Kwaito record sales[edit]

In a country where nearly half the population is under 21, youth culture exerts a major influence on social
life. South Africa has a population of over 40 million; 75% are black and many are living in the ghetto. Its
these youths especially who lay claim to kwaito. Their stories sparked it, and the post-apartheid economy
gave them the chance to produce and sell it. Kwaito cries out to impoverished youths in the ghetto and has
given young black artists a chance to shine.
[34]
Today, South Africans are buying kwaito albums in record
numbers. Record numbers is a drop in the bucket compared to the United States record sales. Selling
25,000 CDs in South Africa means an album has gone "gold," as opposed to the 500,000 record sales it
takes to go gold in the United States. Some of the heavy hitters of kwaito have sold over 100,000 records,
making them major players in the South African music industry.
[35]

Kwaito record producers[edit]
The DJ aspect of Kwaito is extremely popular. Famous kwaito DJssuch as DJ Oskido,Spikiri, DJ
Rudeboy Paul, DJ Mjava, and DJ Cleoare well known for producing many of the big Hip-Hop South
African Artists. Many of these DJ's in Kwaito release their own albums after producing other famous
musicians in South Africa. The majority of them do not make much money but have very high hopes for the
future. DJ Cleo said "All I need is that one chance produce just that one song for any rapper, Jay-Z, Jah
Rule, 50 Cents, whatever. And I will kill it. It will become a hit worldwide. Try me. Whoever you're going to
play this to, get a hold of me."
[36]
Very similar to other genres of music, Kwaito wants to stay original and
stick close to the roots. DJ cleo is considered one who tries to stay careful not to abandon his kwaito fan
base in a flash because many Kwaito fans take abandoning the original tunes as offensive and turning your
back on the Kwaito meaning.
[37]

According to Rudeboy Paul, "Kwaito is a platform that serves to drive thoughts, ideas, gives kids from the
township a voice in which to speak on what their concerns are, social ills happening around them, the fact
that they cant find jobs out there, HIV and AIDS awareness as well."
[38]

King of kwaito[edit]
There are two artists who claim to be the kwaito originators.
[3]

One is M'du, who claims he was the first to mix BubbleGum with House from the UK and the US back in
the 1980s.
[3]
The other is Arthur Mafokate, who is also credited by some as the king of Kwaito, including
himself as he wrote in a two-page piece called "Am I the king of Kwaito?"
[3]

Mafokate's claim to fame is due to importance of his 1993 song "Don't call me Kaffir", which put the Kwaito
genre on the charts.
[15]

The first official Kwaito song played in South Africa, done by Arthur, with the usage of one of the most
degrading words that white colonialists would call black Africans, Kaffir is the Arabic word for non-believer
or a heathen which is the word that Afrikaans described the natives with. In his song, Arthur demands the
Boss, Nee baas (No Boss), dont call me a Kaffir...;
[3]

The song, written in several forms, talked about how apartheid will not just go away overnight but change is
coming.
[39]
His groundwork has created an avenue for South African youth to channel their anger, talent
and their voice, an outlet that they can call their own.
[citation needed]
Through this music the youth were able to
express their feelings of oppression. One of the originators of Kwaito, DJ and producer Oscar waRona of
B.O.P, has said that it started out as house with small additions to that genre such as congas and other
instruments. Arthur Mafokate's "major" hit "Don't call me a Kaffir" was about white people in South Africa
using that word to refer to the black people. The song was made possible because of the post-apartheid
system, but never would have been recognized or accepted in the apartheid times.
[12][35]

Women in kwaito[edit]
Kwaito is a largely male-dominated music genre, in regards to the artists as well as the
management.
[40]
But there are a number of female artists that have managed to become quite
successful. Brenda Fassie, long time South African pop superstar, quickly adopted a Kwaito style as it
surged to popularity in the 1990s. According to Time, she was known both for her diva attitude and
scandals involving sex and drugs, but also for lyrics that dealt with complex issues of African culture and
life.
[41]
Lebo Mathosa rose to fame as part of the group Boom Shaka, and later became a solo artist.
Despite (or perhaps because of) being sometimes called South Africas wild child because of her sexually
explicit lyrics and dance moves, she gained widespread popularity, and performed at Nelson Mandelas
85th birthday celebration. According to FHM magazine Lebo Mathosa has also performed alongside
superstar performers Will Smith and Missy Elliott and has also recorded a duet with R&B star Keith Sweat.
In 2004, she was killed in a car crash.
[42]
Iyaya, formerly of group Abashante, is known for her powerful
voice as well as "taking raw, street sexuality to the stage.".
[43]
Goddess, Venus, Chocolate and Rasta Queen
are the four members of the all-female kwaito group Ghetto Luv. They have also adopted an "in your face"
sexual style; the cover of their first album You Aint Gonna Get None displays all four members completely
naked.
[43]

During the emergence of Kwaito Boom Shaka emerged as a voice for young women and a symbol of
empowerment. They also use sexuality as an expression and celebration of black female bodies and the
natural female sexual desires. Therefore Boom Shaka is also politically involved by trying to get women
voices heard through recording a new South African anthem that simply says women have the power to
change the society. "Kwaito has offered women a new kind of agency in self-representation in post-
apartheid South Africa."
[44]
CNN article considered Boom Shaka, and TKZee the most influential Kwaito
groups in South African music.
[45]
Boom Shaka music is not only poplar in South Africa but all around
Africa, and they are expanding music to the global market as a way of reaching a larger audience.
Criticism of kwaito[edit]
Despite what it has brought to the country, kwaito faces critics. The kwaito music industry is viewed as
male-dominated, especially in management.
[46]
There are few successful female artists. Lebo Mathosa,
who was one of kwaitos most famous female artists and a member of Boom Shaka, noted that it is "difficult
because every producer that you meet in our country is male there isnt even one female producer that you
could say ok I like that record that is produced by so and so."
[47]
Others accuse kwaito as being talentless,
commercialized and mass-produced, consisting of sexually-driven lyrics and dances.
[48]

Being male-dominated, kwaito tends to misrepresent women in their lyrics by referencing the body and
sexual images. On the other hand, some kwaito groups like Trompies are using the image of the woman to
make a social and political statement. In one of their music videos, there is a beauty contest and the
women that win and get all the male attention are all on the heavier side. The group is trying to say that
todays perception and definition of beauty does not have to adhere to other cultures societal
standards.
[49]
Furthermore, more women are entering the kwaito music scene like artist Lesego Bile. She
has claimed she enjoys the challenge of entered a male dominated music genre and uses her struggles
from her past to help her stay true. She refuses to never exploit her body and dance sexually to please the
crowd, like other female artists. She plans on making a strong statement for female artists, while
commenting on social issues.
[50]

Kwaito has also been criticized in that it has been labeled as the African version of hip hop or an imitator. In
Thokozani Mhlambi's article "Kwaitofabulous," he points out various European scholars who have
disclaimed the authenticity of hip hop as they believe it to undermine the cultural and historical struggles of
the South African people because of Kwaito's similarity with American hip hop. Mhlambi, however,
disclaims by pointing out that the Black youth of America and South Africa have faced similar oppressive
histories by the white population, and thus makes sense to have its music similar as well. He also points
out that the criticism from onlookers from other cultures do not realize how both kwaito and hip hop require
performances and music making to be a group process and thus requires collaboration. He believes kwaito
and hip hop to have many similarities due to both genre's origins, however he does not believe kwaito to be
a direct descendant of hip hop.
[46]
Furthermore, many scholars and researchers of the genre, including
Gavin Steingo, agree with Mhlambi in that they disclaim the idea that kwaito is purely South African hip
hop. Steingo writes in an article titled "South African music after Apartheid: kwaito, the 'party politic,' and
the appropriation of gold as a sign of success" that the genre was influenced by both house music and
American hip hop, while also drawing on inspiration from ancient African music. Therefore, kwaito cannot
be simply the South African version of hip hop. Also, Steingo writes that a version of hip hop music does
already exist in the country, and it is not kwaito: "Because of seemingly obvious parallels between African
American youth culture and the new Black South African youth culture, people have been inclined to think
of kwaito as South African hip hop, or a South African version of hip hop (In 2000, Sterns/Earthworks
released a kwaito compilation CD in the UK called KwaitoSouth African Hip Hop). It would seem that this
perceived familiarity is based primarily on the shared characteristic of rhyming in verse. And, though this is
not totally invalid, it should be stated that there is a South African version of hip hop in South Africa and it is
not (and has even come into conflict with) kwaito."
[3]
Additionally, it is difficult to define Kwaito as a type of
South African hip hop, as there is an actual emergent hip-hop scene. As kwaito, for the most part, remains
apolitical, the hip hop scene, although less popular, generates a more political and gangster-esque style.
This difference is described by the South African hip hop group Godessa, "Hip-hop is universal. We were
excluded from Kwaito because we cannot understand it. To us, music is not just about dancing, it is a
vehicle for us to speak to the masses."
[3]
Similarly, hip hop is gaining popularity in Johannesburg, kwaito's
stomping ground, and its emergence is fostering a rivalry of sorts, further separating the two genres. As
Kwaito is more of a mixture of hip hop, disco, and house, the hip hop scene mirrors a more American style
of hip-hop.
[51]

Regardless of criticism, kwaito music now plays an important and prominent role in South African youth
culture.
Cultural context and implications[edit]
Kwaito is viewed as a cultural product of the societal norms and historical context of the townships of South
Africa. It is both affected by Black South African society and influences the popular culture of
Johannesburg, Cape Town, and their surrounding suburbs. Kwaito serves a transmitter of popular fashion,
language, and attitude. Kwaito has also been adopted by mainstream advertisers and production
companies as a means of addressing the masses and selling products. A combination of the popularity of
Kwaito music and the search by transnational marketers for a means of addressing Soweto youth
(considered to be popular cultures trendsetters) has led to the use of Kwaito music as a method for
advertising mainstream North American products.
[52]

Kwaito acts as a reference point for understanding the social situation and cultural norms of Soweto
society. Many songs such as Bantwan by Bob Mabena, "whose lyrics marry consumerism and female
objectification" or Isigaga by Prophets of Da City which "expresses the same negative and misogynistic
attitudes.".
[53]
Kwaito also addresses the oppression of black people and the context of colonialism in which
they still live. Songs such as Arthur Mafokates song Kaffir addresses the prevalence of direct racism and
Zolas song Mblwembe (problem child) reflects the prevalence of crime in the townships serve as a means
of social dialogue.
[54]
A third way in which a specific aspect black South African Society is reflected by
Kwaito is in the dancehall nature of its origins and rhythms. It shows the prevalence of the dancehall in the
impoverished townships and flat lands and illustrates the importance of the dancehall as a cultural meeting
place. South African Kwaito enthusiast Nhlanhla Sibongile Mafu best articulated the balance between
social commentary and recreation when he said, "dancing itself becomes the site for a radical rejection of
the traditional struggle lyrics in favour of the liberation of pleasure, while at the same time attempting to use
the language of the street to grapple with and articulate the present reality for the man and woman in the
streets of the ghetto".
[55]

It is said that " ...a repressive society would result in a creative art...it is an ingredient, it acts as a catalyst to
a man who is committed."
[49]
In 1994 apartheid ended in South Africa. Kwaito music in South Africa became
a symbol of the new generation of youth; furthermore it was not just music, but it stood for a way of life and
associated with it was a way of talk, dance, and dress.
[56]
Kwaito reflects life for the South African youth in
the townships, much in the same manner that American hip hop portrays life in the American ghetto. This
type of music seems to be the newly unsilenced voice of the people speaking out freely in their society.
Critics have compared Kwaito to other international subgenres such as Jamaicas dancehall and the UKs
grime. Dancehall was founded in the 1950s and '60s right when Jamaicans were trying to gain
independence from the British. Similarly Kwaito was formed right after the Apartheid was lifted in South
Africa, both by young members of the lower class. Additionally both have "taken cues from the trends of
new governments that supposedly gave rise to the advancement of personal wealth, and glamorized
lifestyles."
[citation needed]
They also share a number of themes in common including commentary on violence
and crime, AIDS awareness, and womens safety.
The commonalities between dancehall and Kwaito are in fact rooted in a deeper relationship between
South Africa and Jamaican music. African Reggae artists like Cte d'Ivoire's Alpha Blondy and South
Africa's own Lucky Dube were popular throughout the continent during apartheid, and Alpha helped shed a
negative light on the oppressive regime when he compared Apartheid to Nazism
[57]
Many currently
renowned Kwaito musicians grew up listening to Jamaican music, and Stoan, a member of Bongo Maffin,
explained in an interview just how necessary an outlet this kind of music was: the representations of black
people imported into the country during apartheid were singularly negative ones, and Jamaican music was
one of the few imported forms that celebrated blackness and gave ghettoized black youth in South Africa
something to embrace and identify with. As he describes it,
"If we had to look at any other example of black people off the continent who have found their essence, it's
Jamaicans. For us, for South Africans after the curtain was lifted, after we could see other things besides
what was presented to us on television which was blacksploitation [sic.] movies and stuff like that, buffoons,
you know the picture of us. Any other picture of a successful black man was him behaving like a caricature
of himself. Jamaicans brought another element to a picture we had of us as an out of body experience.
Yeah, so I think you'll find that a lot of people, you know, have been touched by the culture, in South Africa,
within 10 years."
[49]

Similarities have also been raised among Kwaito and Grime. These genres are based out of the local
popularity of dance music, in both the UK and Jamaica Furthermore they are both offshoots of popular
electronic genres: kwaito being an offshoot of house music and dub being a derivative of drum n bass as
well as garage. Both of these genres are also becoming increasingly popular in the U.S.<
[49][58]

Kwaito dances[edit]
Kwaito is more than just a music genre. In fact, an article posted on CNN.com described kwaito as a whole
subculture with a swirl of irresistible dance beats.
[59]
According to Sonjah Stanley-Niaah in his article
"Mapping Black Atlantic Performance Geographies: From Slave Ship to Ghetto," dancing has given kwaito
increased appeal.
[49]
In South Africa, beginning in the 1950s, people go to "shebeens" to listen to music,
dance, socialize on the weekends. The dancing girls at these parties, often hosted in houses as opposed to
licensed clubs, served as a motivation for men to attend. As kwaito emerged and became the norm of
music in the shebeens, its popularity rapidly increased. Boom Shaka, the first kwaito group, was also the
first to create and popularize dance moves to accompany kwaito. The steps are said to offer a window into
the everyday life of South Africans by building on traditional dance styles from the region. This new dance
style has also led to discussion over gender relations. Kwaito dancing has brought on a new type of female
display in South Africa. The fact that women dance independently and draw men to them has been
redefining the gender boundaries for propriety, work, ethics and morality for the South African population.
[49]

Mapantsula is a male-dominated dance that came about in the 1980s representing the lower class culture.
This dance includes synchronized movements by large groups of male dancers.
[49]
Mapantsula was also
the title of a 1988 film describing the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa. It was the first anti-apartheid
film relating to black South Africans. And Bhujwa dancing is also influenced by kwaito/house music, Bhujwa
dancing originated in Soweto Jabulani; pioneered by Sphiwe ntini and Skhebstar Makhubu T and then the
culture eventually spread in Soweto and South Africa.
Kwaito and globalization[edit]
The homogenization of Kwaito with American rap music, due to Globalization, is viewed by Kwaito artists
as a threat to the preservation of their local South African music credibility. Thus, Kwaito artist focus on
maintaining an emotional link between customer and brand. This explains why Transnational corporations
are much less interested in homogenizing or Americanizing Kwaito music because true Kwaito represents
and dictates South African experience.
[60]
Americanizing Kwaito, as is many artists' opinion, can potentially
dilute the substance Kwaito was originally based on.
[61]

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ Host, Vivian. "New World Music: Raw Earth". XLR8R. xlr8r.com. Retrieved 5 December
2007.
2. Jump up^ Impey, Angela. "Resurrecting the Flesh: Reflections on Women in Kwaito." Agenda 49
(2001): pp. 4450.
3. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c

d

e

f

g
"South African music after Apartheid: kwaito, the "party politic," and the
appropriation of gold as a sign of success | Popular Music and Society | Find Articles at
BNET.com".
[dead link]

4. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
The Kwaito Generation: Inside Out: a production of 90.9 WBUR Boston, MA
5. Jump up^http://www.southafrica.info/what_happening/news/features/kwaitomental.html
6. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Mhlambi, Thokozani. "'Kwaitofabulous': The study of a South African urban genre."
Journal of the Musical Arts in Africa, vol 1 (2004): pp. 11627.
7. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Magubane, Zine. "Globalization and Gangster Rap: Hip-Hop in the Post-Apartheid
City." In The Vinyl Aint Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita
Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, pp. 20829. London; Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press.
8. Jump up^ "Amuzine Beatspeak". 22 May 1998. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
9. Jump up^ The Kwaito Generation: Inside Out:: A production of 90.9 WBUR Boston, MA
10. Jump up^ Arthur Goldstruck, "They Can See Clearly Now." Billboard, Vol 269, No. 18 (29 November
1999 pp.6065)
11. Jump up^ Semaj, Leahcim T. "Rastafari: From Religion to Social Theory." Caribbean Quarterly. 1985
12. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
BBC World Service | Rhythms of the Continent
13. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c

d
Gavin Steingo, "South African music after Apartheid: kwaito, the 'party politic,' and
the appropriation of gold as a sign of success."
14. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Swink, Simone. "Kwaito: Much More Than Music." South Africa. 7 January 2003.
<http://www.southafrica.info/what_happening/news/features/kwaitomental.htm>.
15. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Mhlambi, Thokozani. "Kwaitofabulous: the Study of a South African urban
genre." Journal of the Musical Arts in Africa, Volume 1, pp. 116127. University of Cape Town. 2004
16. Jump up^ Thokozani, Mhlambi. "Kwaitofabulous: the study of a South African urban genre".Journal of
the Musical Arts in Africa, Volume 1 2004, pp. 116127.
17. Jump up^ Swink, Simone. Kwaito: Much more than Music. 7 January 2003.
18. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Robinson, Simon. "That's Kwaito Style." Time Magazine, 11 April 2004.
19. Jump up^ Official TSOTSI Film Site
20. Jump up^ BBC, "Kwaito: The Voice of the Youth"
21. Jump
up^http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:tXaObg4XvqMJ:www.theyouthinstitute.or
g/pubs/Is%2520Kwaito%2520South%2520African%2520Hip%2520Hop.pdf+kwaito+cultural+context&hl
=fr&ct=clnk&cd=5&gl=us&client=firefox-a.
22. Jump up^ Swink, Simone. "Kwaito: much more than music." 7 January
2003.http://www.southafrica.info/what_happening/news/features/kwaitomental.htm
23. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Mhlambi, Thokozani. "Kwaitofabulous: the study of a South African urban
genre." Journal of the Musical Arts in Africa, Volume 1, pp. 116127. University of Cape Town. 2004.
24. Jump up^ Is Kwaito South African Hip Hop? Why the answer matters and who it matters to, Sharlene
Swartz The Youth Institute 14 May 2003
25. Jump up^ Sharp Sharp! the kwaito story (25min, DVCam, South Africa-Netherlands), Aryan
Kaganof, 2003. featuring Zola, TKZee, Oskido, Mzambiya, Don Laka and Mandoza
26. Jump up^ Mhlambi, Thokozani. 'Kwaitofabulous: The study of a South African urban genre. Journal of
the Musical Arts in Africa, vol. 1, 2004: 11627.
27. Jump up^ Kwaito Blows Up | Newsweek International | Newsweek.com
28. Jump up^ "Kwaito: South Africa's hip-hop?".CNN. 9 June 1999.
29. Jump up^ Swink, Simone. Kwaito: Much More Than Music. 22 December 2005. 28 February
2008.http://www.southafrica.info/pls/procs/iac.page?p_t1=694&p_t2=1832&p_t3=0&p_t4=0&p_dynamic
=YP&p_content_id=199547&p_site_id=38.
30. Jump up^ Steingo (200507). South African music after Apartheid: kwaito, the "party politic," and the
appropriation of gold as a sign of success. Retrieved on 2008-02-28.
31. Jump up^ Robinson, Simon (11 April 2004). "That's Kwaito Style". Time.
32. Jump up^ Gavin Steingo, "South African music after Apartheid: kwaito, the 'party politic,' and the
appropriation of gold as a sign of success." accessed on 29 February 2008
33. Jump up^ SANNEH, KELEFA. "Hip-Hop Hybrids That Scramble Traditions." 25 August
2005.http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/25/arts/music/25sann.html
34. Jump up^ Mhlambi, Thokozani. "'Kwaitofabulous': The study of a South African urban genre." Journal
of the Musical Arts in Africa, vol 1 (2004): 123124.
35. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Kwaito: much more than music SouthAfrica.info
36. Jump up^ The Kwaito Generation: Inside Out:: A production of 90.9 WBUR Boston, MA
37. Jump up^ Mzekezeke takes his bow, the cult grows
38. Jump up^ kagablog the kwaito story: rude boy paul interviewed by aryan kaganof
39. Jump up^ kagablog the kwaito story: arthur mafokate interviewed by aryan kaganof
40. Jump up^ Mhlambi, Thokozani. "Kwaitofabulous: The study of a South African urban genre." Journal
of the Musical Arts in Africa, vol 1 (2004): 11627.
41. Jump up^ Philadelphia, Desa. "The Madonna of the Townships."
Time.http://www.time.com/time/musicgoesglobal/africa/mfassie.html. Accessed 29 February 2008.
42. Jump up^ Remembering South Africas wild child. BBC
News.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6081090.stm. Accessed 29 February 2008.
43. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Levin, Adam. "Girlz in the mood."http://www.chico.mweb.co.za/art/music/9807/980730-
ghetto.html. Posted 30 July 1998. Accessed 29 February 2008.
44. Jump up^ Magubane, Zine. "Globalization and Gangster Rap: Hip Hop in the Post-Apartheid City." In
The Vinyl Aint Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu
and Sidney J. Lemelle, 208-29. London; Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press
45. Jump up^ Wright, Steve. "Kwaito:South Africa's hip-
hop?."http://www.cnn.com/SHOWBIZ/Music/9906/09/kwaito.wb/.html. Posted 9 June 1999. Accessed
29 February 2008.
46. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Mhlambi, Thokozani (25 June 1999). "'Kwaitofabulous': The study of a South African
urban genre". Journal of the Musical Arts in Africa 1: 122.
47. Jump up^ "The Kwaito Story: Lebo Mathosa Interviewed by Aryan Kaganof". 24 September 2006.
Retrieved 27 February 2008.
48. Jump up^ McCloy, Maria (24 January 1997). "Fast Cars and Death Threats". Archived fromthe
original on 29 November 2005. Retrieved 27 February 2008.
49. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c

d

e

f

g
Stanley-Niaah, Sonjah. "Mapping of Black Atlantic Performance Geographies:
From Slave Ship to Ghetto." In Black Geographies and the Politics of Place, ed. by Katherine McKittrick
and Clyde Woods, 194. Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2007
50. Jump up^ Queen of Kwaito Singing a in
Tune:http://journals.aol.com/kingbing1/FortiFi/entries/2007/05/02/botswana-queen-of-kwaito-singing-a-
in-tune/3254
51. Jump up^ "Jozi's Hip Hop Revolution," 20 May 2003 accessed on 2-29-08
52. Jump up^ Magubane, Zine. "Globalization and Gangster Rap: Hip Hop in the Post-Apartheid City." In
The Vinyl Aint Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu
and Sidney J. Lemelle, 208-29. London; Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press. P. 220
53. Jump up^ Magubane, Zine. "Globalization and Gangster Rap: Hip Hop in the Post-Apartheid City." In
The Vinyl Aint Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu
and Sidney J. Lemelle, 208-29. London; Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press. P. 217
54. Jump up^ Kwaitofabulous: The Study of a South African Urban Genre by Thokozani Mhlambi,
Published in the Journal of The Musical Arts in Africa Volume 1 2004,116127
55. Jump up^ Kagablog, posted 18 December 2007 by Nhlanhla Sibongile Mafu, johannesburg, 2002
56. Jump up^ *Swink, Simone. "Kwaito: much more than music", "South Africa", January, 2003. Accessed
28 February 2008.
57. Jump up^ * Asiedu, William. "African youth turn up the volume on hip hop, reggae", "Jamaica
Gleaner", 3 February 2008.
58. Jump up^ *Sanneh, Kelefa. "Hip-Hop Hybrids That Scramble Traditions", "The New York Times", 25
August 2005. Accessed 28 February 2008.
59. Jump up^ Wright, Steve. "Kwaito: South Africas hip-hop?" CNN.com. 9 June 1999.
<http://www.cnn.com/SHOWBIZ/Music/9906/09/kwaito.wb>
60. Jump up^ Magubane, Zine. The Vinyl Aint Final "Globalization and Gangster Rap: Hip Hop in the post-
Apartheid City". 220
61. Jump up^ Swartz, Sharlene. "Is Kwaito South African Hip Hop? Why the answer matters and who it
matters to". May 2003
[1]