MWL05 Manual

AMITEC ELECTRONICS LTD.
MWL05 MICROWAVE TRAINER EXPERIMENTAL & OPERATING MANUAL
REGD. OFF. : 504, NILGIRI TOWER, BARAKHAMBA ROAD, NEW DELHI-110001, India WORKS : 4/32, SITE-4, SAHIBABAD, U.P.-201010, India TEL- +91-120-4371276, +91-9810193153, +91-9811839949 www.amitec.co.in amitec@rediffmail.com
Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION MWL05 Technical description of components and instruments CHAPTER-2: USAGE Cares for use CHAPTER-3: EXPERIMENTS Experiment1: The Gunn oscillator Experiment2: PIN diode modulator and detector Experiment3: Propagation modes, wavelength and phase velocity in a waveguide Experiment4: Q and bandwidth of a resonance cavity Experiment5: Power measurements Experiment6: Standing wave ratio (SWR) measurement Experiment7: Impedance measurement Experiment8: Basic properties of a directional coupler Experiment9: Attenuation measurement Experiment10: Study of a waveguide Hybrid-T Experiment11: Study of phase-shifter. Experiment12: Dielectric constant of homogeneous material. Experiment13: Radiation pattern and gain of the horn antenna. Experiment14: Study of isolators and circulators. Experiment15: Study of coax to waveguide Transmission. Experiment16: Microwave Communication link. 2 2 4 10 11
17 23 29 33 37 43 47 54 59 62 67 69 71 73 75 77
CHAPTER -1: INTRODUCTION

1-1 THE MODEL MWL05
The Microwave Lab MWL05 is developed to provide with the users a comprehensive way of understanding the basic properties of microwave Frequencies and also the easiest way of performing a number of microwave experiments using the popular X-band frequencies (8.2~12.4 GHz). The microwave radio communications network plays very important role nowadays in our daily life. For example high quality long distance telephone calls, sometimes via communications satellites, are made possible using microwave telecommunications systems The superior characteristics of a microwave system come from the fact that the microwave frequencies have highly directional propagation properties, which are similar to those of light. Also the high degree of noise immunity of the microwave frequencies in the atmosphere makes the microwave communication the top choice in the long distance communications The MWL05, a very effective learning tool on the properties of microwave frequencies, offers a variety of experiments centered on the following key components involved in the microwave frequency oscillation, transmission ion through antenna and reception at the receiver.
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS IN MWL05

1. Gunn Oscillator A Gunn oscillator, named after Gunn who discovered the Gunn effect in 1963.generates microwave frequencies when a Gunn diode, which is loosely coupled to a cavity, is connected to a 8-10V DC power source. The power output of the Gunn oscillator ranges from 5 to 20 milliwatts depending upon the supply voltage, and the other parameters of the oscillator.It is recommended that output frequencies of X-Band of this manual '5 experiment procedures should be fixed 100GHZ.
2. PIN-diode modulator A PIN diode utilizes the property of a pin diode, which is placed across waveguide. If the pin diode is reverse biased, the insertion loss of diode is so small that it does not affect the energy flow inside the wave-guide. However, when the reverse biased is removed either fully or partially, the diode begins to control the energy flow, thus creating an amplitude or pulse modulation effect. Impedance matching is required to obtain the maximum power output. Leaving the diode unbiased could be destructive to the diode when there is signal flow in the system.
3. FREQUENCY METER The basic working principle of the frequency meter comes from the high Q resonant characteristic of the resonant cavity, which is attached to a wave-guide. The microwave signal in the wave-guide is coupled to the resonant cavity through a small slot between the cavity and the wave-guide. The effective size of the cavity, and thus the resonant frequency of the cavity, is variable by moving in and out an adjustable plunger, which has a calibrated micrometer assembly. When the resonant frequency of the cavity is equal to the frequency of the waveguide, there is a maximum energy transfer from the waveguide to the cavity. A large power drop on the power meter, which is connected to the waveguide, indicates this condition. The actual frequency is obtained by reading the calibrated micrometer.
4. Power meter (Optional) A high quality thermocouple (high frequency materials for the thermo-junctions with low error rate) can convert the microwave energy to a readily measurable DC voltage. The DC voltage can be easily amplified then fed to a meter. The meter indication is calibrated to represent the power level in the waveguide. The power meter is provided with its 10GHz DRO source. This can be used for two port network measurements. The DRO source with its built in PIN modulator can be modulated with an ASK signal of DC-10KHz, which can be used to transmit data or use with SWR meter.
5. Variable attenuator. A variable attenuator provides attenuation by varying the degree of insertion of a matched resistive strip into a waveguide. The variable attenuator is used to control a power level or to isolate a source from a load.
6. Fixed attenuator(Optional) The purpose of the fixed attenuator used in MWL05 is to provide a fixed attenuation of 20dB. The attenuation is obtained by insertion of a thin conducting absorber into a straight portion of a standard waveguide. 5
7. Directional coupler The directional coupler, which allows directional coupling of energy in the wave guide is basically a sampling device of the microwave signal A directional coupler is consisted of two wave guides combined together and coupled by holes at the joining section of the two Directional couplers are very popular in microwave systems where measurements of incident and reflected power are needed to determine the Standing Wave Ratio or SWR The directivity, which is a figure of merit of a directional coupler, is a measure of how we 11 the power can be coupled in the desired direction in the neighboring waveguide. Usually one end of the neighboring wave guide contains a matched load which absorbs the energy headed towards undesired direction The directional coupler used in MWL05 has a coupling factor of 10dB (: +/ -3dB) and a directivity of 40dB. A directional coupler is represented by a graphical symbol of the following.
8. Slotted line In measuring the standing waves inside a wave-guide. A slotted line is used to probe the amplitude and the phase of the standing wave pattern. Obtaining the standing wave pattern information allows us to determine the wavelength standing wave ratio and the impedance of the transmission line. As the name indicates a slotted line has a slot along the center inline of the broad side of the wall an assembly consisting of a probe and a crystal along the open slot and as it does, detector is desired to slide the probe samples the field in the wave guide while the crystal detector provides a rectified signal. The depth of the probe into the waveguide is adjustable and the strength of the detected signal is proportional to the depth. The user should be aware of an optimized depth in use of a slotted line since too shallow depth should make the detected signal too weak and too deep depth would substantially reduce the main signal power in the wave guide and may even cause field distortion.
9. Slide screw tuner The primary use of the slide screw tuner is to match loads, detectors, or antennas to the characteristic impedance of the wave guide of a slide screw tuner consists of a probe mounted on a carriage which slides along a narrow and long on the feeding wave guide When the adjusting micrometer is turned, depth of the probe varies The combination of the depth and the position of the probe causes reflection in the wave guide at a specific amplitude and phase.
10. Crystal detector. The crystal detector is located inside the waveguide walls which joined to a coaxial connector The crystal detector basically a diode assembly which responds to the electromagnetic field inside the wave guide. The diode assembly is consisted .of a small thin piece of silicon a thin tungsten wire and a case One side of the silicon is directly connected to the case and the other side is connected to the tip of the tungsten wire. The diode action is due to the different properties of silicon and tungsten silicon has few surplus electrons but there are many free electrons in tungsten. Therefore when a voltage is applied across the diode in such a direction as to force electrons to leave silicon and enter tungsten, a very small current results In contrast when the direction of the voltage is reversed, a large current flows from tungsten into silicon, This is how the diode can be used for detection of microwave energy The diode is a fragile device it can be easily damaged from an excessive voltage The characteristic of a crystal detector (or the" relationship between the output voltage and current to the input voltage) is such that the device follows a square law within a certain range of input power. The square law characteristic means the output voltage is proportional to the square of the input voltage. It can also be said that the output voltage directly proportional to the input power.
11. Matched terminaton. The matched terminator is essentially a matched to the microwave transmission line. As the standing waves occur due to impedance mismatches in the system. The matched termination is used to minimize the SWR in a system.
12. Coaxial Adapter (Optional) Provides a match between a wave guide and a 50 ohm coaxial the power flow can be in either direction. However SWR in the adapter should be kept less than 1.2
13. Magic-Tee (or Hybrid-Tee) A magic-Tee is a four port device which is basically a microwave version of a hybrid coil in telephone repeater circuits the properties that terminated in external the type commonly used when properly impedances. power has incident on any arm splits equally between the two adjacent arms, but there is no power coupled to the opposite arm The magic-Tee is an essential device in balanced mixers, automatic frequency control circuits and Impedance measurement circuits
14. REFLECTING SHEET A means of reflecting electromagnetic waves in free space when measuring the wavelength of a signal.
15. Shorting plate. When measuring the wavelength inside of a waveguide a shorting plate is used to create a short (zero impedance) at the open end of a wave-guide
16. Wave guide straight section (Optional) A six-inch straight section of wave guide used in measurements of the wavelength and the phase velocity inside a wave guide.
17. Circulator (Optional) and Isolator The isolator is a two port device with small insertion loss in forward direction and a large in reverse attenuation. It thus allows power flow in one direction only. It can thus absorb reflected power from a mismatched load and isolate the gunn source. Circulator is a three port junction that permits transmission in say clockwise direction only. A wave incident in port1 is coupled to port2 only; a wave incident at port2 is coupled to port3 only and so on. 9
18. Solid Liquid Dielectric (Optional) The cell have waveguide cavity which can be used to hold solid or liquid dielectric for measurement of dielectric constant and loss tangent.
19. Phase Shifter (Optional) It consists of dielectric vane, which is inserted in waveguide to change the phase of microwave signal at output port.
20. Gunn Power supply The Gunn power supply has built in 1KHz square waveform for modulating the PIN diode for detecting by SWR meter. It has a microphone input jack at back panel for modulating on PIN diode. It also has a BNC connector at back panel, which converts an incoming RS232 data from PC serial port to a modulating signal fro PIN diode. It has low noise glitch free dc power supply for Gunn diode with a digital display of voltage and current.
21. SWR meter 10
The SWR meter provided has two inputs. One is tuned 1KHz input BNC at front panel, which is used to read the SWR. The meter is calibrated for square law response of detector. The other is a broadband low noise input at back panel, which can amplify a 20Hz-15KHz signal. This signal is then amplified and fed to comparators which convert the demodulated ASK data to digital waveform. This digital waveform is the converted to RS232 level for compatibility to PC serial port.
11
CHAPTER-2:
Cares for use
USAGE
1. In order to improve the measuring reliability, the connection of each micro waves should be made correctly and should adhere to the following rules. The central rectangle of waveguide should be kept in a line and the edge should be matched. Two flanges should be tightly jointed with four screws and nuts so the microwave doesn't leak. 2. The components of this experiment set should not be used for any other experimental purpose. 3. No drop or shock should be applied to any component 4. Keep away from humidity or heat. 5. Should avoid using in a dusty area and should be kept in its storage case after use. 6. Check whether any foreign substance is attached on the entry/exit of waveguide before the assembly for the experiment circuit construction of components removes the foreign substance if existing. 7. While the oscillator is oscillating, the internal part of oscillator must not be observed through the output part. Because the oscillator used in this experiment unit a relatively small power, output is not dangerous to other body parts, but eyes may be damaged.
12
THE WAY TO USE COMPONENT WITH DIRECTIONS Among microwave components, there are components which have the pre-set connection. These components are not transmitted in one certain the wave only to a specific direction. The following are these. Directional Coupler Magic-Tee (also called as Hybrid Tee)
The following picture is an example of using a directional coupler and the arrows indicate the possible wave directions. P3
P1 (a)
P2
P1 (b)
P2
The directional coupler of picture (a) shows that in the case that the wave enters to PI; the same PI wave is transmitted to P2 and P3. However, picture (b) shows an opposite case of (a) which the wave enters through P2.Although this wave is transmitted to PI from P2; it is not transmitted to P3. If using these characteristics, one M/W antenna can be made for transmission and reception and the reflection wave in the wave-guide circuit can be detected.
The Way to Use POWER METER MWL05 Microwave Trainer provides the M/W Power meter Model XPM10. The following picture shows an example of using the Thermo Couple Power Meter XPM10.
13
[Note] XPM10 Power Meter measures up to several 1- uW through a thermo probe. If the RF power over 1W is directly measured without attenuation, the microwave detection thermo probe may be damaged. XPM10 has the frequency measurement range of 8.2GHz -12. 4GHz. It has 50dB dynamic range of 30dBm to +20dBm. The Way to Use a Gunn Power supply This oscillator, by applying the square wave bias voltage of 1KHz to Pin Modulator, modulates the CW output of the Gunn diode. This AM envelope allows for detection of X band signal by demodulation with a diode in detector. This demodulated output of 1KHz is proportional to the power level of X band signal.
14
SHIPPING LIST No. LIST OF ITEMS SUPPLIED IN MICROWAVE TRAINER
Qty.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1
MWL05
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 MICROMETER TUNABLE GUNN OSCILLATOR + CALIBRATION CHART PIN DIODE MODULATOR ISOLATOR CAVITY TYPE FREQUENCY METER + CALIBRATION CHART VARIABLE ATTENUATOR + CALIBRATION CHART SLOTTED LINE WITH FIXED MATCHED PROBE WAVEGUIDE MATCHED DETECTOR FIXED SHORT MATCHED TERMINATION SLIDE SCREW TUNER PRECISION MICROMETER TYPE E PLANE TEE H PLANE TEE MAGIC TEE (OR HYBRID TEE) MULTIHOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLER WAVEGUIDE STAND + WAVEGUIDE MOUNT ANTENNA ROTATOR + WAVEGUIDE MOUNT + GRDUATED DISC PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA REFLECTOR PANEL DIGITAL GUNN POWER SUPPLY + POWER CORD + BNC- BNC CABLE + BNC- IEC CABLE + RS 232 Tx LEAD + BNC TEE ADAPTER +MICROPHONE VSWR METER + POWER CORD + BNC- BNC CABLE + RS 232 Rx LEAD EXPERIMENTAL MANUAL RS 232 COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE CD + E MANUAL INSTALLATION VIDEO CD M4 X 20 SCREW + NUT M4 X 12 SCREW
20 21 22 23 24
1 1 1 40 10
15
Equipments 1 Gunn oscillator 2 pin diode modulator 3 power supply and signal source 4.Oscilloscope (DUAL TRACE) 5. SWR meter 6.Frequency meter 7.Thermocouple Mount power meter 8.Variable Attenuator 9.Fixed Attenuator 10.Directional coupler 11. Slotted line 12.Slide screw tuner 13. Crystal detector 14.Matched Terminator 15.Waveguide to coax adapter 16. Hybrid- Tee 17. Reflector with stand 18. Shorting Plate 19.Waveguide straight section 20. DVM
exp1 exp2 exp3 exp4 exp5 exp6 exp7 exp8 exp9
exp10
* * * * *
* * *
* * *
* * * *
* * *
* * *
* * *
* * *
* * *
* *
* * *
* *
* *
* * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* *
* * * * * * * *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * * * * * *
16
Experiment 1. :
THE GUNN OSCILLATOR
1. Objectives: The objectives of this experiment are to obtain the knowledge on the theory and the operation of the Gunn oscillator as a source of microwave frequencies. 2. Theory: A. The Gunn Effect The Gunn effect or the transferred electron effect which was discovered by Gunn in 1963 states that when a small DC voltage is applied across a thin slice of semiconductor materials, it exhibits negative resistance under certain conditions Gunn used in his case gallium arsenide (GaAs} and indium phosphide Once the negative resistance is developed, one can easily generate oscillations by connecting the negative resistance element to a tuned circuit One of the requirements in maintaining the negative resistance state in the semiconductor materials is to keep the voltage gradient across the material over 3000V/cm. The most appropriate tuned circuit to be connected the semiconductors for microwave frequencies are a tuned cavity .
The Side view of an epitaxial GaAs Gunn Semiconductor The Gunn effect, which takes Place only in n-type semiconductor materials, is a result of the property of the semiconductor itself. It is found that any parameters associated with junction or contact properties as well as voltage or current do not affect the Gunn effect. Only the electric field is required to be above the threshold to maintain oscillation. The Gunn diode is insensitive to the magnetic field and thus it does not respond to any incident magnetic field. The frequency of oscillation is mainly determined by the time the electrons, in a form of a bunch, take to transfer the slice of material.
17
B. Negative resistance and transferred electron effect The energy bands and energy levels of GaAs are shown in figure below. Notice that this material possesses an empty energy band at the top of the energy level The partially filled energy band is bellow the empty band When the material is doped with n-type material, there excess electrons in the material ready to flow when a voltage is applied across the diode
The Energy level in a GaAs Gunn diode The current flowing in the diode is proportional to the voltage and the current is oriented towards the positive end of the GaAs. The situation of higher the voltage the larger the current is equivalent to positive resistance. However when the level of applied voltage reaches a sufficiently high value, electrons instead of trying to travel even faster, transfer to the higher energy band, which is empty and less mobile. As a result, the current flow decreases, exhibiting negative resistance phenomenon. The electron transfer from a lower energy level to a higher level is called transferred electron effect. If the voltage level is increased even further, the mobility of the electrons in the higher energy band begins to improve resulting in an increased current C. Gunn domains The frequency, of the oscillations in the GaAs has to do with the formation and the transit time of the electrons, which form themselves in electron bunches. The negative resistance effect is an important factor in understanding the Gunn oscillator, however, the negative resistance effect alone does not explain everything that is happening inside the oscillator. The other important element is the formation of domains, or Gunn domains. The amount of free electrons available in the GaAs depends upon the density of the n-type material doped in the GaAs. Since the density of doping is not necessarily uniform across the GaAs, There are fewer free electrons where the doping density is low Fewer free electrons mean less conductivity and, therefore, the potential difference in such area becomes greater than the area where there are more free electrons. Hence as the applied voltage is increased, eventually the transferred electron effect takes place at this area first due to a sufficient voltage gradient, resulting in a negative resistance domain. The domain as described above is 18
considered to be unstable. What is happening in such a domain is that as electrons are taken out of circulation at a fast rate, the electrons in front travel forward rapidly and the ones behind bunch up (electron bunches). This way, the whole domain moves across the slice and toward the positive and with an average speed of about I07cm per second. As the transferred electron effect takes place in a domain, moving electrons to less conductive higher energy band, fewer electrons are left behind in the conduction band, making this region less conductive at this time. As was explained in the previous section, this causes the potential gradient to increase, making the domain capable of traveling. Thus, this process of electron transfer and domain traveling repeats itself and is said to be "self perpetuating". When the domain reaches to the anode of the diode, a pulse is applied: to the associated resonant tank circuit, resulting in oscillations. In fact, the pulse causes it arriving at the anode rather than the negative resistance property of the diode the oscillations of the Gunn diode. D. Gunn oscillator Although the oscillator is designed to prevent spurious mode oscillations, tuning features are provided with the oscillator in case fine adjustments are necessary 3. Experiment procedure, 1. Set up the equipment as shown in figure below.
A. The Current vs. Voltage Characteristics 1. Set the voltage to 4V. Set the variable attenuator to 10 dB. This will ensure proper isolation to the Gunn oscillator 2. Raise the voltage in 0.5V increment. Measure and record the current each time in table below. Supply 4.0 voltage V Supply current mA 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
19
3 Reduce the voltage to 0V from table 1-1Construct a V-I suggested in figure below
B. Measurement of the oscillator output power vs. supply voltage 1. Turn the power meter on and wait for it to settle to zero. 2. Raise the Gunn diode voltage in 0.5V increment and record, the power indication on the power meter and the attenuator setting, 3. Convert the obtained power reading in milliwatts to dBm. Then add the attenuation to dbm. Example: Assume the power reading is 6.3mW with the supply voltage of 8.5V. Then the power in dBm = 101log 6.3 = 8dBm. Add 3dB attenuation to 8dBm The total power is 11dBm. Now convert the 11 dBm, which is the Gunn diode output power back to the milliwatts Log =Pout/1 mw = 11/10 Pout = 12.6mW 4. Repeat step (3) and complete the table below 5 Draw a graph showing the relationships between the supply voltage and output power
20
Supply Voltage (V) Power meter reading (mw) Converted Power (dBm) Attenuator Setting (dB) Gunn diode output (dbm) Gunn diode output (mw)
+4
+4.5V
Data for the supply voltage and the output C.Measurement of the oscillator output frequency vs supply voltage 1. Set up the equipment as shown in figure below. Set the supply voltage to 9V. Set the attenuator to the maximum attenuation. Switch on Power meter. Reduce the attenuation until the Power meter reading is close to approximately 0.8 to 1 mW. Slowly turn the frequency meter. Observe a dip on the power meter when the frequency meter is exactly same as the frequency of the Gunn oscillator. (2) From the lowest supply voltage at which oscillations occur to max of 10V supply, vary the voltage in an increment of 1V. Notice that the frequency meter is calibrated on 100MHz increment. Interpolate.
21
Supply Voltage (V) Measured Frequency (MHz) Supply voltage vs. measured Frequency
22
EXPERIMENT2: MODULATOR AND CRYSTAL DETECTOR.

1. Objectives: Learn the basic theory and the operation of the PIN diode modulator. Learn the basic theory and the operation of the crystal detector.
2. Theory. a. Pin diode. As is shown in figure below, the PIN diode is constructed with a thin insulator sandwiched between P and N materials, hence the name PIN diode. The thickness of the P and N is much heavier than the insulator. In case of reverse bias condition, the PIN diode is a high resistive and capacitive device in the microwave frequency. It is an avalanche effect device: under a forward bias condition, an avalanche effect takes place in the insulator, allowing holes from P and electrons from N to flow. Thus, the insulator becomes effectively conductive
The construction and equivalent circuits of a PIN diode The PIN-diode modulator has a diode connected across a waveguide. The diode functions as a modulator when the biasing conditions vary due to a sufficiently 23
large square wave (low frequency) signal applied across the diode under the presence of a microwave signal inside the wave guide. When the diode is reversed biased, it does not affect the energy flow. Full or partial removal of the reverse bias allows the diode to control the energy flow. This type of modulator using an insulator junction between P and N offers excellent modulation characteristics due to the minimized rectification activities and harmonics generation during the modulation process. b. Crystal detector The crystal detector is a device capable of detecting microwave signals based on the 'square law characteristics. Point contact germanium or silicon crystal diodes are the most popular type of crystal detectors. Sometimes, a bolometer is used for microwave detection, although the device is mainly intended for microwave power measurements. A typical crystal detector circuit and associated characteristic curves of a crystal detector are presented in figure below. The two filters (input high-pass and output low-pass) are to separate the microwave frequencies from the DC output
The V-I characteristics of a crystal diode
24
In figure above we are interested in finding the relationship between the diode current and the diode voltage. In general the curves like the one in figure can be approximated by the Taylor series expressed in terms of the powers of the voltage i = a0 + a1V + a2V2 + a3V 3 The first three terms are sufficient to approximate the entire function the voltage is expressed as V = A coswt Where A is the amplitude and w is equal to 2pif. Substituting V into (2-1) yields i = a0 +a1(Acoswt) + a2 ( Acoswt) 2 Cos 2 wt = (1 + cos2wt) Now the characteristics of the square law become clear. The dc component is contained in the term. The second harmonics is expressed as i = a0 + a1(Acoswt) + a2 A2/2 (1 + cos2wt) Therefore we can say current in the detector is proportional to the square of the amplitude A of the microwave voltage. This concept is only valid up to a certain signal level. In addition to the detector circuit of figure above, the diode itself can be expressed in terms of an equivalent circuit. In figure below, a complete equivalent circuit of a detector is presented.
Equivalent circuit of a detector Ro and C represent the impedance of the junction and r is the body resistance of the diode. A figure of merit of a detector is the and current sensitivity of the detection function which is expressed as Voltage sensitivity = open circuit voltage/ input power = R0Idc/pin Current sensitivity = short circuit current / input power = R0 / (r + Ro) / Pin In order to maximize the output power, it is necessary to match the microwave impedance of the diode to the characteristic impedance of the wave-guide. Another reason for the impedance matching is to minimize the reflection from the detector since the measurement accuracy is affected by the reflection. The minimum signal level a diode can detect depends on the noise in the diode. The ability of a diode to detect a signal in the presence of noise is called the tangential sensitivity
25
The TSS of a diode In figure above microwave signal which is pulse modulated is detected amplified and displayed an oscilloscope. The real meaning of TSS is there has to be a minimum microwave power level to make the pulse ride above the noise. The TSS of a detector is very much dependent upon the bandwidth of the amplifier which follows the detector since the noise amplitude of the scope is determined by the bandwidth. One MHz bandwidth and 50 dBm of TSS are typical values of a microwave detector. 3. Experiment Procedure A. Square wave modulation.
(1) Set up equipment as shown in figure above. (2) Apply +9V to the Gunn oscillator. (3) Set the variable attenuator to 10 dB. (4) Adjust the square wave generator to 1kHz and 2Vp-p output. Connect the generator to the PIN modulator. (5) Adjust the scope so that the top of the square wave aligns to the zero level on the screen. (6) Adjust the attenuator so that the bottom of the square wave aligns to the zero level on the screen. (7) Repeat above measurement for 1Vp-p negative square wave. (8) Calculate the modulation depth for the two modulating inputs of 2Vp-p and 1 Vp-p using the following equations AdB = 20 log (Vmax / Vmin) 26
Where A is the difference in the attenuator settings between step (3) and (6). M = (Vmax/Vmin 1) / (Vmax/Vmin + 1) Where m is the modulation depth A sketch of the waveforms of the square wave modulation and detection Is shown in Figure
Square wave modulation and detection. As one can see from figure above, the attenuator setting deviation A can be expressed as A dB = 10 log (Pmax / Pmin) = 20 log (Vmax / Vmin). B. The square law characteristics of the crystal detector
(1) Set up equipment as shown in figure above. Switch on the power meter. Observe the meter for a few minutes. Make sure the calibration is maintained. (2) Apply voltage to the Gunn oscillator to the PIN modulator. Also apply 1 kHz square wave to pin modulator. At this point modulation should take place. (3) Set the variable attenuator to 0. The power meter should indicate between 0.02 and 0.15mW. Convert the display to read dBm. (4) As shown in figure below, replace the waveguide to coax adapter, the thermocouple mount and the power meter with a crystal detector and a SWR indicator. Adjust the modulating frequency such that the deflection of the SWR meter maximized. 27
(5) Select a range on the SWR meter. Adjust the gain control of the SWR meter to obtain a convenient reading on the dB scale. Once the range and gain control are set, do not touch the gain control. (6) Vary the attenuator setting up to 20 dB in 1dB increment. At each step record the SWR meter deflection (in db) and the gain range in Table A dB Input Power dBm SWR Indicator Deflection Range dB dB Deflection and range dB
28
Experiment 3: Propagation modes, wavelength and phase velocity in wave guide

1. Objectives Learn the theory of waveguide. Experiment the propagation characteristics of microwave in free space as well as in wave guide 2. THEORY A microwave wave guide is a hollow metallic pipe having rectangular or circular cross section In our experiments rectangular waveguides are The following mathematical analysis are based on the rectangular waveguides Also it is assumed that the user has basic knowledge about the wave equation Circular waveguides can be analyzed in the similar way using cylindrical coordinate We begin our analysis with the wave equation. a. Wave equation The reduced wave equation is expressed as 2+ K2 = 0 where (x, y, z) is the scalar wave function and k the wave number is defined as K2 = 2 in a perfect dielectric. In rectangular coordinate system, becomes 2/x2 + 2/y2 + 2/z2 + K2 = 0 The rectangular coordinate system is established in this case such that z is the direction of propagation as shown in Figure.
Our goal is to obtain a solution which has a form of g(x,y) f(z) .............................................................................. where f is a function of z only and 9 is a function of x and y or other suitable transverse coordinates only Solving for using the separation of variables method gives = {A1 Cos (KxX) + A2 Sin (KxX) {B1 Cos (KyY) + B2 Sin (KyY)} 29
Since the propagation takes place only in the z-direction {c1 e-jgz + c2 e+jgz} Where Kx2 + Ky2 = K2 A wave propagating in the positive z-direction is represented by and therefore e zcorresponds to a wave propagating in the negative z- direction. Three types of propagation modes are of particular interest for us: TEM (transverse electromagnetic) modes: In these modes, both electric and magnetic fields are transverse to the direction of propagation. Thus, there is no field components in the direction of travel. TEM modes do not exist in waveguides TE (transverse electric} modes or H-modes: In these modes, No electric field exists in the z-direction. However, magnetic field does exist in the zdirection. All the field components, therefore, maybe derived from the axial component Hz of magnetic field. TM (transverse magnetic) modes or E-modes: In these modes, no magnetic field exists in the z-direction. However, electric field does exist in the z-direction All the field components. Therefore, maybe derived from the axial component Ez of electric field.
TE and TM modes are the modes of propagation in a hollow empty waveguide. We will continue our efforts in mathematically deriving field components. The inside walls of the waveguide are assumed to be made out of perfect conductor. Also the wave-guide is assumed to be fiIIed with perfect dielectric. These conditions are necessary to simplify the field solutions. a. TEmn modes The equation can be rewritten for Hz, considering only for +z direction. The boundary conditions are applied at the waveguide walls: the normal component of the transverse magnetic field must vanish at the perfectly conducting waveguide walls. Also, tangential electric field also vanishes on the waveguide walls. Then the requirements of the D is was defined as D / X = 0 at X= 0, a . D / Y= 0 at Y= 0, b .. Applying two last equation to third last specifies the values of the characteristics constants Kx and Ky. Kx = n a n=0, 1, 2, Ky = ma m = 0, 1, 2,. Using the above relation and substituting A1B1 = Anm the solutions for D are: D = Anm Cos nX / a.Cos mY/ b . The final form of Hz is Hz = Anm Cos nX / a.Cos mY/ b . The significance of the integer n and m: the values of n and m indicate the no. of half cycles variations of each field component with respect to X and Y. Another 30
word, each combination of m and n values represent a different field configuration in the wave guide. TM modes: Very much the same steps are required to obtain the field solutions for TM modes except that this time, Hz must be set to 0. b. Characteristics of the rectangular waveguide Cut off frequency and cut off wavelength. The exponential form of represents a wave traveling in the +z direction Let us re-examine the relationship of g = (K2 Kc2)1/2 1) K>Kc: The is real and is indeed traveling in +z direction (propagating) 2) K<Kc: The g is imaginary and the propagation mode decays rapidly with distance z in the +z direction. In order to support propagation in the waveguide, the guide wavelength is longer than the wavelength in the free space Phase velocity the phase velocity or the velocity of a constant-phase point in wave guide is readily obtained from the frequency and the guide wavelength. It should be noted that the phase velocity in the wave-guide can exceed the speed of light in free space which is 3 x 108m/sec 3. Experiment procedure. Set up equipment as shown in Figure below. Equipment setup for measurements of frequency,
A. Frequency measurement. (1) Apply voltage to the Gunn oscillator. Also apply 1 KHz, 2Vp-p square wave to the PIN modulator. (2) Adjust the variable attenuator to 10 dB. Set the SWR meter such that the meter indicates approximately the middle of the scale (3) Adjust the frequency of the square wave generator so that the SWR indication is maximized. (4) Turn the frequency meter until there is a significant drop on the SWR indicator. Record the frequency in table. Detune the frequency meter. B. Measurement of free space wavelength and guide wavelength 31
(1) The reflecting sheet is moved toward the open end of the waveguide with the reflecting sheet oriented at right angle to the waveguide. The standing waves are formed between waveguide and refelecting sheet in free space. On movement of sheet the standing wave pattern would vary due to the reflections from the plate. The probe in the slotted line detects this variation of the standing wave. Find two adjacent positions where the two detected values are minimum. Do not move the probe on slotted line. The distance between these two points corresponds to the half wavelength in free space. Record the distance in following Table. (2) Cover the output of the slotted Line with the shorting plate. Vary the position of probe on the slotted Line and locate a position where the detected output voltage is minimum. From that point find another adjacent point where a minimum is detected again. The distance between two points is the half of the guide wavelength FREQUENCY MEASURED M EASURED g CALCULATED CALCULATED g Comparison of measured and calculated values of frequency, free space wavelength
32
Experiment: 4 Q AND BANDWITH OF A RESONTANT CAVITY 1. Objectives: Learn the theory of a resonance cavity. Experiment the relationship between Q and bandwidth. Learn how to measure the Q and bandwidth Learn how to measure the Q of a resonance cavity 2. Theory. Resonant circuits are of great importance for microwave oscillators, tuned amplifiers and frequency measurements, etc. A resonant circuit such as the one shown in figure below can be defined in terms of R, L, C when the frequency is limited up to approximately 100 MHz.
A Transmission cavity A resonant circuit frequency L = Ro/ wo Qo, C =Qo / woRo Rs = Ro/ Qo Where Ro is the parallel equivalent resistance wo is the resonant frequency Qo is the Q of the resonant tank However, in microwave circuits the analysis of the resonant cavity becomes difficult due to the extremely high value of Q. The other characteristics of the microwave resonator, which make the analysis difficult, are: -The circuit parameters vary depending upon the propagation modes -Unlike the low frequency case, the meaning of the voltage and the current in the tank becomes ambiguous, making the definition of Ro difficult. The wo, Qo and Ro of simple cavities can be found from the dimensions of the cavity and the power loss on the cavity walls. However, due to the complexity of the cavity structure, it is almost impossible to calculate wo, Qo and Ro. Instead, actual measurements of a few parameters of the cavity make it possible to determine the entire characteristics of the device. In Figure Z01 is the characteristic impedance of the input. - Waveguide. Z02 is the characteristic impedance of the output Rg is the internal resistance of the generator. RL is the load resistor. 33
An equivalent circuit of fig. In Figure above the cavity is effectively a series resonant circuit coupled by two ideal transformers with 1:n1 and n2:1 and n2:1 turns ratio. The output power in this case is Po; Ey2 / 4Zo. Where F is the ratio B/W the maximum power and the power of the two points on the curve Is the bandwidth of the cavity Is the bandwidth coefficient.
Equivalent circuit of the cavity portion
34
3. Experiment Procedures. Measurement of Q using the power measurement techniques
(1) Set up equipment as shown in Figure above. (2) Apply voltage to the Gunn oscillator. Switch on power meter. Adjust the variable attenuator for the maximum reading. Refer this value as Po. (3) Turn the frequency meter slowly and find the power and frequency reading when the power meter reading is minimized. Call these values PB for power and fo for frequency. (4) Slowly rotate the frequency meter. Find two frequencies (fl and f2} where the power reading is equal to DeltaP/2.
The resonant curve of a resonant cavity
35
Measurement of Q using SWR meter
(1) Set up equipment as shown in Figure above. (2) Turn the Gunn oscillator on and set the attenuator to 10dB. (3) Adjust the attenuator switch and the gain control to obtain 0dB on the SWR meter. (4) Slowly rotate the frequency meter. Find the point where the SWR meter reading is minimum. Read the dB indication on the meter (P). (5) Plug in the value obtained from (4) in to the following equation to get the ratio Pb. P db = 10 log (1/Pb) (6) Since DeltaP = 1-PB, calculate PB + DeltaP/2 and convert it to dB. (7) Slowly rotate the frequency meter and find f1,f2 and delta f, where the SWR meter reading indicates X dB as calculated above.
36
Experiment- 5 POWER MEASUREMENTS 1. Objectives: Learn different ways of measuring power. Learn how to evaluate the accuracy of the power measurements. 2. Theory: In general the power is defined as the time rate of transforming energy. In case of microwave, the energy is used in many different forms: exchange of information over long distance, heating a microwave oven, or acceleration of particles in nuclear engineering etc. The most common practice of power measurement at low frequencies is to measure the voltage and the current of the device under test, then calculate the power from the lumped value of the circuit parameters. However at microwave frequencies, the difficulty arises due to the distributed nature of the circuit elements. Another factor affecting is the reflection of the signal at wherever there is an impedance mismatch. Two types of power measurements are involved in the microwave power measurements: average power or peak power measurement. The average power is the time average of the sum of the product of the instantaneous voltage and current over the time period and the mathematical expression is given below.
Instantaneous power appearing at the load resistor Pavg = 1 / T integral limit 0 to t of ei dt Where T=period e = instantaneous voltage I = instantaneous current It should be noted in figure that the frequency of the instantaneous power (Pinst) is two times of the frequency of e and i. The average power in an alternating current circuit is expressed as: Pavg = ERMS . IRMS . Cos Where is the phase angle between E and I Now, consider a duty cycled pulse. The peak power of the pulse is related to the average power of the pulse by the duty cycle of the pulse. Ppeak = Pavg/ duty cycle Where duty cycle = / T Usually average power is involved in the microwave circuit, which has a continuous signal source. In contrast, where pulsed signals serve as a signal source, peak power is more meaningful way of expressing the power. Let's take a look at the details of the thermocouple power measurement method. The main 37
advantage of using thermocouple wires is the possibility of measuring the power by measuring the DC volts developed across the Thermocouples wires. The DC voltage is generated as the wires conduct the high frequency current and heat is generated across the two different metal contacts. In contrast, a power meter works as the voltage is applied to a meter and the meter is calibrated to indicate the power. The usability of the thermocouple wires used to be omitted to low frequencies. However the recent thin film technology offered a breakthrough in frequency. There are thermocouple materials suitable for microwave applications, such as bismuth and antimony. These materials develop heat by absorbing the input power resulting in an electromotive force (voltage). Figure below shows the construction of the power meter.
Construction of the Thermocouple power meter
38
3. Experiment Procedure. A. Direct measurement 1. Setup equipment as shown in Figure
2. Without the signal activated, switch on the power meter and allow it to adjust the meter to zero. 3. Turn on the Gunn oscillator. Adjust the variable attenuator to 3dB. Read the power meter and record the reading. B. Power measurement using a directional coupler. 1. Set up equipment as shown in Figure.
2. Do not alter settings on the power supply, Gunn oscillator and the variable attenuator. Take the reading of the power meter. C. Measurement of conjugate and Zo power. 1. Set up equipment as shown in figure.
39
2. Modulate the output of the directional coupler with a square wave of 1000Hz. Adjust the pulse frequency to maximize the SWR meter. Zo power: 3. Do not change the signal power level. Adjust the slide screw tuner for the minimum indication of SWR meter. Record the reading on the power meter. Conjugate power: 4. Adjust the slide screw tuner to get the maximum indication on the power meter. Record the reading. D. Modulated signal
. . 1. Adjust the variable attenuator to 10dB. 2. Adjust the output of the pulse generator to 0 volt peak to peak. Offset the output by +0.5VDC. Observe the power meter and record the meter reading. 3. Adjust the output of the pulse to 2 volt peak to peak. Record the power meter reading. Set the offset to 0 volt 4. Replace the thermocouple mount and the power meter with crystal detector. Connect oscilloscope to the crystal detector. Adjust the vertical position of the scope to align the top of the square wave to the zero level on the screen. The reason for this adjustment is that the output of the crystal detector is negative, Therefore, the power at the top of the pulse is actually less than the power at the bottom of the pulse. 40
5. Reduce the attenuation of the attenuator until the bottom of the square wave lines up with the zero level of the scope. Record the change in attenuation. E. The dB-scale. Attenuator Setting [dB] Power meter reading [mw]
5 8 10 12 15 20 Attenuation position vs. power meter reading Repeat the setup of Figure with the variable attenuator set at 20dB 1. Vary the attenuator as specified in Table above. At each time record the power meter reading. When the meter is switched on make sure the meter is properly zeroed. F. Considerations of mismatch loss and maximum power transfer Mismatch loss is defined as the power loss in the system due to reflections. In fact the impedance mismatch between the generator and the load causes multiple reflections, which produce a random phase determined by the electrical equivalent length of the wave guide. The random phase makes the power and attenuation measurements difficult due to the errors occurring and the power level deviations. When the SWR are known for the source and the load, the maximum and the minimum of the signal level deviations can be found, assuming the attenuation of the waveguide can be ignored. One way to determine the deviation values is to use a chart such as the one shown in Figure below. The maximum power transfer takes place when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the source impedance. For e.g. a source with 50+j25 ohm impedance delivers the max power to the load when the load impedance is 50-j25 ohm. When the load impedance is not the conjugate of the source impedance,
41
Conjugate mismatch loss chart The conjugate mismatch loss= (the available power of the source)/ (power delivered to the load) The above relationship can brief expressed in terms of the reflection coefficient. Mismatch loss= [1 - s L]2 / {1 - [s]2} { 1-[ L]2} Where s is reflection coefficient of the source L is reflection coefficient of the load Although s and L are not directly known in most cases the above equation are useful in determining the maximum and minimum mismatch power losses. A. Maximum mismatch loss: This happens when the argument of s equal to 180degrees. Maximum Mismatch = [1 + s L]2 / {1 - [s]2} { 1-[ L]2} = 1+ {SWRs* SWRL- 1}2 / 4 - SWRs* SWRL} B. Min mismatch loss: This happens when the argument if s plus L is equal to zero degrees. Minimum mismatch=[1 - s L]2 / {1 - [s]2} { 1-[ L]2} Example: For SWRs = 1.5 SWRL= 1.25 Cal the max and min mismatch loss Max mismatch loss= 1+ (1.5* 1.25-1)2/ 4*1.5* 1.25 = 1.102 Min mismatch loss = 1+ (1.5- 1.25)2 / 4*1.5*1.25 = 1.009 plus L is
42
EXPERIMENT 6 STANDING WAVE MEASUREMENTS 1. Objectives: Learn how to determine SWR using slotted line or SWR indicator. 2. Theory: At any point along a transmission line we can think of the electromagnetic field as a sum of two waveforms: one is traveling towards load and other towards generator. The reason for the reflection is due to impedance mismatch. Any open spot on the line is considered as impedance mismatches and becomes a cause of reflection as well. The amplitude and the phases of the reflected wave depend on the load impedance. The degree of the attenuation of the line affects amplitude of the reflected wave also. The only way reflection can be eliminated is either the line is infinitely long or there is impedance match between load and transmission line. A standing wave results from two traveling waves in opposite direction. The vector sum the two waves create the minimum and maximum points on standing wave pattern in a loss less transmission line.
Standing wave pattern in a lossless line In figure below a voltage standing waveform in a transmission line having a characteristic impedance of Zo and a load impedance of ZL is shown.
43
In figure above, the complex reflection coefficient is = (Er)/(Ei) = (Z-Zo)/(Z + Zo) where Er = reflected signal El = incident signal Z = complex impedance at a given point. The evaluated at the load is, L = (ZL - Zo)/(ZL + Zo) Then VSWR = S = Emax / Emin = [Ei] + {Er] / [Ei] - [Er] Therefore ] = (S1)/(S1)
44
3. Experiment Procedure
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Set up the equipment as shown above. Set the Gunn diode supply voltage to 9V. Do not exceed this value. Set the variable attenuator to 10 dB. Set the SWR indicator range switch to 20-40 dB. Turn on the indicator. Turn on the Gunn oscillator. Apply the modulation signal to pin diode modulator. Adjust the modulation freq for maximum meter deflection.
A. Measuring low and medium range SWR. 1. Move the probe of the slotted line and observe SWR indicator meter deflection. 2. Completely disengage the probe of slide screw tuner. At this point, the VSWR indication should be small (less than 1.3). 3. Move the probe in slotted line until a max deflection is observed on SWR indicator. Adjust the gain of SWR meter until meter reading is 1.0. 4. Move the probe to where a minimum deflection is observed. Take the reading on expanded scale and record it. 5. Repeat the above procedure with three different probe depths. The three different depths are required to be greater than the depth used in above procedure.
Probe depth (mm) VSWR Probe depth vs VSWR B. Measuring high range SWR. 1. Maximize the depth of the probe of the slide screw tuner. Large depth of the probe is necessary for high SWR measurements. 2. Move the probe along the slotted line until a minimum is observed on the indicator. 3. Adjust the gain of the oscillator until 3dB is shown on the dB scale. If necessary reduce the attenuation of the variable attenuator. 4. Move the probe along the slotted line until 0 dB is obtained on dB scale. 5. Record the position of the probe under the d1 column in table below.
45
Probe Penetration
d1 [mm]
d2 [mm]
1st min [mm]
2nd min [mm]
g [mm]
SWR
Recording the 3dB measurement 6. Repeat the above procedure while moving the probe towards right and record the position of the probe under d2 column. 7. Repeat the measurement at three different probe depths. 8. Replace the slide screw tuner with shorting plate. Find the distance between two adjacent minimum. The guide wavelength is g is twice of the distance. 9. Compute the SWR using the formula. SWR = {1+(1/sin2(d1-d2)/g)}1/2 = g/(d1-d2) C. Measuring high SWR using a calibrated attenuator 1) Maximize the probe depth of the slide screw tuner. 2) Move the probe along slotted line until a minimum is observed. 3) Set the variable attenuator to 10 dB. Call this value A1. Adjust the gain of SWR indicator until 3 dB deviation is observed. 4) Move the probe along slotted line and adjust the attenuator until the same maximum value as in the previous step. Read the dB value, call this A2 and record it in table below. Probe Penetration A1 dB A2 dB SWR
SWR measurement using a calibrated attenuator 5) Calculate the SWR using the following formula S= 10 * (A2- A1)/20 6) Repeat the procedure at different probe depths.
46
EXPERIMENT 7 IMPEDENCE MEASUREMENTS 1. Objectives: Learn the smith chart and its application in determining unknown impedances 2. Theory: In a transmission line with characteristic impedances of Zo, the reflection coefficient between the incident and the reflected signal is defined as = (Z - Zo) / (Z + Zo) Where Z = R + jX = load impedance connected to the line. = [] j complex reflection coefficient. The magnitude of ([]) is the ratio of the amp between the incident and reflected signal. The angle represents the angle of the rotation of the phase at the point of reflection. The voltage at any point on transmission line is the vector sum of the incident and reflected waveforms. The resultant voltage waveforms are called standing wave pattern. In fact, when the two waveforms add in phase, it forms a peak at that point. Likewise, when the two waveforms add out of phase, a valley or a minimum voltage is observed at that point. The voltage standing wave ratio VSWR is defined as VSWR= (Emax) / (Emin) = {1 + (Er / Ei)}/{1 - (Er / Ei)} = {1 + []}/{1 - []} The angle of rotation of the phase of the reflection coefficient at a distance d from the load is determined by
=2 d / g
The determination of the load impedance can be a three-step process: 1) Obtain data on the waveguide through well-defined measurements. 2) Determine the magnitude and phase of the reflection coefficient. 3) Calculate the load impedance. The smith chart is used for the third process of determining the load impedance at any point on the wave guide (or a transmission line in general) from known reflection coefficients. The Smith chart is a graphical representation of the impedance transformation property of the length of the transmission line. The chart coordinates give the normalized resistance and reactance. They are normalized to Zo, the characteristic impedance of the waveguide. The VSWR circles are usually not included but can be constructed as needed with a compass centered on the center point of the chart. Notice that the distance scale on the outside periphery is normalized to the guide wavelength. Usually, the best way to learn smith chart is to try to solve actual problems. Let's take a look on some problem. 47
Example: A waveguide is attached to a normalized load impedance of 0.6 +j1.2. The guide wavelength g is 42 millimeters. a. Find the impedance 10mm from the load. b. Find the distance from the load where the first minimum of VSWR occurs.
Solution: a. Refer to the smith chart as shown below. 1) Locate point A on the chart representing the load impedance of 0.6 + j1.2. 2) Draw the straight line from 0 to A. This line intersects the distance circle at 0.15 towards generator. Traveling 10mm from the load is same as traveling 10mm/42mm= 0.238 from the load. 3) Locate a point on the distance circle which is equal to 0.15 + 0.238= 0.388. Draw a straight line from the point to 0. 4) Draw a circle with radius 0A centered at 0. The impedance at point B represents the impedance of a point 10mm away from the load towards the generator. The normalized impedance of B is 0.38- j 0.78. b. The VSWR of 4.3 at pt C is where the max of the VSWR pattern occurs. The first minima occurs at point D. The distance between point A and point D is 0.5 - 0.15 = 0.35
48
When the working on a determination of unknown impedance, it is necessary to establish a reference plane which the impedance can be related to. For example the input terminals of the unknown impedance can be a reference plane. Once the reference plane is established the unknown impedance can be measured: a. Connect the unknown impedance to a slotted line, then measure the VSWR and the position of minimum value. b. Replace the unknown with a short at the output of the slotted line, then measure the distance between two adjacent minimum values. The distance obtained should be equal to 0.5 of the guide wavelength. c. Choose one of the minimum points as reference as shown below.
49
Fundamentals of Impedance Measurements Draw a VSWR circle on the smith chart as shown below. The impedance at the voltage minima is 1/SWR. When a short is placed across the load, the min of VSWR moves towards the load. Therefore, the impedance at the load is determined by drawing a straight line from a point d/g away from the zero of the outer most circle to the center of the VSWR circle. The intersection of the circle and the straight line represents the load impedance. Notice the line impedance equals the load impedance at g/2, g, 3g/2 ...... from the load. So far, the analysis assumed that the wave guide was loss less. In case the waveguide is lossy, any traces on the smith chart becomes a spiral rather than a circle. In a lossy line the SWR increases when the point of observation moves towards the load and decreases towards the generator.
50
51
3. Experiment Procedure: A. Basic measurement. 1) Set up the equipment as shown below. 2) Completely unscrew the probe. 3) Turn on Gunn oscillator. 4) Apply 1 KHz mod signal to the pin diode modulator. 5) Measure the max & min values on SWR indicator. 6) Measure the frequency of the oscillator.
B. Impedance measurements 1) Observe the SWR indicator deflection at the 40 dB range. Take the reading. 2) Bring the probe of the slide screw tuner into the device such that the depth of the probe is approx 5mm. 3) Move the probe along the slotted line until a maximum deflection is observed on the SWR indicator. 4) Adjust the SWR indicator until the meter indicates 1.0. 5) Move the probe along the slotted line until min deflection is observed. Probe Penetrati on (mm) Load SWR SL Load min dL (mm) Short minima dL (mm) dS2 (mm) g = 2(ds1dS2) (mm) dL-(dS1) / g Load Impedan ce
Frequency GHz
Data recording table for the impedance measurement. 52
Note: In the following measurements, in case (dL-dS1) turns out to be positive, move the probe towards the generator. If the value is negative, move it towards the load. Also note that (dL-dS1)/ g is always les than 0.25 6. Remove the slide screw tuner and the matched termination from the setup. Place a shorting plate to the slotted line. 7. Obtain the distance ds1 and ds2 which corresponds to two adjacent min VSWRs. The guide wavelength g is 2x(dS1-dS2). Note: When measuring the minimum, it may be helpful to increase the gain of the SWR indicator to obtain better accuracy. 8. Repeat the procedure for two or more different probe depths
53
Experiment 8 BASIC PROPERTIES OF A DIRECTIONAL COUPLER: 1. Objectives: Learn the basic properties of a directional coupler coefficient including the coupling coefficient and the directivity. 2. Theory: Directional coupler is shown in the figs basically a sampling device is that it does not introduce reflections to the main systems The physical structure of a directional coupler can be thought of as a transmission line with one input port but two o/p ports. The directivity of the directional coupler allows energy coupling in one direction only.
The basic properties of the directional coupler are graphically presented in figure below. Notice that one end of the direction coupler contains a matched termination.
Sampling direction of a Directional Coupler a. incident wave b. reflected wave. The coupling coefficient and the directivity which are the most important figure of merit of a directional coupler is defined as following: Coupling coefficient= 10 log( P1/P3F) (dB) Directivity= 10 log (P3F/P3R)
54
Return Loss Measurements When measuring return loss of a device the input signal is applied at the PORT2 and the device under test (DUT) is connected to port 1 then the return signal is picked up at PORT3. The power at the detector when the coupling coefficient is C (or logC dB) P3=Pr/C Since the voltage reflection coefficient of the DUT is given by (Pr/P1)1/2= P1 should be known to make use of the expression. If the DUT is replaced by a short all the input power is reflected back, and therefore, P1 should appear at the PORT3. The actual power at port3 is equal to P1/C. The ratio of the two signals detected at the PORT3 is (P1/C) X (C/Pr) = 1/()^2 The ratio as expressed above is called return loss. The accuracy of the return loss measurement is dependent on the directivity of the coupler, which describes how much of i/p power at port 2 leaks to port3. For example a directivity of 40 dB corresponds to a return loss of a 40 dB, which, in terms of reflection coefficient is 0.01 The SWR in this case is SWR = (1+0.01)/(1- 0.01) = 1.02
55
4. Experiment Procedure A Coupling factor measurements: (1) Set up the equipment as shown below. Set the variable attenuator at 20 dB. Apply 1000Hz modulation signal to pin diode modulator and turn on to the Gunn oscillator. Read the SWR indicator. Use this value as reference.
(2) Replace the freq meter with the directional coupler. Move the crystal detector to the auxiliary arm of the coupler. A1 [dB] A2 [dB] A3 [dB} A1-A2 [dB] A4 [dB] (A3-A4) + n*10 [dB]
Data for Coupling Factor Calculation. (3) Adjust the variable attenuator until the same reference reading as in (1) is obtained (4) Fill in the table above with attenuation of the attenuator. The coupling factor of the directional coupler is A1- A2
56
B. Directivity measurements: (1) Set the attenuator to 20 dB. (2) Read the SWR. Use this value as a reference. Record the attenuator setting. (3) Change the couplers orientation as shown below.
4) Reduce the attenuation and increase the SWR indicator gain by 10 dB or 20dB, (in 10dB steps) until the same value in (2) is obtained. The directivity is (A3-A4 + n x 10) dB.
57
C. Return loss measurement of a load
1. Set up equipments as shown in figure above. 2. Set the probe depth of the slide screw tuner to 5mm. 3. Set the attenuator to 0 dB. A5. Read the SWR indicator. Use this as reference. 4. Change the attenuator to maximum attenuation. Replace the load with a short. 5. Decrease the attenuator until the reference level in (3) is obtained. Record the attenuator position (A6) in case it is necessary to change the range on the SWR indicator, add increased value to the position of the attenuator to get A6. 6. The return loss = (A6 A5 + n X 10) dB A5 [dB] A6 [dB] (A5-A6) + n X 10 [dB] SWR
Data for return loss calculation
58
EXPERIMENT 9 ATTENUATION MEASUREMENTS: 1. Objectives: Learn the attenuation measurement techniques of the microwave components. 2. Theory: Although attenuation in general means reduction or decrease of something it specifically refers to the ratio between input to output power in microwave. A (dB) = 10 log P1/P2 where P1 is the input power. and P2 is the output power. Insertion loss, although it has mathematically the same expression, has completely different meaning. While attenuation is introduced in the system on purpose, insertion is an undesirable situation. The insertion loss is happening due to non-ideal physical components in the system. In microwave wave-guides two different measurements method are popular: power ratio or RF substitution. a. Power ratio method The power ratio method is simply taking the power measurement with and the microwave detector operates at different power level in each case, causing errors due to the non-linearity of the device. Therefore the measurements results needed to be compensated. For example, when the output power of the detector is maintained at less then 1 milli watt level, about 0.3-dB compensation is necessary for up to 20 dB attenuation. b, RF Substitution method. The error associated with the detector in the above method is eliminated in the RF substitution method by first measuring the output power with the DUT then replacing the DUT with the calibrated variable attenuator. By properly adjusting the variable attenuator to the same power level as before attenuation of the DUT then, is simply the amount of attenuation of the variable attenuator. So far, in both methods, we are based on the assumption that the errors due to impedance mismatch are insignificant. Sometimes the SWR itself introduces a small amount of errors. The MWL05 components are designed with less than + 0.5 dB of error rate.
59
3. Experiment Procedure: a. Preliminary Adjustment. Set up equipment as shown below
1. Turn the power supply on. 2. Apply 1000Hz modulation to the PIN diode. 3. Adjust the pulse repetition rate for the max deflection on the SWR indicator. b. Measurement using power ratio method 1. Set the variable attenuator to 20 dB. 2. Set the SWR indicator gain to either 30 dB or 40 dB range and adjust the indicator for 0 dB. 3. Using a directional coupler add a matched termination to the set up as shown below. 4. Obtain the reading of the SWR indicator. Calculate the actual coupling of the directional coupler. 5. Repeat step (2), (3) and (4) with the attenuator set at 15 and 10 dB respectively. 6. Repeat the above experiment using fixed attenuators.
60
c. Measurement using RF substitution method. 1. Connect the crystal detector to the PIN diode modulator. 2. Set the variable attenuator to 20 dB. Adjust the SWR indicator range switch and gain control so that the indicator can indicate 0 dB. 3. Insert the directional coupler and connect the crystal detector to the auxiliary arm of the directions coupler. Without altering the SWR indicator setting, adjust the variable attenuator until the SWR indication is same as before. Record the attenuator setting. This is the actual value of attenuation of directional coupler in this case. 4. Repeat the above experiment using a fixed attenuator as a DUT d. Measurements of low values of attenuation. 1. Set up the equipment
2. Set the variable attenuator to 20 dB. 3. Measure the input SWR of the device under test (a directional coupler in this case). 4. Determine the attenuation using the following expression. A= 10 log (SWR+1)/(SWR 1)
61
EXPRIMENT 10 STUDY OF A WAVEGUIDE HYBRID TEE 1. Objectives Understand the basic principle of hybrid tee Learn the measurement methods of hybrid T characteristics 2. Theory A hybrid T is basically a microwave version of hybrid coil of the type commonly used in telephone repeater circuits.
Waveguide Hybrid Tee When the bridge circuits is properly matched by external impedances, the input signal applied at the port 1 appears at port 2 and port 3, but no signal appears at port 4. In the same manner when the input is applied at port4, then the signal appears at port2 and port3 but no signal appears at port1. The above input and output relationship can be described in terms of the field distribution inside of the hybrid-T. A view of the electric field, with the input applied at port1 is as shown below. Its assumed that all arms of the hybrid T are properly matched.
Electric field with input field applied at port 1
62
The field is an even symmetry about the mid plane. If the input is applied at the port 4 the signal splits equally to port 2 and port3 but no part of the signal enters port1.
Electric field with input field applied at port 4 In figure above a side view at the junction of the hybrid-T is shown when the input signal is applied at the port4 in TE10 mode. The reason for no coupling to port 1 is due to the reciprocity and the symmetry of electric and magnetic field. The signal divides equally to port2 and port3 but the phase is 180 deg out of phase. Arm1 is sometimes referred to as H- arm because it is in the plane of the magnetic field. Arm4 is referred as E-Arm for the similar reason. Another place where the inputs can be applied to arm2 and arm3 at same time. In this case, the vector sum of the two inputs will appear at arm 1. At arm4 the vector difference of the inputs will appear. 3. Experiment Procedure: a. Initial adjustments
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Set up the equipment. Adjust the SWR indicator gain for obtaining any convenient deflection. Apply 9 V to the Gunn oscillator. Apply modulation voltage to the pin diode modulator.
Adjust the offset voltage and the pulse freq of the square wave generator to obtain max deflection on the SWR indicator
63
B. Measurement of decoupling b/w H-arm and E-arm.
(1) Set the equipments (2) Set the attenuator to 20 dB (A1) (3) Select the range on SWR indicator which gives a reasonable deflection on the indicator. Adjust the gain control to a reference reading on the dB scale of the indicator. (4) Remove the detector & connect the variable attenuator to arm1. (5) Connect matched termination and power meters to arm2 and arm3 and connect the detector to arm4. Keep the power meter at off position. (6) Increase the sensitivity of the SWR indicator in 10 dB increment until the same reference as in (3) is obtained. The attenuation (Az) of the attenuator may be reduced if necessary. (7) Record the result as below. Attenuation of the variable attenuator A1 (dB) A2 (dB) Variations of the SWR Decoupling meter gain (in 10dB A1-A2 + (nX10) steps) n steps (dB)
C. Measurement of insertion loss of Hybrid-T. 1. Connect the detector to the attenuator, which is set to 20 dB. 2. Select a range on the SWR indicator, which gives a reasonable deflection on the indicator. Adjust the gain control to a reference reading on the dB scale of the indicator. 3. Remove the detector and the connect the arm(1) of the hybrid T to the attenuator. 4. Connect the matched termination and the power meters to arm3 and arm 4. Also connect the detector to arm2. 64
5. Decrease the attenuator (A4) until the same reference level as in (2) is obtained. The insertion loss between arm1 and arm2 is A3-A4. 6. For insertion loss between arm 1 and arm 3 repeat (4) and (5). 7. For insertion loss between arm 4 and arm 2 repeat (3), (4) and (5) 8. Record the results Signal Path Arms 1-2 1-3 4-2 Variable Attenuator Attenuation A3 (dB) A4 (dB) 20 20 20 Insertion Loss (dB)
d. Return loss measurement of H-arm. Set up the equipment as shown below:
Return loss measurement 1. Turn on the oscillator. Do not exceed 9V. Adjust the square wave output for the max modulation. 2. Set the variable attenuator to 20 dB (A5). 3. Set up the reference point on the SWR indicator. 4. Remove the shorting plate. Connect arm1 to the directional coupler as shown below. Connect a matched termination to arm3. Leave arm 4 open. (Arm4 is the E plane T. Since the decoupling to arm 4 is almost 30-40 dB leaving it open should not affect the accuracy) 5. Increase the gain of the SWR indicator in 10 dB increments. Decrease the attenuation (A6) until the same level as in (4) is obtained. Record the results. 6. Repeat (5) and (6) using E-plane T (arm 4) instead of H- plane T(arm1).
65
Object
Attenuation A5 dB A6 dB
Gain increase of the SWR Meter in 10dB steps A6-A5 + (nX10)
Return Loss in dB Absolute Value
Arm 1 Arm 4 Return Loss Measurement data
66
EXPERIMENT 11: MEASUREMENT OF PHASE SHIFT OF A PHASE-SHIFTER 1. Objectives: To study the phase-shifter. 2. Equipment required: Microwave source, Isolator, Variable attenuator, Frequency meter, Slotted line, Tunable probe, Phase shifter, Movable short, VSWR meter. 3. Theory: A phase shifter consists of a piece of waveguide and a dielectric material inside the waveguide placed parallel to the electric vector of TE10 mode. The phase changes as a piece of dielectric material is moved from the edge of the waveguide towards the centre of the waveguide 4. Experiment Procedure: Set up the equipment in the figure.
1. First movable short is placed at the end of the slotted line. 2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output at particular frequency of operation. 3. Find out the g with the help of the probe slotted line and VSWR meter. It is the twice the distance between two minima on the slotted line. 4. Find out the operating frequency of the frequency meter or by relation of g. 5. Find out as = c/f or 1 / 2 = 1 / g2 + 1 / c2 6. Note and record a reference minima position on the slotted line. Let it is X. 7. Remove carefully the movable short from the slotted line. 8. Place the phase shifter to the slotted line with its micrometer reading zero and place the movable short to the other port of the phase shifter. 9. Find out a new minima position let it is Y. 10. Change the position of micrometer of phase shifter and find out the corresponding position of new minima, let it be yi.
67
5. CALCULATION: Since new minima are multiples of half wavelengths, from the short it should be possible to calculate the exact electrical length of the phase shifter. For e.g. suppose at 10 GHz the reference minima is found at X= 16.08 cm. Suppose the phase shifter is two wavelengths long and placed on the line in the step 9, the new minima y = 14.90 cm is obtained. Short has apparently moved 16.08 - 14.90 = 1.18 cm. This can be written as (0.393) = (1.18) / 3 he apparent movement is in the direction the short actually moved. It is added to the approximate half wave length in the phase shifter. The total electrical length is 2.393 wave lengths. Multiply by 2 to give phase shift in radius by 360 deg. Phase shift in above example = 2 *2.393 radians = 360 2.393 degrees The phase shift for other micrometer reading position can be found as above. 6. Observations: Initial minima 1. 2. 3. New minima Difference of minima's.
7. Conclusions and results: The phase shifter can be used to match the propagation delay in feed networks for phased array antennas.
68
EXPERIMENT 12: MEASUREMENT OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF A HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL 1. Objectives: To determine the dielectric constant of an insulating material. 2. Equipment required: Power supply, isolator, frequency meter, variable attenuator, detector mount, Waveguide containing sampling material 3. Theory: It is useful to write the relative dielectric constant as: r = ( 1 j tan ) he dielectric constant is not independent of frequency and stays constant over small portion of frequency spectrum.
Dielectric measurement method The figure above, shows an empty short circuited waveguide with a probe located as voltage minimum Dr. The fig shows the same waveguide containing sample of length le with a probe located at new voltage minimum D. The sample is adjusted to short circuit tanlk (DR - D - ie) / klE = tanlk Le Ke / Ke Le All the quantities at the left hand is measurable. While right hand is of the form tan z /z so that once the measurement have been performed the complex number Z= Ke Ie can be found by the solution of transcendental equation. 4. Procedure: 1. With no sample in short circuited lines find position of the voltage minima w.r.t. an arbitrary chosen reference. 2. With the help of slotted section and probe measure the guide wavelength by measuring the distance between two adjacent minima in slotted line. 3. Remove short circuit, inert the sample and replace the short circuit in such a manner that it touches the end of the sample. 4. Measure DR, the position of minima in slotted line. 5. Measure the VSWR (r) in the slotted line. 6. Repeat the steps 1 to 5 with sample having different lengths.
69
5. Observations and Calculations: 6. Conclusions and results: RESISTIVITY AND PERMITTIVITY MATERIAL Aluminum Oxide Bakelite Polystyrene Polyethylene Quartz Teflon Sapphire Beryllium Ferrite/Garnet Silicon GaAs PERMITTIVITY 10 4.9 2.56 2.25 3.78 2.08 9.3-11.7 6.6 13-16 12 13.1 LOSS TANGENT 0.0001 0.0016 0.0001 0.00037 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002 0.001 0.0006
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY Nickel Cast iron Cobalt Ferrite Silicon iron Mu metal Super Malloy 50 60 60 1,000 4,000 20,000 100,000 OHMIC LOSSES Skin depth is defined as the distance from the conductor surface to the point where the current density falls to 1/e of its value at the surface. Au 1.7 0.77 3 Ag 1.4 0.63 2.8 Cu 1.5 0.66 2.6 Al 1.9 0.86 microns 3.3
Skin depth (2GHz) Skin depth (10GHz) Surface resistivity
70
EXPERIMENT 13: RADIATION PATTERN AND THE GAIN OF WAVEGUIDE HORN ANTENNA 1. Objectives: To measure the polar pattern and the gain of the waveguide horn antenna. 2. Equipments Required: Gunn power supply, Gunn oscillator, Pin modulator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator, Detector mount, horn antenna, VSWR meter, and Accessories, Manual antenna rotator 3. Theory: If a transmission line propagating energy is left open at one end, there will be radiation from this end. In case of a rectangular waveguide this antenna presents a mismatch of about 2:1 and it radiates in many directions. The radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field strengths or more often the power intensity as a function of aspect angle at a constant distance from the radiating antenna. An antenna pattern is three dimensional. An antenna pattern consists of several lobes, the main lobe, side lobe and back lobe. The major power is concentrated is the main lobe. and side lobe is normally to keep as low. as possible. 3 dB Beam Width The angle between the two points on a main lobe when the power intensity is half the power intensity is half the maximum power intensity. When measuring the antenna pattern , it is normally most interesting to plot the pattern far from the antenna. Far field pattern is achieved at the maximum distance of 2D2/ ( For rectangular horn antenna) Antenna measurements are mostly made with unknown antenna as receiver. There are several methods to measure the gain of antenna. One method is to compare the unknown antenna with a standard gain of antenna. Another method is to use two antennas, one as transmitter and other as receiver from following formula gain can be calculated. Pr = Pt G1 G2 / (4 S) 2 Pt = transmitted power. Pr = Received power. = Free space wavelength. G1 = G2= Gain of transmitting and receiving antennas. S = Radial distance between two antennas. If both transmitting and receiving antennas are identical having Gain G Pr = Pt G2 / (4 S) 2 G = 4 S / (Pr / Pt)1/2 71
4. Procedure:
Gain and Pattern measurements 1. Set up the equipments as shown above. 2. Keep the horn at distance of 1m in line with waveguide. Keep the range db switch of VSWR meter at 0 dB position with gain control full. 3. Obtain full-scale deflection in VSWR meter with variable attenuator. 4. Replace the transmitting horn by detector mount and change the appropriate db position to get the deflection on scale. 5. Calculate the difference in db between the power measured between last two steps. 6. Rotate the horn antenna in steps of 5 degree and plot the dB level readings in SWR meter on a chart provided at back of manual. From the chart arrive at 3dB beamwidth and front to back ratio etc. 5. Observations: The gain of antenna was measured to be around 15dB. The 3dB beamwidth was found to be around 45 degrees and front to back ratio was 25dB.
72
EXPERIMENT 14: STUDY OF CIRCULATORS AND ISOLATORS 1. Objectives: To study isolators and Circulators Equipments Required: Microwave source, Isolators, Circulators, Frequency meter, Variable Attenuator, Slotted line, Tunable probe, Detector mount, VSWR meter, Test isolation and circulation and Accessories. 3. Theory: a. Isolator: The isolator is a two port device with small insertion loss in forward direction and a large isolation in reverse attenuation. The third port is terminated in a matched termination. b. Circulator: The circulator is a three port junction that permits transmission in say only clockwise direction. A wave incident in port1 is coupled to port2 only; a wave incident at port2 is coupled to port3 only and so on. Some parameters of isolator and circulator: a. Insertion loss: The ratio of the power supplied by a source to the input port to the power detected by the detector in the coupling arm i.e. output arm with other port terminated to the matched load is defined as insertion loss or forward loss. b. Isolation: It is the ratio of the power fed in the input arm and the power detected at not coupled port with other port not terminated in the matched load. c. Input VSWR: The input VSWR of an isolator or circulator is the ratio of the voltage max. to the voltage minimum of the standing wave existing on the line and the others have matched termination. 3. Procedure:
a. Input VSWR Measurement 1. Setup the equipments as shown above.
73
2. Connect the isolator or circulator in the direction of flow of energy. The input port is towards the gunn and the output port is connected to matched termination. 3. Energize the microwave source for 10GHz of frequency. 4. With the help of the slotted line, probe and VSWR meter, find out SWR of the isolator or circulators described earlier for low and medium SWR measurements. 5. The above procedure can be repeated for other frequencies. b. Measurement of insertion loss and isolation 1. Remove the isolator or circulator from slotted line. Connect the detector at end of slotted line. The output of the detector mount should be connected to VSWR meter. 2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of operation say 10GHz. Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the VSWR meter. 3. Set any reference level of a power in VSWR meter with the help of a variable attenuator and gain control Knob of the VSWR meter. Let it be P1. 4. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing and position of the set up. Insert the isolator / circulator between slotted line and detector mount. Keeping input port to the slotted line and detector mount. 5. Record the reading in the VSWR meter. If necessary change range dB switch to high or lower position and taking 10 dB change for one step change for one step change of switch position. Let it be P2. 6. Compute insertion loss on P1-P2 in dB. 7. For measurement of isolation, the isolation or circulator has to be connected reverse, the output port to the slotted line and detector to input port with other port is terminated by matched termination after setting a reference level without isolator or circulator in the set up as described in insertion loss measurement. Let same P1 level is set. 8. Record the reading of VSWR meter inserting the isolator or circulator as given in step 7. Let it is P3. 9. The same experiment can be done for the other ports of the circulator. Always terminate the unused port of the circulator. 10. Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies when needed.
Conclusions and Results: The insertion loss for circulator/isolator was found to be 1dB and isolation was measured to be 20dB at frequency of 10GHz.
74
EXPERIMENT 15: STUDY OF COAX TO WAVEGUIDE TRANSMISSION. 1. Objectives: To study Coax to waveguide transmission and find its SWR. 2. Equipments Required: 3. Theory: Transitions between the TEM coaxial mode and the TE10 mode in rectangular guide are frequently used in microwave equipment. In designing such a transition, it is necessary that it be shaped to encourage the desired mode conversion. One such configuration is shown in Fig. The coaxial line is connected to the broad wall of the waveguide with its outer conductor terminating on the wall. The center conductor protrudes into the guide and terminates on the opposite wall. As the TEM wave enters the waveguide section, the electric field lines follow the conducting walls as shown. Also with the TEM magnetic loops in the horizontal plane, they are favorably oriented for conversion to magnetic loop pattern of the of the TE10 mode. From a circuit point of view, the function of the quarter wave shorted stub is provided an open circuit in shunt with the Zo and Z01 lines is shown. One might be tempted to obtain the open circuit by Is = 0. Unfortunately, this doesn't work since an open-ended waveguide is not electrically equivalent to an open circuit. It is, in fact, an excellent radiating antenna. To achieve a low-SWR transition, the characteristic impedances of the coaxial line (20) and the rectangular waveguide (201) must be equal. In most cases, the coax impedance is 50 ohms while that of standard rectangular guide is several times larger.1 The waveguide impedance can be lowered by either reducing the guide height, as shown in the figure, or by using a ridge waveguide. Keep in mind that, unlike coaxial line, the characteristic impedance of waveguide is a function of frequency. Therefore, the two impedances can only be made equal at the design frequency. If a standard height output guide is desired, a quarter-wave transformer can be incorporated into the waveguide section. Note that, unlike the output guide, the height of the shorted waveguide section (bs) has not been reduced. With waveguide impedance proportional to height, this means 20s > 201, this results in a lower SWR over the useful waveguide band. Figure shows side views of three other coax-to-waveguide transitions. In all cases, the transitions are made directly to standard height waveguide. The one shown in part a is useful in high-power applications and is known as a doorknob transition. The probe type shown in part b is widely used in test equipment. Note that the center conductor of the coaxial line extends part way into the waveguide section. It can be thought of as an antenna that radiates energy into the waveguide.2 The dielectric sleeve-probe combination provides the required transformation between coaxial and waveguide impedances. This technique results in an SWR of less than 1.25 over the useful frequency range of the rectangular waveguide. An in-Iine transition is shown in part c of Fig. In this case, the center conductor 9f the coaxial line is bent so as to contact the broad wall of the wave-guide. The resultant loop encourages energy coupling between the coaxial and waveguide modes. The electric field conversion from TEM to TE10 is indicated in the figure. The orientation of the current-carrying loop is such that it converts the vertical plane of the TEM magnetic field (not shown) to a horizontally polarized magnetic 75
loop as required for the TE10 mode. The loop dimensions are adjusted experimentally for best SWR. The reader should keep in mind that the discontinuity created by a loop or probe produces higher-order modes. For instance, the ones in Fig. excite TM modes since they create a component of electric field parallel to the waveguide axis. By proper selection of guide dimensions, these higher-order modes can be attenuated while allowing the dominant mode to propagate. Impedance-matching methods are used to minimize the reactive effects associated with the localized higher modes.
The above setup can be used to measure SWR for coax to waveguide adapter. The coaxial matched termination is not provided. Observations: The waveguide to coax adapter can be used to connect waveguide to coax and vice versa Conclusions and Results: The waveguide to coax adapter can be used to connect waveguide to coax and vice versa.
76
Experiment: 16 Microwave communications Link 1. Objectives: To establish a microwave communication link. 2. Equipments Required: Gunn diode, power supply, pin diode modulator, Horn antenna, coaxial waveguide, Detector mount, power supply, C.R.O. 3. Theory: Microwave communication link are an important practical application of microwave technology and are used to carry voice, data, or television signals over distance ranging from intercity link to deep spacecraft. 4. Procedure: 1. Set up the Equipments as shown below. 2. The power supply is connected to Gunn diode. A square wave is applied to the pin modulator, which in turn passes through the Horn antenna. 3. The microwave communication link is established between two Horn antennas. 4. To the horn antenna a coaxial waveguide detector mount is attached for the detection of square waveform. 5. Through the detector mount the square waves is displayed on the C.R.O. 6. The SWR meter provided has two inputs. One is tuned 1KHz input BNC at front panel which is used to read the SWR. The other is a broadband low noise input at back panel which can amplify a 20Hz-15KHz signal. This signal is then amplified and fed to comparators which convert the demodulated ASK data to digital waveform. This digital waveform is the converted to RS232 level for compatibility to PC serial port. 7. The Gunn power supply has built in 1KHz square waveform for modulating the PIN diode for detecting by SWR meter. It has a microphone input jack at back panel for modulating on PIN diode. It also has a BNC connector at back panel, which converts an incoming RS232 data from PC serial port to a modulating signal fro PIN diode. 8. For serial communication connect the BNC to DB9 cables provided to PC and run the comdebug utility. Set up same baud rates at both Tx and Rx. The text typed into Tx window with the header space, space, space, space, enter, enter, message, enter would then be received at Rx window.
77
Observations: Due to inverse square law of microwave propagation, the received signal at detector decreases sharply. Due to Amplitude modulation the demodulated voice level or analog signal also decreases. The comparators in digital signal fail to detect the signal due to being indistinguishable from noise at larger distances. This is a drawback of using ASK or AM for communication. The other way is to use varactor diodes in Gunn oscillator and do an FM. One will have to use PLL FM demodulators to detect the signal in this case. Conclusions and Results: A microwave communication link can be established at X band. It can be used to transfer a square wave signal, Voice signal or PC serial data.
78
79
80
AMITEC ELECTRONICS LTD.

REGD. OFF. : 504, NILGIRI TOWER, BARAKHAMBA ROAD, NEW DELHI-110001, India WORKS : 4/32, SITE-4, SAHIBABAD, U.P.-201010, India TEL- +91-120-4371276, +91-9810193153, +91-9811839949 www.amitec.co.in amitec@rediffmail.com
Version date Thursday, December 04, 2008 81

MWL05 Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MWL05 Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MWL05 Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AMITEC ELECTRONICS LTD.

MWL05 MICROWAVE TRAINER EXPERIMENTAL & OPERATING MANUAL

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

CHAPTER -1: INTRODUCTION

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS IN MWL05

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

21. SWR meter 10

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

SHIPPING LIST No. LIST OF ITEMS SUPPLIED IN MICROWAVE TRAINER

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

exp1 exp2 exp3 exp4 exp5 exp6 exp7 exp8 exp9

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

THE GUNN OSCILLATOR

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

EXPERIMENT2: MODULATOR AND CRYSTAL DETECTOR.

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

The V-I characteristics of a crystal diode

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Experiment 3: Propagation modes, wavelength and phase velocity in wave guide

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Equivalent circuit of the cavity portion

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

3. Experiment Procedures. Measurement of Q using the power measurement techniques

The resonant curve of a resonant cavity

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Measurement of Q using SWR meter

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Construction of the Thermocouple power meter

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

3. Experiment Procedure. A. Direct measurement 1. Setup equipment as shown in Figure

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer

Amitec MWL05 Microwave Trainer