 1.58, 343, Fig. 462, 463. Jimson-weed. 378, Fig. 248. Jos Pye weed, 413. Johnny jump-up, 337. Jonquil, 304. Judas tree, 349. Juneb?rries, 359; and birds, 161. Juniper, 156, 294. Kalniia, 393. Karyokinesis: indirect division or transformation of the nucleus, being one means of cell multiplication; mitosis, 239, (.393).

Leonurus Cardiaca, 371. Lepidium \'iiginicum, 336

Lettuce, 404; experiment with, 78; wild,
50.

Leucoium vernum, 304.

Levulose, 245. Liatris, 413. Lichen, 88, 176, 186.
Life-history: sum of the events in the life of a plant, (7). Light and plants, 42, 215.

Ligneous: woody, (11).

Lignin, 236. Ligule of isootcs, 194. Ligustrum, 389. Lilac, 3S9; bushes, 100; bud, 41; infloplivlluia^v. 19. lin :;(); o.lsets, 21. liiT.,, :;(), 42), 430. Lily, 297; bulb, 33; calla, 296, lig 427; Chinese sacred, 304, Fig. 435; Easter, 297; tiger, 298, Fig. 30; white, 297; flowers, 138. Lily-of-the-valley, 19, 301.
res.'i'iir..

nO:

Lilies

bllll,l.t^, __'.
_'lt7, I'lts,

Liliuni,

Kentucky
Knotweed,

coffee tree, 96.

Kerria, 358.
125, 136, 318, Fig. 193. Labiat.T, 368. Labiate, 137. Laboratory advice, 240. Lactoso, 245. Lactuca, 403; Scariola, 50, 404. Ladys-slipper, 140, 308, Fig. 225. Ladies' tresses, 309.

Lambkill, .393. Lanceolate, 94. Jiandscaps and plants, 202. Larch, 294; European, 294. Lari.ic .Xmericana, 294; decidua, 294. Larkspur, 326. Lirkspur, double. Fig. 233; flower, 131, Fig?. 208-210; fruit, 148. Figs. 243,
244.

Lathyrus, 233, 349, Figs. 222, 246.

Laurel, 393; sheep, 393. Layer: a branch which takes root and gives rise to an independent plant
(55).

352. Linaria, 373, Fig. 485, 486. Linear, 94. Linin, 239. LinnEeus, 276. Liquorice, wild, 395. Lithospermum, 383. Liverleaf, 324. Liverworts, 186. Living matter, making of, 74. Lobsd, 92. Lobeliacece, 399. Locule: compartment of a pistil, (285). Loeulicidal: dehiscence between the partitions, f292). Locust, 346, 347; buds, 37; honey, leaves 95; honey, tree, 63; sleep of 50; thorns, 105. Lodicule, 146. I-onicera, 396, 397, Figs. 85, 495. Loosestrife, 391. Lotus, Fig. 135; starch, 248. L\icerne, 352, Fig. 470.

Lima bean,

Leaf,

fall of,

97;

how

to

tell,

98.

Lungwort, 382.

424

INDEX AND GLOSSAEY

Mildew, 85, 182. Milk sugar, 245. Milkweed, 386;
Milkwort, 347.

Lupinus, 353. Lychnis Coronaria, 322; Githago, 322. Lycopersicum esculentum, 378, Fig. 186. Lyeopus, 369. Lysimachia, 391. Macrospore, 194.

fruit, 151, Fig. 245; seeds, 161, Fig. 277; tissue, 257.

Mimulus. 375, Fig. 487.

Mint, 370; family 368; phyllotaxy, 49.
Mistletoe, 87. Mitosis, 238, 239. Mitchella, 395.

Magnesium, 72.

Maianthemum, 301.
Maidenliair, 173, 291, Fig. 309. Malic acid, 246. Mallow, 139, 340, Figs. 170, 224. Malt sugar, 245; Maltose, 245. Malva rotundifolia, 340, Fig 224. Malvaceae, 340. Mandrake, 19, 329. Mangrove, 12, 21, Fig. 17. Maple, 15, 46, Figs. 75, 76, 144; kinds of 316; branching, 54; buds, 37, 39, 40; dissemination, 160; flowering, 341; phyllotaxy, 49; trunk of, 60; family, 343; fruit, 148; germination, 171, Figs. 296-303; leaf. Fig. 129; leaf -scar, 37.

Mifrewort, 362. Moccasin-flower, 308. Mock orange, 363. Mock pennyroyal, 370. Monadelphous: in one group, (2771. Monoecious: staminatc and pistillate flowers on the same plant, 133. Monarda fistulosa, 369; didyma, 369. Moneywort, 391. Monkey-flower, 375, Fig. 487; wild, 375.

Monocotyledons, 97, 294.

Monop

dial: axial growth continued by growth from terminal bud or persis-

Marble etched by roots, 71. Marchantia polymorpha, 186, Figs. 33137.

Mare's-tail, 411, Fig. 501. Marigold, marsh, 326; pot, 406.

tence of the leader, 113.

Monotropa, 394. Moonflower, 111, 380, Fig. 493. Moonseed stem, 260 262, 266. Moose-wood, 345.
Morning-glory, 380, Fig. 217; corolla,
137, Fig. 217; twiner, 111, 112.

Marrubium vulgare, 371. Marsh mallow, 140, 340. Marsh marigold, 326. Marsh plants, 199, 219.
Matthiola, 334. apple, 19, 23, 329. Mayflower. 393. 222, 406. Meadow rue, 325. Meadow-sweet, 360. Medicago lupulina, 352; sativa, 352, Fig. 470. Medick, 352. Medullary rays, 260. Melilotus alba, 351, Fig. 469; officinalis, 352. Melon fruit, 155. Menispermum stem, 260, 262, 266. Mentha, 370, Fig. 484. Meristematic, 252, 257. Mertensia, 382. Mesophyll, 253, 269. Mesophytic society, 219, Fig. 370. Metaphase, 239. Micropyle, 164. Microscope, compound, 241; dissecting, 126, Figs. 198-200. Microsome, 234. Microspore, 194. Microtome, 242. Midrib, 93. Mignonette, inflorescence, 116.

Morphin, 246. Morphology, 101.

Morus

May

alba, 315, Fig. 452; rubra, 315. Mosses, 88, 189, 234.

Mayweed,

Mother

cells,

238.

Motherwort, 371. Mould. 86, 180, 181.

Mountain ash, 360. Mountain cherry, 357. Mountain plants, 220. Mounting .sections, 242. Mowing and plants, 223,
Mucilage. 246. Muck, 202.

Figs. 375, 376.

Mucor, ISO, Figs. 318-320. Mucus, 246.

of. 95; shoot. Fig. 84; white, 315, Fig. 452; wild, 315. Mullein, 3, 16, 373, Fig. 22; hairs, 270; inflorescence, 116; pink, 322. Muscari, 299. Mushroom, 85, 180, Figs. 120, 121. Muskmelon seedlings. Fig. 143. Mustard, 333, Fig. 459; fruit, 152; inclusions, 249; pod, 147. Mycelium: vegetative part of a fungus, (180), 181. Mycorrhiza, 87.

Mulberry, flowering, 358; leaves

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Myosotis, 382. Myrtle. 388.
(257). Narcissus, 35, 303; double, Figs. 234,435. Nasturtium, 335, 343; flower, 126, Fig. 195; tendril, 110 Natural selection, 231. Nectarine, origin of, 229.

425

Orchard, 63, 206, 214, 217. Orchid flowers, 140, Fig. 225; roots, 00;
stems, 259; epiphytes, 88. Orchidacea", 307. Orchis, 309. Ornithogalum, 299. Osage orange, 49, 105, 315, Fig. 451. Osmorrhiza, 367.

Myxomycetes, 235. Naked flower: no floral envelopes,

Osmosis, 66, Figs. 106-108.

Nectary, 131. Needle for dissecting, 126, Fig. 199.

Osmunda, 290, Figs. Oswego tea, 369.

(256).

418, 419.
of

Nerium, 388. Nepeta Cataria, 371, Fig. 197.

Netted-veined, 91. Nettle, 316; acid, 246; hairs, 235.
Nettle-tree, 315.

Ovary: seed-bearing part

Ovate, 94. Overgrowth, 224. Oxalic acid, 246.
Oxaiis,
J:0,

pistil,

Nicotiana alata, 379, Fig. 491;

379. Nicotin, 246.

Tabacum

158, -342, Fig. 273.

Ox-eye daisy, 115, 407, Fig. 169. Oxygen, 72; liberation, of 77, Figs. Ill,
112.

Nightshade, 378. Nine-bark fruit, 151.

Nitella, 235.

Nitrogen, 72, 249. joint; the space between two joints is an internode. Nuclear-plate, 239. Nucleolus, 234, 239.' Nucleus, 233, 248. Nuphar, 329. Nux vomica, 246. Nymphseaceae, 329. Oak, 15, 117, 147, 311, Fig. 212; branching, 54; expression, 61; m-onoccious, 133; transpiration in, 82; where grows, 198; kinds, 299, 300. Oats, lodged. Fig. 355; starch, 249.

Oyster plant, 403. Pwonia, 326. Painted-cup, 376.

Palet, 146.

Node: a

Palisade cells, 269. Palisades of Hudson, Fig. 345.

Palm, 60, 259, Fig. 98. Palmate, 91.

Christi, 320. Panicle: branching raceme, (240). Panicum capillare, 163. Pansy, 338; flower, Fig. 196. Papaveracea", 330. Papaver somniferum, 246, 330. Papilionaceous flowers, 13S. Pappus: peculiar calyx of composites,

Palma

Oblong, 94. Obovate, 94. Obtuse: blunt, (199). (Ecology: see ecology.
(I'^nothera, 365.
Off.set:

(282). Parallel-veined, 91.

Paraphyse, 190.
Parasite, 85, 200; vs. graft, 22. Parenchyma, 236, 252. Parnassia, 362. Parsley, 117, 368. Parsnip, 3, 117, 367. Parted, 92. Parts of flower, 122. Passion flower, 127 Pastinaca sativa, 367. Pasturing, 223. Patches, 19, 23. Pea, 3; black, 353, Fig. 473; everlasting, 350, Fig. 246; garden, 349, Figs. 190, 284; stock, 353, Fig. 473; sweet, 350, Fig. 222; flowers. 138, Fig. 222; fruit. Fig. 246; germination, 166, 171, Fig. 284; legume, 151; tendril, 110. Peach, 356, Fig. 476; phyllofaxy, 49; and nectarine, 229; bud, 37, 40; crystals, 250; fruit, 153; inclusions, 249.

a plant arising close to the base

of the

mother plant,

(56).

Oils, 246, 247.

Okra, 140.
01eacea>, 388. Ol-ander, 388; leaf, 269. Olive family, 388; tree. Fig. 100. Onagraceae, 364. Onion bulb, 33, 35, Figs. 45, 46; germination, 171; sugar, 246. Onoclea, 290, Fig. 310. Oogonia, 180. Oospore, 180. Operculum, 191. Ophioglo.ssum, 191, Fig. 341. Opium, 246; poppy, 330. Orange, mock, 363; O.sage, 315, Fig. 451. Orbicular, 94.

426

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Phyllodiuni:
Phy.salis, 377.
leaf-like

Pear, 359, Figs. 63, 101, 102, 182, 266; phyllotaxy, 49; sclerenchyma, 2r)7; -apple graft, 28; bud, 36, 40, Figs. C2, 57, 58, 61-63, 66; fruit, 155. Fig. 1:66; -hawthorn graft, 28; inflorescence, 108, Fig. 182; leaf-scar, 37; -quince graft, 28; thorns, 104; tree, 15; form of, 63,
Figs. 101. 102.

petiole,

(214).

Pliysostegia inflorescence. Fig. Picea, 293. Figs. 270. 271, 424. Pie-plant. 317, Figs. 78, 79

175.

Pigweed.
Pine,
15,

3, 62,

292.

Figs. 372 383 384. Figs. 10 21 145, 272,

Peat. 202.
Pedicel: (247).

stem

of

one flower

in

a clus'cr.

Peduncle: stem of a flower cluster or of a

solitary flower, (247).

Pelargonium hortorum, 314, Fig. 183.

Peltate: attached to its stalk inside tlio margin, (197), Figs. 126, 135. Pentamerous: in 5's, (271). Pentstemon. 375. Peony fruit. 151. Pepo: fruit of pumpkin, squash, etc, (298). Pepper-grass, 336. Pepper, red, 378, Fig. 488. Peppermint, 370. Perennial: of three or more seasons'

421-3; cone, Fi<;- 272: foliage, Fig. 145; stem. Fig. 407; tell-rale. Fig. 364: trees. Fig 353; pollination, 132. Pine-sap. 394. Piney, 326. Pink, 321; dehiscence, 152, Fig. 2.50. Pinnate, 91.
Pinnatifid, 92. Pinus, 292, Fig. 421-3. Pinxter flower, 394.
Pistil:

Pistillate:

ovule-bearing or seed-bearing organ, (253). having [listils and no slaincns.

(257).

Pisum sativum, 349.

Figs. ICO, 2St.

Pitchforks, 162, 40S, Fig. 499. Pits, 237. Plankton. 199.

duration, (10). Perfect flower: having both stamens and

pistils.

Plantain infiorescence, 116.

Plant-breoiling, 231. Plant-food, defined, 61. Plasmodium, 235. Plerome, 253. Plum, 20, 356, Figs. 194, 262, 478, 479; phyllotaxy, 49; pollination. Fig. 202; blossom. Fig. 194; drupe, 153, Fig. 262; thorns, 104. Plumule: bud in the embryo, (.305).

(257).

Perianth: floral envelopes of lily-like plants (more properly of nionocotyledonous plants), (275). Periblem, 253. Pericarp: ripened ovary, (286). Perichatia, 190. Perigynous: borne around the ovary,
(283).

Peristome, 191. Peritherium, 183. Periwinkle, 3S7, 388. Persistent: remaining attached, (204). Personate, 137. Petal: one of the separate leaves of a
corolla, (251). Petiolule: stalk of a leaflet, (196). Petiole: leaf-stalk, (194) Petunia, 378, Figs. 489, 490. Phaseolus, 352, Figs. 471, 472.

Plur-annual: of one .season's duration because killed by frost, (14). Pod: dehiscent pericarp, (287). Podophyllum, 329. Pogonia, 310. Poinscttia, 320; bracts, 107; starch, 247-249.
Polarity, 50.

Polemoniacefp, 384. Polianthes tuherosT, 301.

Pollards, 54, Fig. 87.

Phellogen, 266. Phenogam: seed-bearing or flowering plant, (325), 292. Philadelphus, 363. Phloem, 257. Phlox, 137, 225, 384, Fig. 218.

Pollen germinating. Fig. 203. Pollen: spores borne by the

stamen,

Phosphorus, 72.
Photosynthesis: the making of organic matter from COo and water, in the presence of light, (163). Phyllotaxy: arrangement of leaves and flowers on the stem, (111).

(254), 175. Pollination: transfer of pollen from stamen to pistil, (263). Pollinium: pollen in a coherent mass, (279). Polyanthus, 390. Polygalaceffi, 346. Polygonaeea', 317.

Polygonatum, 301. Polygonum, 318, Figs. 193,

ing,

4,55;

climb-

108.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Polyhedral, 233. Polypetalous: corolla of separate parts
or petals, (251). Polvpode. 173, 285, Fifis. 306, 307. Polypodium, 291. Polyporus, F!g. 121. Polysepalous: caly.x of .separate parts or sepals, (251). Polytrichum commune, ISO, Figs. 33S340. Pome: fruit of apple, pear, etc (29S'>. Pond-lily, 329. Poplar bud, 36; cuttings, 27; dirrrioiis, 133; inflorescence, 117; phyllotaxy, 49 shape, 60, Fig. 97; seeds, 161. Poppy, 330; opium, 246, 330. Purtulaca, 339; fruit, Fig. 254. Portulacacea>, 339. Pot marigold, 406. Potassium, 72; hydroxide, 241. Potato, 16, 35, 153, 378, Figs. 24, 42, 219; and osmosis, 68; cuttings, 24; flower, 137, Fig 219: inchi.sions, 249; onion. 33, Figs. 45, 46; sprouts, 31. 76, 85, Fig. 42; starch, 31, 35, 248, 249, Fig. 42; sweet, 16, 380. Potato-tomato graft, 28. Potentilla, 354. Prickles, 105. Prickly ash, 105, Fig. 157. Primrose, 390; fruit. Fig. 249. Primula Sinensis, 270, 390. Primulacea?, 390. Prince's feather, 319. Privet, 389. Propagation by buds, 22; leaves, 22;
,

427

Pumpkins and
137;

collenchyma,

corn, 213, Fig. 358; flower, 254; fiuit, 155;

hairs, 270; roots, 268.

Purslane, 339. Pusley, 339 Pussies of willow, 117, Fig. 213. Pyrus, 359. Pyxis: pod opening around the top,
(292), Fig. 254.

Quack-grass, 19, 20. Quercus, 311, Figs. 441-447.

Quillwort, 193. Quince, 360; fruit, 155.

Quince-pear graft, 28. Raceme: simple elongated indeterminate cluster with stalked flowers, (237),
Fig. 173.

Radial, 261; bundles, 267.

Radish, 336; and

152; 103.
root,
7,

light, 42, Fig. 70; fruit,

13,

17,

64,

Figs.

11,

Ragweed, 222, 225, 405,

405.

Fig. 497; great,

Ranunculacesp, 323.

Ranunculus, 325. Raphanus, 336. Raphides, 250. Raspberry, 20, 21, 161, 358, Fig
fruit, 153; leaf. Fig. 128.

263;

Rattlesnake plantain, 309. Ray; outer modified florets of some composites, (282).

Reagents, 241. Receptacle, 123; of liverwort, 187. Redbud, 349. Regular flower: the parts in each series
alike, (258).

roots, 20.

Prophase, 239.

Reinforced

Prosenchyma, 255.
Prostrate plants, 204. Protein, 249. Proterandrous: anthers maturing
(265).

fruit: other parts the pericarp, 153, (286).

grown

to

Reniform, 94.
first,

Resins, 246. Respiration:

taking

in

O, giving

off

CO2, (172, 173);

pistils

in seeds, 165.

Proterogvnous:
(265).

maturing

first,

Resting-spore, 179.

Rheumatism
79.

root, 328.

Prothallus, 173, Fig. 312. Protococcus, 233, 234. Protonema, 191. Protoplasm, 80, 233. Prunus, 356, Figs. 476-480. Pseud-annual: perennial by tubers, bulbs, etc., (13).

Rheum Rhaponticum,
(44), 19, starch in, 31.

317,

Figs,

78,

Rhizome: undergroimd stem; rootstock,

means of

Rhododendron anther, 129. Rhubarb, 3, 36, 45. 317, Figs.

78, 79.

Pteridophyte, 176.
Pteris, 291.

Pteris aquilina, 173, 237, 291, Figs. 125, 308. Puccinia graminis, 325183, Figs. 330, Pulse family, 347.

Ribes, 363; Figs. 481-483. Rice starch, 249. Richardia Africana, 296, Fig. 427. Ricinus, 320.
of annual growth, 107, 263. Robinia, 348, 349; spines, 105. Rock cress, 334.

Rind, Rings

2.59.

428
9, 12, 64, Figs. 11,

INDEX AND GLOSSAKY

Scrophularia, 374. Serophulariacece, 372. Scutellaria, 371. Sacondary thickening, 263. S3dgHS, phyllotaxy, 49. Seed: a reproductive body containing an

Root -climbers, 108; cutting,

21; -hairs, 103-105, 110; -pressure, 69, 73, P"ig. 109; system, 7; excrete, 71; how elongate, 17; need air, 70; propation by, 20; structure, 259,

267.

Rootstock: subterranean stem; rhizome, 19, (U).

embryo

plant, 5.

Rosa Carolina, 359; humilis, 359; lucida,

359; rubiginosa, 359. Rosaceae, 353. Rose acacia, 349. Rose cutting. Fig. 34; family, 353; hip, 155, Fig. 265; mallow, 341; -mo.ss, 339, Fig. 254; of Shaion, 341; swamp, 359; climbing, 108; prickles, 105. Rotate, 137. Rowan, 360. Rudbeckia hirta, 407, Fig. 498; laciniata 407. Rubus, 358, Figs. 158, 263. Rubicacese, 394. Rue anemone, 324. Rumex, 318, Fig. 453. Runner: a trailing shoot taking root at the nodes, (56). Russian thistle, 163, Fig. 99. Rust, 85, 183. Rutland beauty, 380. Rye-flower, 146, Fig. 239. Saccharose, 245. Sacred lily, Chine.se, 304, Fig. 435. .Sage, common, 107, 369; scarlet, 369. St. John's -wort, 125, :339, Figs. 192, 252. St. Peter's wreath, 361. Salsify, 403. Salt-loving societies, 219, Fig. 371. Saltpeter, in osmosis, 66. Salverform, 137. Salvia officinalis, 369; splendens, 369. Samara: indehiscent winged pericarp,
(287).

Seed, coats, 164; starch, in 31; dispersal, l.'j8; -variations, 228. Selection, 231. Self-fertilization: secured by pollen from

same flower; close fertilization, (260). Self-heal, 370. Self-pollination: transfer of pollen from stamen to pistil of sama flower; closepollination, (263).
Seneca snakeroot, 347. Senna, 353. Sepal: one of the separate leaves of a
calyx, (251). Septicidal: dehiscence along the parti-

Sambucus Canadensis,
398. Sanguinaria, 330. Sapindacese, 343.

398,

racemosa;

Serrate: saw-toothed, (200). Service berry, 359. Sessile: not stalked, (195). Shadbush, 359. Shade and leaves, 98; and plants, 215. Shadows in trees, 61. Sharon, Rose of, 341. Sheep and plants, 224. Sheepberry, 397, Fig. 279. Sheep sorrel, 318, Fig. 453. Shepherdia, hairs, 270, Shepherd's purse capsule, 152, 336, Fig. 259. Shooting star, 391. Sieve tissue, 254. Silene, 322. Silicle: short fruit of Crucifera>, (293). Silique: long fruit of Cruciferae, (293). Silkweed, 386. Silphium, 50. Simple pistil: of one carpel, (255). Sinistrorse; left-handed, (231).

Saponaria officinalis, 321. Saphrophyte, 85, 86, 200

Sassafras, 136. Saxifrage, 362.
Sa.xifragaceffi,

Sisyrinchium, 306. Skullcap, 371. Skunk cabbage, 141, 225, 250, 295. Sleep of leaves, 50.
Slips, 24.

361; crystals, 250.

Sn.artweed, 125, 136, 148, 31S, 319. Smilacina racemosa, 301; stellata, 301.

Scalariform: with elongated markings,

(390).

Scape: leafless peduncle arising from the ground, (248). Scenery and plants, 202. Sclerenchyma, 236, 257. Scouring rush, 193. Scramblers, 108.

Smilax of florists, 103, 301, Fig. 434. Smilax tendril. 111. Snakehead, 374. Snapdragon, 137, 374, Fig. 220.
Snowball,
145, Figs. .Japanese, 398.

236,

237,

334;

Snowberry, Fig. 260. Snowdrop, 304, Fig. 436.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Snowflake, 304.

429

Soapberry family, 343. Soapwort, 321.

Societies, 219.

Squirrel corn, 332. Squirrels and birds. 47. 162. Stains, 241. Stamen: pollen-bearing organ, (253).

Softwood cutting, 24. Soil and plants, 200; and variation, 206; holds moisture, 70; water from, 64.
SolanacesB, 377. Solanum, 108, 378, Figs. 42, 219, 261. Solidago, 410. Solitary flowers, 115. Solomon's seal, 301; filse, 301; twoleaved, 301. Sonchus, 404. Soredia, 186. Sori 172, 184. Sorrel, 318, Fig. 453. Spadix: thick or fleshy spike of certain plants, (280). Spanish bayonet, 162; moss, 88. Spathe: bract surrounding or attending aspadi.x, (280), 141. Spatterdock, 329. Spatulate, 94. Spearmint, 370, Fig. 484. Species, 275. Specularia, 398. Speedwell, 376.

Staminate: having stamens and no pistils,

(257).

Stand, dissecting, 127, Fig. 201. Staphylea, 346. Star of Bethlehem, 299. Starch and sugar. 246; as plant-food. 64; discussed, 247-249; how made, 77, 78; storage of, 31. Star-grass, 305. Steeple, compared with plants, 18. Stick-seed, 382. Stellaria media, 323, Fig. 457.
Stellate, 233.

Stem, how elongates,

17; structure, 259;

system, 14; tubers, 33. Stemless plants, 15.

Sterile

flower:

no stamens or

pistils,

(257). Stick-tight, 162, 382. Stigma: part of the pistil wliich receives the pollen, (256). Stipel: stipule of a leaflet, (196). Stipule: a certain basal appendage of a leaf, (194); as spines, 105.

Spencer, quoted, 231

Spermatozoids, 190.
Sperm-cell, 180. Spiderwort, 235, 302. Spike: compact more or less simple, indeterminate cluster, with flowers sessile or nearly so, (238). Figs. 174, 175. Spikelet: a secondary spike; one of a compound spike, 146. Spikenard, false, 301. Spines, 104, 105. Spiranthes, 309. Spirea, 360; inflorescence, 117, Fig. 179. Spring beauty, 339. Spirogyra, 178, 233, 234, Fig. 313, 314. Spleen wort, 291.

Stock, 334. Stock: the part on which the cion

grafted, (69). Stolon: a shoot which bends to ground and takes root, (56). Stomate, 75, 271, 273.

is

the

Stone

fruit, 153.

Sporangia of ferns, 172; stamens, 124. Sporangiophore, 181. Spore: a simple reproductive body, usually composed of a single detached cell containing no embryo, 5, 86, 172, ISO.
Spore-case, 172.

Storehouses, 31. Strawberry, 355, 356, Fig. 475; plant. 15. 21; fruit. 153, 155, Fig. 264. Straw lilies, 300. Struggle for existence, 52, 209. Strychnin, 246. Style: elongated part of the pistil between the ovary and stigma, (256). Stylophorum, 331. Suberin, 236. Suckers, 54; of fungi, 86. Sugar, 245, 246.
Sulfur, 72.

Summer-spore, 183. Sundrops, 365.

Sunflower, 3, 19. 407, Figs. 3, 4, 23, 27; doubling, 145; family, 400; inflorescence, 116, Fig. 177; rays, 143; society 225; transpiration in, 82. Sunlight and plants, 42, 214. Supernumerary buds: more than one in

Sporogonium, 188.
Sporophyll, 176.

Sporophyte, 174, 194.

Spruce, 15, 293. Figs. 270, 271. 424. Spruce cone, Fig. 271; seed. Fig. 155. Spurge, 320. Squash fruit, 155, Fig. 269; germination. 171; Guinea, 378, Fig. 261; hairs, 105,
235; roots, 268.

an axil, (87). Suri'ival of the fittest, 231. Swamp plants, 199, 219.

430

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Touch-me-not, 343. Toxylon pomiferum, 315, Fig. 451.
Tracheids, 256. Tradescantia, 235, 238, 302. Tragapogon, 403. Transpiration, giving off' of water, (174). Trees, forms of, 59; struggle in, 53. Trifolium, 350, Figs. 82, 468. Trillium, 138, 300, Fig. 221; society, 225.

Swarm-spore, 179. Sweet alyssum, 336, Fig. 460.

Sweetbriar, 359. Sweet Cicely, 367. Sweet pea, 110, 350, Figs. 165, 222. Sweet potato, 16, 380. Sweet Williain, 321, Fig. 456. Sycamore, 273, Fig. 417. Symbiosis, 186. Symplocarpus foetidus, 295. Sympodial: axial growtii continued by successive lateral shoots, 1 13 Syngenesious: anthers united in a rins,
(282).

Trimerous: in 3's, (271). TropiEolum, 342, Fig. 195. Trumpet-creeper, 10, 152, Fig. 258. Truncate: appearing as if cut squared, (199), Fig. 141.

off;

Syringa, 363, 389. Tabular, 233. Tamaraclv 294. Tanecetum vulgare, 408. Tangle-berry, 392. Tannin, 246. Tansy, 408. Tap-root, 7. Tara.xacum officinale, 403, Figs. 8, 275. Tare, 350. Teasel, 3. Tecoma, 10; capsule, 152, Fig. 258. Teleutospore, 184. Telophase, 240. Tendril, 109; roots as, 10.
Terrestrial, 199.

Tsuga

Teucrium, 370. Thalictrum, 325.

Thallophyte, 176, 178. Thallus, 178. Thi-stle, 142, 404, 409, Figs. 228-230,
276; down, 161, Fig. 276; Rus.sian, Fig. 99; star, 410. spines, 104, Figs. 152-155. Thoroughwort, 413, Fig. 159. Thyrse: compound cluster with main axis indeterminate and branches determinate, (245). Thuja, 294, Fig. 426. Tiarella, 362. Tiers of branches, 54. Tiger-flower, 375, Fig. 487; lily, 298, Fig. 30. Tillandsia, 88. Tissues, 252; systems, 257. Toad-flax, 20, 23, 373, 374, Figs. 255, 485; flower, 137; poUination, 132, Fig. 211. Toadstools, 180 Tobacco, 379; cell-sap, 246; Indian,400. Tomato, 121, 378, Fig. 186; fruit, 153;

Thorn

Canaden.sis, 293, Fig. 425. Tuber: short congested part, (77). Tuberose, 304. Tulipa Gesneriana, 298; suaveolens. 298. Tulip-tree fruits, 160; leaf. Fig. 141. Tumble-weeds, 163. Turnip, 7, 13; fruit, 152; Indian, 295. Fig. 226. Turnip, starch in, 31, Fig. 44. Turtlehead, 374. Tu.ssilago, 410. Twigs, history of, 56; starch in, 32, Fig. 43. Twiners, 108, 111. Twin-leaf, 328. Ulmus, 314, Figs. 146, 448, 449, 450. Umbel: corymbose cluster with branches of about equal length and arising from a common point, (242). Umbellet: secondary umbel, (242). Umbelliferae, 366. Undergrowth, 224. Undulate: wavy, (200). Uredospore, 185. Urtica dioica, 316; gracilis, 316. Urticaceae, 313. Uvularia, 300. Vacuole, 234. Vaccinium, 392. Valves: separable parts of a pod, (278). Variation, 228. Vascular, 233, 256. Vaucheria, 179, 233, Figs. 315, 316. Vegetable mould, 202. Velum, 194. Venation: veining, (191). Verbascum, 373, Fig 22; hairs, 270. Verbena, 372; cutting, Fig. 35. Verbenacese, 372.

graft, 28.

Toothwort, 335. Torus: part or organ to which the parts of the flower are attached; upper end
of the flower-stalk.
(252).

Vernonia, 413 Veronica, 376. Verticillate: with three or more leaves or flowers at one node, (112). Vervain, 372. Vetch, 360.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Vetchling, 349.

431

Viburnum, 397, Fig. 279. Vicia, 350. Vigna Sinensis, 353, Fig. 473.
Vinca, 387. Vine, cypress, 380, Fig. 492. ViolaeeiB, 337. Violet, 3, 337, 338; cleistogamous, 134, Fig. 216; seeds, 158; society. 225. Viper's Buglo.?s.
Virgin's bower, 327 Virginia creeper, tendril, 109, 113, Fig. 163. Wake-robin, 300. Wallflower fruit, 152; hairs, 270. Walnut buds, 37, 133, 147. Wandering Jew, 303. Water, how the plant takes, 64; -lily, 3, 198; pores, 271; roots search for, 9. Waterleaf, 383. Watersprout, 21, 54. Water cress, 335. Water hoarhound, 369. Water-lily, 329. Wax for grafting, 30. Wax-work, twiner, 112. Weigela, 397. Weeds, 214, 222. Wheat field, Fig. 357; flower, 146, Fig. 238; India, 318; rust, 183, Figs. 325330; starch, 249.

Whiteweed, 407, Fig. 169. Whorl: three or more leaves or flowers at one node, (112). Wild oats, 300.
William, Sweet, 321, Fig. 456.

Willow buds, 41, Fig. 86; cuttings, 21,

dioecious, 133; expression, 61; inflorescence, 117, Fig. 213; mildew, 182, Figs. 321, 324; phyllotaxy, 49; pollard. Fig. 87; pussies, Fig. 56; seeds, 161.

Willow-herb, 365.
Wilting, 68, 71, 83, 84. Wind and plants, 204; travelers, 159.

Wind-flower, 324 Window box, 163. Winter bud, 36.

Wmter-pre.=:, 334.

129; flowering, 347. Wistaria, 112, 347. Wood sorrel, 342. Xanthium, 405, Fig. 496. Xerophytic society, 219, Fig. 344. Xylem, 257. Yarrow. 406. Yeast, 234.

Wmtergreen, 393; anther,

Yew

fruit, 156.

Zebrin^i, 303. Zone societies, 225, Zygospore, 179.

Fig. 380.

ihe cnKiigmii by means of rootstocks

uii' ot

feae.iline

allied to

t i.l uit uhi li piopagites, its,elf a plant recently introduced troni Asia docks and smartweeds.

M.

C.

SiaU

<See pao M.)i

CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE

By
Of Cornll
L.

H.

BAILEY
and many Expert

University, assisted by

WILHELM MILLER,

Cultivators and Botanists

FOUR VOLUMES - OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS CLOTH- OCTAVO-$20 NET PER SET - HALF MOROCCO, $32 NET PER SET

This great work coniprises directions for the cultivation of horticultural crops and original descriptions of all the species of fruits, vegetables, fiowers and ornamental plants known to be in the market in the United States and Canada. "It has the unique distinction of presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged and perfectly accessible form, the best knowledge of the best specialists in America upon gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the like, as Avell as

The contributors exact botanical information. are eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrangement is very systematic, clear and convenient for ready reference."
.
.
.

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