FORMAL, NON-FORMAL AND INFORMAL EDUCATION:

CONCEPTS/APPLICABILITY


Claudio Zaki Dib
Institute of Physics
University of So Paulo, Brazil

Presented at the 'Interamerican ConIerence on Physics Education, Oaxtepec, Mexico, 1987.
Published in 'Cooperative Networks in Physics Education - ConIerence Proceedings 173,
American Institute oI Physics, New York, 1988, pgs. 300-315.


!"#$%!&$

Educative system classiIication proposal, comprising Iormal, non-Iormal and inIormal education,
their Ieatures and relations at the level oI concepts and practical utilization is presented.
Considering the problems arising Irom Iormal education, alternatives that displace the 'center oI
gravity Irom Iormal, to non-Iormal education processes are herein advanced, with regard to the
advantages oIIered by the latter. The aspects relating to the creation oI non-Iormal systems and
their perspectives are also analyzed in the search Ior solutions to our current educational
problems.


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In educational literature, the study oI alternative education systems oIten mentions 'open
systems, 'non-Iormal education, 'distance learning, 'non-conventional studies, among other
terms. In some cases these are employed as synonyms, whereas in others, there is no agreement
as to their meanings, making it impossible to reach a consensus Ior their concepts. A more
precise deIinition oI such concepts is Iundamental, as is their possible classiIication, aimed at
better understanding and practical utilization. We shall thereIore analyze the concepts oI Iormal,
non-Iormal and inIormal education, in an attempt to deIine their Ieatures, advantages, limitations
and inter-relations.


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Formal education corresponds to a systematic, organized education model, structured and
administered according to a given set oI laws and norms, presenting a rather rigid curriculum as
regards objectives, content and methodology. It is characterized by a contiguous education
process named, as Sarramona
1
remarks, 'presential education, which necessarily involves the
teacher, the students and the institution. It corresponds to the education process normally adopted
by our schools and universities. Formal education institutions are administratively, physically
and curricularly organized and require Irom students a minimum classroom attendance. There is
a program that teachers and students alike must observe, involving intermediate and Iinal
assessments in order to advance students to the next learning stage. It conIers degrees and
diplomas pursuant to a quite strict set oI regulations. The methodology is basically expositive,
scarcely relating to the desired behavioral objectives - as a matter oI Iact, it is but seldom that
such targets are operationally established. Assessments are made on a general basis, Ior
administrative purposes and are inIrequently used to improve the education process. Their
character is, Ior the most part, punitive, obeying a mono-directional methodology that Iails to
stimulate students and to provide Ior their active participation in the process, though in most
cases, Iailures are ascribed to them. The setting-up oI a Iormal education system does not
consider the students` standards, values and attitudes that are relevant to the education system
which, generally, is not tested or assessed at the level oI student acceptance, as well as Ior
eIIicacy and eIIiciency. The same methodology - poor, ineIIective, scarcely creative - is adopted,
whether the universe contains 10, 50 or 200 students. Other institutional resources than the
expositive method are seldom employed and, when they are employed, the basic learning
principles are disregarded. The subjects are presented in isolated blocks, whether as to content or
methodology. Thus, Ior instance, in the case oI Physics, Ior techno- administrative reasons the
subject is divided into theory, laboratory and exercises and, their adequate order and correlation
is disregarded. In general, the objectives aimed at the personal growth oI students are
negligenced and, the basic principles oI learning Iail to be considered in the planning and the
perIormance oI education systems. It is not excessive to say that in the case oI Iormal education,
Ior the most part teachers pretend to teach; students pretend to learn; and, institutions pretend
to be really catering to the interests oI students and oI the society.
Thus, generally, Iormal education cannot disguise its alooIness Irom the real needs oI the
students and oI the community.


)*)1-*%.!/ 0+,&!$(*)

As seen, Iormal education has a well-deIined set oI Ieatures. Whenever one or more oI these is
absent, we may saIely state that the educational process has acquired non-Iormal Ieatures.
ThereIore, iI a given education system is not presential most oI the time - non-contiguous
communication - we may say that it has non-Iormal education Ieatures. Likewise, non-Iormal
education characteristics are Iound when the adopted strategy does not require student
attendance, decreasing the contacts between teacher and student and most activities take place
outside the institution - as Ior instance, home reading and paperwork. Educative processes
endowed with Ilexible curricula and methodology, capable oI adapting to the needs and interests
oI students, Ior which time is not a pre-established Iactor but is contingent upon the student`s
work pace, certainly do not correspond to those comprised by Iormal education, but Iit into the
so-called non-formal education. Proportionally to the number oI Iormal education Iactors that
are absent Irom a process, we Iind several grades oI non-Iormal systems.

These preliminary considerations emphasize the need clearly and objectively to establish the
possible basic Ieatures oI non-Iormal education. This, however, is not an easy task. As remarked
by Ward and collaborators
2
, 'A comprehensive and standard deIinition oI non-Iormal education
is not yet available in common usage. Perhaps such a deIinition will not emerge until aIter much
more study oI the educational issues and potentialities inherent in the variety oI experiences now
called non-Iormal education has been done. As regards the distinction between both educational
models, the same authors point out that 'the implied and real distinctions between Iormal and
non-Iormal education should be seen within a systematic and holistic view oI education. In the
same paper, they remark that education remains relatively undeIined because the non-school
view oI education has merited little interest and responsibility Irom educational planners.
Notwithstanding the above, even a preliminary analysis oI the existing non-Iormal systems
reveals the constant presence oI two Ieatures: (a) - centralization oI the process on the student,
as to his previously identiIied needs and possibilities; and, (b) - the immediate useIulness oI the
education Ior the student`s personal and proIessional growth.
2
Non-Iormal education seems better to meet the individual needs oI students. According to Ward,
et al.
3
, a systematic analysis oI the main Ieatures oI non-Iormal education, diversely Irom Iormal
schooling, shows that participants are led to non-Iormal programmes because these oIIer the
expertise that they hope to acquire and the necessary assistance Ior a better understanding oI
their own selves and oI their world. It is but natural that iI the education oIIered by schools is
without value Ior a student`s liIe and Iails to prepare him to deal with daily problems, he will
simply reIuse to participate in programmes that may Iinally disappear or, at best, have to be
reIormulated to gain signiIicance Ior students. As non-Iormal education is Iocused on the
student, it perIorce presents Ilexible Ieatures as regards the initially established and adopted
procedures, objectives and contents. It is thereIore quicker to react in Iace oI the changes that
may aIIect the needs oI students and oI the community.

With basis on these preliminary considerations we may easily conclude that the non-Iormal label
encompasses a wide variety oI educational systems endowed with Ieatures that either lead them
towards or away Irom the established Iormal systems. Thus, we might inIer the existence oI a
certain degree oI continuity linking the Iormal and the non-Iormal education. This view is not
limited to a merely academic interest because, as will be seen below, it is an extremely objective
and practical one in the search Ior alternative solutions to educational problems.

Given its scope, non-Iormal education is comprised oI an ample diversity oI educational
situations, many oI which have played a signiIicant role in the renewal oI educational systems.
We shall now analyze three educative processes, namely: 'correspondence learning,
'distance learning and 'open systems, which, because oI their Ieatures Iall within the scope
oI non-Iormal education.

Correspondence Learning: organized, structured correspondence schools date Irom more than
one century. Several works
4
and authors
5
mention that in 1856, in Berlin, Toussaint and
Langenscheidt Iounded a correspondence languages course. In 1886, in England, a graduate
studies correspondence course was introduced. A 'Society to Encourage Study at Home was
organized in 1873, in Boston, and the Iirst Iormal experience took place in 1883, in New York,
the 'Correspondence University. In several countries similar eIIorts were made, named
'enseignement par correspondence in France, 'IernUntersuch and 'IernStudium in Germany,
'home study, 'tuition mail and 'postal tuition in England; 'ensino por correspondncia in
Portugal; 'ensennza por correo and 'ensennza por correspondencia in Spain. Nowadays,
there is a large number oI correspondence schools all over the World, encompassing studies that
range Irom basic education to university studies, including a wide variety oI subjects in the
proIessional area.

Correspondence course participants are Iound in all age brackets and economic-social classes.
But, which are the main Ieatures oI correspondence learning? It is a planned and systematized
activity, based on the preparation oI printed educational materials which are Iorwarded to
students who are physically separated Irom the teachers who can give but a limited assistance to
them. Correspondence learning is an individualized learning system that allows students to
proceed at their own pace, according to their interests. The institutional materials are Ior the most
part printed and are generally prepared by a teacher who has not enough didactic and technical
knowledge to prepare top quality educational material. Although a number oI correspondence
courses currently oIIer other types oI instructional material - audio-tapes and videotapes, kits,
etc. - we shall Ior classiIication purposes solely consider the printed materials oIIered by
correspondence courses. We shall reserve the name 'distance learning to the courses prepared
on a high technical level, by a multidisciplinary team, administered by a relatively large
3
institution, comprising a wide variety oI educational materials. Correspondence courses
generally establish a bi-directional communication by mail, supported by the teacher who
corrects the paperwork, oIIers guidance and the requested explanations. A degree may or may
not be obtained and there is no pressure - the student`s motivation is the basic Iactor Ior the
program`s success. It is not diIIicult to see that correspondence courses do not incorporate
several Ieatures oI the Iormal education and are thus classiIied in the Iield oI non-Iormal
education.

Distance Learning: According to Holmberg
6
'Distance study is learning supported by those
teaching methods in which, because oI the physical separateness oI learners and teachers, the
interactive, as well as the preactive phase oI teaching is conducted through print, mechanical or
electronic devices. Distance learning is based on non-contiguous communication
7
, that is, 'the
learner is at a distance Irom the teacher Ior much, most or even all the time during the teaching-
learning process. Based on this deIinition, we may inIer that the concept oI distance learning is
wider than that oI correspondence learning, with which it is sometimes conIused. Thus, Butts
8

remarks that 'the rapid adoption, over the past 10 years, oI the phrase distance learning` to
replace correspondence courses` would seem to reIlect the incorporation oI media other than
print (and particularly the medium oI broadcasting); the Iresh impetus coming Irom research into
individualized learning and selI-instructional methods; the broadening oI the social base Ior open
learning systems; and the development oI courses and qualiIications designed speciIically to
meet the needs oI distance learning students. The concept oI open learning systems used by
Butts is wider than that oI distance learning, as below analyzed.

In sum, according to Holmberg
9
, the three universally accepted Ieatures oI distance learning are
as Iollows:

'1. - Typical oI the whole distance study is that it is based on non-contiguous communication,
i.e., the learner is at a distance Irom the teacher Ior much, most or even all oI the time
during the teaching-learning process.

2. - A pre-produced course, as self-instructional as possible, printed and/or consisting oI
presentation brought about by other means than print (audio or video-tapes, radio or TV
programmes, etc.) guides the study.

3. - Organized non-contiguous two-way communication is a constitutive element oI distance
study. It is in most cases principally brought about by assignments Ior submission Ior the
students to solve and answer and Ior the tutors to comment on (in writing or on audio-tape),
but Ireer Iorms oI communication also occur.

The organization and administration oI distance learning signiIicantly diIIers Irom those oI
Iormal education. Thus, Ior instance, no students attend classes at the institution, except Ior
occasional visitors. There are no classrooms; instead there are places where multidisciplinary
teams comprised oI redactors, authors, audio-visual experts, and so on, plan and compose the
materials that will be used. In distance learning we Iind no ' academic semesters. The students
may at will discontinue studies whenever he needs or wants to do so. As per Holmberg
10
,
distance learning is comprised oI the Iollowing basic activities:
' - the development and technical production oI distance study courses;
- the distribution oI course materials;
- the non-contiguous two-way communication between students and tutors/counselors; and
- record-keeping.
4
Holmberg also reminds us that, in some case, other activities may be required, as Ior instance:
' - course certiIicate
- examination and degrees
- supplementary Iace-to-Iace contacts between students and tutors/counselors.

A large experience has been obtained over these years through application oI distance study at
various levels, Ior diIIerent target populations. Our main concern in this Chapter relates to the
use oI distance study Ior higher level education. A well-succeeded example oI such use is the
Open University.

As pointed out by Oliveira
11
, Open Universities are generally based on distance study through
one or more communication media, such as radio, TV and the printed press. They mostly
Iormulate the instructional materials used in their courses, Ior the most part employing a distance
tutoring system that contracts teachers to provide the required support to the perIormance oI
supplementary activities. The assessment and graduation requirements are not uniIorm and in
some cases, the diplomas are on a par with those issued by regular universities, whereas in others
we Iind that certain restrictions are made with regard to given courses. There are also open
universities which are in no way concerned with the validation or equivalence oI the oIIered
courses and oI their diplomas to those given in the existing Iormal universities. Open universities
need their own organizational structure that diIIers widely Irom that oI traditional universities.
According to Oliveira
11
, 'The nature oI their tasks and the !"#$% "'()*+#, oI open universities
provide a mixture oI academic culture and industrial activity, requiring the cooperation oI
proIessionals Irom varied backgrounds to act as redactors, educational planners, proIessors
specializing in the diIIerent Iields, audio-visual experts, and so on, thus displaying a
multidisciplinary character. The materials Iorwarded to the students, comprising printed texts,
audio or videotapes, kits, etc., is usually validated prior to their utilization, so as to ensure a high
degree oI eIIicacy and eIIiciency. Oliveira
11
also notes that 'in countries with a shallower
academic sedimentation, open universities seldom have their start on an academic basis and this
results is their remaining Ior the most part on the Iringes oI the educational process -an
extremely signiIicant aspect which will be relevant to the proposal that will be submitted below.

The British Open University may be mentioned as being the most successIul among all open
universities. As described by Grayson
12
, the British Open University Iounded on 1969 was
created in order to remain open to new people, methods and ideas. The traditional matriculation
requirements were abolished and eIIorts were made to attract working students. Approximately
63.000 students enrolled on 1980, and its syllabus includes printed materials, audiotapes,
reading, study guides, selI-assessments and radio and TV programmes. Tutorial assistance and
counseling are available in about 280 study centers throughout Great Britain. We must include
here a mention to the high quality level oI the produced instructional resources, as well as to the
disposition shown by the planners oI the British Open University always to remain receptive to
non-conventional programmes. The courses encompass six areas, namely: education,
mathematics, sciences, social sciences, and technology. Their duration is approximately one
year. The success oI the British Open University led to the creation oI several open universities
in France, in Germany and in the United States as Irom 1971, without even mentioning the
several Latin-American eIIorts in this Iield. Oliveira
11
mentions the pilot-experiment oI the
China Open University which is planning to enroll approximately two and a halI million
students. According to that author, 'despite a variety oI Iorms and contexts, Open Universities
illustrate the many possibilities Ior widening the scope oI higher level education. As to the
expression 'Open he remarks that it may relate to (a) - the moment in which the student enrolls
on a course Ior which the required credits system has been extremely simpliIied; (b) -the
5
educational process itselI, as well as the range oI options oIIered to the students as regards
programmes and courses; (c) - the Iact that the course is taught at a distance; and (d) - the Iact
that although not generally providing Iinal degrees, they oIIer to students the possibility and the
required Ilexibility to stay on or to leave the courses.

Open Systems: The third instance oI non-Iormal education corresponds to open systems or
open learning, which have driIted much Iarther apart Irom the Ieatures oI Iormal education,
creating a wide, deep riIt. As remarked by Butts
8
, 'open learning systems are deIined as those
which oIIer students a measure oI Ilexibility and autonomy, to study the programmes oI their
choice when and where they wish, and at a pace to suit their circumstances. 'The Ieatures
ascribed to open systems, by this author, necessarily set them up as non-Iormal education
instances, jointly with correspondence learning and distance study. As Butts points outs out,
'...distance learning is seen ... as one type oI open learning.

As mentioned beIore, correspondence learning can be deemed a type oI distance learning and, as
distance learning can be said to be an instance oI open systems, we conclude that this latter is in
the most widely encompassing class among non-Iormal education examples.

Some authors also consider rather Ireely the concept oI open education - as synonymous with
open systems. As Yalli
13
says, 'the idea oI openness may be twoIold: open as to structures, that
is, a rupture oI the physical barriers oI educative institutions, so as to provide Iree access to
schools; or open as to methodology and learning resources. And, he concludes: 'The essential
Iact about open education is that it does not matter how knowledge is acquired, all means are
valid. The open learning system aims at the Iormation oI independent students who have
capacity Ior selI-discipline and a high capacity Ior synthesis and Ior analysis. This author
deIines that in an open system, learning is the Iunction oI an interaction between the student and
the actual world.


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InIormal education is quite diverse Irom Iormal education and, particularly, Irom non-Iormal
education, although in certain cases it is capable oI maintaining a close relationship with both. It
does not correspond to an organized and systematic view oI education; inIormal education does
not necessarily include the objectives and subjects usually encompassed by the traditional
curricula. It is aimed at students as much as at the public at large and imposes no obligations
whatever their nature. There generally being no control over the perIormed activities, inIormal
education does not oI necessity regard the providing oI degrees or diplomas; it merely
supplements both Iormal and non-Iormal education.

InIormal education Ior instance comprises the Iollowing activities: (a) - visits to museums or to
scientiIic and other Iairs and exhibits, etc.; (b) - listening to radio broadcasting or watching TV
programmes on educational or scientiIic themes; (c) - reading texts on sciences, education,
technology, etc. in journals and magazines; (d) - participating in scientiIic contests, etc.; (e)
attending lectures and conIerences. There are many instances oI situations/activities
encompassed by inIormal education, Irom those that may take place in the students` homes -
such as scientiIic or didactic games, manipulation oI kits, experiments, reading sessions
(biographies, scientiIic news, etc.) - to institutional activities - lectures in institutions, visiting
museums, etc.

6
It is easy to see that the higher the degree oI systematization and organization involved in
inIormal education activities, the nearer it will be to non-Iormal education. This is a relevant Iact
inasmuch as it suggests the possibility oI transition Irom inIormal to non-Iormal. We must
ponder that, considered by itselI, we cannot generally assert whether an educative action belongs
to the Iormal, to the non-Iormal or to the inIormal universe. For instance, a visit to a Science
Museum may be an inIormal education instance iI arising Irom a personal and spontaneous
decision by a student, as it is not directly related to his scholastic activities. However, iI such a
visit is part oI an established curriculum, requiring Irom students a written report and including
assessments by the teacher, or tutor, then it will probably be an activity associated to either the
Iormal or to the non-Iormal education.


$20 $%!)#($(*) -%*. -*%.!/ $* )*)1-*%.!/

An analysis oI Iormal, non-Iormal and inIormal education Ieatures suggests the existence oI a
range Ior transition Irom Iormal to non-Iormal education, as well as Irom non-Iormal to the
inIormal one.

Let us analyze the Iirst oI these. Although Iormal education corresponds to a well structured,
systematized system governed by stringent norms and laws, and so on, it is possible to consider
more and less Iormal education, according to the amount oI rigidity detected in such Ieatures. II
a Iormal instance provides a curriculum endowed with a certain degree oI Ilexibility, in which '
complying with the program is not vital and having a methodology that is pliant enough to meet
the students` characteristics, we can reasonably say that this instance is less Iormal than another
where these Ieatures are set on a rigid mold. Let us quote another example: when two Iormal
education instances present identical Ieatures, except Ior one sole Ieature oI one oI these -
communication is only partially contiguous - it is reasonable to consider that it is less Iormal
than the Iirst. Thus, it is possible to discern a certain gradation as regards the Iormality oI
educative systems and by extension, it will be possible to depart Irom a Iormal system and,
gradually, arrive at a non-Iormal one, by making some Ieatures more Ilexible, by substituting or
eliminating others. This would then be a transition Irom Iormal to non-Iormal and it also
suggests the existence oI Iurther transition, a sort oI 'continuity. This line oI thought also
applies to the transition Irom non-Iormal to inIormal.

Yalli
13
remarks that an open education system can be adopted within the traditional structures oI
schools: 'Students determine the pace oI learning and are totally Iree to move around in
classrooms, searching Ior the best place to stay and learn, even iI it is outside the school premises
and, to make use oI available means to dominate the subjects that catch their interest. Wouldn`t
this be a kind oI transition Irom Iormal to non-Iormal? Likewise, it is possible to depart Irom a
non-Iormal system to arrive at an inIormal one, by gradually suppressing a Iew oI the Iormer`s
basic Ieatures, granting students total Ireedom as to the choice oI objectives, content and
activities that will be carried out, as well as to when and how much time will be granted to each.

It is not IarIetched to consider that whereas in Iormal structures the process Iocuses on the
proIessor/school system, in non-Iormal education the Iocus is placed on the student - objectives,
programmes, methodologies are developed with basis on their needs and characteristics. All
activities are aimed at the students, Irom global strategies, to concern with Iormulation oI
instructional materials. In going Irom Iormal to non-Iormal education, we are perIorce displacing
the 'center oI gravity Irom the process oI the professor/school system, to the student.

7
The proposed view, considering a transition Irom Iormal to non-Iormal education that still
preserves a certain continuity, and Irom the latter to the inIormal education, represents more than
a mere academic interest, as it constitutes an action plan that will be extremely useIul to create
and introduce new concepts into the educative process, as we shall explain below.


324 (# )*)1-*%.!/ 0+,&!$(*) )0&0##!%45

A rather extensive literature currently emphasizes how inadequate Iormal systems are to meet -
eIIectively, eIIiciently - the needs oI individuals and oI the society. The need to oIIer more and
better education at all levels, to a growing number oI people, particularly in developing countries
and, the scant success oI current Iormal education systems to meet all such demands, has shown
to a growing number oI researchers the urgent need to provide alternatives that escape Irom the
Iormal standards, in order to solve these problems. As Ward, et al.
14
point out, ' Piaget, Freire,
Havighurst, Colemam, Brookover and literally hundreds oI other psychologists, educators,
sociologists and philosophers have indicated clearly where education should be and where,
instead it wallows in ineIIiciency, crust rigidity and stubbornness. Most oI those critics advocate
changes oI the existing educational system and there is ample evidence oI the need Ior dramatic
eIIorts in this area. And, they add: 'There are two sets oI alternatives to be sought: the Iirst and
most historically venerable is the improvement oI the schooling establishment itselI. While not at
all a new or untried idea, its past record oI relatively low success does not inspire conIidence.
The second sort oI alternative to schooling as it is known today lies in the development oI
resources Ior learning outside the school. In other words, they reIer to the strategies oIIered by
non-Iormal education, emphasizing that in one way or another most critics disparage Iormal
education Ior its incapacity to IulIill the actual needs oI students, whereas non-Iormal education
is based on the notion that in order to obtain eIIective results it is necessary to identiIy and
provide Ior the real needs oI people. AIter all, how can we justiIy the adoption oI Iormal
education iI, as Oliveira
15
points out, 'in large cities students spend more time in buses than in
the colleges and many others cannot even get there, hindered by costs and distances.

The inadequacy and the incapacity oI Iormal educational models to meet the needs oI individuals
and oI society at large must lead to the search Ior alternatives that escape that mold. As said by
Ward, et al.
16
, 'The legitimacy oI schools is based upon their role as credentialing agencies while
non- Iormal education will derive its legitimacy only Irom its ability to meet real social needs.

The rigid structure oI Iormal schools, mainly based on laws and regulations than on the real
needs oI students, oIIering a curriculum that leans away Irom individuals and Irom society, Iar
more concerned with perIorming programmes than with reaching useIul objectives, obeying a
rigid set oI clerical-administrative procedures, has long since Iallen short oI meeting individual
and social needs. Non-Iormal education, starting Irom the basic needs oI students, is concerned
with the establishment oI strategies that are compatible with reality.


-*%.!/ 60%#,# )*)1-*%.!/ 0+,&!$(*)

The issue initially relates with a probable conIlict between Iormal and non-Iormal education.
While the Iormer has been Iirmly established Ior quite a while and its traditions are accepted by
society, non-Iormal systems in their most advanced Iorms are only now emerging. According to
Ward, et al..
17
, the question is, what to do about them: 'Allow them to continue and develop as
competitive, alternative systems; repress them; adopt the Iormal educational institutions Ior the
8
non-Iormal model; or integrate the whole into a broader concept and plan Ior educational
development?

Considering that success, even when limited, should not be disregarded, in the case oI non-
Iormal education it is necessary that Iormal education should analyze the reasons that led to this
success and, iI possible, incorporate many oI its proposals, structures and programmes.
Oliveira
18
, suggests that 'instead oI attracting students to the classroom, universities should be
accredited and authorized to oIIer distance learning as well, establishing, themselves, the
equivalence oI courses, teaching loads and requisites Ior enrollment and graduation, should that
be the case.

It seems that there`s no doubt that no competition should exist between Iormal and non-Iormal
systems, nor should they be considered conIlicting systems. AIter all, one is not necessarily the
antithesis oI the other and in the educational universe there is rather more than enough room Ior
both. The analysis above, suggesting the presence oI a certain continuity in the transition Irom
Iormal to non-Iormal systems, leads to the proposal oI an strategy in which non-formal and
informal elements would be gradually incorporated by formal education, so as continuedly
to meet the needs of individuals and of the society. Thus, the existing structures could be used
and would little by little adopt and adapt non-Iormal propositions. It would be a politically and
technically Ieasible strategy, allowing a gradual and painless transition. This would oI course
require the adoption oI a series oI measures with view to organize workteams in charge oI
planing that transition, so as to render it compatible with the reality that prevails within each
institution and assist institutions and teachers as regards the required technical-administrative re-
structuration and, to organize with basic on multidisciplinary teams the necessary instructional
materials.

We shall now present three transitions Irom the Iormal to the non-Iormal model with diIIerent
degrees oI alterations. In the Iirst instance, a Iormal learning institution detects in some classes
an insuIIicient level oI pre-requisites (Ior instance, the usual knowledge oI calculus required
Irom students who want a degree in Physics). In that case, the program that will be developed
cannot ignore that Iact, as is usually the case with Iormal models. Instructional materials, oI the
selI-instruction type, previously prepared by a multidisciplinary team - mathematicians,
redactors, education psychologists and technologists - will be given to the students Ior individual
utilization (in small groups) whether in the classroom, or not - Ior instance somewhere else in the
campus appropriate Ior this type oI selI-instruction work - and, especially, at home. The students
will join the Physics class aIter having acquired the necessary knowledge, as comproved by
assessment procedures. It is natural that the development oI the original program must be re-
structured as regards time, so as to consider the alterations arising Irom the introduction oI non-
Iormal elements into the overall Iramework. It must be pointed out that the resulting system
would not be strictly Iormal, since it is in an initial stage oI transition Irom Iormal to non-Iormal.
Let us now consider a second instance in which this transition is deeper, that is, the rupture with
Iormal Ieatures is greater. The Iact that an university student requires an excessive amount oI
time to arrive at the campus is detected; a careIul study by a multidisciplinary team - let us call it
'team Ior non-Iormal studies implementation - suggests, as a basic strategy, that by means oI
previously prepared instructional materials the program should be restructured so as to enable
student to perIorm part oI his or her work at home and only go to the campus when his or her
presence should be required to carry-out supplementary work - such as experimental tasks,
teamwork, meetings with the Iaculty Ior clariIications and required explanations, and son on.
Some oI these restructurations relating with technical-administrative issues, as Ior instance
control plans, assessments, etc., must also be implemented. In this case, the system approaches
9
non-Iormal elements although supported by a Iormal organization. The third instance submitted
to analysis relates to a Iormal institution which, in the case oI certain night-course programmes,
has to provide Ior an extremely heterogeneous population presenting a diversity oI pre-requisites,
geographically distributed Iar and wide, coming Irom places distant Irom the campus. The
required analysis and study oI this problem would lead the team Ior non-Iormal elements
implementation to suggest a more radical transIormation oI the system to a distance learning
model which would be mostly developed at students` homes by means oI selI-instructional
materials and study guides, as well as previously prepared distance control systems. A two-way
communication by mail would enable the correction oI the students` works and the Iollow-up oI
their progress. Phone call communications would be used Ior additional guidance and
clariIications, as would visits to the institution Ior personal contact between students and
proIessors and to perIorm some supplementary work, either on week-ends or vacation periods. In
this case, the transition Irom Iormal to non-Iormal is more widely encompassing, leading to the
creation oI a program endowed with non-Iormal Ieatures and supported by an originally Iormal
institution.

The above instances illustrate the three types oI transition Irom Iormal to non-Iormal, each oI
which requiring diIIerent eIIorts and investments. They are part oI an initial strategy to be
considered Ior implementation oI non-Iormal programmes. The second strategy would oI course
correspond to the creation oI non-formal institutions which, as to their physical, technical and
administrative organizations would be specially conceived to oIIer non-Iormal courses and also
act as a technical support center Ior the logistics, administration, etc., oI Iormal institutions, with
view to a gradual transition to the non-Iormal model.


$20 &%0!$(*) *- )*)1-*%.!/ .*+0/#

As seen, the transition Irom Iormal to non-Iormal education may basically occur in two ways: (1)
- the Iounding oI institutions, as Open Universities, speciIically destined to the creation and to
the implementation oI non-Iormal systems; and (2) - the gradual advance oI non-Iormal elements
into the existing Iormal structures. The organization oI a non-Iormal institution requires a large
initial outlay to set-up the physical structure and the human resources dedicated to strategic
deIinitions, preparation oI instructional materials and the Iormulation oI distribution and control
plans. This, however, cannot take place without strong political support. As Perry
19
reported,
when the decision oI organizing the British Open University was taken opposition was met
within and without governmental institutions: 'This decision was received with skepticism,
indeed with scorn and ridicule, by virtually the whole oI the academic establishment, by almost
the whole oI the national press, and by at least halI oI the political world. As has already been
noted, a non-Iormal institution should not, it at all possible, be organized apart Irom the existing
Iormal institutions and should endeavor to obtain political and technical support Ior its
implementation. Bordenave
20
advises that 'We must not consider distance learning as an
independent, isolated process, but as one more modality within the general strategy oI education.
It not only must reIrain Irom trying to replace presential modalities - and school, itselI - but must
supplement and enrich them. As this author advances, distance learning systems must have a
supplementary character, given the lack oI auto-didactic experience Iound in large segments oI
the student population.

The other proposed alternative - gradual introduction oI non-Iormal elements into a Iormal
structure - requires the interest and the availability oI a Iormal institution and oI qualiIied
personnel willing to work in that program. On this head, the Iaculty oI the institution could and
10
should be the movers oI this process. They could be trained Ior this task by technical teams oI
non-Iormal institutions and so acquire the body oI knowledge needed to perIorm in the Iield oI
non-Iormal strategies, in the preparation oI selI-instruction materials - texts, audio and
videotapes, exercises, and so on - study guides, assessment and Iollow-up materials, among
others. Thus, the organization oI non-Iormal institutions serves two purposes at once, namely, (a)
- to create and implement non-Iormal courses and programmes; and, (b) - to assist Iormal
institutions in their gradual transition to the non-Iormal model.

The success oI non-Iormal models lies on: (a) - the initial interest level and motivation oI
students; (b) - the quality oI educational materials capable oI upholding a high student
motivation level and eIIectively to meet their expectations and needs, and oI its global strategy;
and, (c) - the scheme to provide students with institutional support. This requires the creation and
implementation oI non-Iormal institutions preceded by careIul planning and Iollowed by an
adequate execution and control which perIorce involves a multidisciplinary team comprised oI
psychologists, education experts, proIessors oI the several subjects, sociologists, audiovisual
resources experts, redactors, an arts/graphics team, administrators, expert printers, and so on.
With regard to such requirements, the educational technology conceived as the application oI
scientiIic Iundaments to the solution oI educational problems has a signiIicant role to play. Its
contribution cannot be disregarded in this proposal submitted by Dib
21
,which contains strategies
and detailed procedures Ior the development and utilization oI learning systems, particularly in
the Iield oI Physics, which constitute the basic elements Ior the organization oI non-Iormal
institutions and programmes.

It must be herein pointed out that, Ior organizing a non-Iormal institution, the existing non-
Iormal models that have been successIul will be unavoidably copied, without the required
caution to veriIy to which extent they eIIectively Iit the real needs oI the country and oI students.
Thus, Ior instance, iI despite being in an University, the students have no reading habits or a
certain degree oI 'learning autonomy - with the meaning oI being capable oI objective reading,
oI doing exercises and solving problems, etc., or else, to listen/watch audio and videotapes with a
modicum oI eIIiciency - the success oI any non-Iormal program whatsoever will be in jeopardy.
Authors like Cornwall
22
emphasize the importance oI independent learning. '...independence, in
common parlance, implies that the individual has a large degree oI choice, considerable
autonomy in decision-making aIIecting his or her aims and activities, and the values he or she
puts on them. The creation oI non-Iormal education programmes must consider, at the planning
and elaboration oI instructional materials, the independent learning level oI students. Systems
made Ior students with a high capacity Ior independent learning will probably Iail to succeed in
the case oI students who have a low capacity. Thus, the transIer oI non-Iormal model strategies
Irom one country to the other, Irom one institution to another, must be careIully made. In 'The
TransIer oI Educational Technology in the ScientiIic Area, Dib
23
emphasizes that '...the
transIer oI educational models and materials to those developing countries Iaces risks similar to
those incurred in biological transplants. The systematic recurrence oI rejections` in the last two
decades, coupled with a signiIicant decrease oI the average liIe oI transplants` is symptomatic,
showing that not all variables intervening in the transIer process have been duly appreciated.
Thus, the Iact that a given distance learning course comprised oI subjects such as Basic College
Physics, Ior instance, has succeeded in one country does not mean that it will equally succeed in
some other country, meeting its educational, social, economic and cultural Ieatures.

As Ward, et al.
24
, point out, non-Iormal education is beset by varied problems. The Iirst involves
the trend Iound in developed and developing countries alike blindly to trust the usage oI
instructional technology resources, particularly mass ones. The second involves the problems
11
relating to the elaboration oI non-Iormal systems prior to an analysis oI cultural Iactors, to the
deIinition oI targets and to a survey oI the available resources. The third is the breeding oI
unavoidable red-tape conIlicts and political disputes that will hinder the establishment oI non-
Iormal systems. In the Iourth place, the sale` oI such systems to developing countries promising
to IulIill their needs will Iail to do so given the limited resources oI personnel, oI Iinancing Iunds
and materials.


70%#70&$(60# *- )*)1-*%.!/ 0+,&!$(*)

Despite the likely problems besetting the planners oI non-Iormal systems, we can aIIirm that
given their very Ieatures - systems created to meet the needs oI individuals and oI the society -
the Iuture oI non-Iormal education seems promising. Ward and collaborators
25
suggest the
promise oI non-Iormal education with regard to their proIessionals and leaders. Firstly, '... non-
Iormal education promises to be a more eIIective approach to relating education to national
development. Secondly, '...non-Iormal approaches oIIer education that is Iunctional and
practical, i.e., related to the liIe-needs oI the people. Thirdly, '...non-Iormal education seeks to
maintain a beneIit/cost consciousness oI what it does in order to provide the most eIIective and
purposeIul consequences with the most eIIiciency. Fourthly, '...is the inherent commitment to
seek innovative means to achieve the goals. FiIthly, '...non-Iormal education oIIers a more
eclectic, multidisciplinary approach to the problem oI development in a country. Sixthly,
...non-Iormal education promises to produce short-term eIIects as well as long-term
achievements. And last, but not least, the seventh promise: '...non-Iormal education assists in
the decision-making oI educational and development Iunding agencies on both a national and
international level.

It cannot be denied that with basis on the varied instances oI its successIul implementation, as
well as on its ethical and technical Ioundations, non-Iormal education oIIers an answer to the
quest oI alternatives to solve the educational problems we have, particularly in developing
countries.


%0-0%0)&0#

1. J. Sarramona, 'Tecnologia de la Ensennza a Distancia (CEAC, Barcelona, 1975), p.20

2. T.W.Ward, F.D. Sawyer, L.McKinney, and J. Dettoni, 'EIIective Learning: Lessons To Be
Learned From Schooling, in 'EIIective learning in Non-Formal Education, Org. T.W. Ward
and W.A. Herzog Jr. (East Lansing, Michigan State University, 1974) p.38

3. Ibid. p.14-59

4. Encyclopoedia Brittanica, ed. W. Benton (Enc.Brit.Inc.Chicago, 1956) p.476-477

5. J. Sarramona, op.cit. p. 24-25

6. B. Holmberg, 'Status and Trends oI Distance Education (Kogan Page, London, 1981) p.11

7.Ibid p. 11

12
13
8. D. Butts, 'Distance Learning and Broadcasting, in 'Distance Learning and Evaluation ed. F.
Percival and H. Elligton (Kogan Page, London, 1981) p. 26

9. B. Holmberg, 'Distance Study in Educational Theory and Practice, in 'Educational
Technology Twenty Years On, ed. G.T. Page and O. A. Whitlock (Kogan Page, London,
1979) p.72

10. B. Holmberg, 'Status and Trends oI Distance Education (Kogan Page London, 1981) p. 97-
98.

11. J.B.A. Oliveira, 'Teleducao e Ensino Superior in 'Anais do XVI Seminario Brasileiro de
Tecnologia Educacional (ABT, Rio de Janeiro, Vol. II, 1986) p.16

12. L. Grayson, 'New Technologies in Education in Encyclopedia oI Educational Research,
Vol. 3, ed. H.E. Mitzel (Free Press/MacMillan, New York, 1982) p.1340

13. J.S Yalli, Tecnologia Educational, 74, 51 (1987)

14. T.W.Ward, et alii, op.cit. p.37

15. J.B.A. Oliveira, op.cit. p.19

16. T.W. Ward, et alii, op.cit. p. 38

17. T.W.Ward, et alii, op.cit. p. 45

18. J.B.A. Oliveira, op.cit. p.21

19. W. Perry, 'The growth oI distance learning in 'Education oI Adults at a Distance, a Report
oI the Open University`s Tenth Aniversary International ConIerence, ed. M.W. Weil,
(Kogan Page/ The Open University Press, London. 1981) p.7

20. J.D. Bordenave, 'Comunicao participativa na educao Iormal e no Iormal in Anais do
AVI Seminario Brasileiro de Tecnologia Educacional ( ABT, Rio de Janeiro, Vol. I, 1986)
p. 81

21. C.Z. Dib, 'Tecnologia de la Educacion y su Aplicacion al Apredizage de la Fisica (CECSA,
Mexico, 1981) p.72-83

22. M. Cornwall, Putting it into Practice: Promoting Independent Learning in a Traditional
Institution, in Developing Student Autonomy in Learning, ed. D. Bund (Kogan Page,
London, 1981) p.190

23. C.Z.Dib, 'Programmed Learning and Educational Tecnology, vol.17 3, p.250-256 (1980)

24. T.W. Ward, et alii, op.cit., p.51-52

25. T.W.Ward, et alii, op.cit., p.49-51.