SHEAR STRENGTH OF CIRCULAR REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS

A Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree Bachelor of Science with Distinction in the College of Engineering of The Ohio State University By Lisa Y. Choe ***** The Ohio State University 2006

Honors Examination Committee:

Approved by

Advisor Department of Civil and Environment Engineering and Geodetic Science

ABSTRACT

In this research, the influence of parameters on the shear strength of circular reinforced concrete columns is investigated based on the evaluation of experimental data from numerous column tests. Key parameters investigated in shear strength model are the column aspect ratio, axial load, amount of transverse reinforcement, and deformation ductility demand. An examination of existing design equations reveals wide difference in predicted response. Also, the shear strength model for rectangular reinforced concrete columns proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) is used for evaluating whether it is applicable to predict the shear strength of circular columns. The proposed shear strength equation by Sezen et al. (2004) is composed of additive contributions from concrete and transverse reinforcement, and is a function of displacement ductility. The model proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) is compared with contemporary code provisions and previously proposed models using the available column test data and is shown to result in improved accuracy.

ii

This is dedicated to my family.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Halil Sezen, my advisor, for giving me this incredible opportunity to explore the world of research. Also, I would like to thank Dr. Rabi Mishalani to give me any helpful comments to complete this thesis.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Abstract ii Dedication iii Acknowledgments .iv Table of Contents v List of Figures and Tables vii Chapters: 1. Introduction . . 1 1.1 Objective and Scope .2 1.2 Column Configuration . 4 1.3 Methodology.5 2. Literature Review .. 8 2.1 Contemporary Code Provisions and analytical models for Shear Strength Design..8 2.2 Test Configuration of Previous Research and Experimental Data....16 3. Parameters and Proposed Shear Strength Model.. 24 3.1 Evaluation of Parameters .. 26 v

3.2 Concrete Contribution ... 27 3.3 Transverse Reinforcement Contribution28 3.4 Shear Strength-Ductility Relationship29 3.5 Comparison of Measured and Calculated Shear Strength.32 4. Conclusions .. 40 Notation .42 Bibliography 43 APPENDIX .......46 A. TEST COULMNS DIMENSIONS AND TEST SETUPS 46 B. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT STORIES OF TEST COLUMNS.57

vi

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figures

Page

1. Definition of D, D, and d for the circular column..................2 2. Typical Shear failure of circular columns, 1971 San Fernando earthquake (Priestley et al. 1996)..4 3. Relationship between ductility and strength of concrete shear-resisting (Seismic Design and Retrofit of Bridges by Priestley et al. 1996)..14 4. Contribution of axial force to column shear strength (Priestley et al. 1996)..15 5. Relationship between normalized shear strengths and test parameters including (a) axial load ratio; (b) longitudinal reinforcement ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index25 6. Shear carried by transverse reinforcement for circular column (Ghee et al. 1989)..29 7. Shear strength degradation with displacement ductility ....30 8. 9. Lateral Load-Displacement Relation (Priestley et al. 1996) 31 Variation of measured to calculated strength ratio as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio;(c) aspect ratio; and, (d) transverse reinforcement index .33

10. Variation of Vtest / VACI as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index.35 11. Variation of Vtest / VATC-32 as a function of (a) displaceme nt ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index..36 12. Variation of Vtest / VASCE/ACI -426 as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index....37 vii

13. Variation of Vtest / VCaltrans as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index...38 14. Variation of Vtest / Priestley as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index...39

Table 1. Boundary Values of Damage Level Parameters (Nelson 2000)..19 2. Dimensions, Material Properties, and Other Details for Specimens Included in the Database ..23 3. Ratio of measured to calculated shear strength for different models versus displacement ductility..34

Appendix A. Test Column Dimensions and Setup

A.1. Test Column Details (Ghee et. al 1989)..46 A.2. Dimensions and loading test columns (Wong et al. 1993)..47 A.3. Different displacement patterns used in testing (Wong et al. 1993) ...47 A.4. Test Column Geometry and Reinforcement (Nelson 2000).......48

A.5. Column Details of IC1, IC2, and IC3 (Sritharan et al. 1996).....49 A.6. Detail of Vermas Column Units (Verma et al. 1993)....50 A.7. Column detail of L1 (Ohtaki et al. 1996).....51 A.8. Column detail of S1, S1-2, and S3 (McDaniel 1997)..52 viii

A.9. Column detail of CS1 & CS2 and CS3 & CS4 (Benzoni et at. 1996)....53 A.10. Column detail of test units (Kawashima Lab).......54 Tables A.1. Calculated Shear Strength based on Available Models...55 A.2. Calculated Shear Strength based on Proposed Model56

Appendix B. Force-Displacement Histories

B.1. Force displacement histories (Ghee et al. 1985)............57 B.2. Force displacement histories (Petrovosky et al. 1984)...........60 B.3. Force displacement histories (Sritharan et al. 1996)..........60 B.4. Force displacement histories (Vu et al. 1998) ......61 B.5. Force displacement histories (Wong et al. 1990)...........61 B.6. Force displacement histories (Nelson et al. 2000).....62 B.7. Force displacement histories (Hamilton 2002)......63 B.8. Force displacement histories (Verma et al. 1993).....64 B.9. Force displacement histories (Ohtaki et al. 1997)......65 B.10. Force displacement histories (Benzoni et al. 1996).....66 B.11. Force displacement histories (McDaniel 1997).......67 B.12. Force displacement histories (Kawashima laboratory) .......68 ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this research is to probe the shear strength of circular reinforced columns based on the examination of primary parameters such as the column aspect ratio, axial load, amount of transverse reinforcement, and defo rmation ductility demand. Also, a shear strength model proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) for use in design and assessment is evaluated based on statistical evaluation of computed and actual shear strength. It is known that most current designs of reinforced concrete columns to resist earthquakes involve controlling the damage to acceptable levels at a reasonable cost. The structures could survive under seismic attack with little or no apparent damage. When the level of inelastic deformation required is sufficiently low, inelastic strain of the column is such that damage is insignificant. However, some existing reinforced concrete columns built prior to the mid-1970s in high seismic regions are susceptible to seismic attack that would result in massive property damage or collapse (Sezen et al. 2004). Shear failure of reinforced concrete columns can cause to reduce the lateral strength of the building and involve rapid strength degradation. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate previously proposed models to estimate the shear strength of those older existing columns. Of particular interest in this research is to examine the shear strength calculated by Sezens 1

approach (2004) under cyclic loading of circular columns with light and inadequately detailed transverse reinforcement.

1.1

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE

exposed to shear failure. This effort is accomplished by evaluating parameters affecting shear strength with data from previous column tests. The second objective is to evaluate previously proposed models that incorporate the following four parameters: The first parameter is the column aspect ratio ( a / d ) defined by the ratio of the shear span, a, to the effective depth, d, as shown in Fig. 1. For cantilever columns, shear span (a) is equal to the length of column; whereas the shear span is equal to a half of column length of columns fixed both ends.

Spiral or Hoop

Longitudinal bar

Fig. 1 Definition D, D, and d for the circular column

The second parameter is the axial load ratio ( P / Ag f 'c ) where P is applied axial load, Ag is a gross cross-sectional area of the circular column, and f 'c is the compressive concrete strength established from compression tests on 28-days moist-cured cylindrical specimens of 6-in. diameter and 12-in. height.

The third parameter is transverse reinforcement index ( w f y /

f ' c ). w is

the transverse reinforcement ratio defined by Av /( bs) where Av is the area of transverse reinforcement within the hoop or spiral spacing, s, taken as Av = 2 Ash where Ash is the cross-sectional area of hoops or spirals ; b is the width of the column section, equivalent to D for the circular column; and f y is the yield stress of transverse reinforcement, which depends on the grade of steel. The forth parameter considered in this study is deformation ductility demand ( ) defined by m / y where y is the displacement where the longitudinal steel yields at first, and m is the maximum displacement under lateral forcedisplacement histories. The detail mechanism and description of deformation ductility demand are discussed in Section 3.4. The third objective is to evaluate that the shear model proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) incorporates above parameters. However, it should be noted that this research is narrowed to evaluate the circular columns with aspect ratio larger than 2 with axial load near or below the balanced point, such that those columns are more likely exposed to diagonal tension failure. Consequently, the overall objective of the research is to evaluate whether the shear model proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) can be more practically applied to circular columns having similar configurations and loadings than available models. 3

1.2

COLUMN CONFIGURATION
Prior to 1970, there was a lack of appreciation regarding the reserve capacity and

behavior of structural members approaching shear failure. In the seismically active west coast of the United States, many circular reinforced concrete columns were designed with transverse reinforcement consisting of No. 3 (9.5 mm diameter) or No. 4 (12 mm diameter) spliced hoop reinforcing bars spaced 305 mm (12 in.) on centers, regardless of the cross-sectional area of the column. Consequently, typical transverse reinforcement ratios ( w ) ranged from 0.05% to 0.12% (Priestley et al. 1996). Fig. 2 shows the typical shear failure of the circular columns built prior to 1970 following Californias San Fernando earthquake in 1971. One of primary reasons for column shear failure in the San Fernando earthquake of 1971 and other recent earthquakes were related to poor confinement (Priestley et al. 1996).

Fig. 2 Typical Shear failure of circular columns, 1971 San Fernando earthquake (Priestley et al. 1996)

Following the San Fernando earthquake, designers have concerned with the behavior of structural components to ensure the actual shear strength of the columns (Priestley et al. 1996). So, most common approach to analyze the shear strength of concrete column sections is a combination of mechanism involving concrete compression shear and truss mechanism utilizing horizontal ties provided by transverse reinforcement (Ghee et al. 1989). However, since columns of older existing reinforced concrete structures were not designed with above shear mechanism, it is necessary to evaluate whether previously proposed models can be applied to the details that are prevalent in those buildings or bridges. Prior to evaluating previously proposed model, it also requires investigating key parameters that characterize the shear strength of circular concrete columns with poorly detailed transverse reinforcement.

1.3

METHODOLOGY
The research described in this study is initiated to examine the important

characteristic details of columns observed in existing older structures built prior to mid1970s. Existing analytical and experimental research on columns of this type is reviewed as the first step. Especially, this research is based on parameters that characterize shear strength of circular test columns such as column aspect ratio, transverse reinforcement index, axial load ratio, and displacement ductility. The second step of this research is to study theoretical and analytical models in terms of literature review on current design codes and previously proposed models. The third step is to evaluate the shear strength models for circular columns with contributions of concrete and transverse reinforcement. Finally, by applying previously proposed models to compute shear strength of test 5

columns, statistical evaluation of computed and actual shear strengths obtained from laboratory tests can be examined. In this project, the following steps are followed: The configuration of circular reinforced column and parameters that affect shear strength of reinforce concrete columns reported in literature are discussed. Shear strengths of circular columns are evaluated by exploring and modifying the model reported in the primary reference: Shear Strength Model for Lightly Reinforced Concrete Columns by Halil Sezen and Jack P. Moehle, Journal of Structural Engineering (2004). Also, existing shear strength models including ACI 318-2005 (2005), Standard New Zealand (1995), ASCE-ACI 426 approach, Caltrans, ATC32, and Priestleys approach (1994) are described as a part of literature review. The test results of fifty specimens are selected, which are available in column database compiled by the researchers at the University of Washington (www.ce.washingtong.edu/~peera1/) and by the Kawashima research group at the Tokyo Institute of Technology (www. seismic.cv.titech.ac.jp/en/). The columns included in this research satisfy the following criteria: column aspect ratio, 2 a / d 4 ; concrete compressive strength, 13 f ' c 45 MPa; longitud inal and transverse reinforcement nominal yield stress depending on the grade of reinforcing steels, f yl and f y in the range of 300 - 650 MPa; longitudinal reinforcement ratio defined by the ratio of longitudinal steel area to the gross cross-sectional area of a column , 0.01 l 0.04 ; transverse reinforcement index, 0.01 f 'c w f y 0.12 f ' c ; and columns were either fixed at both ends or cantilever.

Excel spreadsheets are used as a primary tool for the examination of experimental data in order to evaluate the configuration of columns and key parameters. Based on statistical evaluation of data with the primary parameters and theoretical formulations, previously proposed models are evaluated to predict the shear strength of the circular column.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

CONTEMPORARY CODE PROVISIONS AND PROPOSED MODELS FOR SHEAR STRENGTH OF CIRCULAR REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS

The following section provides a review of the shear strength provisions of various contemporary design code and proposed models. Most design codes include contributions from concrete and transverse reinforcement to analyze the shear strength of circular columns. The two components are then summed to estimate the total shear strength.

ACI 318-2005 (2005) The current ACI code [ACI 318-2005] considers a portion of the design shear force to be carried by the concrete shear resisting mechanism, Vc, with the remainder carried by truss mechanism, Vs, involving transverse reinforcement.

Vn = Vc + Vs

(1)

The ACI code presents the following equation for calculating Vc for members subjected to combined shear, moment, and axial compression:
P Vc = 0.1661 + 13.8 A g ' f c bd (Units: MPa)

(2)

where P is axial load subjected to the column; Ag is gross cross-sectional area of the column; fc is concrete compressive strength; and b is the width of column; and d is the effective depth of column. The transverse reinforcement contribution is also calculated as

Vs =

Av f y d s

(3)

where Av is the area of transverse reinforcement within the spacing, s, and f y is the yield stress of hoops or spirals.

Standard New Zealand (1995) Standard New Zealand (1995) adapted the following equations based on a 45-degree truss model for the nominal shear strength of concrete columns. In determination of Vc inside the plastic hinge zone, the longitudinal steel amount and the axial load effect are considered. However, the axial load effect is applied only if the axial load ratio exceeds 0.1. If the axial load ratio is less than or equal to 0.1, the concrete contribution to shear strength is ignored. The shear strength carried by concrete is thus calculated as

Vc = 4(0.07 + 10 w ) f 'c

P 0.1 bd f 'c A g 9

(Units: MPa)

(4)

where the transverse reinforcement ratio, w is calculated as

w =

Av bs

(5)

where Av is the area of transverse reinforcement within spacing, s, and b is the width of the column. For circular columns, b is taken as the column diameter, D. The shear strength carried by transverse reinforcement is based on analysis of effective shear resistance provided by transverse hoops assuming a 45-degree truss mechanism (Ghee et al. 1989). Vs is thus calculated as

Vs =

Asp f yh Dsp 2 s

(6)

where Asp is the cross-sectional area of spirals or hoops, Dsp is the core diameter of circular column defined by the center-to-center diameter of hoops or spirals; f yh is yield stress of transverse steel; and s is vertical distance between transverse hoops or spirals.

ASCE-ACI 426 Shear strength Approach Committee 426, a joint ASCE-ACI committee on shear strength of concrete members, has produced design equation based on the additive model given in Eq. (1). They do not consider the influence of ductility to estimate total shear strength of circular columns (Priestley et al. 1994). The shear strength carried by concrete, Vc, is calculated by Eq. (7)

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 3P Vc = vb 1 + f 'c A g

Ae

(7)

where Ae is the effective shear area of circular column with diameter D, taken as Eq. (8), and vb is the nominal shear stress carried by concrete, calculated by Eq. (9); Ae=0.8Agross =0.628D2 where D is diameter of circular column

(8)

v b = ( 0.066 + 10 t ) f ' c 0.2 f ' c

(Units:MPa)

(9)

where t is the longitudinal tension steel ratio, taken as 0.5 l for columns (Priestley et al. 1994). l is estimated by the ratio of longitudinal steel area within the column section to gross cross-sectional area of columns. It is also assumed that transverse reinforcement contributes to stabilizing diagonal compression struts at = 45 o to the member axis to produce the strength, Vs :

Vs =

Ah f yh D' 2 s

(10)

where D is the diameter of the spiral or hoop.

ATC-32 Shear Design Equations Design approach of ATC-32 Report (1996) also uses the combination of concrete shear resisting mechanism, Vc, and steel shear resisting truss mechanism, Vs. Nominal 11

shear strength Vn and Vs are given by Eq. (1) and Eq. (10), respectively. The formula for Vc is the following:

P Vc = 0.167 k1 + k 2 Ag

f ' c (0.8 Ag ) (Units:MPa)

(11)

In Eq. (11), k 1 = 1.0, except in plastic hinge regions of ductile columns, where k 1 = 0.5, and k 2 = 13.8 for compressive axial load P and k 2 = 3.45 for tensile axial load where P has the negative sign.

CALTRANS MEMO 20-4 The Caltrans shear strength equations are primarily intended as an assessment tool for determining the shear strength of existing bridge columns (Kowalsky et al. 2000). This approach recognizes the effect of displacement ductility on column shear strength, and nominal shear strength is based on the following equations for Vc and Vs. The transverse reinforcement shear capacity estimated by Caltrans is given by Eq. (6), and shear carried by concrete is calculated by Eq. (12).

Vc = v c Ae = F1 F2

f ' c (0.8 Ag ) 0.33 f 'c Ag (Units:MPa)

(12)

In Eq. (12) the normalized shear stress of concrete, v c, is a function of the product of F1 and F2 , which are the terms related to the shear strength dependent on displacement ductility level, , and axial load ratio, P/A g . Displacement ductility level is estimated by the ratio of measured maximum displacement ( m ) to measured yield displacement ( y ) 12

under cyclic loading, and the detailed descriptions are available in Section 3.4. So, the factors F1 and F2 can be numerically calculated by Eq. (13), (14), and (15).

F1 = 0.025 0.08 w f yh + 0.305 0.083 0.25

(13)

where w is transverse reinforcement ratio, and f yh is the yield stress of hoops or spirals.

F2 = 0 for P/Ag < 0

(14)

(15)

where P is axial load subjected to the column, and Ag is the gross cross sectional area.

Approach of Priestley et al. (1994) Priestley et al. (1994) indicates that the ASCE-ACI 426 approach for shear strength does not provide good estimate of the shear strength of columns. For low ductility levels, the approach tends to be excessively conservative, while at high ductility levels it is in some cases non-conservative. Priestley et al. (1994), therefore, proposes a model for the shear strength of columns under cyclic lateral load as the summation of strength contribution from concrete, Vc, a truss mechanism, Vs, and an arch mechanism associated with axial load, Vp .

Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp where Vc = k f 'c Ae , Ae = 0.8 Agross 13

(16)

Also, k within plastic end regions depends on the member of displacement ductility as defined in Fig. 3

Fig. 3 Relationship between ductility and strength of concrete shear-resisting (Seismic Design and Retrofit of Bridges by Priestley et al. 1996)

The truss mechanism strength for circular columns is given by

Vs =

Ah f yh D' cot 2 s

(17)

The angle of the critical inclined flexure-shear cracks to the column axis is taken as
= 30 o , unless limited to larger angles by the potential corner-to-corner crack. The shear

strength enhancement resulting from axial compression is considered as a variable, and is given by

V p = P tan =

Dc P 2a

(18) 14

where D is the diameter of circular column; c is the depth of the compression zone; and shear span, a, is L for a cantilever column. For a cantilever column, a is the angle formed between the column axis and the strut from the point of load application to the center of the flexural compression zone at the column plastic hinge critical section. As shown in Fig. 4, for a column in double bending, a is the angle between the column axis and the line joining the centers of flexural compression at the top and bottom of the column.

Fig. 4 Contribution of axial force to column shear strength (Seismic Design and Retrofit of Bridges by Priestley et al. 1996)

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2.2

TEST CONFIGURATIONS OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH AND EXPERIMENTAL DATA

This section provides a review of previo us experimental researches on the shear behavior and deformation characteristics of circular reinforced concrete columns. The results from cited experimental studies are intended to be applicable to circular columns under lateral loading where strength is governed by either by shear or by flexure followed by shear failure. This research on shear strength model of circular column is focused on the data analysis available from previous tests; therefore, it is helpful to review for defining test geometries and load histories that are investigated in the present study. Column geometries and test setups are provided in Appendix.

TESTS TO STUDY SHEAR BEHAVIOR Ghee et al. (1985) tested twenty five circular columns under constant axial loads and cyclic lateral displacements. The experimental program was divided into two stages. In the first stage, 25 cantilever circular columns were subjected to slow cyclic loading with gradually increasing displacement limits to simulate earthquake loadings. Fig. A.1 in Appendix shows details and overall dimensions of column specimens. In the second stage of the project, the conclusion drawn from these experimental tests were then examined by dynamic tests on a shake-table to simulate how test columns behave under seismic load. The main parameters employed in experiments were the ratio of height to diameter of column (L/D), where L is the height of column, and D is diameter of the circular column; the axial load level (P/fcAg ); and the volumetric spiral reinforcement content 16

( s = 4 Asp /( ds ) ) where Asp is the cross sectional area of spirals; d is depth of the column; and s is the spacing of hoops or spirals. The main ratios of height to diameter of column (L/D ) were 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 1.75 (Unit 20). Levels of axial compression (P/fcAg ) used were 0, 0.1, and 0.2. The main volumetric spiral reinforcement content varied between 0.0038 and 0.00102. In addition, under monotonic loading, four major failure modes were identified as follows: 1) ductile flexural (D-F) with the column units that achieved ductility levels grater than 6 without any indication of shear failure; 2) moderately ductile with shear failure (MD-S) when columns failed with the ductility level between 4 and 6; 3) limited ductile with shear failure when the column achieved the ductility of column between 2 and 4; and 4) brittle failure with the column that exhibited shear failure.

Wong et al. (1993) tested sixteen circular cantilever columns having the height to diameter of the column ratio (L/D) of 2 and different spiral reinforcement contents to investigate the sensitivity of the strength and stiffness of shear-resisting mechanisms. Three levels of axial compression load, P = 0, 0.19 f 'c Ag , and 0.39 f 'c Ag , were applied. The spiral reinforcement content, s , varied between 0.39 and 2.46. Column units (Fig. A.2) were attached to a self-reacting frame to represent horizontal two-dimensional seismic effect. Columns also were tested with the application of quasi-static lateral forces under constant axial compression loads. Four types of displacement were used as shown on Fig. A.3. including uniaxial u-type displacement pattern with one load cycle consisted of an East-West (E-W) path; biaxial b-type displacement pattern with one cycle of a North17

South path followed by an E -W; biaxial s-type displacement pattern with a complete cycle, composed of four displacement loops; and multi-directional r-type displacement pattern using dynamic time-history analyses. Compared with uniaxial displacement paths, biaxial displacement patterns caused more severe degradation of strength and stiffness. However, the displacement ductility capacity was not sensitive to the biaxial displacement pattern.

Nelson (2000) tested four poorly confined reinforced concrete columns to evaluate the effects of long-duration earthquakes on bridge columns. For the analysis of both force-displacement column response and damage progression, four identical columns are designed with aspect ratio of 3 as shown on Fig. A.4. The geometry of test columns was consistent with a prototype of a Washington State Department of Transportation circular bridge column built prior to mid-1970s. Also, columns were subjected to different lateralloading histories. Four patterns of damage strongly influenced by the displacement demand were observed: 1) the first yield of the longitudinal reinforcement; 2) significant flexural cracking; 3) significant spalling; and 4) residual cracking. The resulting range of displacement and energy dissipation that resulted in each damage level is shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. Measured Boundary Values of Damage Level Parameters (Nelson 2000)

Sritharan et al. (1996) tested three circular columns. In all three designs, force transfer models were employed to determine the amount of joint reinforcement as the design parameter. In particular, the cap beam was supported at the ends of the column. Axial compressions in the cap beam acts to improve the joint performance with the opposite applying for the axial tension in the beam. The test set-up and overall dimensions of the test unit are shown in Fig. A.5.

Verma et al. (1993) tested eight columns with the height to diameter of the column ratio (L/D ) of 2.0 or 1.5, similar to the typical details of a squat circular prototype bridge column designed and constructed prior to 1970s. Fig. A.6 (a) and (b) illustrate the typical reinforcement details of the test columns. A total of eight columns tested under double bending with two separate conditions: four columns were tested in the as-built condition and the remaining four as retrofitted columns with full height of cylindrical steel jacket. Axial load level of the test columns was in the range of 0.06 = P / f 'c Ag = 0.18, corresponding to an axial load (P) between 848 kips and 2544 kips, respectively. 19

An increase in the axial load ratio represent ed a more severe case as associated with a decrease in the ductility capacity and a much more rapid and brittle strength degradation after shear failure.

Ohtaki et al. (1996) tested the cantilever column L1 under cyclic loading to investigate the shear strength of existing bridge piers and the effectiveness of fiberglass for increasing shear strength after shear failure. The column unit L1 was designed as a pre-1971 ordinary bridge column with the span to depth ratio (L/D) of 2.0. No axial force was applied except for the column weight and the weight of actuators, corresponding to an axial force (P) of 220 kN. The details of the test unit are shown in Fig. A.7. First flexural cracks were observed at a lateral force of 590 kN, and flexural cracks started to incline at shear force of 1280 kN, corresponding to an average nominal shear stress of 0.11 f 'c MPa. The column failed before the first peak of ductility factor =1.5, and

maximum crack width observed at failure was about 10 mm.

McDaniel (1997) tested three circular concrete columns (S1, S1-2, and S2) which were one-third scale of model of a full scale column, L1 tested by Ohtaki et al. (1996), to investigate the effects of scale on the concrete component of shear strength. The details of test model units are shown in Fig. A.8. The force displacement envelopes for the three tests followed nearly identical paths, with a residual displacement after failure of approximately 6 mm for S1-2 and S2, and scaled value of approximately 6 mm for L1 as well. Each column failed in shear at a displacement ductility of 1.5. The ultimate force level for units S 1-2 and S2 was 332 kN, approximately 1/9 of Unit L1s ultimate force of 20

3105 kN. Ultimate displacement of S 1-2 and S2 was 8 mm, and approximately 1/4 of Unit L1s ultimate displacement of 33 mm. Unit S1 was modified to have the additional shear contribution provided by the curvature rods, and it failed at 313 kN at a displacement of 10.68 mm.

Benzoni et al. (1996) tested four circular reinforced concrete columns under cyclic inelastic lateral displacements with different axial loads. Four specimens (CS1, CS2, CS3, and CS4) were tested in double bending with the span to depth ratio (L/D) of 2. The details of the model test units are shown in Fig. A.9. The test units of CS1 and CS2 were subjected to an axial load ratio of 0.35 and -0.087, considered as typical upper and lower limits of axial load for bridge columns. The other units of CS3 and CS4 were tested under the axial load range between two previous limits, as a function of the applied horizontal load. First flexural cracks of Unit CS1 were observed at a lateral force of 200 kN, and shear inclination of flexural cracks was indicated at 334 kN. For unit CS2, horizontal cracks appeared during complete cycles to a peak horizontal force of 40 kN to 250 kN. The maximum lateral forces were 359 kN in push direction and -284 kN in pull direction at =2.0. The test was finished at =6 without longitudinal or transverse reinforce fracture. For unit CS3, the maximum lateral forces obtained were 509.5 kN in push direction and 306.6 kN in pull direction at =2.0. For unit CS4, major widening of existing cracks were observed at =1.5.

In this chapter, previous researches on shear strength models and experimental studies of circular columns have been discussed. To evaluate the parameters affecting shear 21

strength of circular columns and previously proposed shear strength models, columns included in cited studies are selected by the criteria discussed in Section 1.3. Table 2 summarizes all the test variables of 50 columns used to estimate shear strengths. Based on column properties in Table 1 and the force-displacement histories in Appendix, next step is to evaluate parameters affecting shear strength and to evaluate existing shear strength models.

22

D (mm) No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 No.5 No.7 No,9 No.10 No.11 No.13 No.14 No.15 No.16 No.17 No.21 No.22 No.23 No.24 Col1 Col3 Col4 UCI 3 UCI 4 UCI 5 *No.1 No.2 *No.3 M2E1 M2E2 NH5 IC1 IC2 IC3 verma 1 verma 3 verma 5 L1 CS1 *CS2 CS3 S1 S1-2 S2 *TP 54 *TP 55 *TP 57 *TP 60 *TP 61 Kawashima lab. McDaniel (1997) Ohtaki (1997) Benzoni (1996) Verma (1993) Vu (1998) Sritharan (1996) Petrovsky (1984) Wang et al. (1990) Hamilton (2002) Nelson (2000) Ghee (1985) 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 508 508 508 406 406 406 400 400 400 307 307 457 600 600 600 610 610 610 1829 460 460 460 610 610 610 400 400 400 400 400

cover (mm) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 19 19 19 8.2 8.2 8.2 15 15 15 33 33 20 25.4 25.4 25.4 13.97 13.97 13.97 50.8 15.24 15.24 15.22 16 16 16 27 27 27 27 27

dh (mm) 6.0 6.0 6.0 10.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 12.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 10.0 12.0 10.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 10.0 6.0 10.0 6.0 6.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 2.7 6.4 6.4 6.4 12.7 6.4 6.4 6.4 4.9 4.9 4.9 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

dl (mm) 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 24 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 13 13 13 16 16 16 12 12 16 22 22 7 19 19 19 43 16 16 16 16 16 16 13 13 13 13 13

a (mm) 800 800 1000 800 800 800 1000 800 800 800 800 800 800 1000 800 800 800 800 1524 1524 1524 1048 1048 1048 800 800 800 900 895 910 1800 1800 1500 1219 1219 1219 3658 910 910 910 1219 1219 1219 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350

s (mm) 60 60 60 165 40 80 30 120 60 30 60 60 60 60 80 220 160 110 102 102 102 171.5 171.5 63.5 60 65 60 75 75 80 97 97 14.48 127 127 127 304.8 95.3 95.3 95.3 101.6 101.6 101.6 50 50 50 60 60

?l (%) 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.24 1.92 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 0.99 0.99 0.99 1.37 1.37 1.17 3.20 3.20 3.20 1.83 1.83 2.41 1.92 1.92 1.98 2.53 2.53 2.53 1.33 2.50 2.50 2.50 1.36 1.36 1.36 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02

?w (%) 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.76 0.38 1.02 1.02 0.51 1.02 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.38 0.39 0.76 0.77 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.10 0.10 0.26 1.42 0.47 1.42 0.63 0.63 0.85 0.54 0.54 0.68 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.10 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.49

f yl (Mpa) 436 457 436 436 436 448 448 448 448 436 424 436 436 436 436 436 436 436 455 455 455 459 459 459 423 475 475 240 240 508 448 448 446 324 324 469 508 462 462 462 454 454 438 377 377 377 377 377

f yh (Mpa) 328 328 328 316 328 372 372 332 372 326 326 326 326 326 326 310 332 310 455 455 455 492 492 492 300 340 300 240 240 448 431 431 476 359 324 324 298 369 369 369 200 200 200 374 374 374 374 374

f'c (Mpa) 37.5 37.2 36.0 30.6 31.1 29.5 29.9 31.2 29.9 36.2 33.7 34.8 34.4 34.3 33.2 30.9 32.3 33.1 56.2 57.0 52.7 34.5 34.5 35.4 38.0 37.0 37.0 35.9 34.4 35.2 31.4 34.6 25.4 31.0 34.5 35.9 29.6 29.3 35.8 37.0 29.8 26.8 31.2 22.4 22.4 22.3 27.8 27.8

P (kN) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 784 751 455 0 0 420 431 0 0 0 0 1450 1139 1139 0 0 0 907 1813 1813 145 254 -490 400 400 120 591.9 1780 591.9 355.9 1690 -512 1690 18.8 18.8 18.8 180 180 180 180 180

md

Vtest (kN)

2.7 4.9 3.9 1.5 2.4 1.5 3.2 3.6 2.6 4.0 1.9 4.5 1.3 1.7 5.1 2.5 1.7 4.1 4.1 3.1 4.4 2.7 1.6 5.1 7.0 3.9 6.5 3.5 3.6 3.9 5.7 5.8 3.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.5 3.5 1.4 1.6 6.5 5.1 2.0 4.9 6.0

321 221 276 289 331 281 445 437 407 436 316 230 352 312 271 285 333 341 283 260 252 143 164 170 461 489 579 -86 -93 403 387 411 433 129 165 138 3104 493 322 409 406 -332 -332 228 251 224 230 229

* Experimental yield displacement was not reported

Table 2 Dimensions, Material Properties, and Other Details for Specimens Included in the Database 23

CHAPTER 3

EVALUATION OF PARAMETERS AND PROPOSED SHEAR STRENGTH MODEL

This section discusses parameters to analyze the shear strength of circular columns including column aspect ratio, longitudinal reinforcement, transverse reinforcement, and axial load. Also, existing shear strength models discussed in Section 2.1 are investigated in terms of above parameter in addition to displacement ductility demand. The model proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) is then evaluated by statistical comparison with previous models discussed in Section 2.1 to show the result in improved accuracy.

3.1

EVALUTATION OF PARAMETERS
Sezen et al. (2004) identifies key parameters affecting the shear strength of

rectangular columns, which are the column aspect ratio, axial load, amount of transverse reinforcement, and deformation ductility demand. The cited models in this study also consider similar parameters based on statistical evaluation of experimental data from test results. Fig. 5 shows the variation of maximum measured shear strength (Vtest) under cyclic loading for the columns included in Table 2 as a function of above parameters. For 24

the evaluation of the circular shear strength of circular columns, the m easured shear strength, Vtest, is normalized by the product of the square root of the measured concrete compressive strength and the gross cross-sectional area of the column (Sezen et al. 2004). The following key points are observed. Fig. 5 (a) plots normalized shear strength as a function of P / Ag f 'c , where P = axial compressive force at time of shear failure; Ag = gross cross-sectional area; and fc = measured concrete compressive strength. This plot shows the trend (indicated by the dashed line in the figure) that shear strength increases with increasing axial compression. Fig. 5 (b) plots normalized shear strength as a function of longitudinal reinforcement ratio. It shows the trend that shear strength increases with increasing longitudinal reinforcement ratio. Fig. 5 (c) plots normalized shear strength as a function of aspect ratio, a/d, where a = distance from point of maximum moment to point of zero moment, and d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of longitudinal tension reinforcement. It shows the trend that shear strength decreases with increasing a/d. Fig. 5 (d) plots normalized shear strength as function of transverse reinforcement index, w f y / f ' c where w = transverse reinforcement ratio; f y = yield stress

of the transverse reinforcement; and f 'c = concrete compressive stress. It shows the trend that shear strength increases with increasing amount of transverse reinforcement. 25

8 7 Vtest / (Ag vf c) (MPa) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 P / (Ag fc) 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40

(a)
8 7 Vtest / (Ag vfc) (MPa) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.8 1.3 1.8 100?l 2.3 2.8 3.3

(b)
8 7 Vtest / (Ag vfc) (MPa) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 a/d 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

(c)
8 7 Vtest / (Ag vfc) (MPa) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 ?wfy/12vfc

(d) Fig. 5 Relationship between normalized shear strengths and test parameters including (a) axial load ratio; (b) longitudinal reinforcement ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index 26

3.2

CONCRETE CONTRIBUTION
In this section, to evaluate shear strength carried by concrete, Sezens approach

(2004) of shear strength carried by concrete is used as the primary reference. The following summarizes the shear mechanism of concrete contribution developed by Sezen et al. (2004) in order to estimate shear strength of rectangular concrete columns. Shear failure of reinforced concrete columns in older existing buildings and bridges built in prior 1970s are typically observed as either diagonal tension failure or diagonal compression failure. Diagonal compression failure can occur either before or after inclined cracks are formed in concrete columns with low aspect ratio. On the other hand, diagonal tension failure would be the mode of shear failure following the formation of inclined cracks. As loading continues, crack opening becomes larger, such that it may result in failure due to the rapid degradation of the load-carrying mechanism. For the case of columns with aspect ratio (a/d) larger than 2 with axial loads near or below the balanced point, diagonal tension failure tends to be a more significant mode of filature in shear. Since in this study test column data are collected with 2 a / d 4 , the goal can be limited to develop a model to predict the diagonal tension capacity. The major assumption to estimate the maximum shear carried by concrete is that at onset of diagonal tension cracking, the element under uniform stress is subjected to the nominal principal tension stress (Sezen et al. 2004). Therefore, the shear carried by concrete at diagonal tension cracking can be defined by the following equation:

Vc =

0.5 f 'c P 1+ 0.8 Ag a/d 0.5 f 'c Ag

(MPa)

(19)

27

Equation (19) indicates that Vc is increased with axial load ratio and with decreasing aspect ratio, and this result is matching with the relation between shear strength and parameters discussed in Section 3.1.

3.3

TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT CONTRIBUTION

compression struts at = 45 0 to the longitudinal axis of the column to produce strength,

circular hoops, codes have generally recommended taking Av = 2 Ah because there are two legs of hoops or spirals across the shear section of the circular column. The value of a has been defined diversely by previous studies and code specifications (MacGregor 1997; Sezen et. al. 2004). To estimate shear carried by transverse reinforcement in this study, it is assumed that shear-resisting force of hoops or spiral is exposed by the presumed 45-degree angle of diagonal tension cracking (Ghee et al. 1989), which is as shown in Fig 6. Another assumption is that spacing, s, is sufficiently small compared with the core diameter D. The shear carried by transverse reinforcement, Vs, can be calculated by Eq. (20)

Vs =

Ah f yh D' 2 s

(20)

Above equation indicates that shear capacity contributed by transverse reinforcement i s proportional to the amount of transverse reinforcement. This result agrees with the 28

correlation between shear strength and transverse reinforcement index discussed in Section 3.1

Fig. 6 Shear Carried by Transverse Reinforcement for Circular Column (Ghee et. al 1989)

3.4

SHEAR STRENGTH-DUCTILITY RELATIONSHIP

controversy among many researchers because shear failures of reinforced concrete column occur extensively (Priestly et al. 1996). The relation between shear strength and displacement ductility demand can be examined using the column test data in Table 2.

29

Fig. 7 plots the ratio of measured (Vtest) to calculated shear strength (Vn ) as a function of displacement ductility. Measured shear strengths are referred to Table 2, and calculated shear strengths for 50 columns included in this study are obtained by Eq. (1), (19), and (20). The dashed line in Fig. 7 indicates the trend that the ratio of measured to calculated shear strength decreases with increasing displacement ductility.

1.5 Proposed k Best fit 1.3

1.4

1.2

Vtest / Vproposed, without k

1.1

1.0 0.9

0.8 0.7

0.6 0.5

0.4 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0

Displacement ductility

Fig. 7 Shear strength degradation with displacement ductility

For seismic design of reinforced concrete columns, it has been assumed that satisfactory response of a circular column under earthquake attack depends on the capacity of the column to displace inelastically through several cycles of loading without significant degradation of strength or stiffness, a quality termed ductility (Priestly et al. 1996). As shown in displacement relationship of Fig. 8, yield displacement ( y ) is the 30

first measured displacement where deformation continues without increasing lateral load. Maximum displacement ( m ) is the displacement at base shear force (Vd ) about 80 % of maximum applied shear stress (Vtest) (Sezen et al. 2004). If the maximum displacement expected during the design- level earthquake is m , the maximum expected displacement ductility factor is defined as = u y (21)

Fig. 8 Lateral load-displacement relation (Priestley et al. 1996)

Based on the relation between shear strength and displacement ductility in Fig. 7, the shear strength model proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) is developed by introducing a ductility related factor k which is similarly used by other previously proposed models such as Priestleys approach (1994) and Caltrans in Section 2.1. To apply the term k to estimate shear strength of circular columns, it is assumed that displacement ductility influences the shear strength contributed by both concrete and transverse reinforcement. Concrete damage under cyclic loading causes the degradation of the strength supported 31

by both the transverse reinforcement and concrete (Sezen et al. 2004). In this study, therefore, it is reasonable to apply the ductility-related factor k equally to both contributions. The following equation indicates the shear strength model with the factor k as a variable to explain ductility- related strength degradations.

Vn = Vs + Vc = k

0.5 f 'c Ash f y D' P + k 1+ 2 s 0.5 f ' c Ag a/d

0.8 A (MPa) g

(22)

Since the shear model of Eq. (22) is defined by modifying and exploring Sezens approach (2004), it also seems reasonable to use the factor k defined by Sezen et al. (2004) as a primary reference. The factor k to estimate the shear strength of circular columns is thus defined by the following: i. ii. iii.

k =1 k = vary linearly k = 0.7

where displacement ductility is smaller than 2. where displacement ductility is between 2 and 6. where displacement ductility is larger than 6.

3.5

COMPARISON OF CALCULATED AND MEASURED STRENGTH

Results are presented in the form of graphs relating the experimentally recorded strength to the strength obtained from models reviewed in Section 2.1 and 3.4. As shown in Fig. 9, the shear strength calculated by Eq. (22) shows reasonably close values to the measured shear strength in terms of parameters including the range of displacement ductility, aspect ratio, axial load ratio, and transverse reinforcement index. 32

Vtest / VProposed

1.5

0.5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Displacement ducility

(a)
2

Vtest / V Proposed

1.5

0.5

0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45

P / (Ag f'c)

(b)
2

Vtest / VProposed

1.5

0.5

0 2.00

2.20

2.40

2.60

2.80

3.00

3.20

3.40

3.60

3.80

4.00

aspect ratio (a/d)

(c)
2

Vtest / V Proposed

1.5

0.5

0 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00

?w fy / 12vfc

(d) Fig. 9 Variation of measured to calculated strength ratio as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio;(c) aspect ratio; and, (d) transverse reinforcement index 33

Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 show the ratio of measured to calculated shear strength as a function of key parameters for the models from ACI 318-3005 (2005); ATC-32; ASCE/ACI-426; Caltrans; and Priestley et al. (1994), respectively. It is observed that shear strengths calculated by ACI 318-2005 in addition to the model of Eq. (22) are close to measured shear strengths compared with other models. This effect also coincides with the result that ACI-318 and the model of Eq. (22) correlate well with the parameters discussed in Section 3.1. However, note that the vertical scales in the figure of Caltrans and Priestley et al. (1994) are relatively more expanded among available models f or displacement ductility of 2.0 and larger. The main reason of this scatter is that Vc of some test columns calculated by either Caltrans or Priestleys models is smaller than that of other models. It thus concludes that ACI-318 and the model of Eq. (22) may be suitable as design and assessment tools for columns having similar configuration. Table 2 summarizes statistical evaluation of the ratio of measured to calculated shear strength models with displacement ductility. This result shows that the model proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) provides slightly better statistical correlation with experimental data.

Max Min Avg *Stdv *COV Stdv: COV

The model of Eq. (22) 1.327 0.613 0.944 0.165 0.175 standard deviation coefficient of variation

ACI 318 1.315 0.270 0.905 0.273 0.301

ATC-32 1.802 0.341 0.980 0.312 0.319

ASCE/ACI 426 1.702 0.280 0.903 0.325 0.360

Caltrans 4.109 0.227 1.189 0.598 0.503

Priestley et al. (1994) 2.707 0.242 1.286 0.572 0.445

Table 2 Ratio of measured to calculated shear strength for different models versus displacement ductility

34

2 1.5 V test / VACI 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Displacement ductility

(a)
2.0

1.5

V test / V ACI

1.0

0.5

0.0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40

P/(Ag f' c)

(b)
2.0

1.5

V test / VACI

1.0

0.5

0.0 2.00

2.20

2.40

2.60

2.80

3.00

3.20

3.40

3.60

3.80

4.00

aspect ratio (a/d)

(c)
2.0

1.5

V test / V ACI

1.0

0.5

0.0 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00

?w fy / 12vfc

(d)

Fig. 10 Variation of Vtest / VACI as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transve rse reinforcement index 35

2.0

Vtest / V ATC-32

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Displacement ductility

(a)
2.0

Vtest / V ATC-32

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45

P/(A g f' c)

(b)
2.0

Vtest / V ATC-32

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 2.00

2.20

2.40

2.60

2.80

3.00

3.20

3.40

3.60

3.80

4.00

aspect ratio (a/d)

(c)
2.0

Vtest / V ATC-32

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00

?w fy / 12vfc

(d)

Fig. 11 Variation of Vtest / VATC-32 as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index 36

V test / VASCE/ACE-426

1.5

0.5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Displacement ductility

(a)
2.0

Vtest / V ASCE/ACI-426

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45

P/(Ag f' c)

(b)
2.0

V test / V ASCE/ACI-426

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 2.00

2.20

2.40

2.60

2.80

3.00

3.20

3.40

3.60

3.80

4.00

aspect ratio (a/d)

(c)
2.0

Vtest / V ASCE/ACI-426

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00

?w fy / 12vfc

(d)

Fig. 12 Variation of Vtest / VASCE/ACI-426 as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index 37

3 2.5

Vtest / V Caltrans

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Displacement ductility

(a)
3.0 2.5

Vtest / V Caltrans

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

P / (Ag f'c)

(b)
3.0 2.5

Vtest / V Caltrans

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 2.00

2.20

2.40

2.60

2.80

3.00

3.20

3.40

3.60

3.80

4.00

aspect ratio (a/d)

(c)
3.0 2.5

V test / VCaltrans

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00

?w fy / 12vfc

(d)

Fig. 13 Variation of Vtest / VCaltrans as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index 38

3 2.5

V test / V Priestley

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Displacement ductility

(a)
3.0 2.5

Vtest / V Priestley

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45

P/(A g f' c)

(b)
3.0 2.5

V test / V Priestley

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 2.00

2.20

2.40

2.60

2.80

3.00

3.20

3.40

3.60

3.80

4.00

aspect ratio (a/d)

(c)
3.0 2.5

Vtest / V Priestley

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00

?w fy / 12vfc

(d)

Fig. 14 Variation of Vtest / VPriestley as a function of (a) displacement ductility; (b) axial load ratio; (c) aspect ratio; and (d) transverse reinforcement index 39

CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSIONS

Key parameters affecting the shear strength of circular reinforced concrete columns are examined based on the statistical evaluation of experimental data from numerous column tests. Results indicates that the shear strength is correlated with several parameters including the column aspect ratio, axial load, amount of transverse reinforcement, and deformation duc tility demand. The previously proposed shear strength models are evaluated by considering the effects of these parameters. The shear strength model proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) is a combination of concrete and transverse reinforcement contributions and a function of displacement ductility demand. Also, the examination of existing design equations such as Caltrans and Priestleys approach (1994) reveals relatively wide difference from results obtained from laboratory tests. On the other hand, both Sezens approach (2004) and ACI-318 (2005) fairly correlate with parameters examined in this research. In consideration of displacement ductility, the result shows that the model of Eq. (22) provides marginally better statistical correlation with experimental data. However, the model of Eq. (22) is estimated, given that the data of displacement ductility is known; so, note that it should not be used to estimate 40

displacement ductility based on shear strengths. To obtain the displacement ductility demand of the circular column, it would be necessary to employ further experimental and mathematical methods. The shear strength model proposed by Sezen et al. (2004) is then to estimate approximately the shear strength of circular columns having similar configuration only if the displacement ductility demand is known.

41

NOTATION
Ag = gross area of section; Av = transverse reinforcement area within a spacing, s in the loading direction; Ae = effective area, taken as 0.8 Ag Asp = cross section area of spiral a = shear span (distance from maximum moment section to point of inflection) c = neutral axis depth D = diameter of column section Dor Dsp = diameter of center-to-center hoop or spiral d = effective depth dh = diameter of the hoop or spiral
y = yield displacement

m = ultimate displacement fc = compressive strength of concrete f y, fyh = transverse reinforcement yield strength f yl = longitudinal reinforcement yield strength k = factor relating to the concrete or transverse reinforcement capacity to displacement ductility d , = displacement ductility P = axial load w = spiral reinforcement content t = As / bw d ; tension steel ratio l = longitudinal reinforcement ratio Vn = nominal shear strength Vs = nominal shear strength carried by transverse reinforcement Vc = nominal shear strength carried by concrete Vp = nominal shear strength enhancement provided by axial compression Vtest = experimental shear strength 42

BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Concrete Institute (ACI). (2005). Building code requirements for structural concrete, ACI committee 318, Farmington Hills, Mich. Applied Technology Council, Improved Seismic Design Criteria for California Bridges: Provisional Recommendation, Report No. ATC-32, Readwood City, Calif.,1996. Caltrans Memo to Designers 20-4, Attachment B, Earthquake Retrofit Analysis for Single Column Bents, Aug. 1996. Ghee, A. B., Priestley, M.J.N., and Paulay, T., Seismic Shear Strength of Circular Reinforced Concrete Columns, ACI Structural Journal, January-February 1989, p. 45-59. Ghee, A. B., Priestley, M.J.N., and Paulay, T., Seismic Shear Strength of Circular Bridge Piers, Report 85-5, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, July 1985. Hamilton, C. H., Pardoen, G. C., and Kazanjy, R. P., Experimental Testing of Bridge Columns Subjected to Reversed-Cyclic and Pulse-type Loading Histories, Report 2001-03, Civil Engineering Technical Report Series, University of California, Irvine, 2002. Kawashima Earthquake Engineering Laboratory, Cyclic Loading Test Data of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Piers, Tokyo Institute of Technology, http://seismic.cv.titeh.ac.jp Kowalsky, M. J. and Priestley, M. J. N., Improved Analytical Model for Shear Strength of Circular Reinforced Concrete Columns in Seismic Regions, ACI 43

Structural Journal. May-June 2000, pp. 388-396. McDaniel, C, Scale Effects on the Shear Strength of Circular Reinforced Concrete Columns, University of California, San Diego, 1997. Nelson, J. M., Damage Model Calibration for Reinforced Concrete Columns, Master's Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, 2000. Ohtaki, T., Benzoni, G., and Priestley M. J. N., Seismic Performance of a Full-Scale Bridge Column - As Built and As Repaired, University of California, San Diego, Structural Systems Research Project, Report No. SSRP-96/07, November, 1996. Petrovski, J. and Ristic, D., Reversed Cyclic Loading Test of Bridge Column Models, Report IZIIZ 84-164, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, September 1984, 62 pages. Priestley, M. J. N., Verma, R., and Xiao, Y., (1994). Seismic Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Columns, J. Strut. Eng, 120(8), 2310-2239. Priestley, M. J. N., Seible, F., and Calvi, G. M., (1996). Seismic Design and Retrofit of Bridges, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 686 pp. Priestley, M. J. N, Benzoni, G., Seismic Performance of Circular Columns with Low Longitudinal Reinforcement Ratios, ACI Structural Journal, vol. 93, No.4, July-August, 1996, pp. 474-485 Standard New Zealand, 1995, Design of Concrete Struc tures, NZS 3101, Wellington, New Zealand. Sezen, H. and Moehle, Jack P., Shear Strength Model for Lightly Reinforced Concrete 44

Columns, ACI Structural Journal, November 2004, p. 1692-1703. Sritharan, S., Priestley, M. J. N., and Seible, F., Seismic Response of Column/Cap Beam Tee Connections with Cap Beam Prestressing, University of California, San Diego, Structural Systems Research Project, Report No. SSRP-96/09, December 1996. The Department of Civil Engineering at University of Washington, Structural Performance Database, www.ce.washingtong.edu/~peera1/ Verma, R., Priestley, M. J. N., and Seible, F., Assessment of Seismic Response and Steel Jacket Retrofit of Squat Circular Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns, Report No. SSRP-92/05, UCSD, June 1993. Vu, N. D., Priestley, M. J. N., Seible, F., and Benzoni, G., Seismic Response of Well Confined Circular Reinforced Concrete Columns with Low Aspect Ratios, 5th Caltrans Seismic Research Workshop, 1998. Wong, Y.L., Paulay, T., and Priestley, M.J.N., Squat Circular Bridge Piers Under MultiDirectional Seismic Attack, Report 90-4, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, October 1990, 264 pages. Wong, Y.L., Paulay, T., and Priestley, M. J. N. (1993). Response of Circular Reinforced Concrete Columns to Multi- Directional Seismic Attack, ACI Structural Journal, Vol 90, No.2, pp. 180-191.

45

APPENDIX
A. TEST COLUMN DIMENSIONS AND TEST SETUPS

Fig. A.1 Column Detail of Angs test units (Ang et al. 1985) 46

Fig. A.2 Dimensions and loading test columns (Wong et al. 1993)

Fig. A.3 Different displacement patterns used in testing (Wong et al. 1993) 47

Fig. A.4 Test Column Geometry and Reinforcement (Nelson 2000)

(a) Unit IC1

48

(b) Unit IC2

(c) Unit IC3

Fig. A.5 Column Details of (a) IC1; (b) IC2; and IC3 (Sritharan et al. 1996)

49

Fig. A.6 Detail of Vermas Column Units (Verma et al. 1993)

50

Fig. A.7 Column detail of L1 (Ohtaki et al. 1996)

51

Fig. A.8 Column detail of S1, S1-2, and S3 (McDaniel 1997)

52

Fig. A.9 Column detail of CS1 & CS2 (left) and CS3 & CS4 (right) (Benzoni et at. 1996)

53

Fig. A.10 Column detail of test units (Kawashima Lab.) 54

ACI Vc (kN) No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 No.5 No.7 No,9 No.10 No.11 No.13 No.14 No.15 No.16 No.17 No.21 No.22 No.23 No.24 Col1 Col3 Col4 UCI 3 UCI 4 UCI 5 No.1 No.2 No.3 M2E1 M2E2 NH5 IC1 IC2 IC3 v1 v3 v5 L1 CS1 CS2 CS3 S1 S1-2 S2 *TP 54 *TP 55 *TP 57 *TP 60 *TP 61 150.9 150.2 147.8 134.8 137.4 133.8 134.7 196.6 193.0 187.1 141.5 145.3 179.5 180.1 141.9 135.5 137.7 140.2 457.4 426.9 410.5 153.5 153.5 155.5 228.8 306.5 303.2 91.4 97.8 148.0 340.9 357.8 294.1 374.8 496.7 402.9 2908 309.0 152.8 347.2 322.3 305.6 329.8 125.1 125.1 124.8 139.3 139.3 Vs (kN) 114.7 114.7 114.7 110.4 172.0 97.6 260.1 228.4 130.1 228.0 112.8 114.0 114.0 114.0 85.5 81.2 171.3 162.5 67.6 67.6 67.6 35.3 35.3 95.4 288.2 109.7 288.2 47.4 47.4 335.0 350.8 350.8 214.0 103.7 93.7 93.7 431.9 105.6 105.6 107.2 43.1 43.1 43.1 152.5 152.5 152.5 127.1 127.1 Vn (kN) 265.5 264.9 262.5 245.2 309.4 231.4 394.8 425.0 323.1 415.1 254.2 259.3 293.5 294.1 227.4 216.7 309.1 302.7 525.0 494.5 478.1 188.8 188.8 250.8 517.0 416.2 591.4 138.8 145.2 482.9 691.7 708.6 508.1 478.5 590.4 496.6 3340 414.6 258.3 454.5 365.4 348.7 372.9 277.5 277.5 277.3 266.4 266.4 1.209 0.834 1.051 1.179 1.070 1.215 1.127 1.029 1.260 1.051 1.243 0.887 1.200 1.062 1.192 1.315 1.077 1.127 0.539 0.526 0.527 0.757 0.869 0.678 0.892 1.175 0.979 0.620 0.641 0.835 0.560 0.580 0.852 0.270 0.279 0.278 0.929 1.189 1.247 0.900 1.111 0.952 0.890 0.822 0.903 0.808 0.862 0.858 Vtest /Vn Vc (kN) 102.8 102.4 100.7 92.9 93.6 91.2 91.8 93.8 91.8 101.0 97.5 99.0 98.5 98.3 96.7 93.3 95.4 96.6 203.1 204.5 196.7 101.8 101.8 103.1 103.5 102.2 102.2 59.3 58.0 129.9 211.7 222.2 190.4 217.2 229.0 233.5 1909 120.3 132.7 135.2 212.9 201.9 217.8 79.5 79.5 79.3 88.5 88.5

ATC -32 Vs (kN) 176.8 176.8 176.8 170.1 265.1 150.3 400.9 351.9 200.5 351.4 175.7 175.7 175.7 175.7 131.8 125.2 263.9 250.3 103.8 103.8 103.8 55.2 55.2 149.1 444.1 169.1 444.1 66.8 66.8 511.0 536.8 536.8 136.4 161.6 146.1 146.1 667.1 163.0 163.0 165.6 66.8 66.8 66.8 217.3 217.3 217.3 181.1 181.1 Vn (kN) 279.6 279.1 277.5 263.0 358.8 241.5 492.7 445.7 292.3 452.4 273.1 274.7 274.2 274.0 228.5 218.5 359.4 346.9 306.9 308.3 300.4 157.0 157.0 252.2 547.7 271.4 546.4 126.1 124.8 640.9 748.5 759.0 326.7 378.8 375.1 379.6 2576 283.3 295.7 300.8 279.6 268.7 284.6 296.7 296.7 296.6 269.6 269.6 1.148 0.792 0.995 1.099 0.923 1.163 0.903 0.981 1.392 0.964 1.157 0.837 1.285 1.140 1.186 1.304 0.927 0.983 0.922 0.843 0.839 0.911 1.045 0.674 0.842 1.802 1.060 0.682 0.745 0.629 0.517 0.541 1.325 0.341 0.440 0.364 1.205 1.740 1.089 1.360 1.452 1.236 1.167 0.768 0.844 0.755 0.851 0.848 Vtest /Vn Vc (kN) 123.1 122.6 120.6 111.2 112.1 109.2 109.9 179.7 175.9 157.3 116.7 96.0 152.3 153.1 115.9 111.8 114.3 115.7 193.9 183.1 179.4 81.9 81.9 76.8 194.6 265.4 265.4 65.0 71.1 108.3 233.0 241.9 197.2 299.3 403.8 314.6 1533 280.4 112.7 281.7 171.8 163.1 175.8 151.9 151.9 151.7 163.9 163.9

ASCE/ACI 426 Vs (kN) 176.8 176.8 176.8 170.1 265.1 150.3 400.9 351.9 200.5 351.4 175.7 175.7 175.7 175.7 131.8 125.2 263.9 250.3 103.8 103.8 103.8 55.2 55.2 149.1 444.1 169.1 444.1 66.8 66.8 511.0 536.8 536.8 136.4 161.6 146.1 146.1 667.1 163.0 163.0 165.6 66.8 66.8 66.8 217.3 217.3 217.3 181.1 181.1 Vn (kN) 299.9 299.4 297.4 281.3 377.3 259.6 510.9 531.6 376.3 508.6 292.4 271.7 328.0 328.8 247.6 236.9 378.2 366.0 297.7 286.9 283.1 137.1 137.1 225.9 638.7 434.5 709.5 131.8 137.9 619.3 769.8 778.7 333.5 460.9 549.8 460.7 2200 443.5 275.7 447.3 238.6 229.8 242.5 369.2 369.2 368.9 345.0 345.0 1.070 0.738 0.928 1.027 0.877 1.083 0.871 0.823 1.081 0.858 1.081 0.847 1.074 0.950 1.094 1.203 0.880 0.932 0.951 0.906 0.890 1.0 43 1.196 0.752 0.722 1.125 0.816 0.653 0.674 0.651 0.503 0.528 1.298 0.280 0.300 0.300 1.411 1.112 1.168 0.914 1.702 1.444 1.369 0.618 0.679 0.607 0.665 0.663 Vtest /Vn Vc (kN) 104.1 15.3 38.9 139.0 106.4 150.6 137.4 75.7 148.6 43.1 136.7 14.8 183.1 179.4 14.5 97.0 142.8 26.4 45.6 141.4 41.4 84.2 135.8 15.4 23.2 64.2 22.9 21.1 16.5 42.9 34.9 36.7 29.4 253.7 240.4 461.2 2123 219.0 121.0 205.8 32.0 254.7 257.4 131.3 131.3 131.0 146.3 146.3 Vs

Caltran Vn (kN) 280.8 192.1 215.6 309.1 371.5 300.9 538.4 427.6 349.0 394.5 312.4 190.5 358.8 355.1 146.2 222.1 406.8 276.8 149.3 245.1 145.2 139.4 191.0 164.5 467.4 233.3 467.1 87.9 83.3 553.9 571.7 573.5 165.7 415.3 386.4 607.2 2790 382.0 284.0 371.4 98.8 321.5 324.2 348.6 348.6 348.3 327.3 327.3 1.143 1.151 1.280 0.9 35 0.891 0.934 0.827 1.023 1.166 1.106 1.012 1.207 0.982 0.880 1.853 1.283 0.819 1.232 1.895 1.061 1.736 1.026 0.859 1.033 0.986 2.096 1.240 0.978 1.116 0.728 0.677 0.717 2.613 0.311 0.427 0.227 1.112 1.291 1.134 1.101 4.109 1.033 1.024 1.308 1.437 1.286 1.402 1.397 Vtest /Vn

(kN) 176.8 176.8 176.8 170.1 265.1 150.3 400.9 351.9 200.5 351.4 175.7 175.7 175.7 175.7 131.8 125.2 263.9 250.3 103.8 103.8 103.8 55.2 55.2 149.1 444.1 169.1 444.1 66.8 66.8 511.0 536.8 536.8 136.4 161.6 146.1 146.1 667.1 163.0 163.0 165.6 66.8 66.8 66.8 217.3 217.3 217.3 181.1 181.1

Table A.1. Calculated Shear Strength based on available models

55

No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 No.5 No.7 No,9 No.10 No.11 No.13 No.14 No.15 No.16 No.17 No.21 No.22 No.23 No.24 Col1 Col3 Col4 UCI 3 UCI 4 UCI 5 No.1 No.2 No.3 M2E1 M2E2 NH5 IC1 IC2 IC3 verma 1 verma 3 verma 5 L1 CS1 CS2 CS3 S1 S1-2 S2 *TP 54 *TP 55 *TP 57 *TP 60 *TP 61 Mean STDV 1 The factor k is not considered to estimate Vn 2 The factor k is equal to 0.7 at displacement ducility larger than 6

Vc_Prop (kN) 142.7 142.2 111.9 127.6 130.0 126.6 102.0 230.4 227.5 208.2 133.9 137.5 200.0 160.9 134.3 128.2 130.3 132.7 324.1 301.9 293.8 112.7 112.7 114.1 259.9 339.8 336.2 66.42 74.89 254.2 239.3 249.2 233.5 406.5 571.8 430.5 2792 371.2 268.0 398.6 307.1 291.4 314.2 80.49 80.49 80.34 87.92 87.92

Proposed Model 1 Vs Vn (kN) (kN) 176.8 319.5 176.8 318.9 176.8 288.6 170.1 297.7 265.1 395.1 150.3 277.0 400.9 502.9 351.9 582.3 200.5 428.0 351.4 559.5 175.7 309.5 175.7 313.2 175.7 375.7 175.7 336.6 131.8 266.1 125.2 253.3 263.9 394.3 250.3 383.0 103.8 427.8 103.8 405.7 103.8 397.5 55.20 167.9 55.20 167.9 149.1 263.2 444.1 704.0 169.1 508.9 444.1 780.3 66.80 133.2 66.80 141.7 511.0 765.3 536.8 776.1 536.8 786.0 136.4 369.8 161.6 568.1 146.1 717.9 146.1 576.6 667.1 3459.2 163.0 534.2 163.0 431.1 165.6 564.2 66.79 373.9 66.79 358.2 66.79 380.9 217.3 297.8 217.3 297.8 217.3 297.6 181.1 269.0 181.1 269.0

Vtest/Vn 1.00 0.693 0.956 0.971 0.838 1.01 0.885 0.751 0.951 0.780 1.02 0.734 0.938 0.928 1.02 1.12 0.845 0.890 0.661 0.641 0.634 0.852 0.977 0.646 0.655 0.961 0.742 0.646 0.656 0.527 0.528 0.548 1.22 1.01 1.02 1.06 0.897 0.923 0.747 0.725 1.09 0.927 0.872 0.766 0.841 0.753 0.853 0.850 0.845 0.164

k (kN) 0.94 0.71 0.81 1.0 0.96 1.0 1.0 0.84 0.95 0.80 1.0 0.75 1.0 1.0 0.69 0.95 1.0 0.79 0.79 0.89 0.76 0.93 1.0 0.69 0.60 0.81 0.60 0.85 0.84 0.81 0.63 0.62 0.90 0.95 0.90 1.0 1.0 0.99 0.98 0.95 0.85 1.0 1.0 0.60 0.69 1.0 0.71 0.60

Proposed Model2 kVn Vtest/kVn (kN) 298.7 1.07 226.4 0.976 233.5 1.18 297.7 0.971 379.3 0.873 277.0 1.01 502.9 0.885 490.3 0.892 404.4 1.01 447.6 0.975 309.5 1.02 236.1 0.974 375.7 0.938 336.6 0.928 183.6 1.48 239.7 1.19 394.3 0.845 303.3 1.12 336.7 0.840 360.2 0.722 301.3 0.836 156.8 0.912 167.9 0.977 182.7 0.931 422.4 1.09 413.3 1.18 468.2 1.24 113.6 0.757 118.5 0.785 622.2 0.648 490.5 0.836 488.1 0.883 332.8 1.36 539.7 1.06 646.1 1.14 576.6 1.06 3459 0.897 527.8 0.934 422.4 0.762 534.8 0.765 317.4 1.28 358.2 0.927 380.9 0.872 178.7 1.28 206.3 1.21 296.2 0.756 189.9 1.21 161.4 1.42 1.00 0.189

Table A.2 Calculated shear strength based on proposed model. 56

B. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT HISTORIES

57

58

Fig. B.1 Force displacement histories (Ghee et al. 1985) 59

Fig. B.2 Force displacement histories (Petrovosky et al. 1984)

Fig. B.3 Force displacement histories (Sritharan et al. 1996) 60

Fig. B.4 Force displacement histories (Vu et al. 1998)

Fig. B.5 Force displacement histories (Wong et al. 1990) 61

Nelson & Price 2000, Col1

300

200

100 Force (kN)

0 -80 -75 -70 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

-200

-300

-400 Deflection (mm)

Nelson & Price 2000, Col3

300

200

100 Force (kN)

0 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 -100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

-200

-300

-400 Deflection (mm)

Nelson & Price 2000, Col4

300

200

100
Force (kN)

0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

-100

-200

-300 Deflection (mm)

Fig. B.6 Force displacement histories (Nelson et al. 2000) 62

Hamilton 2002, UCI 3 150

100

50 Force (kN)

0 -20 -15 -10 -5 -50 0 5 10 15 20

-100

-150 Deflection (mm)

Hamilton 2002, UCI 4 200

150

100

50 Force (kN)

0 -15 -10 -5 -50 0 5 10 15

-100

-150

-200 Deflection (mm)

Hamilton 2002, UCI 5

150

100

50
Force (kN)

0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 -50 0 10 20 30 40 50

-100

-150

-200
Deflection (mm)

Fig. B.7 Force displacement histories (Hamilton 2002) 63

Verma et al. 1993 (Unit 1)

400

200

Force (kN)

0 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

-200

-400

-600

Deflection (mm)

Verma et al, 1993, 3

800

600

400

200

Force (kN)

0 -40 -30 -20 -10 -200 0 10 20 30 40

-400

-600

-800

-1000

Deflection (mm)

Verma et al, 1993, 5

600

400

200

Force (kN)

0 -40 -30 -20 -10 -200 0 10 20 30 40

-400

-600

-800

Deflection (mm)

Fig. B.8 Force displacement histories (Verma et al. 1993) 64

Ohtaki & Benzoni 1996 L1

3000

2000

1000 Force (KN)

0 -40 -30 -20 -10 -1000 0 10 20 30 40

-2000

-3000

-4000 Deflection (mm)

Fig. B.9 Force displacement histories (Ohtaki et al. 1997)

400

200

Force (kN)

0 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

-200

-400

-600

Deflection (mm)

Benzoni, 1996, CS2

300

200

100

Force (kN)

0 -100 -75 -50 -25 -100 0 25 50 75 100

-200

-300

-400

Deflection (mm)

65

Benzoni, 1996, CS3

400

200

Force (kN)

0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

-200

-400

-600

Deflection (mm)

Fig. B.10 Force displacement histories (Benzoni et al. 1996)

400

300

200

100

Force (kN)

0 -40 -30 -20 -10 -100 0 10 20 30 40

-200

-300

-400

-500

Deflection (mm)

McDaniel 1997, S1-2

300

200

100

Force (kN)

0 -15 -12 -9 -6 -3 -100 0 3 6 9 12 15

-200

-300

-400

Deflection (mm)

66

McDaniel 1997, S2
400

300

200

100

Force (kN)

0 -15 -10 -5 -100 0 5 10 15

-200

-300

-400

Deflection (mm)

Fig. B.11 Force displacement histories (McDaniel 1997)

TP54

TP55

67

TP57

TP60

TP61

Fig. B.12 Force displacement histories (Kawashima laboratory)

68