MICROFIC REFERENCE LIBRARY

A project of Volunteers in Asia Desian of Small Control. Dam by: A.D. Water Storage and Erosion

Wood and E.V.

Richardson International

Published by: United States Agency for Development Washington, DC USA This publication out of print

in 1983. in any as those

Reproduction of this microfiche document form is subject to the same restrictions of the original document.

. .._. ,

__- . -

Bl6LlOGRAPHIC-INPUT SHEET

2 TITLE AND SUBTITLF-

Design of Small Water Storage and Erosion Control Dams

3. AUTnORlSl

Wood, P..D. and Richardson,

E.V.
5. NUMBER OF PAGES

7. REFERENCE

ORCANlZATlON

NAME

AND

ACORESS

Colorado State University Dept. of Civii Engineering Fort CQJJ&I. C-do 80521

9. ABSTRACT

The design criteria and constructicn methods for small earth and rock-filled dams The materials and methods to be used are considered for both are presented. mechanical and manual labor. Several types of ponds, foundation conditions, and water uses are discussed as design Special attention is given to the selection of appropriate outlet considerations. The construction of earth embankments is quite dependei _ on works and spillways. available materials, however, placement of water barriers aud drains allows some flexibility in the cross sectir design. An appendix is included to address the problem of seepage and its influence on design.

10. CONTROL

NUYaER

11. PRICE

OF

DGCUMENT

PN-AAB- // 8
12. DESCRtPTORS 13. PROJECT t~hit3ER

Sarth filled Seepage

dams, Water storage,

Erosion control,

DESIGNOF SMALLWATER STORAGE AND EROSION CONTROL DAMS

A. D. Wood Graduate Research Assistant E. V. Richardson Professor, Civil Engineering

Paper developed under support from U.S. Agency for International Development under contract AID/csd-2460. All reported opinions, conclusions or recommendations are those of the authors and not those of the funding agency or the United States Government.

Department of Civil Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado June, 1975 211 (d)

DESIGNOF SMALLWATER STORAGE AND EROSION CONTROL DAMS

A. D. Wood and E. V. Richardson

ABSTRACT The design criteria rock-filled and construction methods for small earth and and methods to be used

dams are presented.

The materials

are considered for both mechanical and manual labor. Several types of ponds, foundation conditions, discussed as design considerations. selection of appropriate outlet and water uses are is given to the The construction materials, however

Special attention

works and spillways.

of earth embankments is quite dependent on available

placement of water barriers and drains allows some flexibility in the . cross section design. An appendix is inciuded to address the problem f seepage and its influence on design. 1

KEY WORDS: Earth-filled

dams, water storage,

erosion control,

seepage

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS Sect ion ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENGLISHTO SI (METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS . . . Page ii iv * vi vii viii 1 1 6 6 8 8 12 13 14 15 15 17 26 37 42 42 44 46 47 49 50 60

GUXSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . c . . . . . . . . FORWARD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I II ................... Introduction Uses ..................... B. Types .................... Factors Governing Selection of Site, Type, and Capacity ................... A. Purpose ................... B. Topography .................. ........... C. Subsurface investigation D. Climate ................... E. Equipment and labor ............. F. Statutory restrictions, costs, and time Design ...................... A. Dugout ponds ................. B. Embankments and foundations. ......... C. Outlet works ............... ................ D. Spillways Construction ................. A. Site preparation ............... B. Excavation .................. C. Embankment .................. Inspection, Maintenance, and Operation ......
A.

...

III

IV

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THROUGH EMBANKMENTS . . . . . Appendix A -, SEEPAGE OF EMBANKMENTS . . . . Appendix 6 - SOIL MECHANICS

iii

I.1 ST 01; 1:I GllRliS -

Figure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 PondUses ..................... PitPond .....................

Page

2 4 5 7 ............. Disposal for Pit Ponds . 10 16 18 20 21 23 25 27 ........... ........ ....... 27 29 29 30 30 31 31 ........ 32 33 35 36 38 39

,

Types of Embankments ............... Hillside Pond ...................

Borings at Proposed Site Methods of Waste Material Estimating

Storage Volume .............

Design Factors of Freeboard ............ Suggested Flood Storage Depth ........... Methods of EmbankmentDrainage ..........

Treatment of Pervious Foundations ......... Shute Spillway Outlet .................. Inlet

with Multi-Stage Concrete Inlet

Reinforced

and Pipe

Concrete Block Inlet HoodedCMP Inlet Monolithic CMPOutlet CMP[)utlet Typical Typical Stilling Manifold

with CMPBarrel

.................

Outlet Works .............. Works ................. with Stop Logs ............. Design Charr

Pipe Spillway

Pipe Design Table ............. Basins .................. Basin ..................

Debris Traps for CMPRisers ............ Typical Earth Spillway .............. iv

. ..I

Figure
26 27 28 Ai A2 A3 ,

Page Typical
Earth

Spillway

..............

41
43 45 51

Staking Layout Timber Diversi:?

.................. Flume ..............

Particle Size @;stribution for Typical Soil Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seepage Lines through HomogeneousEmbankments . . . Seepage Lines Through Zoned Embankments . . . . . . Approximate Method of Seepage Determination Typical Unified Values of Permeability Classification Coefficients . . . . . . . . . .

52 53 56 57
61 66

A4
AS

Bi 82 B3 84 BS B6 87

and Properties

of Soils.

Soil Volume and Weight Relationships.

. . . . . . .

Embankment Settlement Example . . . . . . . . . . . Calculations Typical of Example Settlement Problem. . . . . : ...

69
70

Proctor Test Curves ........ .............

72
75 78

Shear Strength Relations. Embankment Slope Stability.

. . . . . . . . . . . .

ENGLISHTO SI To convert inches [in) inches (in) inches (in) feet (ft) miles (miles) yards (yd)
square

(METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS To millimeters (mm) centimeters (cm) meters (m) meters (m) kilometers (km; meters (m) square square square square meters (m2) meters (m2) meters (m2) kilometers (km*) Multiply.& 25.40 2.540 0.0254 0.305 1.61 0.9i 0.093 0.836 4r47. 2.59 0.028 0.453 907.2 47.9 6.9 3.8 1233. 0.0038

feet (sq ft) square yards (sq yc!) acres (acre) square miles (sq miles) cubic feet (cu ft) pounds (lb) tans (ton) pounds per square foot (psf) pounds per square inch (psi) gallons (gal) acre-feet (acre-ft) gallons per minute (gpm)

cubic meters (m3) kilograms kilograms (kg) (kg)

newtons per square meter (N/m2) kilonewtons er square meter (kN/m4 ) liter (dm3) cubic meters (m3) cub. c meters/minute (m3/min)

vi . - -. _

GLOSSARY CRITICAL FLOW--occurs at the unique depth where the specific a given discharge are possible. energy of

is a minimum. For any other flow, two velocities depth, and slope which flow is

Due to this unique velocity,

can occur for a given discharge and channel shape, critical important in the design of hydraulic structures.

DRAWDOWN--the vertical reservoir,

dista;rce a free water surface is iowered.

In a

drawdown is usually

measured from the designed normal

water elevation. FETCH--the length of open exposure across a water surface. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE--the pressure in a liquid It is the product of the liquids
, i

under static

conditions.

specific

weight and the vertical

distance between a given point and the free water surface. OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT--the water content (expressed as a percent of dry soil weight) at which a soil can be compacted to a maximum

dry unit weight by a given compaction effort. , ! PIPING--the movement of soil particles usually profile. PROCNIR DENSITY (compaction curve) --the relationship unit weight and the water content of a soil method. The curve which illustrates between the dry results by seeping water. Massive piping

in sloughing where seepage exits

from the soil

for a given compaction indicates

this relationship

the maximum density what water content.

that can be produced for a given soil and at

vii

FOREWORD Earth dams, if designed and constructed safe.

~ properly, can be extremely

Large earth dams have been subjected to earthquakes and overfailure. However, many small earth dams, the The failures usually The

topping by waves without size of the subject resulting

of this manual, have failed. rather

from improper construction

than poor design.

basic reason that construction

and design were faulty,

causing failure, sloppy

is the low cost of small dams. Because they are inexpensive, control of construction

and poor designs are made, However, it is not

the cost of the dam that must be considered in assessing the consequence of a dam failure, result but the potential damage and loss of life that may

from the rupture of the dam and potential

economic loss resulting In the design

from not having the water the dam was built and r:nstruction potential of small dams, careful

to impound.

assessment must be made of all the total potential

damages that can result

from failure,

damages determine the amount of care that must be taken in the design and construction, not just the cost of the dam. there are five critical areas that

In the design anti construction, need careful 1. consideration.

These are: pipes and along the including the sides

Potential

seepage along any outlet

embankment contacts with the foundation where piping 2.

.

can occur. leaks in the outlet pipes. Any leak in the pipes

Potential

can remove embankment material . outside of the pipe by piping. 3. Size, locaticn

either

in the pipe or along the

and maintenance of the flood spillway the dam. viii

which

is constructed

to protect

4.

Control of the type of material,

its placement and compaction

in the embankment. 5. Control of seepage through the dam so that its egress on the to prevent erosion. construction and

downstream face can be controlled

There are many areas of concern in the design, maintenance of a small dam. The above list of small dam failures. In general, this manual gives sufficient identifies

major causes

information

for the

design, construction

al;, maintenance of small dams for erosion control of the dam would only have or

and small scale water supply where failure

the economic consequence of the cost of the dam. Where loss of life larger economic loss could occur, a competent engineer should design

and inspect the structure.

ix

I.

Introduction Although we hear most often about the large dams and reservoirs

on major tributaries, useful

A.

faxm ponds can be one of the most effective in soil and water conservation.

and

structures
Uses

Whether constructed across a gully, decreasing

on a hillside

as a by-pass pond, or control by

an earth embankment can serve as an erosion

flow velocities

through a watershed and thus decrease sediof any sediment load that does occur,

ment movement. A large portion

can be trapped by the pond-and prevented from causing damage downstream. Similarly, can retard an embankment, when designed with some storage capacity, flooding downstream during peak flows. conservation a usable
supply

As a result

of this

of water, a properly of water.

designed

embankment can provide outlet gation,

With appropriate for irri-

works or water lifting stock watering,

devices, water can be utilized protection (Fig. 1).

and fire

However, especially

when used for irrigation, planned and regulated

An additional

the storage capacity

should be carefully

to prevent severe drawdowns. of creating a pond is the recreational If fish production is to be acre

benefit

possibilities; considered,

from swimming to fishing.

the pond should be designed no smaller than one-fourth

surface area with a six foot average depth B.

.

Types Although pond designs vary with location and purpose, each pond is developed a

is basically by enlarging

one of three typos. an already existing

The pit

or dugout

depression or simply by excavating

__..---..-

w--W.-Y.--.-r--.---

-.

._.

. .

_.

. .

- -__. 1

--.

-..-

-...._.-.

___

. v I.-.:.-

. .. . . -

C k ..e--

_..

--

..-a. . ..

* . . i

. . . -.

-._ .; .:

_a -

..-..

\.

FIGURE
l

I - POND

USES

! U.S. So2 Conso~vation Service, 1969 I

3 pit in flat land areas (Fig. 2). lines. The scurces of water can be springs, Runoff should only be expected to supply. If existing depressions

underground seepage, or tile contribute

a small amount of the total

are normally wet, such as swamps, an impervious subsoil which will provide good water retention.

can be expected

However, if the depression unless a lining

appears well drained,

another site should be selected, is to be considered.

(such as asphalt or clay layer)

The secomd and most widely used type is the embankn,ent pond. Concrete, timber, and steel dams are forms of embankment, but are rarely An earth and/or rock filled

considered for ponds due to high costs. embankment is generally the easiest

and least expensive ponding method moved. Where the foundaimpervious to

for the amount of water stored and materials tion soil and the embankment material provide an adequate water barrier, bankment is constructed entirely

are sufficiently

(as with slts

and clays) the emThis is a resistance is keyed

of this one material.

tinogeneous type of embankment (Fig. 3a). along the foundation into the foundation and prevent piping,

To provide sliding the homogeneous fill

stratum by means of a key trench excavated the fill

zoned

length of the embankment. If available ently impervious to retard seepage , a In this type, the major portion and a water barrier an internal

material

is not suffici-

embankment must be designed.

of the embankment is pervious material This barrier can be in the for,n of

is constructed.

core (Fig. 3b) or diaphragm (Fig. 3d), or as an impervious The commonly referred to

blanket on the upstream slope (Fig. 3~).

rock fiZ% &m is nothing more than a zoned embankment with very large, pervious material. will The details and variations of these embankments

be discussed later,

i-.

.::

.-

.-

---------.-.^

.-..-_

-.

_.

.._

.__.-.____

..--

.*._

FIGURE

2 -

PIT

POND

( U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1969 )

Pervious Zone (Sandy or Gravelly

Soil)

(bl

Imaervious

Blanket

FIGURE

3-

TYPES

OF EMBANKMENTS

6 The third kind of pond is actually a combination of the dugout and or by-pass pond. It

embankment ponds.
.

It is often called a hillside

is designed when the dam cannot be placed across a gully or stream, due possibly sloping material to property lines or water rights. It is constructed on

land by excavating the uphill on the downhill

pond area and placing

the cut

side to form the embankment. AS shown in by means of an upstream to

Fig. 4,. discharge into the pond can be regulated diversion. retain

This method of water storage is also used frequently as a sewage lagoon.

farmlot wastes and function

With good can

planning and proper design, these basic water storage structures be adapted to most locations.
II.

Factors Governing Selection A. Purpose

As with most engineering

of Site,

Type, and Capacity

stiuctures,

several designs may be

possible

for a particular

site.

Hodever, when the intended use of the an optimum

pond is considered along with the site characteristics, design can be developed. irrigation,

For example, if the pond is to be used for as possible to all fields

it should be located as centrally

to prevent excessively should also afford

long reaches of pipes or canals.

The location

adequate storage capacity is primarily

and Jaw seepage losses.

However, if the structure

for flood and erosion control, interception and the embankment

the site should allow maximumrunoff material irrigation can be more pervious. or stock watering,

When rapid drawdown is expected due to a zoned embankment with good upstream to a homogeneous dam with only

slope protection vegetation cover.

would be preferable

FIGURE

4 - HILLSIDE

POND (Bypass

with

Diversion

Canal)

8
B.

Topography Topography, to a large degree, influences the site, type, and site

capacity of pond.
.

For an embankment type pond, some desirable

characteristics 1.

are: and provide deep losses. with minimum excavation. during

Narrow valley at damsite to reduce fill water storage which reduce evaporation

2. 3.

Wide abutments for an emergency spillway An alternate construction.

water course to allow diversion

4.

A flat

valley

slope upstream to minimize deep cuts in the

pond area. Where the topography is nearly However, the site level, a dugout pond is more suitable.

should have a high water table to prevent seepage loss

and an adequate drainage area or aquifer supply to keep the pond full. To insure that the water storage capacity at a selected site will

be adequate for the intended use, an estimate of capacity made. For an embankment pond, a reasonable estimate multiplying

should be

can be made by

the proposed surface area by 0.4 times the maximumwater will simply be the

depth at the dam. For a dugout pond, the capacity volume of proposed excavation. Topographical maps, visual inspections,

and preliminary

surveys

are valuable guides to site selections.

C. .

Subsurface investigation After a pond site has been located which is suitable for the

topography and intended use, the local subsurface should be investigated to determine the quality of available borrow soil of the foundation strata and the classification To obtain this

for the embankment fill,

9 information, relatively boring and/or test pits impervious material. should be extended to stable and

Figures Al and A3 in the appendix give as a function of particle to a

a classification size. As a rule,

and values of permeability if such material

is very deep, investigation Mobile drills

depth equal the dam height is sufficient. are best suited for such exploration,

or back hoes

but for small ponds, hand augers Areas to be investigated, as shown

or posthole diggers are adequate. in Fig. 5, are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Along the embankment centerline,

continuing

up abutments.

Various points in the pond and borrow areas. Along the centerline of the emergency spillway. will be constructed, e.g., at drop

Any points where footings inlet.

Soils in the ponded area should contain relatively Natural impervious and thick layers of clays and silts

layers of mnterials

that are

enough to prevent high seepage losses. are good materials, while sands and
.

gravels should be avoided. sands or silty or lining

However, ponding can be accomplished on

sands if the water table is high enough or if sealing Sites where faults or limestone sinks and extensive investi-

can be afforded.

caverns are present should also be avoided without gations and laboratory tests. Sites in earthquake and will be discussed

areas deserve later. must in

special design considerations The soil provide stable addition strength profile

beneath the embankment and at footings conditions impervious. of saturation Foundation soil

support for all

a,ld loading

to being relatively will require a flatter

of low shear

sloped and broader dam. A more liberal must be allowed for soft foundation is pervious, a seepage cutoff

allowance for embankment settlement material. If the foundation material

10

\ \ \ \ \ \

Q)
Borrow Area

\ \ \ \

\ !

Spillway

-Out

let

roorlng

@ -Borings

FIGURE

5 -BORINGS

AT PROPOSED

SITE

11 trend. or impervious hlanket will be needed. Rock foundations are excellent for bearing strength, but often require grouting to seal fractures to control seepage. Springs in or near the embankment can

cause serious piping and should be avoided. Borings in the emergency spillway site should be made to a depth

at least one foot below the spillways finished grade. The soil should 3 be classified and the compaction and plastic qualities determined in order to design for maximumvelocities The type of material in the spillway. from excavations and permeability and

which wi! 1 be available

borrow areas must be evaluated for bearing strength to determine if the embankment will optimum moisture, If borro? material the project,

need an impervious core or blanket,

and the degree of compaction that can be achieved. is not available at a reasonable dl :ance from can be

it should be determined if enough cut material

areas

obtained from the pond and spillway

to construct

the embankment.

Sites proposed for dugout ponds also require investigation relatively aquifer, water will to insure that the soil impervious.

a thorough subsurface

layer at the designed depth is

If the pit pond is to store water from an

test holes should be made to determine the level to which the rise. When this level is more than six feet below existing not be economical to construct unless

ground level,

the site will

another water source can be utilized. Methods of subsurface testing and the evaluation of collected text

samples and data can be obtained from most soil books, or field handbooks from such organizations

manuals, soil

as the U.S. Soil Resources

Conservation Service, (Secretaria

or the Mexican Secretary of Hydraulic .

de Recursos Hidraulices)

12
0.

Climate Climate is an important consideration at a proposed pond site. design data, but is of

Not only must it be considered for hydrological critical

. i i 0 9

concern during construction.

The estimated mean and peak runoff are the primary of

discharges,

as discussed in previous presentations, capacities. Evaporation,

i !

input for spillway climatic conditiorrs,

which is a function

must be considered

along with seepage in determining that will be

the net loss of storage. important

Wind and temperature are factors

in embankment freeboard design. little work should be done on embankments weather. Movement on wet or However,

During construction, of fine-grained frozen silts soils

in wet or freezing

and clays will

destroy any compaction effort.

placement of pervious freezing periods.

soil or rock can be done during such wet or construction and pro-

In rainy areas, to facilitate

vide drainage during operation, of pervious materials

embankments would best be designed impervious zone. In arid areas,

with -- internal

the lack of water may be a problem in maintaining compaction. An adequate water supply

optimum moisture for either from

should be available,

the stream or some outside source and a continuous moisture content of fill sprayed on each fill puddle or over water. In dry climates,
.

check made on the water must be not to

material.

When necessary,

layer before compaction, being careful

it should be determined if vegetation or if an alternate consideratii,l, cover will

can be be

maintained as slope protection necessary.

can easily

This is a very important

since a hard rain

destroy a bare earth structure.

13
.

E.

Equipment and labor The availability and use of construction equipment, either and design. are

mechanical or manual, is a limiting lhe basic operations

excavation,

factor in pond location . which are needed for pond construction and compaction.

hmcting, spreading,

For small ponds,

either

dugout or embankment types, manual and animal labor can be well used. Steep, narrow valley suited sites also make machinery In such

especially

movement difficult

and are better

for manual labor.

cases, the excavation

can simply be done by pick and shovel, but an be necessary in hard clay and

allowance for increased manpower will rocky soils.

Wheelbarrows can be used for hauling leads of more than 180 meters the efficiency carts or scrapers should be used.

short distances,

however for

decreases and animal-drawn can be done

Spreading the material

by shovel 3r an animal-drawn scraper or blade. difficult to achieve with manual labor, settlement.

Good compaction is allow

and thus the designshould Spreading thin

for more seepage and greater (i.e., possibly paction. iets, 3-4 in.),

layers of fill and aid in comout-

hand tamping, utilizing livestock

maximumcart traffic,

even herding

across the embankment will

Special care in tamping must be used around spillways,

and abutments to insure good compaction. If the soil to be excavated is not excessively and a few accessories hard or rocky, to

one or two farm tractors build a pond.

can be sufficient

With a plow to loosen soil

and a front-end quite

loader or inexpensively. and a water-

drawn scraper tn excavate, a pond can be constructed If an embankment pond is to be built, filled roller

a wagon for hauling

for compaction may also TV needed.

14 If heavy equipment is available or the pond is quite large,

several combinations of machinery can be used and will structure

.

produce a strong can normally

in a relatively

short time.

A single bulldozer

excavate and spread the cut material (approximately can be built l/2 acre) in a single with a bulldozer

for a fair day.

size dugout pond

Most small embankment ponds roller.

and a sheepsfoot or rul>er-tire

If the pond area is large or fill towed or self-propelled

must come from a borrow area, a in hauling. As

pan, or a truck should assist

embankment size increases, construction economy.

more equipment may be necessary to improve

No matter which level of equipment is used, some means of applying water to aid compaction should be available, tamping should be done at spillways, F. Statutory restrictions, outlets and hand or pneumatic and abutments.

costs, and time investigations and ponding or

Before spending any time or money on site designs, structures distance any legal regulations should be considered. governing water rights Restrictions

are often made on the and on factors

from impounded water to roadways or buildings

of safety in design specifications. may limit the pond location

Property line s and water rights

and amount of water storage. economic and labor conditions to consider costs in this in

Because of widely fluctuating different localities,

it is not possible

presentation. construction uses.

However, the amount of time and money spent in pond should always be weighed against the value of the ponds

15 III. Design
A.

Dugout ponds Dugout ponds are the simplest type to constrict The ~!tdm and thus

require fit

only a few design considerations. I!:::.+*er a rectangular

n be made to

any loc:i,e id:

shape is the most convenient the

to excavate if m::c!linery is used. design area hill aquifers. struction,

For a pond fed by aquifers,

depend on the capacity

desired and the depth of the by the con-

However, since aquifer additional

inf!sw may be altered

area should be available

for pond enlargement

it the original runoff

design proves inadequate. streamflow,

For a dugout pond fed by

or diverted

any combination of area and depth can storage volume. For example, if are needed allowed of

be designed which yields approximately

the desired

0.25 acre-feet

(or 82,000 gallons)

of water

far stock watering for fire protection,

and a permanent storage of 0.75 acre-feet

any dimensions which provide one acre-foot

volume will greater

be adequate.

However, it should be remembered that the the evaporation and seepage.

the surface area, the greater

Thus, a 0.25 acre area with a four foot depth would be a reasonable design. The side slopes should not be steeper than the natural or 1: 1. If livestock will angle

of repose of the soil

be allowed to water

directly or flatter

from the pond, at least one side should have a slope of 4:l and be protected with a paved, rock, or timber surface as

in Fig. 2.
I

The placement

of excavated material or qwcad

must bc included

in the design.

It cnn be r:tockcd
.

at the pond site,

or removed altogether. enough sides to

If stacked (Fig. prevent soil

6a), the embankment should have flat

erosion back into the pond.

A berm, the width of the

6-c

@I---

---

---,,,,(%mks

Spreading on Several is Possible

(b)

WASTE MATERIAL SPREAD

(cl

WASTE MATERIAL

REMOVED

FIGURE 6 -

METHODS OF WASTE MATERIAL

DISPOSAL FOR PIT PONDS

i

17 ponds depth, or at least 12 feet, stability of the ponds sides. should also be allowed to insure

Embankmentsplaced on the windward Spreading the cut material

side of the pond can reduce evaporation.

along one or more sides has several advantages; decreased pressure on pond sides, protection vegetation cover. against overflow, and ease of establishing should not exceed

The height of spread material flat

three feet and the slopes graded quite B. Embankments and foundations The major design consideration the dam cross section,

(Fig. 6b).

for embankment type ponds is

while the pond area is almost pre-designed. and error. The desired

The pond area is determined by trial storage volume will

be produced by a best-fitting the waterline eievatiorl

dam height and corcork~our. As previously

responding area within

mentioned, a good estimate of storage volume is 0.4 times the dam height, trial times the pond area. dam elevation Thus, as illustrated in Fig. 7, set a by the contour is reason-

and see if the area circumscribed will fit this estimate.

at that elevation

If the estimate

able, determine the amount of. cut necessary to provide minimum pond depth. If this trial accordingly. to construct

the desired result.

Then compute the actual volume that will result, adjust

does not give a tolerable

the dam elevation is sufficient

Also, determine if the useable cut material the embankment. If more fill

is needed, it can be oba borrow area. Deepening the

tained by deepening the pond or obtaining pond should be considered first volume will

to hold down costs.

The additional

also increase the sediment trap efficiency. the needed pond arca, the required However, to provide a factor of

In the process of dctcrmining dam height has also been obtained.

18 -

Storage

Volumrt

z 0.4

x Areo x Dam

Height

Section

A-A

FIGURE

7-

ESTIMATING

STORAGE

VOLUME

-_- ----

_-__-~.. , .---- -..-.-----. - -- -

19 safety against overtopping, waterline elevation a freeboard must be added to the normal

(Fig. 8) - Of primary importance is the flood This is the elevation differcncc control between the outsection. To avoid

storage free board.

let works crest and the emergency spillway calculating graphical

flood routing data for the watershed of a small pond, guides, such as Fig. 9, can be used to estimate the flood and pond area. Tne depth of flood flow (This

storage based on peak runoff in the emergency spillway design depth will

must also be added to the freeboard.

be determined later.] penetration.

An allowance should also be For ponds, wave height can is the h = 0.025 (1) %, where h

made for wave action and frost

be estimated by Hawksleys formula: wave height and f the fetch in feet.

The amount of freeboard to 2nd thawing can be obtained Additional freeboard should be

allow for loosening of soil by freezing from local frost penetration records.

added for safety if valuable property fai lure. Another addition

would be damaged by an embankment

to the constructed

dam height must be an allowbe determined by considering

ance for settlement . This can accurately void ratios for the fill material.

However, a good rule for small

ponds is to increase the dam height by 10 percent at each point since small dams do not usually receive adequate compaction. Once the dam height has been determined, slopes can be designed. usually includes the top width and side

On embankments less than 50 feet high (which

farm ponds), slopes should not be steeper than 3:1 on Well-

upstream faces and 2: 1 on downstream faces for most materials. graded soi Is, if well compacted, can tolerate while course materials may require 4:1 sides.

2:1 slopes on both faces, If machinery is used in

Top of Dam Frost Penetration

Emergency Spillwoy Design Flow Depth

Normal

Water IXag Outlet Pipe

h) 0

FIGURE 8 - DESIGN FACTORS OF FREEBOARD

80

80

40

5 year 20

Return

Period Outiet

8 to !O Diameter

o- L 0

I Pond FIGURE 9Water Surface

2 in Acres

SUGGESTED FLOOD STORAGE DEPTH (Schwab, G.O., et al. Soil and Water Conservation

Engineering)

22

construCtion.

the minimum top width must be the width of the placing However, an embankment less than 15 feet Higher embankments

and compacting equipment.

high should have at least a seven foot top width. should use the guideline

that the crest width should equal one-fifth

the maximumdam height plus 10 feet. It should be noted that if the pond site earthquake activity, additional flatter is in an area of frequent

side slopes near the dam crest and a small and

freeboard should be designed to improve stability

increase the factor of safety. With the information obtained from the subsurface investigations

and having determined the dam height, dam cross section As previously

a design can be developed for the fine-grained materials

discussed,

allow for a homogeneous cross section. (Fig. 10~) or pervious drainage blanket at the downstream toe to prevent piping. and/or a sand and gravel filter layers of fill.

HOWever, a rock tz? dmir. (Fig. lob) should be included rock

This is done by placing several

along the toe for the first available

If rock or gravel is not readily

or more within iOcj.

drainage is thought necessary, tile a sand fiiter

drain pipe may be installed

in the iower downstream third

of the embankment [Fig.

If the embankment material of impervious

cores, diaphragms,

is quite permeable, several combinations

and btankets

can be designed to reduce core of

seepage through the dam. However, for small ponds, an internal well compacted clay is usually construct (Fig. 3b).

th,e easiest and most economical to elevation, the core should along the entire but If

At the foundation

account for the inside one-third dam length.

of the dam thickness

The core should have side slopes of 1:l or steeper, to extend the core to the embankment crest.

at least sufficient

(a)

Sand-gravel

Blankvt

(b)

. FtGURE IO -METHODS OF EMBANKMENT DRAINAGE

- 24 clay type material or upstream blanket is not available, an internal diaphragm (Fig. 3d) concrete can

(Fig. 3c) of concrete or bituminous

provide an adequate water barrier. to cracking from settlement

However, diaphragms are susceptible are often undermined. They

and blankets

should be avoided when possible and constructed when necessary.

for small dams and carefully

A toe drain

designed

should also be included

in the design of a zoned embankment. The most satisfactory impervious material foundation for a dam IS a thick layer of

at or near the surface.

To prevent slippage and a shallow

seepage between such a foundation

key trench should be designed (Fig.

and the embankment fill, 3a).

It should be at least two or For a zoned embankment with

three feet deep and about 10 feet wide.

an impervious core, the key* trench becomes a downward extension of the core (Fig. 3b). If the foundation consists of permeable soil,

with a rock or impervious stratum at a reasonable depth, the trench snould be excavated down to that layer, trench is filled up the abutments. with impervious soil The cutoff as in Fig. lla. the entire Such a cu$o~~

embankment length and

should have a bottom width of at least If the impervious subdesign might

four feet and with about 1:l side slopes.

stratum is too deep to be reasonably reached, a blanket be utilized. blanket, For the previously

mentioned reasons an overlying However, a

as in Fig. 3c, should be used with caution.

blanket extension of an internal pervious foundations.

core is a good design for deep, should be extended well

This impervious blanket llb).

upstream to tirevent -undermining (Fig.

During the design stage of any earth embankment, the seepage under and through the dam should be estimated to check the size and location of water barriers and drains. A discussion of embankment seepage is

given in Appendix A.

25 ,Impervious Core

Water

Surface

Pervious

SuMa

Impervious Cutoff Trench

Impervious

Stratum

Impervious I/ Water Surface

Core

Deep

Impervious

Layer

FIGURE

II -TREATMENT

OF

PERVIOUS

FOUNDATIONS

26

Some form of slope protection to prevent erosion.

must be designed for the embankment

For small ponds, the best cover is a good thick If the top of the dam the edges of the

sod on the up and downstream faces and crest. is to be used as a roadway or livestock crest should be protected arid conditions

crossing,

by fencing or rock to prevent damage. Where or if severe drawdown is A sand and gravel filter, one

prevent good vegetation cover can be used.

expected, a riprap to two feet thick,

should be provided beneath the riprap from washing out.

to keep the

fine embankment material C. Outlet works

Most small ponds are protected vegetated emergency spillway.

from overtopping

by a

However, to allow drawdown by gravity from being continually wet, an outlet

andto prevent the earth spillway

0uC0t
b.*9iuduke

is usually provided.

k*>wever in arid regions,

structures

are often not needed and the flood spillway The outlet structure

or spreading designed

ditches are used as outlets. to carry the mean flow.

is usually

However, if steep or soft abutments prohibit to carry peak flows, the outlet works

the safe use of an earth spillway

must be designed to carry both mean and flood flows. with a chti dpmay or
ml&i-btugC

This can be done (Fig. 12)

inlet.

A chute spillway

should only be constructed a high bearing strength.

on an embankment of well compacted soil with However, a multi-stage works and provides inlet, such as Fig. 13,

can be designed for any outlet capacity.

for a flood storage

Outlet works must be constructed resist nations damage due to settling of outlet structures

of durable material

that will

or moving loads.

Several basic combic~fl~~~tie

are usable for pond dams; a

beach

27

FIGURE

12- SHUTE

SPILLWAY

( U. S. Soil Conservation Service , 1969 1

FIGURE

13 - OUTLET WITH MULTI -STAGE INLET ( U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1969 1

28 or Irein&nccd pipe conduit

(Fig. conorttie

inlet

with a cohturgated mc.M

pipe

or concILete

(Figs.

14 and 15), a hooded CMP conduit with no riser

&au&e

16), or for larger ponds, a monoettkic (Fig. 17).

combining riser structure for

and barrel

However, the most popular outlet

small ponds is a CMPconduit

inlet durable

passing through the embankment with a drop (Fig. 18). Such a structure is more site and set in For the construccan be

of the same material

than concrete,

can be assembled off the project at the proper fill elevation.

place in one operation

tion of several small ponds, the design of these outlets standardized

Figs.

and mass assembled, saving time and money. As shown in type outlet can easily be used with a valve or or other water uses. runoff lhe inlet through

18 and 19 this

gate to allow drawdown for irrigation

pipe to this valve or gate can also be used lo divert the dam during construction. To determine the size outlet
flow, it

works necessary to carry the design 20 and 21)

is best to consult design tables or graphs (Figs.

which provide discharge capacities and barrels. EnteFing such figures

for various combinations of risers with only the design flow, several be suggested. This design

usable pipe sizes and design heads will head is the elevation spillway, difference

between the inlet

and the emergency If such guidelines

as mentioned in the freeboard discussion. Bernoullis principle

are not available, may be utilized.

and Mannings equation of flow

All conduits passing through the dam should be fitted

antineep

with

ro7.Zara to prevent erosion of soil along the outside surface These collars
can be metal,

of the conduit. concrete,

welded to the pipe, or it is in place in sufficient for small

poured in forms around the conduit after are usually

the embankment. Two 2 x 2 collars

FIGURE

14 -REINFORCED CONCRETE INLET ( U. S. Soil Conservalion Service, 1969)

AND

PIPE

COIICRLTL BLOCK IWLCT

FIGURE

l5-

CONCRETE

BLOCK

INLET

WITH

CMP

BARREL

. . ..r

FIGURE

16- HOOD CMP OUTLET (U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1969)

Relnforced

lling

/ I(l 1 I -iaq
Basin Reinforced . 17 - MONOLITHIC OUTLET

Con&ttd.~~o~du

. I!jI It

FIGURE

WORKS

_ ;:

_--

. ..~

. . ..-

.-....

.._.

--

I .

FOOTING (Often Bituminous FIGURE l6CORRUGATED METAL PIPE OUTLET Coated 1 WORKS
FOOTING

FIGURE

19-

CMP OUTLET WITH STOP LOGS ( U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1969 )

_. 32

r-s HANW;GS ROJGMNESS COEFFICIENT USE n = 0 02s FOR CIY)AU&ATE METAL 10 I.35 vi CONcRElC.StLCL.m D, 0. e
l

PrrL CAST IRQ)PlrT

m ~i!;cIItl

OF

PIPE

IN

FEtf

DAUETER

9F I?*

PIPE

IN

WbC*ES A,SER IN INCHES

. DIAMETER . IlldtQtKt OUTLEY LOWER FOR f REE e*e,

CIQCULAR

BETWEEN CREST OF RISCR AND viATEA StIRfACE ELEVATIONS PUT NOT WAR L OF OlrlLEl PIPC OUTLETS FOQ SMIYERGEO 4*4* OUWEW

FIGURE

20-

TYPICAL (U.S.

PIFE

SPILLWAY

DESIGN

CHART

Soil Conservotion

Service,

1969 )

33 CAPACITYOF CORRUGATED b!!TAL PIPE CULVERTS OUTLETCONTROL - FULL FLOW- WITHOUT HEADWALLS

CIRCULAR

CUBIC FEET PER SECOND DIAMETERS 2 Head on Pipe - Feet INCHES .? 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 12 1.0 15 1.7 18 2.6 21 3.6 24 LI 4.9 27 : 6.2 30 Lr. 7.8 36 g 12 42 16 48 22 54 28 60 34 velocity 1s 18 21 g 24 0 27 b 30 g 36 42 48 54 60 velocity 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 36 42 48 54 60 0.8 1.4 2.1 3.0 4.2 5.5 7.0 10 15 20 26 32 1.4 2.4 3.6 5.1 6.8 8.8 11 16 23 30 39 48 1.1 1.9 3.8 4.3 5.9 7.8 9.8 1 21 28 36 45 1.7 2.9 4.4 6.2 8.4 11 14 20 28 37 48 59 1.4 2.4 3.7 5.3 7.2 9.6 12 18 26 35 45 55 2.0 3.4 5.2 7.2 9.6 12 16 23 32 43 55 68 1.6 2.7 :.3 6.1 8.4 11 14 21 30 40 51 64 2.2 2.4 3.8 4.1 5.7 6.2 8.0 11 14 17 26 36 48 61 67 78 87 76 83 96 107 4 S 6 1.8 3.1 4.8 6.8 9.4 12 16 24 33 45 57 72

10

0.7 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.5 G 3.8 5.4 6.6 7.6 8.4 9.2

14 19 24 28 31 34 24 34 42 48 54 59 68 77 83 90 31 43 53 til 68 74 86 97 105 113 4 5 6

FIGURE 21 - TYPICAL PIPE DESIGN TABLE

( U. S. Soil Conservation

Service , I969 )

34 water pipes and two 4 x 4 co1 lars will (Fig. 18). protect most out let works

For large embankments, the number and size of collars

should be large enough to increase the creep length along the conduit by 10 to IS percent. middle two-fourths These collars of the pipe. works by settling,
footings

should be equally

spaced along the

To prevent damage to the outlet be designed at inlet (Fig. 16). consisting quate for the outlet c&r will and outlet

should

structures.

A simple timber

support ade-

of two posts with cross members is usually pipe. Placing conduits

through the dam on a of the

also allow for settling.

A camber at the centerline

dam equal to about two percent of the fill

height

should be sufficient,
basin

To prevent erosion of the downstream toe, a stitting form is needed at the barrel ture. a diverging well-suited riprap outlet.

of some struc-

For a chute or monolithic blocks,

channel with baffle

such as Fig. 22t, is a a basin or

energy dissipator.

For simple pipe outlets, sufficient.

(Fig. 22a) is usually

The minimum size for such a of 18. If high velocities

basin should be 15 x 5 with a thickness are expected through the outlet,

manifotd

the riprap reduce velocity

basin can be combined witha head (Fig. 23). This type

basin to effectively

outlet,

developed at Colorado State University constructed by laying the last obstructing

by Fiala and Albertson section of outlet with a pipe

C19601, is easily

on an adverse slope and partially slatted cover.

the orifice

This is a good method to dissipate

energy, but adequate

support of the outlet

works should be insured in the design to prevent Any type stillinp basin used should be

movement due to dynamic forces.

designed well downstream of the dam toe to prevent scouring. Several design considerations conduit from becoming clogged. should also be made to prevent the Six inches should be the minimum

Basin IS min

(a) Riprap

Basin

Baffle

Blocks

(b) Reinforced

Concrete

Basin

FIGURE

22 - STILLING

BASINS

Last Plpr

Section of Ou?lrt Cut at An@@

Downstrram

Embonkmant

Slotted Wooden Frame Attached to End of Pipe

MANIFOLD

OUTLET
/Manifold Outlrt

Concrete Footin Sot in Natural Foundation Soil

Lart Plpn Section on Advats Slope In Foundation Cut

Riprap Stilling Barln

FIGURE

23 - MANIFOLD

BASIN

I,-

_._._

______

..__---

. ._. _..---__-

__

37 diameter for outlet to any inlet works. Some type of should be affixed can simply be a as in Fig. 24.

debris

trap

structure.

For a metal pipe riser,

this

rack of several reinforcing For concrete inlets (Fig.

bars welded over the inlet,

141, bars can be laid across the orifice. to avoid clogging For in the The out-

Such a trap should allow passage of small objects

the

trap itself

and thus increasing an antGuortec

the

riser

crest elevation. should be included

vertical

pipe risers,

baffle

debris trap (Fig.

24a) to prevent harmful vortex turbulence.

let opening at the toe should be covered with a hinged door or bars to prevent animals from entering
D.

and clogging

the conduit

with debris.

Spillways
To safely

by-pass flood runoffs

that exceed the storage must be provided. on the ponds

capacity

of the pond, an emergency or flood spillway saddle in the topography exists

If a natural

at some point

edge, this could prove adequate if large enough. exists,

If no such depression

a channel must be designed through at least one of the dams Such an earth material. consists of three sections, as shown in
channet.

abutments. near fill

spillway

should never be constructed

on or

An emergency spillway

Fig. 25; and tzpproczch section,

a controZ

ZeveZ, and an exit and becomes critical (Fig. 25b).

Flow enters through the approach section the control crest of the level section

flow at

The flow is then section if the

discharged at the designed conditions, exit

through the exit slope.

slope is equal to or greater than critical

The approach

channel should have a slope of not less than three percent to insure drainage, control and an entrance width at least SO percent greater section. The control than the

crest should be located near the extcndcd

(a]

CORRl&ATED METAL PlPE R!SER

WITH CONICAL TRASH RACK AND BAFFLE

(8) TIMBER HEADWALI. AND tRASH RACK

FIGURE

24-

DEBRIS

TRAPS

FOR

CMP

RISERS

( U.S. Soil

Conservation

Service, 1969 )

0 0 m

(a)

Layout

and

Grading

Flood

Water Elevation, -Control Crest -7

! t4orrml

Elev Woter

1312

(b)

Profile

Along

of

Spillway

FIGURE

25-

TYPICAL

EARTH

SPILLWAY

40

centerlIne crest.

of the dam, with the level section

upstream of the control

The level section should be at least 20 feet long to be stable. should be as straight as possible and confine the There to the

The exit section outflow until

it is a safe distance

from the embankment fill. for spreading or returned slope must be critic21

the water can be released into ditches natural waterwayAlthough the exit

or greater,

it should not produce velocities way cover.

which will usually

cause erosion of the spillshould not exceed 6 fps. to construct

Thus, maximumvelocities

If higher velocities a flatter

would occur because of an inability or a drop structure

slope, riprap the outlet

should be considered. for

As with

works, the design specifications

earth spillways Fig. 26. widths, flow.

are most easily

obtained from design tables such as of spillway

Such tables will lengths,

suggest several combinations

and slopes which will

accommodate the design peak in the exit are not avail-

Any combination chosen should produce a velocity Ir such tables

section below the maximumpermissible. able, application of the broad-crested

weir formula and waterway design area of the

procedures can be utilized control spillway section

to determine the cross-section

and the exit slope required.

The side slopes of the

channel should not exceed 2:l and the bottom width should not section. If

exceed 35 times the. design depth of flow in the control this width would be exceeded, consideration of a spillway at each abutment.

must be given to the use

The spillway good sod growth. original earth will

bottom must be level and sho**ld be protected If climate or soil suffice, prohibit
such

with a

growth, bare must be

but the permissible

velocity

decreased.

RipraF should be placed wherever outflow

may damage fill

41 r

DESIGN DATA FOR EARTH SPILLWAYS

1 1 SIDE SLOPE

3~1

Note : Dimensions

Shown

on Figure

25

FIGURE

26-

TYPICAL (Prepared

EMERGENCY by U.S. Soil

SPILLWAY Conservation

DESIGN TABLE Service)

42 material. If the dam crest is to serve as a roadway, the road should upstream of the level section (Fig. 25a). This will

cross the spillway

maintain good cover and dimensions in the control IV. Construction A. Site preparatio2 After an apprq&ate and structures Fig. 27. Stakes, offset the cutoff one foot,

and exit sections.

design has been developed, all cuts, as shown in

fills,

should be located at the site by staking,

should be placed along the top width of The embankment along the upbe

or key trench,

and the desired cut noted.

is best located by stakes at 50 feet or less intervals stream and downstream toes.

The proper slope and top width will The earth spillway

denoted by these stakes on the abutments. by cut stakes along the lines of intersection the original surface. Similar

is located

of the side slopes and

cut stakes should also mark the normal contour. After the proper level of of inlets, seep-

water elevation fill

along the natural

has been reached, stakes indicating conduits, and outlet

the position

age collars,

works should be set in place.

Once the limits

of the pond have been staked out, the site can prepared. All growth within Any large growth,

be cleared and the embankment foundation the pond, spillway, which might later

and dam areas should be removed. cause bank erosion, Stripping

should also be removed from soil from the dam

the ponds perimeter. foundation

of any unsuitable Scarifying

is also ncccssary.

to a depth of six inches

should be done to improve the bond between embankment and foundation materials.

FIGURE

27-STAKING

LAYOUT

\ \

FIGURE 28 - Tlh48ER

DIVERSION FLUME

46
C.

Embankment The proper placement rmd compac~ian of fill material should

be the major concerns of earth dam construction. should be spread in thin layers along the entire

The fill

material

length of the dam.

For machinery compaction, these layers should be eight to ten inches thick for pervious soils and four to six inches for cohesive soils. Wherever hand tamping is done, these layers should not exceed four inches. The height of fill should progress evenly across the entire is necessary. Continuous checks

dam length except where diversion

should be made during compaction to see that optimum moisture and a good density are maintained. For earth dams, compaction should be 85 If soil is too dry,

to 100 percent of the maximumProctor density. sprinkling done. after placement oz irrigation

of the borrow ai-ua shouid be that is too wet.

Disking to give exposure can be dnne to dry soil

For embankments designed with an impervious core, care should be taken not to intc.mix pervious materials. Ilowevcr, all zones should fill are reached,

evenly to insure compaction. any structures paction of fill

As the proper clcvations

should be placed, and special care taken to insure comaround them. This is best accomplished with hand or should be put over Fill and

pneumatic tampers.

Four feet of hand tamped fill

conduits before allowing heavy machinery to move over it. compaction operations should cease during rain or freezing
As

weather

which would hamper compaction. sheeps foot rollers routing availahle

previously

mentioned, vibrating,

provide baod compaction, but for small dams.

equipment across the cmbnnkmcnt should suffice.

I%WIMused to build concrctc out Ict worhs should be removed hcforc backfilling and all pipe and collar connections should be checked for

water tightness.

; ,\-._ _....-. _-

47 Upon completion of fill operations, all slopes should be trimmed and erosion.

to rcmve excess soil which may cause small slides Wherever vegetation should bc provided. segregation of sizes.
V.

is to protect

the slopes, a good layer of top soil placed to prevent

Riprap should be carefully

Inspection, Inspection

maintenance, and operation of the pond during construction

Ihis basically

is important to insure checking elevations,

conformity with design.

involves

testing moisture and compaction, and i.nspecting placement of outlet

works.

Once completed and a good sod cover has developed, a farm pond Fencing should be placed where banks, especially on

requires a minimum of maintenance. necessary to prevent livestock spillways and the dam.

from destroying

Regular inspections repairs. Rills

of the pond should be made to spot needed should be filled.

or washes on the dam and spillway Vegetation

compacted. and rcsodded.

fertilized to promte

on the dam should be mowed and

good root growth,

Under no conditions

should of

woody growth be permitted on or near the embankment. Disturbance riprap by wave action should be corrected. Inspections during rapid changes in the water level due to

flooding or drawdoun should be made to check for sloughing or cracking. Phreotophyte and algae growth in the pond should be prevented, houevcr some small dense vegetaticn catch sediment runoff. To prevent health hazards around the pond, water containing materials should be diverted from ponds, and rodents and insects waste should on the bank may be useful to

be controlled.

38

Hith careful conserve soil maintenance.

planning and construction,

a pond can effectively

and water resources with a minimal amount of

49 REFERENCES Basin, Albertson, M. L. and C. R. Fiala, l%e Manifold Stilling Civil Engineering Department, Colorado State Universi ty, Fort Collins, Colorado, 1960. ,I J. New Eng. Water Works Casagrande , A. , Seepage Through Dams Assoc., 1937. Cedergren, H. R., Seepage, Drainage, ,znd Flow Nets, Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967. Davis, C. V., Handbook of Applied Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, Praeger for Dams, 1342.

Dreiblatt, D., The Economics of Heavy Earthmoving, Publishers, 1972.

Justin, J. D., W. P. Creager and J. Hinds, Engineering Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1955.
Hough.

B.

K.,

Basic Soils Engineering,

Ronald Press Co., 1969.

National Resources Committee, Low Dams; A Manual of Design for Small Water Storage Projects, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1939. Schwab, C. O., Soil and Water Conservation Sons, Inc., 1966. Gsrard, J. L. et al., Inc., 1963. Engineering. Wiley and

Earth and Earth-Rock Dams, -Wiley and Sons,

Simons, D. B., M. A. Stevens and F. J. Watts, Flood Protection at Culvert Outlets, Prepared for Wyoming State Highway Department, 1970. United Nations, ECAFE, Proceedings of the Third Regional Technical Conference on Water Resources Development, Flood Control Series No. 13, Bangkok, 1958. United Nations, ECAFE, Earthmoving by Manual Labour and Machines, Flood Control Series No. 17, Bangkok, 1961. United Nations, ECAFE, Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Dams and Reservoirs, Flood Control Series No. 21. New York, 1962. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Treatise on Dams, Denver, Colorado, 1948.

U.S. Burcaau of Reclamation, Design of Small Dams, Second Edition, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1973. U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Engineering Field Manunl, 1969.

50

SEEPAGti ItIROU(;I I EMBANKMENTS

Since the cross section function of the available and location and drains.

design of earth embankments should be a materials, a guide to soil position

construction

permeability water barriers

of seepage is needed to properly

Figure Al suggests a classification to better recognize the permeability

by particle of soils.

size distribution

With this guide, the

subsurface investigations borrow material Furthermore,

of dam sites can be analyzed to determine if for an impervious core or blanket. can be evaluated for its ability seepage takes place this

must be located

the embankment foundation

td retard water seepage under the dam. Of course, through any dam material, seepage and designing Figure
A2

even concrete.

However, by Iocating can be avoided.

for it,

damage by piping

illustrates

positions

of the seepage line through This seepage or saturation pressure.

As

embankments of homogeneous material. is the gradient

line seen

above which there is no hydrostatic

in Fig. A2a and A2b, seepage will embankment of impervious material tion is pervious or not.

occur on the downstream face of an without drainage whether the foundathe seepage can

For an impervious foundation, blanket (Fig. A2c).

egress through a filter foundation is present,

If a shallow pervious

a cutoff line

and/or rock toe drain should safely The cutoff allows the downIf available

drawdown the saturation

(Fig. A2d).

stream pervious foundation materials

to act as a drainage blanket.

warrant the use of an impervious core, the seepage line should

A3a

be drawn as in Fig.

for an impervious foundation.

In this

case, Where

the downstream pervious embankment material the foundation

serves as a drain.
the

is about as permeable as the core,

seepage through

51

I I

I I

DIAMETER

OF

PARTICLE

In

UlLLlMEfERS

SEYlPERVlOus

PERVKWS

FIGURE

SIZE DISTRIBUTION AI - PARTICLE ( Bureau of Recloimotion, 1948 )

FOR

TYPICAL

SOIL

TYPES

52 Ss8pags or Phreatic Line

(a)

Impervious

Foundation

without

Drainage

. . . .-..*.. /*i-Z--:.\ .::.y.::.:.::...- . . . .

/will

Saturatlon

Cause Piping

at Egress

(b)

Pervious

Foundation

without

Drainage

nd and Gravel

(c)

Impervious

with

Filter

(d)

Pervious

with

Cu;off

ond Drain

FIGURE A2 - SEEPAGE

LINES

THRU HOMOGENEOUS

EMBANKMENTS

53

Pervious

Zone

(0)

Kmpsrvious

Foundation

Parvious

Zone

permeability

w *

: the Same as C

(b)

Relctively

Impervious

Substrata

FIGURE

A3-

SEEPAGE

LlNE

THRU

ZONED EMBANKMENTS

54 it will a cutoff appear as Fig. A3b. If the foundation is any more permeable,

trench should again be utilized. should be provided either a drain

However, in any zoned cmbankat the downstream toe to cover with a gravel

ment, some protection insure against piping; filter.

or riprap

As demonstrated in Figs. A2c and A3b, the seepage line is actually a boundary for drawing the entire consists of two sets of lines; $%w net through a dam. This flow net which approximate the actual Zincs which of

fzoo time,

path of water moving through the soil, indicate gradients of equal hydrostatic

and equipotentiat pressure.

The intersections

these lines occur at right flow net.

As

angles, which aids in the drawing of the

in Fig. A3b, the lower boundary of the flow net is any and the resulting diagram should appear as a series
i .lides to constructing

impervious layer,

of hcmologcus rectangles.

Some c?XCellelit

flow

nets are given by Arthur Casagrande, Seepage Through Dams .* While construction seepage pattern, will of flow nets gives a good picture of the entire line

the main concern is knowing where the saturation

egress on the downstream slope and what quantity

of seepage can be

expected. accurately

Although complex approaches to these problems can quite predict results, an approximate method has been developed by adequate results for small earth

Creager , et al.

[1945), which yields

dams. This method can be used for homogeneous or zoned cross sections. In a zoned embankment, the pervious zones are considered to be much more no influence

permeable than any impervious core and thus have practically on the position of the seepage line.

As seen in Fig. A3b, the seepage and then

line through a pervious zone can be drawn almost horizontal,

the impervious core is handled the same as a homogeneous cross section.

55

Referring

to Fig. e h = z

A4, this method begins with the assumption that:

3 distance from the impervious and foundation foundation

(11
to

where

e = the vertical

the egress of the seepage line, h = the vertical distance

from the impervious

to

the water level in the pond. By applying Darcys law for moisture movement through soil,
discharge through q=-iF-= where 9 the dam is: k(h;e) (h+e)
2

the seepage

k (h*-e*) T L

(2)

= discharge

in any units
conductivity

of volume per time,

of the soil AS), and (a sample of
.

k = hydraulic
values

is given

in Fig.

L = mean length of seepage path.

As

shown in Fig.

A4,

this

length

L is found by the expression

W

L = (1.3 h + 2 z - 5) cot a +
where
2

= vertical

distance

from headwater to top of dam,

w = top width of dam, and

a

= angle formed by the downstream slope and the foundation

surface. . Using Eqs. (2) and (3), the value of maximumcan be found by trial side slopes flatter sufficient. than l:l,

e for which

q is a but for h/3 is

and error or by differentiation, the .pproximation e equal to

Thus, Eq. (2) becomes

Seepage Line

for

kh> k,

Seepage Line from Assumption e= h/3

cot a 30/15=2 k=O.00005 f pm

(Not to Scale)

FIGURE

A4 - APPROXIMATE

METHOD

OF SEEPAGE

DETERMINATION

PARftCLE St:E

RANGE EFFECTIVE SIZE D ain PERMEABILITY COEFPICIENT - k Ft/yr Ft/m Cdstc

Inches
D max D

Millimeter5

min

D-

DzO in.

DlO Ea

Uniform,

coarse

SAND

Uniform, medium SAND Clean, well-graded Uniform, SAW I GRAVEL

fine SAND
silty SAND & GIWEL

Hell-graded. Silty
Uniform

SlLYD
SILT

Sandy CL4Y

Silty

CLAY

CLAY [30 to 50% clay

hires)

Colloidal

CLAY (-2 b~y SOP)

FIGURE

A5 - TYPICAL VALUES OF PERMEABILITY COEFFICIENTS ( From Hough , B.K., Basic Soils Engineering)

__ _. .._ --... . . . .

58 h2 0 - 9) 2L

4 kh2
(41
=9L l

4 =k

For the example shown in Fig. A4, e = 15/3 = 5 ft. E can then be located. on the water surface, stream slope from drawn from G to from Eq. (3), L= Finally,
(1.3

The egress point 0.3 m from G of the up-

Point

G* is located a distance projection

where m is the horizontal

G to the toe. E. Therefore,

As shown, the seepage line can then be G* = 0.3 x 30 = 9 ft from G. Then,

15

S/2)

+ 10 = 60 ft.

from Eq. (2), 9= 4 x

0.00005 9 x 60

lsL

= 0.017 cf:.~ per lineal

f3ot of dam. in

This discharge CBII be conferred to any units desired as il Illctrnted Fig.

5A

Usually, horizontal materials

soils

show a difference

between their

vertical

and

permeability.

This should be checked during analysis of If such a diffrrence Multiply kv exists, all the

from subsurface investigations.

a simple technique is used to locate the seepage line. actual horizontal the permeability dam dimensions by coefficients of JkJkh , where

and k,, are respectively. The rc-

in the vertical G

and horizontal, as before.

Then compute the location sults can be tescaled ior

and the discharge

to normal proportions kh > kV in Fig. A4.

and may look something like

the seepage line

.

Once the . seepage egress and discharge have been found, a rock tot drain, drainage blanket, (Fig. or drainage tile 10). can be located at this point to prevent sloughing Here can bc seen an advantage to zoned the seepaRr

embankments. The downstream Pervious zone can intercept

59 from any point of egress along the impervious zone. material is much larger than
the

If the pervious

impervious core, it is well to construct piping.

a sand and gravel filter Filters, the following soils toe drains,

between the two zones to prevent internal and drainage blankets

should be designed with

recommended (USBR) criteria pores of D15 of filter of base < 40,

the the

to prevent smaller grained filter material:

from clogging
(1) 5 <

larger

D15

.PI
D15 D85

of filter of base

-<5 curve of the filter should he nearly and should be 3 inches. from piping.
the the

(3)

the size distribution parallel

to the curve of the base material, in filter material

(4)

the

maximumsize particle

For this criteria, Thus, in a multilayer gravel filter,

the base is the soil being protected sand-gravel filter, the sand is is the base to

base to the sand filter.

and the embankment soil is used: *

Furthermore, if drain tile

2*r D85

of filter - max. opening in tile

All filter

and drain material

should be compacted to the same density

required in the other pervious zones of the embankment. Thisapproximate method for locating and computing seepage through for the design of small mechanics

an earth embankment has proven quite dams.

For

sufficient

a more thorough discussion

of seepage, a text of soil

should be consul ted.

60 Appendix B
$OIL

MECIIANICS OF EPlRANKbllXTS

To better understand the importance of a good design and the proper placement and compaction of a water storage embankment, some of the basic soil mechanics should be studied. This appendix presents some soil mci chanics that can serve as a design guide for small embankments and the basis for preliminary
I.

studies on large dams,

Classification Several methods of classifying soils are in use today. However, to

the

Unified

S&E Ctoaaification

System

is particularly

applicable

the design and construction Unified

System

of embankments. As shown in Fig. Bl, the properties and is or manual

accounts for several engineering and field use.

adaptable to both laboratory examination, soils

By either

visual size,

are grouped according

A

to particle

gradation,

and fine grain characteristics.

soils

manual should bc consulted or field tests, The gradation of

for the exact procedures of laboratory

a soil

class is of particular
UcZl-gmded

importance for water storage and retention

structures. size (within

soils have uniform amounts of each particle Thus, the smaller grains fill in

its range of sizes).

between larger grains and when compacted are optimum for use as impervious layers.
Skip-pzded

soils

usually

have large and small grains,

but

lack middle sizes. ing under pressure

These soils are susceptible

and

to piping and/or shiftIwr ly -

should bc avoided in dam construction.

gmded soils have only a narrow range of grain sizes.

Gravels and

stands of this t,yl~ arc used for fil tcr or drainage Inycrs in ex&anknents since such a gradation has no fine grains to block the pa.ssagc

61

FIGURE

Bl-

UNIFIED (U.S.

CLASSIFICATION Soil Conservation

AND Service,

PROPERTIES 1969 1

OF SOILS

62

cr.r*.r -I
IlSJJ5 0, .,..I

I,.CID#
rcr.,. 4 9h I Y.r)r I I Jqh,

I .b*.tal

cc-d

WI.

L...a*ly .ru,,.

LIabl.. pr*Lh Ol d L,.. L-d dam..

CP CM

I9hl

cc SK SP snr SC ML CL

Ndw to qh

iiiRlII Cl1 iiPt

FtGURE Bl-

UNIFIED (U.S.

CLASSIFICATION Soil Conservation

AND PROPERTIES Service, 1969 1

OF SOILS

. _

__

.____.

-.-

__---_-

63

CC SW SP

I qcon11y I ) .IOSon crltc.,

WOII.

SM
YOtt.

FIGURE Bl-

UNIFIED ( U.S.

CLASSIFICATION Soil Conservotion

AND PROPERTIES Service, 1969 )

OF SOILS

64

3 :: 2 : i I GW

CP
vi..tClty ,,rIt. .bO. * :,n* Llh ,.I. bmwe.n 4 .nd 1
.I. c.... bordw-llna

GM GC
SW

.nd

I.-

W-Jla.. ttl.n ,L pm..nq WI. ,o. 100 ,I.. .I.. -..~--&.+

. iji G-

SP SRI -SC

,... dCh.

ML CL OL

l rla

lnr

RIH CIi
.-

Above

,,nr -

rla,

IIn*

c: *

OH Pt
SHEFT 4 OF 4

FiGURE Bl-

UNIFIED ( U.S.

CLASSIFICATION Soil Conservation

AND PROPERTIES Service, I969 1

OF SOILS

65 of water between the larger

of soil

grains.

(See Appendix A for a discussion

permeability.)

II.

Volume and Weight No matter what class a soil is, a unit mass of soil consists These fluids of

solid particles

and pore fluids. and are usually mass and Figs. and air present

occupy the voids between Fiplre B2a

the solid particles represents a soil of solids, water,

air and/or water.

B2b and B2c show the volume proportions in that mass. The sum of the air and

water voi-umes eq~~als the void volumes, i.e.,

vV = VW + va

while the volumes of voids and solids

v= vv + vs.

must equal the total

volume, i.e.,

From these basic relations used in later discussions:

vV e =v s

come the following

parameters which will

be

Void Ratio, Porosity,

vV n =v

Percent Saturation,

V s =+
V

-100. soil mass weight is the sum of the solid, considered to

As with volume, the total water, and air weights.

However, air weight is usually becomes:

equal zero, and thus the wefght relation

w= ws + ww.

From this relation which is the ratio

w=wW ws

comes the important

soil _srameter,

percent moistie,

of water weight to solid weight times 100, i.e., -100.

(b) SOIL MASS V= vs+ vv

w= w,tw,+w,
VOID RATIO, e=- vv vs I POROSITY, Z -vv V PERCENT MOISTURE, w = ww,100
WS

FIGURE 82 - SOIL VOLUME AND WEIGHT RELATIONSHIPS

67

Of ccurse, the combination of volume and weight yields weight, y which in soil =- W V engineering is used interchangeably with the

the unit

term&nsity

The density referred dry weight, dry = 7 III.

wS

to in compaction tests is specifically

the unit

Compaction, and Settlement refers static), to the amount of volume decrease while compaction refers

Compressibility,

The term compm&biZity brought about by a load (usually specifically Compressibility density.

to the volume decrease caused by tamping or rolling. depends on the void volume and decreases with increasing that an embankment will incur depends to.

The amount of settlement compressibility

that

on the soils

and the amount of loading

the

it is subject

Obviously then, we can see receives during construction, settlement. relatively

more compaction an embankment be

the

the less will contact,

amount of grain soils

natural are

Due to interparticle incompressible to natural

larger

under static settlement.

loads, while fine grained soils The expression is the testing. used most often
compression

are susceptible

in embankmentdesign to describe
crldez, Cc

compressibility

which is determined by laboratory

This index is in pressure which

ratio

of the change in void ratio

to the difference

caused the decrease in void volume, i.e.,

cc = el - e2
Values for

1% P2 - loI3 P; types in soil manuals.

Cc can be found for most commonsoil

68 Because the embankment fill construction, The following the major settlement example illustrates receives a compaction effort during

problem is that of the foundation. how the parameters developed can be settlement
that

used to calculate

the amount of foundation

can be

expected, and thus allowed for in freeboard design. Engineering, Hosgh.)

[From Basic Soils

Example 1 - For the preliminary

dam design and subsurface conditions at the center-

shown in Fig. B3a, estimate the amount of settlcmcnt lin? of the embankment, By using the equation W=h- cc l+e the foundation and each layers 132 Cl+ p i 1, into layers of thickness AH, calculated.

can be divided settlement,

tl,

These layers can as ir the

be imaginary for a homogeneous foundation case of distinct will soil stratification.

or actual,

The total

settlement have

be estimated by the sum of

AH. The calculations

been presented in Fig. 84. the methods of calculations feet are as follows. Initial
body stress,

To serve as a guide to this table, for the layer between 15 and 25

pi,

due to overlying

layers, y)

+ y2D2 + . . . (for each different Pi = ylDl thus, Pi = (5 . 120) + (15 . 42) = 1230 psf. Boundary loading at embankment centerline, thus, p = 130 - 50 = 6500 psf.

p = yemb Ilcmb

b = 100

BEDROCK (a)

Ap =0.936p
0.875p

0.816~ 0.760~ 0.705p

0.59op

0 5Qb

- L).75b

o.500p 0.43op

IL---

i.OOb I .25b
I .50b

1.75b -0.295P t (b)

FIGURE 03 - EMBANKMENT SETTLEMENT EX.ZMPLE

2.00b

pi Limits blidpoint
$Gf

*P psf l+e

H ft

AH ft

0 2.5 5 10 15 >\ 20 25 30 3s 40 35 50 55 -1:igurc I34 - Calculations of Lixamplc Scttlcmcnt Problem 2490 4580 2.84 0.453 0.080 Total 10 Scttlcmcnt 0.36 = 2.67 2070 4940 3.38 0.529 0.080 10 0.42 1650 5310 4.22 0.625 0.080 10 0.50 1230 5690 5.62 0.750 0.080 10 0.60 300 6400 22.3 1.348 0.0067 5 0.05

810

6080

8.51

0.930

0.080

10

0.74

As shown in Fig. B3b. express the depth at the center of this

(20 ft)

layer

as 0.20 b.

Then, at depth 0.20 b,

Ap = 0.875p = 5690 psf.

.

From empirical
cc - -

ValUeS,

tht!

co.~ression

mtio

is,

l+e-

0.20 -- 0.06. 2.5

Then, from our initial AtI = 10 0.08

l l

equation, 0.750 = 0.60 ft. only had to be msde for the soil incompressible substratum Cfl

For this example, the calculations above the bedrock.

Should such an impervious,

be very deep, the calculations becomes negllgiblc. Sevtral standards of Test was one of the first tion.
The exact procedures of Proctor
cmpaction

need only be done to a depth uhcrc

are avsiI &le,

however the Proctor

and is usually of this

used for small dam construcmanuals.

test are in most soil soils

Example results
As

Tests for several

are shown in Fig. BS.

can be seen, the maximumunit dry weight occurs at varying moisture soils. This optimu;n moisture content in the soil testing
layers

contents for different

should be

the percentage of water maintained to obtain good compaction. By field

during tamping and rolling the soil after compaction,

the density produced in the embankment of the maximumdensity

.

should be 90 to 100 percent lab test curve. Good perjn

obtainable

on the Proctor will

compaction, meability,

at

optimum moisture content, and achicw

reduce scttlemcnt,

and pore prcssurcs

a higher shear strength

the embankment soi 1.

72

\\ i- R.O.B. SAND AND GRAVEL 2- COARSE SAND 3- SILTY CLAY 4- SANDY CLAY 5- SILT,TRACES SD. 6 CLAY ~-HEAVY CLAY ?-FINE SAND 8- COLLOIDAL CLAY g-SANDY SILT, SOME CLAY

5 . .

IO WATER

15 COhTENT,

20 w , V,,

25

30

FIGURE BS -TYPICAL

PROCTOR

TEST CURVES

(B.K. Hough ,1969)

73 IV. Stress Analysis and Slope Stnbilitl Unlike other construction materials such as concrctc Furthcrmorc, soils, and seccl, the shearing and for the

soil is weak in both compression and shear. strength

and

compressive stress vary for different

same soil vary with seasonal changes, moisture, Thus, a stress analysis conditions levels, (i .c.,

depth, and disturbances. its possible

of an earth embankment unucr all

during construction,

during normal and high water to insure stability. Several and

intent

and during drawdown) is important

aspects of soil mechanics. encompassing many methods of testing design, must be considered in a complctc stress analysis. of t.his appendix is to describe as they relate some of the more appropriate
The The

acpccts pro-

to small dam design and construction. methods are

enumerated

exact

ccdurcs of testing

in soil manuals and texts. settlc-

In Example 1, the pressure which produced the calculated ment is termed the cffcctiw stress transmitted by direct and depth. otreoc of the soil. to particle

It is the normal

from particle

through the soil mass of the soil unit weight

grain contact,

and is a function

Sonael stresses,

produced by compacting equipment, result prescribed for good slope stability.

on the

in the maximumsoil dexity However, this

strength.

stability

is actually

dependent

soils

shear

Shear strength

is the amount of resistance This resistance

a soil nass has of friction

against d shearing force.

bctwcen

is the result

the soil
dqwnd

grains a?d when applicable, on grain fricrian

cr&<qG~~. Cvhcsionlcss and ui!l SC

soils

entirely

for shcclr 5tr:?ngth,

discussed first. Cohesionless soils silts, sands, and grwcts. arc usually those of coarser
particles.

l.c.,

As shown in Fig. Ma, such soils Jcvclop a

74

higher

shear

strength

wiLh incrcascd cffcctivr

nom:11 prcwm.

Shar

is,

for a soil

mass of loose grains,

a shcarini: Eorcc uould be resist&

of the grains;

primarily

by the surface friction 110uc~ct, as the soil shearing force

the soil initial

;IS uith :rny tro sliding

surfaces.
and a larger Figure lodge

mss is compacted, thr .gr.ains interlock to produce rlizy.r.licacnt.

thor the

is rquirmtl

B6b shows the upper

upuard mvmncnt
from hctwccn

is rcc,~itrJ

?O JlsT?ii~

IZGIJS grains

lowr

cra!:is.

additional

strength

due to corapaction

is
and

rcflectc2

in ;rior:

of rhcarzng

stress YCPSUS dirplacaacnt

surface
Thus it

for isow
obviously

dcnsc JO; :s (F IL. Hex! . Thr

whcro the
rc*l!.tatiCc

of failure
can

will

occur

ir

least.

be seen that unifam

shear

compaction nf ucll-~r.~~!~~i srrai~ 1%

The

inprtant shear
fti2:

to improva strength.

rcsistancc. pressure.

;rnglp
call4

t, w!xic,h ml~:cs
t!w ;,;.;:,. -t ...I **.. s :-i ;

S, to nonml
tan t

p,

is

:9l lbhcn

and

: i2.:. i $ r))c yc,-*y$;~*;; ; . . l.,.*<.e

cosff*lcicnts

soils with lou pmacability

IAppc:\.!ix Ai arc

(and

intcrlothtng;

of

the

~011 mass

:rnd cm Jriart ~criiy

rw!tizc thr dt+ir

EFFECTIVE NORMAL PRESSURE, (a) INITIAL UPWARD MOVE REOulRED FOR DISPLACEMENT MRALLEL TO AA A

(b:

PEAK SfRENkTH g 3.0[ / I I

I OO

I 0.2

I I 0.4 0.6 SHEARINS DISPLACEMENT,

lC)

I 0.8 in.

J
I.0

FIGURE 86 - SHEAR

STRENGTH

RELATIONS

76
samples to determine as direct shear tests

these parameters.

They are generally

rcferrcd

to

and are conducted under dmined, conditions

urdmined,

and coneoEd&teci-hined
and

to simulate different

normal

pore pressures. Soils of only

fine particles
namely cohesion. (i.e.,

(i.e.,

clays)

exhibit

another form

of soil greatly cult

behavior, with

The strength

of clays varies Although it is diffiwhich is not due to

consistency

water content).

to measure cohesion is considered

alone, any shear strength

cohesion.
However,

friction

for pure clays, cohesion is

the dominate parameter. idea of the property equation (l), yields;

The stickiness

of very damp clay gives some

of cohesion.

This parameter, when added to

5 = c + (p-u)

tan .+,

hxc

is cohesion.

For these more impcrmcable particles,

pore

pressures

are more significant.

The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has

been measuring pore pressures

in dams with piezoneters,

and

has

deter-

mined that pore pressures can be kept negligible slightly less than optimum moisture

by compacting at 0.75 Icss).

content

(approximately

Uater acts as a lubricant

during compaction and develops good cohesion, pore pressures and cause slip or

but too much can produce excessive failure cracking surfaces. of the soil

Purthermore. when excess water evaporates from clays, nass may occur. then, a well-graded soil with both coarser cohesionof friction and areas

Quite expectedly less grlins cohesion.

and clay fines can combine the strengths Soils of different gradations

serve better .in different

of dam construction,

as outlined

in Fig. Bl.

,l,,.l

..

_.-

_--..

77 commonmeaslire slopes. of embankment stability This factor is the factor of

The

safety

of its

is defined as the ratio

of resisting

forces to the forces

tending to cause soil movement, Thus, a safety or at least an S.F. of

factor partial

(S.F) of 1.0 denotes a slope on the verge of failure movement. Again

due to the many

variables

in soil,

1.5 to 2.0 is usually

tion

acceptable, 1.3.

whereas concrete and steel construcwith

the

often only require

However, due to consolidation

passage of time,
Shear

an original

S.F. of 1.5 may increase to 2.0.

the

failures

of embankments take
slides;

form of either

rotational
As

slides

or translatory

the majority fails

being the former.

shown
the

in Fig. B7a, a rotational resistance

slide

along an arc surface.

If

shear

along a particular

arc length does not equal or exceed the above

that

moment of the weight of soil

arc, failure

should be expected. the weakest arc b+ng one of the most used, embankment under which

Several methods are available

to locatcandanalyze
Method

length in an embankment (the Swedish Circle

often used).

Regardless of the method of analysis

stability

should be studied for the different

conditions

the dam must exist. During construction, The soil

tent

pore prcssurcs will

probably be the greatest.

contests.

weight

should be calculated

on the basis of its moisture laboratory

shear

and shear

should be determined by undrained

When the

reservoir failure

behind the dam is at a normal operating is

most

stage,

rotational

likely

to occur on
S.F. and

the

downstream face, often

for this

due to differential seepage. To cheek the _ soil ma; DC? saturated, or even submerged, mined accordingly. should be arrived Values for
shear

conditon,
must be

the deter-

its

weight

resistance

under this condition shear tests. After

at by consolidated-undrained

ARC LENGTH,

. .. - ; ...K-4 . -, -~&-z~-&l _

__ . ; ..-. i:.., . .. ., . .T

. ..,

(01 ROTATIONAL

SLIDE

t b 1 TRANSLATORY

SLIDE

FIGURE 87 - EMBANKMENT

SLOPE

STABILITY

79

rapid
high

draudown, the exposed upstream unit weight, opposing arc.

the

slope is saturated

soil

with

buoyed submerged soil

in the lower

portion

of the failure

The stability levels

of the upstream slope should the consolidatedHere lies

thus be analyzed undrained

for various

of drawdown, using

shear tests

again for

evaluating

shear resistance. perivous

an advantage of zoned embankments. more quickly than an impervious

The outer

zones can drain and there-

homogeneous cross section, due to drawdown.

fore reduce the period hhcn a surface the foundation, slide. active tance,

of low stability

of weakness exists

near the base of a slope or in

a shear failure by Fig.

may take the form of a translatory B7b, the soil mass in wedge A exerts an

As illustrated

pressure

(PA) on block
ef

B, which is resisted and the weight

by the shear resisof

s, along surface

and shear strength

Pi;), As

wedge C (in the slide, the ratio

form of passive

pressure, forces

with

the rotational deter-

of the resisting which if

to the active

pressure

mine the S.F.,

less than 1.0 should cause failure. if the factor of safety is less

For any of the above conditions,

than

desired,

flattening

of the side

slopes,use

of more shear resistant

soils,

and greater

care in placing

and compacting
the

the embankment fill

S.F. For small water

should be considered storage and erosion analysis

as methods of increasing control dam projects, be dclrted

the

expense and time needed and construeshould be

for stress tion

can usually

if good design

guidelines

are followed.

However, the dam designer which determine

aware of the soil stability.

mechanics involved

embankment