Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 22, No.

2, 2002
The Ummah Slowly Bled: A Select Bibliography of
Enslaved African Muslims in the Americas and the
Caribbean
BRENT SINGLETON
Introduction
Despite an Islamic presence in the Western hemisphere for over half a millennium, the
history of this portion of the Muslim Diaspora is gravely under-researched. There is
evidence that Muslims had reached and interacted with Native Peoples long before
Columbus made the New World known to Europe. Nevertheless, it was Columbus
voyage and the resultant European onslaught that forever changed the history of Native
Peoples, Africans, and consequently African Muslims.
For 400 years, millions of Africans were forced into chattel slavery in the Americas
and the Caribbean. The precise estimates of enslaved Africans of the Islamic faith vary
greatly, but the notion that a signicant percentage was Muslim is unquestioned.
Unfortunately, precious few resources related to these African Muslims have been
unearthed or fully examined. Over the past three decades more research has been
written on the subject and it is becoming an acknowledged phenomenon in the histories
of many countries including the United States. From Muslim-led rebellions in Brazil to
Islamic scholars and gentry toiling in bondage in Georgia and Maryland, the history of
how the West African arm of the Muslim ummah slowly bled is nally coming to light.
The following select bibliography provides an introduction to the research tracing the
plight of enslaved African Muslims in the Americas and the Caribbean. The included
works are books, book chapters, and journal articles published through 2001, as well as
a small number of signicant unpublished dissertations. The majority of citations
represent scholarly research on the topic in English, Portuguese, French, Spanish,
Italian, and German, but also included are several published primary resources in many
languages including Arabic. Incorporated sources were limited to those that focus on
the topic or contain discrete chapters or sections on enslaved Muslims. Nineteenth and
twentieth century newspaper and magazine accounts of enslaved Muslims have been
omitted. After a general literature category, the works are arranged geographically and
further broken down by country and subtopics within the country when applicable.
General Works about Enslaved Muslims in the Americas and the Caribbean
1. Sultana Afroz, Islam and Slavery Through the Ages: Slave Sultans and Slave
Mujahids, Journal of Islamic Law & Culture, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2000, pp. 97123.
2. Sylviane A. Diouf, Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas,
New York: New York University Press, 1998.
3. Sylviane A. Diouf, Sadaqa Among African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas,
Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1999, pp. 2232.
ISSN1360-2004 print/ISSN1469-9591 online/02/020401-12

2002 Institute of MuslimMinority Affairs

DOI: 10.1080/1360200022000027348
402 Brent Singleton
4. Paul E. Lovejoy, Cerner les Identities au Sein de la Diaspora Acaine, lIslam
et lEsclavage aux Ameriques (Determining Identities Within the African
Diaspora, Islam and Slavery in the Americas), Cahiers des Anneaux de la
Memoire, Vol. 1, 1999, pp. 249278. Available online through the York/UN-
ESCO Nigerian Hinterland Project at:
,
http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/publica-
tions/cahiers/001.htm
.
.
5. Amir N. Muhammad, Muslims in America: Seven Centuries of History, 1312
2000: Collections and Stories of American Muslims, 2nd edn, Beltsville, MD:
Amana, 2001.
6. Abdullah Hakim Quick, Deeper Roots: Muslims in the Americas and the Caribbean
from before Columbus to the Present, London: Ta-Ha, 1996.
7. Samory Rashid, Islamic Inuence in America: Struggle, Flight, Community,
Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1999, pp. 731.
8. Clyde Ahmed Winters, A Survey of Islam and the African Diaspora, Pan-
African Journal, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1975, pp. 425434.
9. Clyde Ahmed Winters, Roots and Islam in Slave America, Al-Ittihad, Vol. 13,
No. 3, 1976, pp. 1820.
10. Clyde Ahmed Winters, Afro-American Muslims from Slavery to Freedom,
Islamic Studies (Islamabad), Vol. 17, No. 4, 1978, pp. 187205.
11. Clyde Ahmed Winters, A Chronology of Islam in Afro-America, Al-Ilm
(Durban), Vol. 5, 1985, pp. 112122.
United States
General Works
12. Allan D. Austin, African Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New
York: Garland, 1984.
13. Allan D. Austin, Islamic Identities in Africans in North America in the Days
of Slavery (17311865), Islam et Societes au Sud du Sahara, Vol. 7, 1993,
pp. 205219.
14. Allan D. Austin, African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories
and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997.
15. Sylviane A. Diouf, American Slaves Who Were Readers and Writers, Journal
of Blacks in Higher Education, Vol. 24, 1999, pp. 124125.
16. Michael A. Gomez, Muslims in Early America, Journal of Southern History,
Vol. 60, No. 4, 1994, pp. 671710.
17. Michael A. Gomez, Prayin on duh Bead: Islam in Early America, in Exchang-
ing Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial
and Antebellum South, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998,
pp. 5987.
18. James W. Hagy, Muslim Slaves, Abducted Moors, African Jews, Misnamed
Turks, & an Asiatic Greek Lady: Some Examples of Non-European Religious
& Ethnic Diversity in South Carolina Prior to 1861, Carologue: Bulletin of the
South Carolina Historical Society, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1993, pp. 1213, 2527.
19. William Brown Hodgson, The Gospels Written in the Negro Patois of English with
Arabic Characters by a Mandingo Slave (Named London) in Georgia, New York:
Ethnological Society, 1857.
20. Ronald A. T. Judy, (Dis)forming the American Canon: AfricanArabic Slave
The Ummah Slowly Bled 403
Narratives and the Vernacular, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1993.
21. Y. N. Kly, The African-American Muslim: 17761900, Journal of Muslim
Minority Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1989, pp. 152160.
22. Al-Hajj Wali Akbar Muhammad, Muslims in Georgia: A Chronology & Oral
History, Fayetteville, GA: The Brandon Institute, 1994.
23. Sulayman S. Nyang, Islam in the United States of America: A Review of the
Sources, Islamic Culture, Vol. 55, No. 2, 1981, pp. 93102. Also published
under the same title in The Search (Center for ArabIslamic Studies, Miami,
FL), Vol. 1, No. 2, 1980, pp. 164182.
24. Thomas C. Parramore, Muslim Slave Aristocrats in North Carolina, North
Carolina Historical Review, Vol. 77, No. 2, 2000, pp. 127150.
25. Adib Rashad, Islam, Black Nationalism and Slavery: A Detailed History,
Beltsville, MD: Writers Inc., 1995.
26. Abdulhafeez Q. Turkistani, Muslim Slaves and Their Narratives: Religious
Faith and Cultural Accommodation, unpublished dissertation, Kent State,
1995.
27. Richard Brent Turner, What Shall We Call Him? Islam and African American
Identity, Journal of Religious Thought, Vol. 51, No. 1, 1994, pp. 2552.
28. Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1997.
29. Richard Brent Turner, African Muslim Slaves, the Nation of Islam, and the
Bible: Identity, Resistance, and Transatlantic Spiritual Struggle, in African
Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures, ed. Vincent L.
Wimbush, New York: Continuum, 2000, pp. 297318.
30. Clyde Ahmed Winters, Origins of Muslim Slaves in the U.S., Al-Ittihad, Vol.
21, 1986, pp. 4951.
Biographical Material and Narratives
Abd ar-Rahman Ibrahima
31. Terry Alford, Prince Among Slaves, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
32. Allan D. Austin, Abdul Rahamans History, in African Muslims in Antebellum
America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 121263.
33. Allan D. Austin, Abd ar-Rahman and His Two Amazing American Journeys,
in African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual
Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 6483.
34. Edward Everett, Abdul Rahaman, in Orations and Speeches on Various Occa-
sions, Vol. 3, Boston: Little, Brown, 18791883, pp. 186194.
35. Frederick Freeman, A Plea for Africa: Being Familiar Conversations on the Subject
of Slavery and Colonization, Philadelphia: William Stavely, 1838. Abd ar-Rah-
man is covered on pp. 4044.
36. Thomas Gallaudet, A Statement with Regard to the Moorish Prince, Abduhl
Rahhahman, New York: Daniel Fanshaw, 1828. Available online through the
Documenting the American South collection at:
,
http://docsouth.unc.edu/
neh/gallaudet/menu.html
.
.
37. Job Ben Solomon and Abd al-Rahman: The Stories of Two Men in Slavery,
404 Brent Singleton
Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1970. Unseen by compiler,
listed in the notes of entries 29 and 32.
38. Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Mask of Obedience: Male Slave Psychology in the
Old South, American Historical Review, Vol. 93, No. 5, 1988, pp. 12281252.
Bilali (Ben Ali) Muhammad
39. Joseph H. Greenberg, The Decipherment of the Ben Ali Diary, a Prelimi-
nary Report, Journal of Negro History, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1940, pp. 372375.
40. B. G. Martin, Sapelo Islands Arabic Document: The Bilali Diary in Con-
text, Georgia Historical Quarterly, Vol. 78, No. 3, 1994, pp. 589601.
41. Ella May Thornton, BilaliHis Book, Law Library Journal, Vol. 47, 1955,
pp. 228229.
Job Ben Solomon (Ayuba Suleiman Diallo)
42. Allan D. Austin, Job Ben SolomonAfrican Nobleman and a Father of
African American Literature, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: Trans-
atlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 5162.
43. Thomas Bluett, Some Memoirs of the Life of Job, the Son of Solomon, the High
Priest of Boonda in Africa; Who Was a Slave about Two Years in Maryland; and
Afterwards Being Brought to England, Was Set Free, and Sent to His Native Land
in the Year 1734, London: R. Ford, 1734. Available online through the
Documenting the American South collection at:
,
http://docsouth.unc.edu/
bluett/bluett.html
.
.
44. Philip D. Curtin, Ayuba Suleiman Diallo of Bondu, in Africa Remembered:
Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade, ed. Philip D. Curtin,
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967, pp. 1759.
45. Douglas Grant, The Fortunate Slave: An Illustration of African Slavery in the
Early Eighteenth Century, London: Oxford University Press, 1968.
46. Job Ben Solomon and Abd al-Rahman: The Stories of Two Men in Slavery,
Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1970. Unseen by compiler,
listed in the notes of entries 29 and 32.
47. Arthur Pierce Middleton, The Strange Story of Job Ben Solomon, William
and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 3, 3rd ser., 1948, pp. 342350.
48. Francis Moore, Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa Containing a Description of
the Several Nations for the Space of Six Hundred Miles up the River Gambia; Their
Trade, Habits, Customs, Language, Manners, Religion and Government; the Power,
Disposition and Characters of Some Negro Princes; with a Particular Account of Job
Ben Solomon, London: E. Cave, 1738.
Lamine Kebe
49. Allan D. Austin, Lamen Kebe: Professor Without a Class, in African Muslims
in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 409444.
50. Allan D. Austin, Lamine Kebe, Educator, in African Muslims in Antebellum
America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge,
1997, pp. 115126.
The Ummah Slowly Bled 405
Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua
51. Allan D. Austin, The Adventures of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, in African
Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984,
pp. 585654.
52. Allan D. Austin, The Transatlantic Trials of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, in
African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Strug-
gles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 158171.
53. Robin Law and Paul E. Lovejoy, The Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua:
His Passage from Slavery to Freedom in Africa and America, Princeton, NJ:
Markus Wiener Publishers, 2001. Includes the text of several documents and
letters by and about Baquaqua.
54. Samuel Moore, Biography of Mahommah G. Baquaqua: A Native of Zoogoo,
in Interior of Africa, Detroit: Pomeroy, 1854. Available online through the
Documenting the American South collection at:
,
http://docsouth.unc.edu/
neh/baquaqua/menu.html
.
.
For other works concerning Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, see entries 118120.
Mohammed Ali Ben Said (Nicholas Said)
55. Allan D. Austin, Mohammed Ali Ben Saids Travels, in African Muslims in
Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 655689.
56. Allan D. Austin, Mohammed Ali Ben Said: Travels on Five Continents,
Contributions in Black Studies, Vol. 12, 19931994, pp. 129158. Revision of
Austins 1984 work in entry 55.
57. Allan D. Austin, Mohammed Ali Ben Said or Nicholas Said: His Travels on
Five Continents, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories
and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 172186.
58. Nicholas Said and Precious Rasheeda Muhammad, The Autobiography of
Nicholas Said: A Native of Bornou, Eastern Soudan, Central Africa, Cambridge,
MA: Journal of Islam in America, 2001.
Salih Bilali
59. Allan D. Austin, Salih Bilali of MassinaTom of Georgia, in African Muslims
in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 309408.
60. Ivor Wilks, Salih Bilali of Massina, Africa Remembered: Narratives by West
Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade, ed. Philip D. Curtin, Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press, 1967, pp. 145151.
Umar ibn Said
61. Allan D. Austin, Omar Ibn Said: The Life and the Legend, in African Muslims
in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 445523.
62. Allan D. Austin, Umar Ibn Saids Legend(s), Life, and Letters, in African
406 Brent Singleton
Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New
York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 128156.
63. George Callcott, Omar Ibn Seid, a Slave Who Wrote an Autobiography in
Arabic, Journal of Negro History, Vol. 39, No. 1, 1954, pp. 5863.
64. Frederick Freeman, A Plea for Africa: Being Familiar Conversations on the Subject
of Slavery and Colonization, Philadelphia: William Stavely, 1838. Umar ibn Said
is covered on pp. 3640.
65. J. Franklin Jameson, Autobiography of Omar Ibn Said, Slave in North Car-
olina, 1831, American Historical Review, Vol. 30, No. 4, 19241925, pp. 787
795.
Others
66. Allan D. Austin, Five Africans in Colonial Maryland, in African Muslims in
Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 65120.
Includes biographical sketches of Yarrow Mamout and Job Ben Solomon.
67. Allan D. Austin, Glimpses of Seventy-Five African Muslims in Antebellum
North America, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories
and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 3149.
68. Sidney Kaplan, Yarrow Mamout: Maryland Muslim, in The Black Presence in
the Era of the American Revolution, 17701800, Greenwich, CT: New York
Graphic Society, 1973, pp. 218219.
69. D. L. Schafer, Shades of Freedom: Anna Kingsley in Senegal, Florida and
Haiti, Slavery and Abolition, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1996, pp. 130154.
Latin America
General Works
70. Raymond Delval, Les Musulmans en Amerique Latine et aux Cara bes (Muslims in
Latin America and the Caribbean), Paris: LHarmattan, 1992.
71. Mohammed Djinguiz, LIslam dans lAmerique Centrale et dans lAmerique
du Sud (Islam in Central America and South America), Revue Du Monde
Musulman, Vol. 6, No. 10, 1908, pp. 314318.
72. Dennis Walker, Black Islamic Slave Revolts of South America, Islamic Review,
Vol. 58, No. 10/11, 1970, pp. 911.
Brazil
General Works
73. Roger Bastide, LIslam Noir au Bresil (Black Islam in Brazil), Hesperis, Vol.
39, 1952, pp. 373382.
74. Roger Bastide, Black Islam in Brazil, in The African Religions of Brazil: Toward
a Sociology of the Interpretation of Civilizations, trans. Helen Sebba, Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978, pp. 143154. Originally published in
French as Les Religions Africaines au Bresil: Vers une Sociologie des Interpenetra-
tions de Civilizations, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1960. Also pub-
The Ummah Slowly Bled 407
lished in Portuguese as As Religioes Africanas no Brasil: Contribuica o a uma
Sociologia das Interpenetracoes de Civilizacoes, Sao Paulo: Livraria Pioneira Edi-
tora, 1971.
75. Alberto Da Costa e Silva, Buying and Selling Korans in Nineteenth-Century
Rio de Janeiro, Slavery & Abolition, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2001, pp. 8390. Also
published under the same title in Rethinking the African Diaspora: The Making
of a Black Atlantic World in the Bight of Benin and Brazil, eds K. Mann and E.
G. Bay, London: Cass, 2001, pp. 8390.
76. Abelardo Duarte, Negros Muculmanos nas Alagoas: os Male`s (Black Muslims in
Alagoas: The Males), Maceio: Edicoes Caete, 1958.
77. Mary C. Karasch, Children of Allah and Olorun: Islam and Candomble, in
Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 18081850, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 1987, pp. 284287.
78. Nei Lopes, Bantos, Males e Identidade Negra (Bantus, Males and Black Identity),
Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitaria, 1988.
79. Nei Lopes and Joao Baptista M. Vargens, Islamismo e Negritude: da A

frica ao
Brasil, da Idade Media aos Nossos Dias (Islam and Negritude: From Africa to
Brazil, from the Middle Ages to the Present Day), Rio de Janeiro: Sector de
Estudos A

rabes da Faculdade de Letras da Universidade Federal do Rio de

Janeiro, 1982.
80. Paul E. Lovejoy, Jihad e Escravidao: As Origens dos Escravos Muculmanos da
Bahia (Jihad and Slavery: The Origins of the Muslim Slaves of Bahia), Topoi
(Rio de Janeiro), Vol. 1, 2000, pp. 1144. Available online through the York/
UNESCO Nigerian Hinterland Project at:
,
http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/publica-
tions/topoi/001.htm
.
.
81. John Edwin Mason, Social Death and Resurrsction [sic]: Conversion, Resistance
and the Ambiguities of Islam in Bahia and the Cape, Johannesburg: University of
the Witwatersrand, Institute for Advanced Social Research, 1995.
82. Anto nio Monteiro, Notas sobre Negros Males na Bahia (Notes on the Black Males
in Bahia), Salvador: Ianama, 1987.
83. Zita St. Aubyn Nunes, Os Males do Brasil: Antropofagia e a Questa o da Raca
(The Males of Brazil: Anthropophacism and the Question of Race), Rio de
Janeiro: CIEC, 1990.
84. Rolf Reichert, El Ocaso del Islam Entre los Negros Brasilen os (The Decline
of Islam Among Black Brazilians), in XXXVI Congreso Internacional de Ameri-
canistas, Espan a, 1964: Actas y Memorias (XXXVI International Congress of
Americanists, Spain, 1964: Proceedings and Transactions), ed. Alfredo Jimenez
Nunez, Seville: ECESA, 1966, pp. 621625.
85. Rolf Reichert, Os Documentos A

rabes do Arquivo do Estado da Bahia (Arabic

Documents in the State Archive of Bahia), Bahia: Universidade Federal da Bahia,
Centro de Estudos Afro-Orientais, 1970. Consists of three series originally
published in the journal Afro-A

sia (Salvador, Brazil): 1.a Serie: Textos Coran-

icos, Afro-A

sia, No. 23, 1966; 2.a Serie: Oraco es Islamicas (Nao- Corani-
cos), Afro-A

sia, No. 45, 1967; 3.a Serie: Amuletos, Exerc cios de Escrita,
Etc., Afro-A

sia, No. 67, 1968. Includes 30 facsimiles of documents, ac-

companied Arabic text and Portuguese translations.
86. Jose Ribeiro, Culto Male (Male Cult), Rio de Janeiro: Editora Espiritualista,
1973.
87. R. Ricard, LIslam Noir a` Bahia DApre`s les Travaux de lEcole Ethnologique
408 Brent Singleton
Bresilienne (Black Islam in Bahia According to the Work of the Brazilian
Ethnological School), Hesperis, Vol. 35, 1948, pp. 5778.
88. Raymundo Nina Rodrigues, Os Negros Maometanos no Brasil (Black Mus-
lims in Brazil), in Os Africanos no Brasil (Africans in Brazil), Brasilia: Ed. UNB,
1988, pp. 3870.
89. Vittorio Spinazzola, Islam e Schiavitu in Brasile (Islam and Slavery in
Brazil), Oriente Moderno, Vol. 47, No. 4, 1967, pp. 269285.
90. Clyde Ahmed Winters, The Muslims of Rio de Janeiro, The Search (Center for
ArabIslamic Studies, Miami, FL), Vol. 3, No. 1, 1982, pp. 2748.
Muslim Insurrections in Brazil
91. Zaid Abdul-Aleem, African Muslim Survival and Adaptation in Salvador,
Brazil: Males after the Revolt of 1835, unpublished dissertation, Duke, 1996.
92. Nilda Beatriz Anglarill, Acerca de los Esclavos Musulmanes de Bahia (Brasil)
y la Revuelta de 1835 (About the Muslim Slaves of Bahia (Brazil) and the
Revolt of 1835), Scripta Ethnologica, Vol. 13, 19901991, pp. 7590.
93. Anonymous, Pecas Proucessuais do Levante dos Males (Legal Proceedings of
the Male Uprising), Anais do Arquivo Pu blico do Estado da Bahia, Vol. 40,
1971, pp. 9170.
94. Pedro Calmon, Males, a Insurreica o das Senzales (Males, the Rebellion of the
Senzales), Rio de Janeiro: Pro Luce, 1933.
95. Decio Freitas, A Revolucao dos Males: Insurreicoes Escravass (The Male Revol-
ution: Slave Rebellion), Porto Alegre: Editora Movimento, 1985.
96. Jack Goody, Writing, Religion and Revolt in Bahia, Visible Language, Vol. 20,
No. 3, 1986, pp. 318343.
97. Etienne Ignace, A Revolta dos Males (24 para 25 de Janeiro de 1835) (The
Male Revolt (24th and 25th of January 1835)), Revista do Instituto Historico e
Geogra co Brasileiro, Vol. 14, No. 33, 1907, pp. 129149.
98. Etienne Ignace, Os Males, Revista do Instituto Historico e Geogra co Brasileiro,
Vol. 72, No. 2, 1909, pp. 67126.
99. Etienne Ignace, La Secte Musulmane des Male`s du Bresil et Leur Revolte en
1835, Chapitre Premier: Doctrine, Ethique et Culte des Male`s (The Muslim
Male Sect of Brazil and Their Revolt in 1835, Chapter One: Doctrines, Ethics
and the Male Cult, Anthropos (Salzburg), Vol. 4, No. 1, 1909, pp. 99105.
100. Etienne Ignace, La Secte Musulmane des Male`s du Bresil et Leur Revolte en
1835, Chapitre Second: La Revolte des Male`s (2425 Janvier 1835) (The
Muslim Male Sect of Brazil and Their Revolt in 1835, Chapter Two: The Male
Revolt (2425 January 1835)), Anthropos (Salzburg), Vol. 4, No. 2, 1909,
pp. 405415.
101. T. B. Irving, King Zumbi and the Male Movement in Brazil: Research Notes,
American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1992, pp. 397409.
102. Raymond Kent, African Revolt in Bahia: 2425 January, 1835, Journal of
Social History, Vol. 3, 1970, pp. 334356.
103. Paul E. Lovejoy, Background to Rebellion: The Origins of Muslim Slaves in
Bahia, Slavery & Abolition, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1994, pp. 151180. Also published
under the same title in Paul E. Lovejoy, ed., Unfree Labour in the Development
of the Atlantic World, London: Cass, 1994, pp. 151180.
The Ummah Slowly Bled 409
104. Francisco Goncalves Martins, Ofcio do Chefe de Policia Sobre a Insurreicao
de 1835 (Ofce of the Chief of Police on the Rebellion of 1835), Revista do
Instituto Geogra phico e Historico da Bahia, Vol. 10, No. 29, 1903, pp. 107115.
105. Vincent Monteil, Analyse des 25 Documents Arabes des Males de Bahia
(1835) (Analysis of 25 Arabic Documents of the Males of Bahia (1835)),
Bulletin de lInstitut Fondamental dAfrique Noire, Vol. 29, Ser. B, No. 12, 1967,
pp. 8898.
106. Yusuf A. Nzibo, The Muslim Factor in the Afro-Brazilian Struggle Against
Slavery, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1986, pp. 547556.
107. Howard Prince, Slave Rebellion in Bahia, 18071835, unpublished disser-
tation, Columbia University, 1972.
108. Manuel Querino, Dos Males, in Costumes Africanos no Brasil (African Costumes
in Brazil), Recife: Fundacao Joaquim Nabuco, Editora Massangana, 1988,
pp. 6673.
109. R. Quiring-Zoche, Glaubenskampf oder Machtkampf? Der Aufstand der Male
von Bahia nach einer Islamischen Quelle (Holy War or Power Struggle? The
Male Revolt of Bahia According to an Islamic Source), Sudanic Africa, Vol. 6,
1995, pp. 115124. Available online at Sudanic Africa at:
,
http://
www.hf.uib.no/smi/sa/06/6Quiring.pdf
.
.
110. Rolf Reichert, LInsurrection dEsclaves de 1835 a` la Lumie`re des Documents
Arabes des Archives Publiques de lE

tat de Bahia (Bresil) (The Slave Insur-

rection of 1835 in Light of the Arabic Documents of the Public Archives of the
State of Bahia (Brazil)), Bulletin de lInstitut Fondamental dAfrique Noire, Vol.
29, Ser. B, No. 12, 1967, pp. 99104.
111. Joao Jose Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia,
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Also published in Portuguese
as Rebeliao Escrava no Brasil: A Historia do Levante dos Males (1835), Sao Paulo:
Editora Brasiliense, 1986.
112. Joao Jose Reis, O Levante dos Males na Bahia: uma Interpretacao Pol tica
(The Male Uprising in Bahia: A Political Interpretation), Estudos Economicos,
Vol. 17 (special issue), 1987, pp. 131149.
113. Joao Jose Reis, Slave Resistance in Brazil: Bahia, 18071835, Luso-Brazilian
Review, Vol. 25, No. 1, 1988, pp. 111144.
114. Joao Jose Reis and P. F. de Moraes Farias, Islam and Slave Resistance in
Bahia, Brazil, Islam et Societes au Sud du Sahara, Vol. 3, 1989, pp. 4166.
115. Stuart B. Schwartz, Cantos e Quilombos Numa Conspiracao de Escravos
Haussas: Bahia 1814 (Songs and Quilombos in a Conspiracy of Hausa Slaves:
Bahia 1814), in eds Joao Jose Reis and Flavio dos Santos Gomes, Liberdade por
um Fio: Historia dos Quilombos no Brasil (Freedom by a Thread: History of the
Quilombos in Brazil), Sao Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1996, pp. 373406.
116. Pierre Verger, Slave Revolts and Uprisings in Bahia, 18071835, in Trade
Relations Between the Bight of Benin and Bahia from the 17th to 19th Century,
Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 1976, pp. 285313. Originally published
in French as Flux et Reux de la Traite des Ne`gres Entre le Golfe de Benin et
Bahia de Todos os Santos, du XVIIe au XIXe Sie`cle, Paris: La Haye, Mouton,
1968.
117. Clyde Ahmed Winters, The Afro-Brazilian Concept of Jihad and the 1835
Slave Revolt, Afrodiaspora: Journal of the African World, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1984,
pp. 8791.
410 Brent Singleton
Biographical Material and Narratives
Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua
118. Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, Recollections of a Slaves Life, in The African
in Latin America, ed. A. M. Pescatello, New York: Knopf, 1975, pp. 186194.
Covers Baquaquas life in Brazil, excerpted from the Samuel Moore work in
entry 54.
119. Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, Biograa e Narrativa do Ex-Excravo Afro-
Brasileiro (Biography and Narrative of an Afro-Brazilian Ex-Slave), trans. Robert
Krueger, Bras lia: Hedico es Humanidades, 1997.
120. Silvia Hunold Lara, Biograa de Mahommah G. Baquaqua, Revista Brasileira
Historia (Sao Paolo), Vol. 16, 1988, pp. 269284. Short introduction followed
by a Portuguese translation of the Samuel Moore work in entry 54.
For other works concerning Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, see entries 5154.
Other Latin American Countries
General Works
121. German de Granda, Datos Antropon micos Sobre Negros Esclavos Musul-
manes en Nueva Granada (Anthroponymic Data on Black Muslim Slaves in
New Granada), Thesaurus (Colombia), Vol. 27, No. 1, 1972, pp. 89103.
Caribbean
General Works
122. Muhammad Abdul Jassan, Muslims Struggle Against Slavery and Their
Efforts for Retention of Cultural Identity in the Caribbean Territories, Ham-
dard Islamicus, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1998, pp. 7584.
123. Raymond Delval, Les Musulmans en Amerique Latine et aux Cara bes (Muslims in
Latin America and the Caribbean), Paris: LHarmattan, 1992.
124. Abdullah Hakim Quick, Islam in the Caribbean: Past, Present and Future, in
Islam in Africa: Proceedings of the Islam in Africa Conference, eds Nura Alkali et
al., Ibadan: Spectrum, 1993, pp. 387417.
Haiti
General Works
125. Le Grace Benson, Some Observations on West African Islamic Motifs and
Haitian Art, Journal of Caribbean Studies, Vol. 9, No. 12, 19921993, pp. 59
66.
Biographical Material and Narratives
126. D. L. Schafer, Shades of Freedom: Anna Kingsley in Senegal, Florida and
Haiti, Slavery and Abolition, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1996, pp. 130154.
See also works concerning Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua who spent time in Haiti,
entries 5154 and 118120.
The Ummah Slowly Bled 411
Jamaica
General Works
127. Sultana Afroz, The Unsung Slaves: Islam in Plantation Jamaica, Journal of
Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 15, No. 12, 1994, pp. 157170. Also published
under the same title in Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 34, 1995, pp. 3044.
128. Sultana Afroz, The Manifestation of Tawhid: The Muslim Heritage of the
Maroons in Jamaica, Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 45, No. 1, 1999, pp. 2740.
129. Sultana Afroz, From Moors to Marronage: The Islamic Heritage of the
Maroons in Jamaica, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 19, No. 2, 1999,
pp. 161179.
130. Sultana Afroz, The Jihad of 18311832: The Misunderstood Baptist Rebellion
in Jamaica, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 21, No. 2, 2001, pp. 227
243.
Biographical Material and Narratives
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq
131. Richard Robert Madden, The Scherife of Timbuctoo, in A Twelve Months
Residence in the West Indies, During the Transition from Slavery to Apprenticeship,
Westport, CT: Negro Universities Press, 1970, pp. 121130. A letter written
by Madden, which includes: The History of Abon Becr Sadika, Known in
Jamaica by the Name Edward Donlan. See also: Capabilities of Negroes,
pp. 130147comprised of various letters by and about Abu Bakr al-Siddiq,
including correspondence between al-Siddiq and Mahomed Caba (Robert
Tuft).
132. G. C. Renouard, Routes in North Africa, by Abu Bekr es Siddik, Journal of the
Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 6, 1836, pp. 100113.
133. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Documents: Abou Bekir Sadiki, Alias Edward Doulan,
Journal of Negro History, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1936, pp. 5255. Translation of short
autobiography originally in Arabic.
134. Ivor Wilks, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq of Timbuktu, in ed. Philip D. Curtin, Africa
Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade,
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967, pp. 152169.
Others
135. Allan D. Austin, Six African Muslims in Jamaica, in African Muslims in
Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 525583.
Includes biographical sketches of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Mohammed Kaba,
William Rainsford, Benjamin Cochrane, Anna Mousa, and Benjamin
Larten.
Trinidad and Tobago
General Works
136. Maureen Warner-Lewis, Ethnic and Religious Plurality Among Yoruba Immi-
grants in Trinidad in the Nineteenth Century, in Identity in the Shadow of
Slavery, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy, London: Continuum, 2000, pp. 113128.
412 Brent Singleton
Biographical Material and Narratives
Mohammedu Sisei
137. Carl Campbell, Mohammedu Sisei of Gambia and Trinidad, c. 17881838,
African Studies Association of the West Indies Bulletin, Vol. 7, 1974, pp. 2938.
138. Capt. J. Washington, Some Account of Mohammedu Sisei: A Mandingo of
Nyani-Maru on the Gambia, Journal of the Royal Geographic Society, Vol. 8,
1838, pp. 448454.
Others
139. Carl Campbell, John Mohammed Bath and the Free Mandingos in Trinidad:
The Question of Their Repatriation to Africa 183138, Journal of African
Studies, Vol. 2, No. 4, 19751976, pp. 467495. Despite the published title, the
name Jonas is used throughout article instead of John. Also published under
the same title in Pan-African Journal (Kenya), Vol. 7, No. 2, 1974, pp. 129
152.
140. Jacques de Cauna, LOdyssee dun Esclave Musulman du Senegal a` Versailles
en Passant par Tobago (The Odyssey of a Muslim Slave from Senegal to
Versailles en Route to Tobago), Revue de la Societe Ha tienne dHistorie et de
Geographie, No. 165, 1990, pp. 5963. Also published under the same title in
Genealogie et Histoire de la Cara be, Vol. 11, 1989, p. 81.