UNIT' 15 MEANING OF BUREAUCRACY

Structure
Objectives Introduction Origin of the Term Meankg of Bureaucracy
15.3.1 15,3:2 15.3.3 15.3.4 15.3.5 15.3.6 15.3.7 15.3.8 1.5.3.9 15.4.1 15.4.2 15.4.3 15.4.4 Bureaucratic Policy Burenucrars in Power Office Holders Bureaucracy as an Ideal Construct Bureaucracy as Organisation Bureaucarcy as Society Bureaucracy and Rationality Dictionary meaning of Bureaucracy Critics' view of Bureaucracy Guardian Bureaucracy Caste Bureaucracy ~atrona~h~ureaucrac~ Merit Bureaucracy

Types of Bureaucracy

Maladies of Bureaucracy Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your progress Exercises

15.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit,.you~hould be able to : explain the origin of the tern1 bureaucracy describe different meanings with which bureauqacy is being used point out different types o'f bureaucr&cy,,and
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explain the maladies of bureaucracy.

15.1 INTRODUCTION
As a student of Public Administration you must be familiar with the term 'bureaucracy'. It is a term with strong emotional overtones and elusive implications. Bureaucracy is also a much researched area by Public Administrationists, Political Scientists, Sociologists and many others. As a result, there is no terminological accuracy about the concept of bureaucracy. To some, it is efficiency and to others, it is inefficiency. To some it is a term synonymous with civil service and to others it refers t6 a body of officials. It is this that has made one scholar to comment that 'bureaucracy is a notorious word of our age'. It is, therefore, necessary to know what is the origin of the term and what are its different meanings. It would enable you to gain familiarity about the different meanings. In this Unit you would study its meaning, types of bureaucracy and maladies of bureaucracy;

Bureaucracy

15.2 ORIGIN OF ' F ~ TERM E

The term bureaucracy is derived from the Latin term 'bureau'. Bureau means a writing table or desk. In French 'La Bure' means a clojh used on tables of public authorities. From table cloth, the table covered by cloth got the name 'bureau'. Later 'bureau' began to be ' used for the office room where table is kept. Thus by 18th century the term began to be used to refer to a place where officials work. The suffix 'cracy' in Greek means 'rule' Thus bureaucracy refers to rule of officials. During 18th and 19th centuries, the term was used consistently. It meant power of officials in Public Administration. It'was also referred to the authcrity or power which the government departments claim t~tkiemselves. It was a Frenchman De'Cburnay'who first coined the term bureaueracy in the middle of the 'eighteenth century. He used the term to complain agalnst the bureaucracy. He said that 'we have an illness in Frank which plays havoc with us, thisit ness is called bureaumania'. This means de'Gournay used the term in a comp1;iining tone. T h i s is evident when he said that 'officials are not appointed to perform public interests, but'public interest is established so that offices might exist . lY'rqs-de'Gbumayhas identified a new group of rulers and methsds,of governing wherein the governing became an end in itself. ~ h e i were e some who believe that the term originated in ~ e r m a n y and was later popularised in France. This was mainly because German newspapers used the term whhe reporting about the French Revolution. Eversince its originiit rapidly became part of the international vocabulary of Political Science and Public Administration. In France, the term was first popularised by the novelist Balzac. Later the French bureaukratie became the German bureaukaratie, the Italian Burocrazia and the English bureaucracy. Twenty five conceptualisations, however, took place at the hands of Mosca, Michels and Max \ Weber.

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15.3 ' MEANING OF 8UREAUCRACU

The term 'bureaucracy' is being used with different meanings to signify diffcrent things. This made Fred Riggs to comment that the term 'can now be used without much sense of strain for about forty marginally differentiated senses, falling under ten headings'. It is,, ' therefore? necessary for us to understand what these different meanings are. . .
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After the term bureaucracy was coined by de'Gournay, it has attracted atterition from a number of scholars from different disciplines. It has its admirers as well as opponents. Max Weber, the Sociologist had almost "intemalised" this concept;' whereas writers like ' ' . Warren Bennis condeldnned the behavioural aspects of bureaucracy And even predicied'its demise. There are also other writers who. took a balanked view of the concept. Bur~aucracy,however, was originally conceived as a negative or perverse concept. It was Mdx Weber, a German sociologiqt, who gave it a respectable ,and positive implicat,j,on. , Bureaucracy, in its simplest form, $an be seen as "officials in power" or "a class of ,, . officials" or "bureaucrats exercising their power to carry on their constitutional duties and ' . . obligations". The need,to use'it as an equivalent to the term "officials" or "administrators", has forced the writers to pojnt out its negativ"eonnotatio~+s.,Peg~ps, no 9 other term is as appealing as bureaucracy to describe officials or officialdom. In what follows, you would study the different ,meaningsof the term burkaucracy.
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15.3.1 Bureaucratic Policy

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Atdthe time of its genesis. when delGournpg coined it, burtaucrky was linked to a type system in the way, terms like "aristocracy", "monarchy", and "democracy" were linked up with different political systems. J.S. Mill used the term bureaucracy to , denote the professional govemors~of the government in _a society. Harold Laski also used it , in a similar sense. To him bureaucracy is rule of the officials in a system of government. 1 ~ b tLaski , Mded that the "rule is so complete, that it jeopardies the (liberties of ordinary citizens". Heqnan Finer, a political scientist also described bureaucracy as rule by ' government officials. Lasswell and Kapfan viewed it as a government where the elite are , officials. However. in course of time bureaucriicy in this form, has lost this connoption. , .
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15.3.2 Bureaucrats in Power

A number of writers and scholars described the tenn bureaucrats to denote power managers in a system of government. 1.S. Mill, for example, denoted bureaucracy as a ruling class of officials. Mosca described bureaucracy as one class of ruling elites whose , rule is absolute. Michels, has expanded the concept of bureaucracy to include salaried professionals in government and non-governmental agencies such as political parties. Writers like Ramsay Muir viewed bureaucracy as pdrmanent officials and professional administrators. The growing power and influence of bureaucracy was also recognised by ' later writers.

Meaning of Bureaucracy

15.3.3 Office Holders

Bureaucracy is also used synonymously with office-holders with or without power. J.S, Mill, for example, hinted at the possibility of a non-dominant bureaucracy: It is used in an administrative context 'to complain abour its inefficiency rather than its abuse of power. Max Weber referred bureaucracy as a positive, non-dominant body, when he said, 'no exercise of authority can be purely bureaucratic', That is how a simplistic notion of bureaucracy developed and it is seen in the writings of ~ a y l oCole r and Joseph Lapalambora. The latter used the term to encompass all public servants.

15.34 Bureaucracy as an Ideal construct

Max Weber's conception of an ideal type bureaucracy is a theoretical form which in its true form may. or may not be found in the real world. Idealist conceptions have at-least a degree of difference from their real world entities, Max Weber, one of the earliest to conceptuaiise, in his ideal type bureaucracy attributed the following features to the bureaucracy: impersonality, hierarchy, specified duties, contracts, professional qualifications, salary, full-time careers, separation of office from ownership; and , centralised pow&. Eowe*, 9..tHe characteristics of the ideal bureaucracy are not accepted by the followers of.Weber. For instance, Robert C. Stone described bureaucracy, as a type of organisation characterised by "rationality in decision making, impersonality in social relations, ratiorlalisation of tasks and'centralisation of authority". By this description, Stone offered a second definition of bureaucracy.
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15.3.5 Bureaucracy as Organisation

Sociologists used 'organisation' in a micro and limited sense, synonymously with the tenn 'bureaucracy'. Thus, in their view, bureaucracy is an apparatus (as used irtPhysical &kc-&,~he word organisation is mostly used by the sociologists and next by the business administiation writers. They use it in a total or holistic sense. which covers the organisation and its members as one,,and the same and are inseparable. Thus organisation sind'bureaucracy have become synonymous terms as used by many writers including Talcot Parsons, Hyneman, and Caplow. It is used to mean not just a class of office holders but rather the organisation in which they work. Thus the term is used to denote both the organisation as well as its members, In the same sense bureaucracy is identified with government at macro levels, where the entire system of government is referred to as bureaucracy. ,' c ~ ' Some writers have extended the scope of this term under refercnke to societies, hence the usage of the term bureaucratic society.'Perhaps this is in tune with the expressions such.as communism, capitalism and socialism, which denotes a kind of social system as well as a political and .economic structure, The idea is that in a society where bureaucracy plays a dominant role, it can be referred as a bureaucratic society. More.clearly in such a society, sodial alationships are influenced by t h e bureaucratic behaviour. Mention of such societies can be found in the writings of Karl Wittfogel and James Burnham. Wittfogel argues that the ruling officialdom in pre-industrial societies dominate the peasant masters and hence the term 'bureaucratic society' is appropriate to describe the social * phenomenon. Burnham's view is that in a nuclear society managers as a class dominate the polity and society. A look at the business war games, and corporate battles in today's U.S.A., J a p p and other nations would explain the case. Presthus, on the other hand, holds an $together different view from Wittfogel and Burnham, wheo ii comes to the ' . interpretation of the term bureaucratic society. According to Presthus, a large organisation

15.3.6 Bureaucracy as Society

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is a symbol of the society in which it is an integral part, in terms of life styles of its members. In countries like the USA we can see real life examples of large organisations carrying on the essential features of the society at large. Based on this, Albrow, concludes that it is not out of place to think of bureaucracy as a type of society. Perhaps we can see such societies in other industrial nations as well.

15.3.7 Bureaucracy and Rationality

The Weberian concept of rational legal bureaucracy has led to an unending debate. There is hardly any opposition to his idea oq legality linked to bureaucracy. What is questioned is his concept of rationality of bureaucracy. Perhaps, in administration, rationality means cost-effectiveness, productivity and purpose. Peter Blau, believes that bureaucracy as an organisation maximises efficiency in administration. G.R. Francis and R.C. Stone endorsed the same opinion when they said that bureaucracy maintains stability and efficiency in organisiations that are large and complex. Peter Leonard also holds similar view when he says that 'bureaucracy refers to rational and clear cut activities that are directed towards fulfilling the purposes of the organisation. In other words, today's concern with productivity of the government and officialdom, managerial and organisational productivity have their origins inatheterm 'bureau-rationality'.

15.3.8 Dictionary Meaning of Bulreaucracy

Apart from Weber's ideal type definition and subsequent definitions by his followers, some dictionary meanings of bureaucracy are .available. Webster's Third International Cambridge Dictionary defines bureaucracy as 'systematic administration characterised by specialisation of functions, objective qualifications for office, action according to fixed rules and a hierarchy of authority. In the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Laski maintains that the term is used for a system of government the control of which is so completely in the hands of officials that their power jeopardises the liberties of ordinary citizens. Robert C. Stone in the Dictionary of Social Sciences uses bureaucracy as a type of organisation characterised by rationality in decision-making, impersonality in social relations, routinisation of tasks and concentration of authprity. Thus bureaucracy is characterised in the dictionaries and encyclopaedias possessing both negative and positive features.
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1 5 . 3 . 9 Critics' View of Bureaucracy

Critics of bureaucratic behaviour (i.e., negative behaviour) have attributed a number of characteristic features to the term. One of Robert C. Stone's definition includes-red tape, rigid rules and procedural emphasis, as fdatures of bureaucratic organisations. Reinhard Benedix, has mentioned some of the negative characteristics of bureaucracy, such as (1) failure to allocate clear cut responsibilities; (2) rigid rules and routines; (3) blundering officials; (4) slow operation and buck-passing; (5) conflicting directives; ( 6 ) empire building; and (7) concentration of control in the hands of a few. Webster's Dictionary enlisted several negative characteristics of the term. They are (1) constant striving for' invested functions and power; (2) lack of initiative and flexibility; (3) indifference to human needs and public opinion; (4) tendency to refer decisions to the superiors; and (5) block action through red tape. Though, social scientists in general have n& ustd the somehow the negative connotations and negative connotations ofthe . term -. - frequently, . meanings have become popular. ..t -

Check Your Progress 1 . Note : i).Use the space below for your answers. ii) Check ybur answers: with those given at the end of the unit.
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Explain the origin of the term bureaucracy.

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Explain the different meanings of the term bureaucracy.

Meaning of Bureaucracy

15.4 TYPES OF BLTREAUCRACY

Bureaucracy is shaped by environmental influences including social. cultural, economic and political factors. ,At different points of time in hivorp. the bureaucracy has taken difimnt shapes and forms based upon the socio-political influences. Broadly, the bureaucracy is categorised into four types by Morstein Marx viz., Guardian Bureaucracy, .Caste ~uriaucracy, Patronage Bureaucracy, and Merit Bureaucracy. We shall now discuss each of these types briefly.

15.4.1 Guardian Bureaucracy

Plato's guardians have the capacity to personify in their ,actions, the essence of public interest. They were considered the custodians of justice and welfare.of the community. These guardians were'selected on thebilses pf their education. Such' bureaucracy existed in China before 960 A.D. and in Russia between 640-1740 A.D. Chinese government which conducted its business based-ppon Confucious'teeachinps of righteousness is supposed to be a platonic blue print. Duty of officials'is to demonstrcite-exemplary life and they were selected on the basis,of their scholastic achievements and trained in right conduct according to classics. These guardians were expected to develop a moral fortitude and they can exert influence upon the exercise of power subject to righteousness. The guardian bureaucracy is apt to idealise absolute practices and thus become traditionalistic and conservative, They are also likely to become aloof from the affairs of the community and political problems of the day, THey become authoritarian % unresponsive to public opinion.

15.4.2 Caste Bureaucracy

This bureaucracy is the result of class connections of those-in power. In this.recruitment is made only from one class. This means persons belonging to higher classes or castes are only drawn to the civil services. For example, in ancient'india, only Brahmins and Kshatriyas.could become higher.officials. F.M. Marx notes that the caste bureaucracy manifests id another form, i.e., linking the qualifications in the higher posts with al'rangement's that amount to class preferences. In Enkland, for example, aristocratic classes were preferred to the civil service positions, Appleby commenting on the Indian Civil Service, observes that the personnel are arranged self-consciously in two firm classes and two forms and too many special services with barriers between classes and services, too high ..... There is too much and too constant consciousness of rank, class, title.and

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service membership, too little consciousness of membership in the public services. Higher the i~itellectual resourcys of the bureaucracy, greater the likelihood of class or caste a s p . Sdcial hes will% drawn between service grbups. It could even bc bbserved that. mobility of civil servants,'&ll not act as an antidote to caste mentality. Instead, the climber is expected to cGnform to the mentality of the higher group. The civil services during the early Ron~an Empire, Japanese Civil Services under Majie Constitution, French Civil Sewices in 1950's are a few examples of the caste bureaucracy.

15.4.3 Patronage Bilreaucracy .

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This type of bureaucracy is also called spoils system. Patronage in this is seen as a means of political control. Under this system, the proteges of the ministers or the elected functionaries are nominated to the civil .service. The public jobs are distributed as personal or political favours to their supporters. In Britain, before 19th century, the system sewed the aristocracy to gain enhy into the civil services. In United States, which is the traditiorhl home of patronage bureaucracy, it was considered that no one has any more right to offici'al status than the others and that was how the patronage was distributed. But the system of patronage bureaucracy was condemned as an anachronism for its lack of competence, for its careless discipline, its concealed greediness, its irregular ways, its partisanship and for its absence of spirit of service.
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15.4.4 Merit Bureaucracy

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Merit bureaucracy is 3 responsegto the maladies of other &,pes of bureaucracjes which we have discussed ewlier. In this bureaucracy,,dtmeat is tiasedori qualifcatio~ and is govemed by objective,standards. ~ f t ient r iy, statl.ls and stability are ensured. 1 ; modern times. merit bureaucracy puts strong emphasis on political control over the administrative system which was not the case in, other forms of bureaucracy. This,bureaucracy has ii distinguished advantage over others due to its sense of ratioliqlity in administrative behaviour;
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Bur= ~craky, have discussed etirlikt.;has both positive and negatiee connotations. The cr!tics argue that bureaucracy is an ai!rnent of organisarion. It givesrise to certain tendencies which may pervert its very performance. For example. hierarchy.discourages 'initiative, 1 t 2ivides organisation into layers and 'leads to red-tapism and inefficiency. It is' often criticised as having adetrimental+'influenckupon the performance and behaviour of the civil se,wants,. ~ h u s bureaucracy : apart frgm'being considered as an aspect of modern, '; 1 admiaistration and rational structure, also has ~ r t . a i n negative features. some of these crit'icisms are that it is unrespp*sive to popu-lardemands and desires, undue %malism;.self-aggrandisement. ern:pire hiritding,-conservatism, etc. Other maladies attributed are arrogance; self-satisfaction, obsession with rules and routine, rigidity, and ignoring the human k~emt-intin administrative .indiff&eice to,democratic processes . .... - behaviwr - .:..
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h ~ Youp k mqgress I . . . - Niit;': -'' ij.~se;tiie space belbw-f& , y6tir ahdweh. ., . . . :Check your answers with thoie giJeh at the end of the uqit. . . , '1 ~hatislguardian bureaucracy 1. . : . .
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What ,anethe maladies of bureaucracy 7

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In'this Unit we have discussed origin of the t e r m bureaucracy and its varied weanings. It is used to signify a polity, as an organisation, as a saciety, as office holders, as inefficiency, as rational organisation, as an ideal construct and as an exercise of power by a body of officials. We have distinguished between four types of bureaucracy viz., guardian, patronage, caste and merit. We have also seen that bureaucracy suffers from many a maladies like.unresponsiveness, inflexibility, obsession for precedents and emphasis on rules'and regulations to the neglect of societal demands.
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15.7 KEY WORDS

Elusive : Difficult to catch Encompass : Surroufid or contain Genesis : Origin or mode of formation or generation Maladies :Ailments Perverse : Deliberately deviating from what is regarded as nonnal Protege :.A person to whom anotheris protector or patron Self-aggrandisement: increasing one's power, rank or wealth

15.8 .SOME:USEFUL BOOKS

1 Albrow, in, 1970. Bureaucracy: ~ i c r n i l l iLondon. : , 2 Avasthi, A. and Maheshwari, S.R., 1980. Public ~dministration; Laxmi ~ a r a y h Aggarwal: Agsa. 3 Bhattacharya, Mohit, 1987. Public ~drninistration; World Press: ~alcuiia, . 4 Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. 1 1 1 .'

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International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. 1 1 . Marx, F.M., 1957, The Administrative State; University of Chicago Press: Chicago. Weber, Max, 1947, The Theory of social and Economic Organisation; Free Press: Glencoe.

15.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1 1 See Sec. 15.2 2 See Sec. 15.3 . Cheek Your Progress 2 1 See Sub-sec. 15.4.1 2 See Sub-sec. 15.4.3 3 See Sec. 15.5