Peak Ground Acceleration

Peak ground acceleration (PGA) is a measure of earthquake acceleration on the ground and an
important input parameter for earthquake engineering, also known as the design basis earthquake
ground motion (DBEGM).
Unlike the Richter and moment magnitude scales, it is not a measure of the total energy (magnitude,
or size) of an earthquake, but rather of how hard the earth shakes in a given geographic area
(the intensity). The Mercalli intensity scale uses personal reports and observations to measure
earthquake intensity but PGA is measured by instruments, such as accelerographs, and it generally
correlates well with the Mercalli scale.
The peak horizontal acceleration (PHA) is the most commonly used type of ground acceleration in
engineering applications, and is used to set building codes and design hazard risks. In an earthquake,
damage to buildings and infrastructure is related more closely to ground motion, rather than the
magnitude of the earthquake. For moderate earthquakes, PGA is the best determinate of damage; in
severe earthquakes, damage is more often correlated with peak ground velocity.
Geophysics
Earthquake energy is dispersed in waves from the epicentre, causing ground movement horizontally
(in two directions) and vertically. PGA records the acceleration (rate of change of speed) of these
movements, while peak ground velocity is the greatest speed (rate of movement) reached by the
ground, and peak displacement is the distance moved. These values vary in different earthquakes,
and in differing sites within one earthquake event, depending on a number of factors. These include
the length of the fault, magnitude, the depth of the quake, the distance from the epicentre, the
duration (length of the shake cycle), and the geology of the ground (subsurface). Shallow-focused
earthquakes generate stronger shaking (acceleration) than intermediate and deep quakes, since the
energy is released closer to the surface.
Peak ground acceleration can be expressed in g (the acceleration due to Earth's gravity, equivalent
to g-force) as either a decimal or percentage; in m/s
2
(1 g = 9.81 m/s
2
); or in Gal, where 1 Gal is
equal to 0.01 m/s (1 g = 981 Gal).
The ground type can significantly influence ground acceleration, so PGA values can display extreme
variability over distances of a few kilometers, particularly with moderate to large earthquakes. The
varying PGA results from an earthquake can be displayed on a shake map. Due to the complex
conditions affecting PGA, earthquakes of similar magnitude can offer disparate results, with many
moderate magnitude earthquakes generating significantly larger PGA values than larger magnitude
quakes.
During an earthquake, ground acceleration is measured in three directions: vertically (V or UD, for up-
down) and two perpendicular horizontal directions (H1 and H2), often north-south (NS) and east-west
(EW). The peak acceleration in each of these directions is recorded, with the highest individual value
often reported. Alternatively, a combined value for a given station can be noted. The peak horizontal
ground acceleration (PHA or PHGA) can be reached by selecting the higher individual recording,
taking the mean of the two values, or calculating a vector sum of the two components. A three-
component value can also be reached, by taking the vertical component into consideration also.
In seismic engineering, the effective peak acceleration (EPA, the maximum ground acceleration to
which a building responds) is often used, which tends to be the PGA.
Seismic Risk And Engineering
Study of geographic areas combined with an assessment of historical earthquakes allows geologists
to determine seismic risk and to create seismic hazard maps, which show the likely PGA values to be
experienced in a region during an earthquake, with a probability of exceedance (PE). Seismic
engineers and government planning departments use these values to determine the
appropriate earthquake loading for buildings in each zone, with key identified structures (such as
hospitals, bridges, power plants) needing to survive the maximum considered earthquake (MCE).
Damage to buildings is related to both peak ground velocity and PGA, and the duration of the
earthquake the longer high-level shaking persists, the greater the likelihood of damage.
Comparison Of Instrumental And Felt Intensity
Peak ground acceleration provides a measurement of instrumental intensity, that is, ground shaking
recorded by seismic instruments. Other intensity scales measure felt intensity, based on eyewitness
reports, felt shaking, and observed damage. There is correlation between these scales, but not
always absolute agreement since experiences and damage can be affected by many other factors,
including the quality of earthquake engineering.
Generally speaking,
0.001 g (0.01 m/s) perceptible by people
0.02 g (0.2 m/s) people lose their balance
0.50 g very high; well-designed buildings can survive if the duration is short.
Correlation with the Mercalli Scale
The United States Geological Survey developed an Instrumental Intensity scale which maps peak
ground acceleration and peak ground velocity on an intensity scale similar to the felt Mercalli scale.
These values are used to create shake maps by seismologists around the world.
Instrumental
Intensity
Acceleration
(g)
Velocity
(cm/s)
Perceived Shaking Potential Damage
I < 0.0017 < 0.1 Not felt None
II-III 0.0017 - 0.014 0.1 - 1.1 Weak None
IV 0.014 - 0.039 1.1 - 3.4 Light None
V 0.039 - 0.092 3.4 - 8.1 Moderate Very light
VI 0.092 - 0.18 8.1 - 16 Strong Light
VII 0.18 - 0.34 16 - 31 Very strong Moderate
VIII 0.34 - 0.65 31 - 60 Severe Moderate to heavy
IX 0.65 - 1.24 60 - 116 Violent Heavy
X+ > 1.24 > 116 Extreme Very heavy
Other Intensity Scales
In the 7-class Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale, the highest intensity, Shindo 7,
covers accelerations greater than 4 m/s (0.41 g).
In India, areas with expected PGA values higher than 0.36g are classed as "Zone 5", or "Very High
Damage Risk Zone".
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Seismic Hazard
Seismic hazard refers to the study of expected earthquake ground motions at the earth's surface, and its likely
effects on existing natural conditions and man-made structures for public safety considerations; the results of such
studies are published as seismic hazard maps, which identify the relative motion of different areas on a local,
regional or national basis. With hazards thus determined, their risks are assessed and included in such areas
as building codes for standard buildings, designing larger buildings and infrastructure projects, land use
planning and determining insurance rates. The seismic hazard studies also may generate two standard measures of
anticipated ground motion, both confusingly abbreviated MCE; the simpler probabilistic Maximum Considered
Earthquake (or Event ), used in standard building codes, and the more detailed and deterministic Maximum Credible
Earthquake incorporated in the design of larger buildings and civil infrastructure like dams or bridges. It is important
to clarify which MCE is being discussed.
Calculations for determining seismic hazard were first formulated by C. Allin Cornell in 1968
[4]
and, depending on
their level of importance and use, can be quite complex. The regional geology and seismology setting is first
examined for sources and patterns of earthquake occurrence, both in depth and at the at the
surface from seismometer records; secondly, the impacts from these sources are assessed relative to local geologic
rock and soil types, slope angle and groundwater conditions. Zones of similar potential earthquake shaking are thus
determined and drawn on maps. The well-known San Andreas Fault is illustrated as a long narrow elliptical zone of
greater potential motion, like many areas along continental margins associated with the Pacific ring of fire. Zones of
higher seismicity in the continental interior may be the site for intraplate earthquakes) and tend to be drawn as broad
areas, based on historic records, like the 1812 New Madrid earthquake, since specific causative faults are generally
not identified as earthquake sources.
Each zone is given properties associated with source potential: how many earthquakes per year, the maximum size
of earthquakes (maximum magnitude), etc. Finally, the calculations require formulae that give the required hazard
indicators for a given earthquake size and distance. For example, some districts prefer to use peak acceleration,
others use peak velocity, and more sophisticated uses require response spectral ordinates.
The computer program then integrates over all the zones and produces probability curves for the key ground motion
parameter. The final result gives you a 'chance' of exceeding a given value over a specified amount of time.
Standard building codes for homeowners might be concerned with a 1 in 500 years chance, while nuclear plants
look at the 10,000 year time frame. A longer-term seismic history can be obtained through paleoseismology. The
results may be in the form of a ground response spectrum for use in seismic analysis.
More elaborate variations on the theme also look at the soil conditions.
[6]
If you build on a soft swamp, you are likely
to experience many times the ground motions than your neighbour on solid rock. The standard seismic hazard
calculations become adjusted upwards if you are postulating characteristic earthquakes.
Areas with high ground motion due to soil conditions are also often subject to soil failure due to liquefaction. Soil
failure can also occur due to earthquake-induced landslides in steep terrain. Large area landsliding can also occur
on rather gentle slopes as was seen in the "Good Friday Earthquake" in Anchorage, Alaska, March 28, 1964.
MCEs
In a normal seismic hazard analyses intended for the public, that of a "maximum considered earthquake", or
"maximum considered event" (MCE) for a specific area, is an earthquake that is expected to occur once in
approximately 2,500 years; that is, it has a 2-percent probability of being exceeded in 50 years. The term is used
specifically for general building codes, which people commonly occupy; building codes in many localities will require
non-essential buildings to be designed for "collapse prevention" in an MCE, so that the building remains standing -
allowing for safety and escape of occupants - rather than full structural survival of the building.
A far more detailed and stringent MCE stands for "maximum credible earthquake", which is used in designing for
skyscrapers and larger civil infrastructure, like dams, where structural failure could lead to other catastrophic
consequences. These MCEs might require determining more than one specific earthquake event, depending on the
variety of structures included.
US Seismic Hazard Maps
Some maps released by the USGS are shown with peak ground acceleration with a 10% probability of
exceedance in 50 years, measured in Metre per second squared. For parts of the US, the National Seismic Hazard
Mapping Project in 2008 resulted in seismic hazard maps showing peak acceleration (as a percentage of gravity)
with a 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years.
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Strong Ground Motion
Seismologists usually define strong ground motion as the strong earthquake shaking that occurs close to (less
than about 50 km from) a causative fault. The strength of the shaking involved in strong ground motion usually
overwhelms a seismometer, forcing the use of accelerographs (or strong ground motion accelerometers) for
recording.
As seismic instruments (and accelerometers in particular) become more common, it becomes necessary to correlate
expected damage with instrument-readings. The old Modified Mercalli intensity scale (MM), a relic of the pre-
instrument days, remains useful in the sense that each intensity-level provides an observable difference in seismic
damage.
After many years of trying every possible manipulation of accelerometer-time histories, it turns out that the extremely
simple peak ground velocity (PGV) provides the best correlation with damage. PGV merely expresses the peak of
the first integration of the acceleration record. Accepted formulae now link PGV with MM Intensity. Note that the
effect of soft soils gets built into the process, since one can expect that these foundation conditions will amplify the
PGV significantly.
ShakeMap

systems tie all of this together into a useful product. Some systems use seismometers and
accelerometers to produce a near-instantaneous map of expected MM Intensities after a significant earthquake. As
well, people can send in their observations of earthquake effects to help fill in the maps, which can help disaster-
relief teams and other agencies.
The science of strong ground motion also deals with the variations of fault rupture, both in total displacement,
energy released, rupture velocity, etc.
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Spectral Acceleration
Spectral acceleration (SA) is a unit measured in g (the acceleration due to Earth's gravity, equivalent to g-force)
that describes the maximum acceleration in an earthquake on an object specifically a damped, harmonic oscillator
moving in one physical dimension. This can be measured at (or specified for) different oscillation frequencies and
with different degrees of damping, although 5% damping is commonly applied. The SA at different frequencies may
be plotted to form a response spectrum.
Spectral acceleration, with a value related to the natural frequency of vibration of the building, is used in earthquake
engineering and gives a closer approximation to the motion of a building or other structure in an earthquake than the
peak ground acceleration value, although there is normally a correlation between [short period] SA and PGA.
Some seismic hazard maps are also produced using spectral acceleration.
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Earthquake Loading
Seismic loading is one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering which means application of an earthquake-
generated agitation to a structure. It happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground, or with
adjacent structures, or with gravity waves from tsunami.
Seismic loading depends, primarily, on:
Anticipated earthquake's parameters at the site - known as seismic hazard
Geotechnical parameters of the site
Structure's parameters
Characteristics of the anticipated gravity waves from tsunami (if applicable).
Sometimes, seismic load exceeds ability of a structure to resist it without being broken, partially or completely Due
to their mutual interaction; seismic loading and seismic performance of a structure are intimately related.
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