Running Head: BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH Borrowing from French into English and Emphasizing the

Importance of Loan Words The English language is one of power and success; considered to be a lingua franca in the current environment of globalized commerce and communication. As a lingua franca, English can be used between individuals who do not speak the same native language. Because of its status as a language of global use, it is extremely important for instructors and learners of English to understand the way the language can be utilized and adapted for use by its users. English, as a general rule, is very receptive to adding new words into its lexicon, particularly nouns and verbs. There are a variety of methods through which new vocabulary can be

incorporated into the language. One method of creating new words is through coining, which is when a person manufactures a new word, as in googol a word invented by a mathematicians nephew to represent an enormous number. Another possibility for word generation is through compounding, the practice of joining two words together to create a third, possibly unrelated, word. There are three types of compound words, examples of which could be taking the words lamp and post to generate lamppost, which is a compound word related to its two primary components. This means that lamppost is a coordinative compound, because both components are head words they both contribute equally to the meaning of the compound word. When a compound has only one head word it is said to be an endocentric compound, such as is the case with the words long and house combined to create longhouse. The head word in this instance is house, because a longhouse is a type of house. If a compound word is not related at all to its components then it is an exocentric compound, which can be illustrated by the compound word butterfly, because a

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butterfly is neither a type of butter, nor a type of fly. English can gain words through the process of blending, which is very similar to compounding. With blends, two words are combined to create a third word, but elements of each are removed for efficiency, as evidenced in words like brunch, which is an amalgamation of breakfast and lunch. Still other ways for English to incorporate additions to its lexicon include abbreviations and acronyms; when words are shortened to facilitate ease of use in speech, usually to create an informal version of an existing word such as comp for computer or Inc. for incorporated, these are abbreviations, and acronyms are made by taking the first letter of a multi-word phrase and making it pronounceable as a word in English, as was done with UNICEF, the name of an organization that helps fight world hunger. UNICEF stands for United Nations Childrens Fund; in this case the I was inserted in order to have a vowel sound and make the word sound feasible in English. The final method of adapting new words into the lexicon of the English language, and the focus of this paper, is borrowing. Borrowing involves taking words, usually as they are, from other languages, and incorporating them seamlessly into English vernacular. Quite often these borrowed words lose elements of their original sound in other languages, such as pronunciation or stress patterns, to sound more native to the English language. English borrows words from many different languages for many different purposes, including specific fields (such as ballet or culinary arts), foods, place names, whole phrases, and many others. Acknowledgment of borrowing is crucial for English language instructors, because their students will benefit from instruction in the ways English can be modified by users. A focused discussion on borrowing will inform students of the global nature of languages; as articulated in Delahunty and Garvey (2010) borrowing requires that the borrowing language and

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH the source language come in contact with each other. In the global environment we live, teach, and learn in today, students must know that contact between languages not only happens regularly, but that it affects language use and subsequently

language development and change. By discerning the multitudinous vocabulary items that have been borrowed into English from other languages, students will cultivate an appreciation for the way borrowing enriches languages. As students work to build their English vocabulary, their knowledge of nuances in American English, and their communicative competence in the target language of English, recognition and understanding of word etymology will prove to be useful for their language development. Familiarizing students with the concept of borrowing will allow students to reason why some words in English do not seem to follow typical rules and patterns, why some seem highly recognizable and others do not, and why native English speakers are eager to incorporate loan words from other cultures and languages into their everyday speech. In order to keep a narrow focus, this paper will look primarily at words borrowed from French into English, as well as including a brief discussion of Anglophones, or words of English, borrowed into French. The reasoning behind the focus on French as the language words are borrowed from into English is due to my reading of Svensson (2009) where she asserts that in her paper, the historical events that led to the defeat and death of king Harold in the battle of Hastings in 1066, and the heavy Gallicization [which means to become French] of the English language that ensued, are narrated, observing that some 10,000 French loan words infiltrated English.

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH Absolutely, English has borrowed many words from other key languages, and even Svensson (2009) acknowledges that without those crucial historical turning points, still French words would have been borrowed into English as into other Germanic languages, but not so early and not in such large numbers in a very short period of time. Because of the extreme extent to which English borrowed from French, our language today is regularly influenced and infiltrated by French. For these reasons it is important to look closely at how French loan words affect modern English, and how English language instructors must teach these concepts. In her Ph.D. dissertation, Saugera (2007) offers much valuable insight into what

borrowing is, why it is useful, and how it remains distinct from other uses of foreign words in a target language, such as code-switching. She claims that separating codeswitching and borrowing, is potentially difficult in the particular context of single contact words (emphasis in original) and thus she strives to clearly define borrowing and distinguish it from code-switching. Saugera (2007) utilizes a useful definition of borrowing from Thomason and Kaufman (1988), describing it as classic: The incorporation of foreign features into a groups native language by speakers of that language: the native language is maintained but is changed by the addition of the incorporated features. She herself explains that a word is defined as being borrowed when it becomes morphosyntactically integrated into the matrix language meaning that a word is borrowed if it becomes integrated into the internal structure of the target language and assimilates to the syntactical structure of that language. Saugera (2007) goes on to explain code-switching in order to better highlight the contrast between that and

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH borrowing, explaining that a word is a code-switch if it remains discrete from [the

matrix language]. She expresses confidence that the point of distinction is then simple one grammar for borrowing vs. two grammars for codeswitching [sic]. Saugeras (2007) research accentuates the importance of direct instruction over the phenomenon of borrowing. She suggests that when a form is borrowed into another language context, it becomes a member of the recipient language lexicon. The phonologically and/or morphologically integrated form reflects the rules of the borrowing language and no longer belongs to its source language. This fact is precisely why borrowing is such an important language structure for students to learn. Though English has borrowed phrases, words, and affixes from many languages, French has heavily influenced English language growth and change for centuries. Americans use borrowings from French quite often in daily speech; e.g. when describing feelings of dj vu, when requesting an r.s.v.p on an invitation (respondez, sil vous plait), when discussing plans for marriage to a fianc, or when ordering a croissant or caf au lait. In addition to words and phrases, English makes ample use of French affixes. Nezami (2011) claims that the major influence of French language on English was due to the invasion by the Normandy as the initial instance that the two languages came into contact, because at that point, he argues, thousands of words were added to [the English] vocabulary from French and Latin and its growth was in full swing. The author continues chronologically in the discussion of English-language development through word borrowing, moving into the period of Modern English. During the 1500s, Nezami (2011) explains, the discoveries and travels by the British all over the world highly accelerated the transmission process of new vocabulary and its growth. They came into contact of about 50 languages, among which French and

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH Spanish highly enriched English. It is clear that French is a primary language that influenced and enriched the English language through its development, as markedly evidenced by Nezami (2011) expounding on the incorporation of French suffixes into the language. Examples of commonly, currently used French suffixes in English today, he lists, are: -age as in mileage, bondage, marriage, package, etc., -ee as in trustee, payee, employee, consignee, etc., -ment as in employment, treatment, atonement, betterment, etc., -esque as in picturesque, picaresque, Romanesque, etc., -ess (feminine suffix) as in governess, authoress, hostess, countess, poetess, etc. Nezami (2011) goes on to tally French prefixes that currently hold a place in English, including

en- as in endanger, enslave, endear, enlarge, enlist, enable, enrich, etc., and demi- as in demi-god, demi-angel, demi-official, etc. In addition to the suffixes described by Nezami, Loyd (2007) adds several others, first borrowed into English during the Middle English period. Her research focuses entirely on nominal suffixes which now form abstract nouns in English by attaching themselves to verbs, as in annoy/annoyance. The suffixes she features are -ment (which Nezami also called attention to), -ance/-ence, and ation. Loyds paper focuses attention on these suffixes in particular because of the disagreement surrounding their use and function. That is, a variety of researchers have argued different positions in regard to these specific suffixes, namely that their meaning can be unspecified, as Loyd finds in Bauer, that they interact with the base noun so that the derivatives semantics are affected as she found in Booij and Plag, or that they are forming their own thematic meanings as she cites from Kastovskys research. This third example comes from earlier research in the history of linguistics. Taking all of this into account Loyd (2007) presents her findings, claiming that her

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH results suggest that from their earliest appearance in English the French suffixes

began to select characteristically from the nexus of common meanings, in terms both of the kinds of bases to which each suffix was characteristically attached, and also of the kinds of contexts in which nouns formed in it tended to appear. Based on this observation, Loyds research clearly indicates that words or even word parts such as affixes borrowed into English from another language, in this case from French, will assimilate to the target language and become well integrated into the lexicon, despite that integration requiring key changes to the word or word part. In their research of borrowing from French and English into Greek, Anastassiadis-Symeonidis and Nikolaou (2011) found that the morphological adjustment of the new loanwords that are imported into a language opens the way for a thorough exploration of the morphological system of the host language, and in particular of its dynamics as manifested by its prototypical, highly frequent and available structures. This is a decisive reason for teaching English language Learners about word borrowing; in order to be highly successful in learning and using English they should be taught the functions of affixes. Since many of our affixes in English are directly borrowed from another language, they will not necessarily behave the way affixes or words which are not borrowed will behave. Having a grasp on this notion will surely help learners to achieve a better mastery of ways in which these so-called loan-words can operate within the lexicon. In addition to the prevalence of French affixes in modern English, it is imperative to note that field-specific words are also frequently borrowed from French. Such is the case with the study and practice of law, as evidenced by Kermas (2010). She

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH hypothesizes that French, more than any other romance language, is influencing English [as] determined by its long-standing role as the language of diplomacy [and]

demonstrates the overt presence of non-adapted French loanwords in English. The Wikipedia.org page for Law French provides examples of these legalistic French words that still remain useful in our legal system today. A few of the more highly recognizable words include, bailiff, defendant, parole, and plaintiff. Law is not the only field where French language influence is evident; French is readily seen in ballet, as in words like pli, changement, or battement, as well as in culinary arts with phrases and words such as la carte, la mode, au gratin, or cordon bleu. All of these are words that many Americans will recognize and even incorporate readily into their daily speech. Not only do native English speakers know and use these words and phrases, they may not even realize that the words and phrases are in fact French. Further examples of commonplace words and phrases that are French in origin and are frequently spoken or written in English are avant garde, fianc, croton, carte blanche, par excellence, faux pas, art dco, bon voyage, cul-de-sac, grand prix, au contraire, cest la vie, dj vu, potpourri, en masse, en route, guillotine, femme fatale, hors doeuvres, tte--tte, gargoyle, parfait, and laissez-faire. This list is far from extensive, and yet offers a wide variety of words and phrases that native English speakers use in multitudinous situations, regardless of gender, level of education, race or ethnicity, and often regardless of age. In short, they are fully absorbed into the everyday use of the English language. Saugera (2007) in part explains why French loan words are so prevalent in English, in a variety of situations, suggesting that contact between languages inevitably modifies one or all of the languages in contact. In North

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH America, interaction between French and English has produced a myriad of outcomes. With so much emphasis on the importance and prominence of French loan

words in English, it must also be noted that the French language, while highly closed off to new words being added into its lexicon, similarly has a tendency to borrow English loan words, called Anglicisms. French in general is highly resistant to new words being added, but Chesley (2010) found in her study that when looking at a French newspaper corpus, Anglicisms outnumber all other borrowings [i.e. from languages other than English into French] combined. Additionally, it is found that the Anglicisms are more productive than borrowings with similar frequencies from other languages. Finally Chesley (2010) shows an indication of the relevance that English loan words have in the French lexicon, despite the lack of ease French has to allow new words in, stating that qualitative findings show that new Anglicisms are more likely than other borrowings to be integrated into the French lexicon. In summary, Nezami (2011) puts it best: The formation of words has been a regular development throughout the etymological history; the conjugation and assimilation of different words in languages is a phenomenon. It is a neverending process which will bring-forth new words and phrases to be well-accepted by all the students as well as the grammarians. The English language will keep enriching and flourishing in terms of development of vocabulary and formation of new words or compounds in leaps and bounds and enlightening the imagination of researchers. For these reasons and those stated in the paper above, borrowing as a source of language growth and change is not only a crucial area of linguistic research, it is a necessary and

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH vital component of any English language learning classroom. In order to fully prepare students of English for success and ultimate attainment of the target language

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structures, teachers must formally instruct their classes in important language structures. Borrowing falls solidly into this position, not only as a way to develop vocabulary, understanding of grammatical structures, and knowledge of affixes, but also as a way to promote cultural awareness and underscore the role of globalization in language use and subsequent change.

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH References

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Anastassiadis-Symeonidis, A. and Nikolaou, G. (2011). Morphological adjustment of new loan words: why is it so important? Langages, 183. Retrieved October 29, 2012, from the Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts database. Chelsey, P. (2010). Lexical borrowings in French: Anglicisms as a separate phenomenon. Journal of French Language Studies, 20. Retrieved October 29, 2012, from the Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts database. Delahunty, G. P. and Garvey, J. J. (2010). The English language: From sound to sense. Fort Collins, CO: The WAC Clearinghouse and Parlor Press. Loyd, C. (2007). From Middle English to Shakespeare: Semantics of a French deverbal suffix in English. English Studies, 88 (5).Retrieved October 29, 2012, from the Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts database. Nezami, S. R. (2011). Panacea of Vocabulary: the formation of words is a growth from within and an integral part of English etymology. Language in India, 11. Retrieved October 29, 2012, from the Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts database. Saugera, V. (2007). Lexical borrowing in a French-English email corpus: integration of English words in the electronic discourse of French immigrants in America. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved October 29, 2012, from the ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3278252)

BORROWING FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH Svensson, A. (2009). The winds of 1066: What of the winds had been different in the

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summer of 1066? Gothenburg Studies in English, 96. Retrieved October 29, 2012, from the Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts database. Law French. Retrieved November 12, 2012 from Wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_French