Dar El Tarbiah S ch o o l

AS Biology Revision
Notes
Science is organised knowledge.
Wisdom is
organised life - Kant
- 1 -
A wo rd o f ca u tio n
These revision notes are designed to help you, NOT do the job of revision
for you !lti"ately, only you can learn this "aterial# you can$t pay, cajole
or persuade anyone to do it for you% Additionally, these notes are the bare
bones &your te't boo( and class notes are al"ost certainly better sources
of infor"ation if you$re ai"ing for the highest grades) So treat these
notes as a "ini"alist approach for so"eone ai"ing for a solid B grade At
this point you "ight *ant to get your o*n notes to cross+reference *ith
the "aterial here ,hy not add your o*n annotations to i"prove *hat$s
already here-
."portant Notice #
/ The 0 1ore 2racticals are not discussed here
Don$t forget to revise the" too%
3 All 4ey ,ords are given underlined in r e d , these
are *ords specifically "entioned on the syllabus%
5 There are "any blue 67o* Science ,or(s8 bo'es
in the te't boo( .n past years these have al"ost
al*ays been the basis of a nu"ber of e'a"
9uestions
- 2 -
Ed x AS B o ogy R v on No W n by T m F n
E de ' ce l A S R e vis io n
!nit /# :ifestyle, Transport, ;enes
< 7ealth
T o pic 1: if es t ! le" # ea lt # $ % is k
1.1.&
,ater "olecules are pola r
7 = 2ositively charged &>?)
O = Negatively charged &>+)
This allo*s the" to for" '! d r o g en
( on d s *ith other *ater "olecules This
gives *ater so"e useful properties@
)ropert! *+planation
:ess dense as a solid Arctic ecosyste"s float, ice insulates *ater beneath it
etc
7igh S71 1ells do not heat up or cool do*n easily, therefore can
hold a fairly stable te"p &enAy"es)
2resent naturally in all
three states
Allo*s the *ater cycle to function
Transparent Allo*s photosynthesis under*ater
1ohesion ;enerates surface tension, capillary upta(e,
transpiration etc
;ood solvent Essential role in tr a nspor t in biological syste"s
.""iscible *ith
hydrophobic "olecules
Allo*s "e"branes to for" and, therefore, control
"ove"ent in B out of cells
7igh latent heat of
evaporation
Evaporation of *ater has a strong cooling effect and
co"paratively little *ater is re9uired to lose a lot of
heat
Buffer ,ater is capable of accepting and donating protons,
therefore acts as a buffer
- 3 -
1.1.,
Sa c c # a r i d es are "ade fro" s u g a r "olecules, *hich are "ade
fro" co"binations of the ele"ents -arbon, '!drogen and .+!gen
only
Saccharides are used for@
/ Cuels for respiration &eg glucose)
3 Energy storage "olecules &eg sta r c # and g l! c o ge n )
5 Structural "olecules &eg c e ll u los e )
/onosacc#arides D one sugar "olecule only 0isacc#arides
D t*o sugar "olecules joined together .ligosacc#arides D
a fe* sugar "olecules joined together )ol!sacc#arides D
"any sugar "olecules joined together
0isacc#aride 1ame -omponent monosacc#arides
Ealtose ;lucose ? ;lucose
Sucrose ;lucose ? Cructose
:actose ;lucose ? ;alactose
Fou need to (no* the different structures of g l u c o s e Fou
should be able to dra* this out if re9uested
.'
'
2 3 l u c os e 4 3 l u c os e
There are t# ree polysaccharides specifically "entioned on your
syllabus &starch, glycogen and cellulose) 1ellulose is in Topic G
&3G5) but is included here for reference
)ol!sacc#aride Structure and 5unction
;lycogen / Eade fro" 2oly &2 3 l u c os e )
3 Cound in m u s c l e and l i 6 er cells for energy storage
5 7 nsol ub l e , so no os"otic effect in tissues
G :ots of branches &ie /+H glycosidic bonds present),
*hich allo*s 9uic( access to glucose
I -ompa c t shape, so good for storage
Starch / Actually "ade fro" t*o "olecules in co"bination@
Am!los e and Am!l o p e c t in
3 Both are "ade fro" 2oly &2 3 l u c o s e )
5 Cound in Am!loplast s &starch grains) inside
plant cells for energy storage
G 7 nsol ub l e , so no os"otic effect in tissues
I Am!lose has n o branches &ie /+G glycosidic
bonds only), so access to glucose is slo*
H Am!lopectin has so"e branches &ie both /+G < /+H
glycosidic bonds) ,7F--
1ellulose / Eade fro" 2oly &8 3 l u c os e )
3 Eain co"ponent of cell *alls as it is a very strong
structural "olecule
5 .nsolubleJ for obvious reasons%
G 1ellulose has no branches &ie /+G glycosidic bonds
only), so adjacent cellulose chains line up close
I '! d r o gen b on d s for" bet*een adjacent
chains, creating very strong cellulose f ib r i l s
1.1.9
Saccharides join together in con d ensat io n r ea ct ion s , *hich produce
water A g l ! c os i d ic bond for"s bet*een the saccharide "olecules
The opposite of a condensation reaction is a # ! d rol!s i s
This re9uires@
/ 7eat ? 71:
3 OR an enAy"e &eg A"ylase)
Test s fo r S a ch ar id es #
+ 7o din e solution turns bro*n blueBblac( in the presence of starc#
+ (e n e d i c t : s solution turns blue bric( red in the presence of
a reducing sugar
+ Non reducing sugars &"ost disaccharides and all polysaccharides) *ill
give a positive result to Benedict$s if heated in acid first
1.1.;
T r ig l ! c e r i d es are either fats or oils They are "ade fro" the
ele"ents 1, 7 < O only
Triglycerides are used for@
/ :ong ter" energ! storage "olecules
3 7nsulation
5 )rotection &eg pericardiu")
G (uo!anc!
I Synthesis of specific #ormones &eg steroids)
Triglycerides are for"ed in
condensation reactions bet*een@
/ ' g l! c e ro l
5 ' fatt ! a c id
An e st er bond for"s bet*een
the fatty acid and the glycerol
Sat u ra t ed triglycerides have no
1=1 bonds in the" They for" fats
< nsat u rat ed triglycerides DO have
1=1 bonds in the" They for" oils
The 1=1 bonds for" K(in(s$ in the fatty acid chains, *hich push
adjacent triglycerides a*ay fro" each other This lo*ers the
effect of i nt e rmol e c u la r for c es &eg 6an der 6aal:s forces),
*hich lo*ers the boiling and "elting te"p
Test for a triglyceride &*mulsion test)#
/ Add ethanol &dissolves fat)
3 Add *ater
5 W#ite precipitate indicates a positive result
A"oeba :arge SA#Lol ratio 1an rely on diffusion through its
surface
7u"an S"all SA#Lol ratio Diffusion through surface is to o slo *
to supply O
3
Therefore re9uire a
mas s
transpor t syste" and specialiAed
1.1.=
C ic( $s l a* #
Rate of Diffusion = Surface Area ' 1onc ;radient
Distance
.f *e apply this to a cube, the rate at *hich O
3
reaches the centre
of the cube is a product of the ratio of the Surface Area co"pared
to the Lolu"e &ie SA#Lol)
e+ c #an g e o r gan s
.n hu"ans the mass transport syste" is the circulatory syste" and
the heart The specialiAed e+c#ange organs include the lungs and
the digestive syste"
-ontract on n t#e #eart:
1.1.>
Fou need to (no*@
/ the na"es of the G c # a m b e r s of the heart
3 the na"es of the 3 art e r i es and 3 6 ei n s attached to the heart
5 The na"es of the t*o sets of 6al6 es in the heart
G The ca r dia c c! cl e
I The initiation and conduction path*ays of the heartbeat
Lena 1ava
Aorta
2ul"onary Artery
Se"i+lunar Lalve
1uspid Lalve
Lena 1ava
i i
%emember" t#e atria contract first. T#e $ % atria contract at
t#e same time. T#e 6entricles contract second. T#e $ %
?entricles contract at t#e same time.
AS B o ogy R v on No i
M D M3s Atr i a l S!stol e
The atria contract, atrial pressure rises and
blood is pushed fro" atria ventricles
M3 D M5s ? e ntr i c u la r
S!stol e
The ventricles contract, ventricular pressure
rises above atrial pressure and the cuspid valves
shut &/)
Lentricular pressure rises, but no blood leaves
the heart yet%
,hen ventricular pressure rises above pressure
in the arteries the se"i+lunar valves open &3)
Blood leaves the heart
M5 D MGs 0 i astol e The ventricles rela' Lentricular pressure falls
and *hen pressure in the arteries N ventricular
pressure the se"i+lunar valves shut &5)
MG D MOs 0 i astol e The entire heart is rela'ed The cuspid valves
open &G) and both atria and ventricles fill *ith
blood
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes
SAN# S ino-Atr i a l Node
ALN# Atro- ? e ntr ic u la r Node
) ur kin@ e 5i br es &in bundle of
' is )
/ SAN sends a *ave of electrical activity &d epolar iA at i o n )
around the *alls of the atria
3 A ring of insulating tissue bloc(s the *ave fro" passing into
the ventricles
5 The ALN conducts the *ave into the Lentricles slo*l y , *hich
gives the ventricles t i" e t o f ill
G The 2ur(inje fibres are fast+conducting and ta(e the *ave to
the ap e+ of the heart first, so the ventricles contract
botto" up*ards
1.1.B
Arte ry#
collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue
lumen (blood)
0.1-10mm
Arteries carry #ig# pressure blood a w a ! fro" the heart
4 ey 2 o ints #
basemen memb ane
co agen
/ Thic( "uscle layer to *ithstand high pressure blood
3 Elastic tissue allo*s artery to stretch *hen blood is forced
into it The elastic layer recoils during diastole, converting
p u lsat i l e into la m i n a r &continuous) blood flo*
5 2rotective collagen layer
G Round shape
I Relatively s"all lu"en
Le in #
0.1-20mm
collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue
semilunar valve
lumen (blood)
Leins carry low pressure blood to w ar d s the heart
4 ey 2o ints #
/ Thin "uscle layer &lo* pressure blood)
3 Lalve to stop b a c k f l o w
5 2rotective collagen layer
G Not a round shape &*all not thic( enough to hold shape)
I :arge lu"en &decreases effect of friction)
1api ll ary#
S"all hol
t
e
r
( ll )
endothelium cell
red blood cell
8 m
1apillaries are adapted for e + c # an g e D they are not
connected directly to the heart
4 ey 2o ints #
/ ,alls are one cell t#ick &cells are called endothelial cells)
3 :u"en is the sa"e *idth as one RB1 &therefore "ore of RB1
in contact *ith *all, therefore s"aller diffusion distance)
5 No "uscle or elastic tissue
G Tiny &co"pare the scales and re"ind yourself *hat a P" is)
1.1.C
0ig up !our 0 a p# n i a -ore )ractical notes in t#e )ractical
'andbook
1.1.1D $ 1.1.11
At # e ros c l e ros is is a disease in *hich the *all of arteries beco"es
furred up *ith fatty deposits called pla Eues or at # e r o mas The
se9uence of atherosclerosis is as follo*s@
/ * n d o t #e l i a l layer on the inside of an artery is da"aged
3 7nflammation &an A3 topic) of the artery *all occurs
5 ,hite blood cells "ove into the artery *all
G - #ol est ero l begins to accu"ulate at the site of da"age
I At #e rom a for"s
H :u"en narro*s
O 2ressure increases
As # !p e r t e ns i o n speeds athero"a
for"ation these steps are a vicious
cycle%
After atherosclerosis has developed there is a chance that a blood
clot "ight for" in the da"aged area This "a(es the proble" "uch
*orse%
1lo t for" at io n #
/ ) lat el et s are activated by substances released by the
da"aged artery *all
3 2latelets beco"e 6stic(y8 and for" a 6platelet plug8 on the
surface of the athero"a
5 2latelet plus releases che"icals *hich activate t #rom bopla s t in
G T#romboplastin initiates the clotting cascade
Thro"boplastin
There is a real danger of the blood clot beco"ing dislodged fro"
the site of for"ation .t could be carried around the bloodstrea"
and deposited else*here .f this occurs@
+ in the brain a str o ke
occurs
+ in the coronary arteries, - ' 0 or even an i nfa r c t i o n "ight
occur
+ any*here else, i s c # a e m ia and even gangrene are
possible
1.1.1&
Ris( factors for 1LD There are lots, but these O are specifically
"entioned on your syllabus
%isk 5actor *+planation
Age Atherosclerosis occurs naturally as our arteries beco"e
l e s s e l a st ic *ith age :ess elastic = higher pressure
during systole, hypertension, atherosclerosisJ
bu""er
;ender ;irls have less atherosclerosis# fact T*o e'planations@
/ ;irls "a(e o e st r o ge n , *hich has a protective effect
against atherosclerosis Evidence to support this theory
is that incidence of atherosclerosis in post+"enopausal
*o"en rises to that of "en
3 ,o"en tend to have less stressful jobs B be at ho"e
"ore less str e s s less hypertension, etc
7ypertension Speeds up athero"a for"ation AND causes endothelial
da"age &*hich is the /
st
step in atherosclerosis)
S"o(ing Nicotine is very, very good at da"aging the endotheliu"
Re"e"ber that ne't ti"e you$re te"pted to dally behind
the bi(e shedJ
.nactivity Allsorts of factors here@
+ lo*er ( / 7 = less hypertension
+ fitter heart = less hypertension
+ e'ercise decreases 0 levels
+ e'ercise increases "etabolic rate lo*ering BE.
+ 2ossibly so"e indirect contributing factors as *ellJ
if you e'ercise regularly you probably put stoc( in
loo(ing after yourself are you li(ely to be
s"o(ing or drin(ing as *ell-
;enetic predisposition So"e all e l es give you less protection fro" B greater
ris(
of developing atherosclerosis To an e'tent, a higher
chance of getting atherosclerosis does run in fa"ilies Diet Eillions of contributing factors here@
+ 7igh sal t inta(e causes hypertension
+ Eating s a t u r a t ed f a t s decreases ' 0 level
+ Eating "ore calories than you need causes BE. to
increase 7igh BE. is associated *ith
atherosclerosis
+ Al c o # o l causes hypertension directly
1.1.1,
Drug treat"ents for atherosclerosis and t heir s i d e
e ff e c t s @ Ant ihy p e rt e ns iv es
0 iur et i cs D The oop of 'enle is the part of the nep#ron &in the
(idney) that regulates *ater reabsorption Essentially, it puts Na
?
bac( into the blood by active transport This lo*ers the *ater
potential in the blood, so *ater follo*s the Na
?
by os"osis Eost
diuretics bloc( the protein that actively transports the Na
?
, so less
*ater is returned to the blood, thus reducing the pressure
Three proble"s *ith this, ho*ever@
/ The blood gets "ore viscous, *hich "a(es the heart beat
harder
3 Dehydration can occur
5 Only treating the sy"pto"
8 ( l o c k e r s D bloc( the adrenaline receptor in the heart This stops
the heart fro" beating harder in response to stress and, therefore,
reduces hypertension
There are so"e side effects in so"e cases &eg sleep disturbance,
depression, vasoconstriction of the e'tre"ities) but generally
they$re pretty good One of the "ain proble"s is
b r a d ! c a r d i a , *hich can beco"e serious if you have 17D 1an you
e'plain *hy-
- a
&

F


c # ann el b lo c k e r s D stop the heart "uscle fro" contracting
too hard Fou don$t need to (no* *hy, but if you$re interested loo(
up Starling$s :a* of the heartJ
Eajor side effect is arr # !t # m ia , *hich can develop into
f i b r i llat i o n
and
i nfar c t i o n
A- * 7n #i bitor s D
Renin EnAy"e A- * EnAy"e
Angiotensinogen Angiotensin . Angiotensin ..
A protein "ade by
the (idneys, *hich
circulates in the
blood
An inter"ediate,
also circulating in
the blood
The i"portant one%
This is the hor"one
that i n c r e as es
b lo o d pr e ss u r e %
Basically, our (idneys "a(e Angiotensinogen all the ti"e, but it
doesn$t do anything itself &its not a hor"one) it just circulates in
the blood 7o*ever, *hen *e are hyoptensive &ie have lo* blood
pressure) the (idneys start to "a(e Renin enAy"e, *hich turns
Antiotensinogen into Angiotensin . After this, A1E enAy"es &found
in the endothelial cells lining arteries) 9uic(ly turn the Antiotensin .
into Angiotensin .., *hich is a po*erful hor"one .t has the
follo*ing effects@
/ ;eneral 6aso c onstr i c t i o n
3 1auses the hypothala"us to release A0 ' &loo( it up fro"
;1SE, it *as in !nit 5), *hich increases *ater reabsorption by
the (idney
5 Sti"ulates the brain to release al d ost e ron e , *hich causes
the (idneys to increase salt reabsorption, *hich in turn
increases *ater reabsorption
All of these effects increase blood pressure, so A1E inhibitors *ill,
therefore, do the opposite
The "ajor side effect is kidne! failure
?aso d i lator s D dilate blood vessels, reducing blood
pressure
.f this occurs too "uch you get # !po t e ns i on , *hich can cause
heart attac(s &not enough blood returns to the heart to fill it
properly)
St at in s
T*o effects@
/ Bloc( an enAy"e in the liver that "a(es cholesterol
3 Re"ove :D: fro" the circulation
Associated *ith liver failure
Ant ico a gul ant s
As the second stage of atherosclerosis is associated *ith blood
clotting &t # rom b o s is ), anticoagulants bloc( the clotting process
There are "any, "any different *ays of doing this
Blood clots slo*ly
2l at el et in hi bito r y d r ugs
These *or( in the sa"e *ay as anticoagulants but target platelets,
*hich are re9uired to activate the clotting process They,
therefore, have the sa"e side+effects
1.1.19
1holesterol is the "ajor co"ponent in athero"as 7igh blood
cholesterol level is, therefore, a bad thing ,e get cholesterol fro"
t*o sources@
/ Diet
3 .t is "ade by the liver
i popro t ei n s &also "ade by the liver) ferry cholesterol around in the
bloodstrea" and play a role in pushing the liver to*ards "a(ing
"ore cholesterol, or e'creting "ore cholesterol There are t*o
types of lipoprotein@
' ig # 0 ens it ! ip o prot ein s &7D:s) ta(e cholesterol out of the
circulation to the liver, *here it is converted into bile salts and
&ulti"ately) e'creted 7D:s lo*er cholesterol levels
o w 0 e ns i t ! i poprot ei n s &:D:s) ta(e cholesterol fro" the liver
and put it into the circulation to the liver :D:s increase
cholesterol levels
1rudelyJ
1.1.1;
7igh 7D: = good 7igh :D: = bad
7igh cholesterol = bad
Fou need to understand that scientists use their scientific
(no*ledge of the effects of diet, e'ercise and s"o(ing to try and
predict ris( of 1LD and, therefore, to give people advice about ho*
to reduce their ris(
1.1.1=
0ig up !our ?i ta m i n - -ore )ractical notes in t#e )ractical
'andbook
1.1.1>
Body Eass .nde' = Eass
&7eight)
3
Four energy budget balances the nu"ber of calories you re9uire
*ith those that you consu"e .deally, they ought to be the sa"e
Energy consu"ed N Energy e'pended "ass
gain
Energy consu"ed Q Energy e'pended "ass
lost
BE. Q /RI !nder*eight
BE. bet*een /RI and 3I Nor"al
BE. bet*een 3I and 5M Over*eight
BE. N GM Obese
1.1.1B $ 1.1.1C
Fou need to be able to analyAe data on mortal i t ! rates to
deter"ine health ris( B e c a re f u l %
.f t*o sets of data follo* the sa"e pattern they are cor r el at ed
.f t*o sets of data follo* the sa"e pattern because one factor
directl! affects the other they are ca usa l
.n order to assess *hether data is correlated or causal scientists
e'peri"ent, the idea being to try and falsify the Null 7ypothesis
that one factor does not affect the other 7o*ever, be a*are that
the design of the e'peri"ent often affects the results Things to
*atch out for@
/ 2eople selected *ere no t r e pr e s e nt a t iv e of the population
&eg all students, all fe"ale, etc) ie not a c cur a t e
3 Only a fe* people *ere involved in the e'peri"ent &ie not
very r e l i a b l e )
5 Not all the variables *ere controlled ie a s!st e m at i c e r r o r
in the e'peri"ent &ie s"o(ers included *ith non+s"o(ers)
7f !ou get a Euestion on t#is section of t#e s!llabus alwa!s
ask !ourself W ' *% * ' A S T ' * 0 A TA -./* 5% . / G
1.1.&D
,hy "ight people$s perception of ris( be different fro" the actual
ris(-
/ They don$t understand the ris( fully and u n d e r e st i" a t e it &eg
if you s"o(e your ris( of 1LD is S and if you are obese your
ris( of 1LD is F B!T if you are both your ris( is not S ? F
but SFJ m uc # g r e a t er %)
3 They don$t understand the ris( fully and ov er est i" at e it &eg
the person *ho thin(s they actually "ight *in the lottery this
*ee(J)
Broadly spea(ing, ris( factors for 1LD tend to be
u n d e r e st i mat e d because people don$t realise that ris( factors tend
to be associated *ith other ie if you s"o(e and drin( and are
obese, chances are you also eat a diet high in saturated fat and
salt Tuite 9uic(ly the ris(s stac( upJ
.+!gen 0issociation -ur6e
This is not "entioned on the syllabus, but it is in the te't boo( The
prudent student learns it any*ayJ
Re"e"ber, each 7ae"oglobin &7b) can bind up to G O
3
"olecules
The af f i n i t ! of 7b for O
3
c#anges depending on ho* "any O
3
are being carried
- ( A
A# The hae"oglobin is in the lung and is O
3
loading Aff in it ! of 7b
is
high, therefore it 6fills up8 *ith O
3
easily
B# The hae"oglobin is in the respiring tissues .nitially affinity is
high, so 7b does not give O
3
a*ay easily to tissues that already have
enough 7o*ever, *hen 7b gives up its /
st
O
3
the affinity suddenly
drops, so 7b tends to unload 5 O
3
just *here it is re9uired%
1# ,ith 5 O
3
re"oved the affinity is high again, so the last O
3
is
(ept as an 6e"ergency8 .t is only given up if the 7b passes through
tissues *ith very lo* 2O
3
,h en t h e l in e s hif t s pos it io n
/ Coetal 7b has a higher affinity than adult 7b This is so the
foetus *ill load *ith O
3
fro" the "aternal 7b Coetal ends
*ith :, therefore shifts to the :ECT
3 :la"as &starts *ith :) live at altitude and need to have 7b
*ith higher affinity to load O
3
in the thin air
5 Eyoglobin &has an : in it) is an O
3
store in "uscles .t has
very, very high affinity for O
3
so only gives off O
3
*hen in the
6e"ergency8 section of the graph ,hales and diving "a""als
have vast 9uantities of "yoglobin in their "uscles
G Bohr &ends in R) shift occurs *hen 7b is e'posed to acid The
affinity drops and O
3
is unloaded "ore easily Acids tend to
be
+ carbonic acid &"ade fro" 1O
3
)
+ lactic acid &"ade in anaerobic respiration)
Both acids are produced *hen O
3
is in short supply, so it
"a(es sense for 7b to give up "ore O
3
in these
circu"stances
End of Topic /
Ed x AS B o ogy R v on No W n by T m F n
E de ' ce l A S R e vis io n
!nit /# :ifestyle, Transport, ;enes
<
7ealth
T o pic &: 3en es $ 'ea lt #
1.&.&
1harged phosphate 6head8 #! drop # il i c
!ncharged fatty acid 6tails8 #! drop # o bic
1ell "e"branes are "ade fro" a double layer &bi la! er ) of
p # osp # ol i p i d s , *hich align 6heads8 in*ards and 6tails8 out*ard
because of their attraction B repulsion fro" *ater Sat in teh
"e"brane are t r ansm e m b ra n e proteins The proteins have a
nu"ber of roles@
+ channels into B out of the cell &see /3G)
+ r e c e ptor s for hor"ones &tend to be glycoproteins)
+ cellular 6glue8 joining adjacent cells together &loo( up
des"oso"es if you$re interested)
+ anchors for the c ! t os ke l e to n
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes
1.&.,
.smosis is t#e mo6ement of water molecules from #ig#
concentration to low concentration t#roug# a partiall! permeable
membrane.
,ater "olecules cannot pass through the bilayer itself because
they are charged and are repulsed by the fatty acid 6tails8 There
are a fe* theories about ho* the *ater actually gets through, but
these are the best so far@
/ 2asses through special channels called a Eu apor i n s
3 Eoves through ion channel as ligands on ion co"ple'es &eg
*ith Na
?
or Eg
3?
)
1.&.9
7o* do "olecules "ove in B out of the "e"brane-
/ !ncharged hydrophobic "olecules &eg steroid hor"ones,
cholesterol, ethanol) pass freely bet*een fatty acid tails by
diffusion
3 :arge hydrophilic "olecules &eg enAy"es) "ove in by
en do c!tos is and out by e+ o c!tos is
5 S"all hydrophilic "olecules &eg glucose, "ineral ions, *ater)
"ove in and out via proteins in the "e"brane There are 5
types of these@
- # ann el ) rot ei n s
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes
Eove"ent is governed by "olecules diffusing freely through the
channel So"eti"es the channel *ill only open under specific
circu"stances &ie if a certain hor"one is present, or under certain
environ"ental conditions eg te"p, pressure etc) These are
g a t ed c # ann el pro t ei n s
5acilitated 0iffusion proteins
/ 3 5
2rotein channel has an active site specific to a particular hydrophilic
"olecule .t attaches to the "olecule, spins around in the "e"brane
and deposits it on the other side Eove"ent is governed by the
concentration gradient
Acti6e Transport proteins
As above, but the "ove"ent is against the concentration gradient
Energy &in the for" of AT2) is re9uired to get "ove"ent to occur
1.&.;
0ig up !our ( eet roo t -ore )ractical notes in t#e )ractical
'andbook
1.&.=
C ic( $s l a* #
Rate of Diffusion = Surface Area ' 1onc ;radient
Distance
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes
' uma n % esp irator ! S!st em
:aryn' &voicebo')
Thachea
Ribs
Alveolus
Diaphrag"
Bronchiole
Bronchus
.ntercostal Euscle
Thoracic 1avity
contained *ithin
pl eu ra l m e m b ran es
Hou s#ould be able to e+plain breat#ing in terms of 6olume and
pressure c#anges in t#e T # or a c i c -a 6 i t ! I3-S* ideaJ
Adaptations for rapid gas e'change &all related to Cic($s :a*)
*lement of 5ick:s aw Adaptation
Surface Area Each alveolus has a s"all SA, but there are
"illions, *hich produces a huge total SA
Distance Each alveolus is one cell thic(, as are the
capillaries *hich surround the" Therefore, the
total diffusion distance is only t*o cells%
1onc ;radient Lentilation "aintains a constantly high 2O
3
in
the alveoli Additionally, as soon as O
3
has been
collected by hae"oglobin the circulation
re"oves it, therefore "aintaining a lo* 2O
3
in
the blood This (eeps the concentration
gradient high%
%emind !ourself w#! #umans need lungs in t#e first place" w#!
can:t we @ust breat#e t#roug# our skin like Amoeba doG
ds are connected by pept de bonds They are
t on react ons and bro(en up n #!dro !s s react
o
ote n
1.&.>
2roteins are poly"ers of
am i n o a c i d s There are
U3M a"ino acids, each of
*hich has the sa"e basic
structure *ith a different
variable group &% g r o u p )
A"ino aci i for"ed in
condensa i i i l i i ns
Test for 2r i #
+ (iur et solution turns blue 6purple halo8 in the presence of protein
) r imar ! Str uc t ur e D a long chain of a"ino acids
connected by p e pt i d e bonds Eost proteins
do not function in their pri"ary for"
S e c o n d ar ! St r u c t u r e D the long chain of a"ino
acids is folded into t*o types of structure@
+ Alp #a # e l i+
+ (e t a s #e et
Both are held together by #!drogen bonds
Tert i ar ! Str u ct ur e D sections of secondary
structure are folded up further, for"ing a
protein * it h a 5 D s ha p e The shape is held
together by covalent bonds &eg d i s u lp #i d e
b r i d ge s ) bet*een R groups of specific a"ino
acids
K u art e rnar ! Str uc t u r e D for"ed *hen t*o or
"ore tertiary proteins are co"bined eg
hae"oglobin is "ade fro" G ' hae" proteins
As the s hap e of a protein deter"ines its f un ct io n &thin( about the
active site of an enAy"e, for e'a"ple) it is really i"portant that all
the bonds holding the shape together for" in the right places The
"ost i"portant bonds are those that hold the 5
o
and G
o
structure
together and these all for" bet*een R groups of specific a"ino
acids Therefore@
T#e s p e c i f i c s e Eu ence of sp ec i f i c a mi no a c i d s determines
t#e s#ape of t#e protein and" t#erefore" its function.
1.&.B
.n the o c k a n d K e ! hypothesis, the active site and the
substrate are co"pletely co"ple"entary
/ Substrate diffuses into the active site
3 Substrate bi n d s t o the active site
5 Bonds in the substrate are bro(en as a result
G 2roducts for" and unbind fro" the active site
I 2roducts diffuse out of the active site
.n the 7n d uce d 5 it hypothesis the "echanis" of action is the
sa"e
e'cept that the active site changes shape to fit the substrate once
the substrate has bound The shape change causes bonds in the
substrate to brea(, for"ing the products
All enAy"es *or( by reducing the A c t i 6at i o n * n e r g! &E
a
) This is
the energy re9uired to get the reaction to start EnAy"es provide
an alternate reaction pat#wa! &ie a different *ay for the
reaction to happen D in the active site), *hich re9uires less energy
to start
1.&.C
0ig up !our * n A ! m e -ore )ractical notes in t#e )ractical
'andbook
1.&.1D
DNA is "ade fro" "any n u c l e o t i d es joined together .t is,
therefore, a polynucleotide
Each nucleotide contains 5 things@
&i) Sugar "olecule,
&ii) Nitrogenous base
&iii) 2hosphate group &negatively charged)
DNA on y used to deter" ne gen
DNA on y found n nuc eus RNA
d x AS B o ogy R v on No
' L .'
There are 3 types of nucleotide@
&i) Ribose nucleotides + "a(e RNA
&ii) Deo'yribone nucltodies + "a(e DNA
01A nucleotides #a6e &' atoms on t#e -& carbon atom
RNA nucleotides have an 7 and an O7 on the 13 carbon
Other differences#
RNA is single D stranded, DNA is double D stranded
RNA has different bases
RNA used to "a(e 5 different things &"RNA, tRNA < rRNA),
l i etic code
l i l , in nucleus < cytoplas"
2olynucleotides are for"ed by connecting the
phosphate group of one nucleotide *ith the 5
rd
carbon ato" of another, for"ing the S u g ar -
)#osp#ate (ackbone
DNA is "ade fro" 3 strands of DNA polynucleotides,
held together by h y d r o genb on d s bet*een the bases
Because the strands face in opposite directions DNA
is an antiparallel "olecule
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes
DN A RN A
A den in e &A) pairs *ith T #!m in e
&T)
3uan in e &;) pairs *ith -!tos in e
&1)
A den in e &A) pairs *ith < r a cil &T)
3uan in e &;) pairs *ith -!tos in e &1)
1.&.11
DN A S y nt he s is #
DNA synthesis is s e m i - c ons e r6at i 6 e
&ie half of each ne* strand is old DNA
< half is ne* DNA)
/ ' e l i c as e un*inds the DNA
for"ing the replication fork
3 Ne* nucleotides diffuse into the
for( and hydrogen bind *ith their
co"ple"entary partners
5 01 A ) ol!m e ras e joins the
nucleotides together for"ing the
ne* sugar phosphate bac(bone
Fou can "a(e this "ore co"plicated by
loo(ing closely at *hat happens on the
lagging strand, but you don$t need to
(no* it &if you$re interested loo( up
6O(aAa(i frag"ents8)
The proof that DNA Replication is s e m i- cons er6a t i6 e &rather
than
conservative, or dispersive D the other theories) *as provided by
Eeselson < Stahl Their e'peri"ent is sho*n on the ne't page &you
need to (no* *hat they did), but you should be able to interpret
their results as follo*s@
Original DNA, all heavy DNA band at botto" of centrifuge
/
st
generation DNA, V old, V ne* DNA band in "iddle of centrifuge
3
nd
generation DNA, so"e V and V &for"s one band at top) < so"e all
ne* second band in the "iddle of centrifuge No other theory
predicts for"ation of TW. (A10S
Ed x AS B o ogy R v on No W n by T m F n
/ 3 /3
e cel i l e isi
codon represents one spec f c a" no ac d
e g n th s gene the code s AT; 11A 1TA ;1A 1;1 *h ch
corresponds to the fo o* ng a" no ac ds
1.&.19
2rote n Synthes s occurs n t*o stages
Transcr pt on
Trans at on
Ed x AS B o ogy R v on No W n by T m F n
1.&.1& $ 1.1.1,
The genet c code s read fro" the se9uence of bases n the DNA
Each of the U5M MMM nstruct ons n the code s a gene and te s
the body ho* to "a(e one spec f c prote n ;enes therefore code
for prote ns
The genet c code s read n se9uences of 5 bases ca ed codons
each
A Gene
i i i
, i i i i ll
i i i , ,
i
i i i , ll
i i i i
i i i , i
ll i i i
A Protein
i i i @
&i) i i
&ii) l i
Tr ans cr ipt io n #
Ta(es place in nucleus
A co"ple"entary copy of the gene is "ade using RNA
/ ;ene opens up 7ydrogen bonds brea( bet*een bases
3 % 1 A n u c l e ot i d es attracted to co"ple"entary bases and for"
hydrogen bonds
5 RNA nucleotides joined together by enAy"e % 1 A ) ol!m e r a s e
G 1o"ple"entary RNA copy of gene no* "ade .t is called m % 1 A
&"essenger RNA)
I Single stranded "RNA "olecule diffuses out of gene
H "RNA "olecule leaves nucleus through n u c l e a r po r e &large
holes in nuclear envelope)
O Eany "RNA strands are "ade before gene closes
ERNA is co"ple"entary, not a copy%
01A TA- 3AA T-T 3A3 -A- 33- TAT AT-
m%1A. A<3 -<< A3A -<- 3<3 --3 A<A <A3
T ranslat i o n #
Ta(es place in cytoplas"
ERNA code read by riboso"e and a"ino acids asse"bled in
correct order to "a(e protein
/ "RNA strand binds to cleft in r ib osom e Start A!; codon
fits into botto" of 2 site
3 tRNA diffuses into 2 site and recognises the "RNA codon using
its specific ant i c o d o n
e cel i l e isi tes ritte i ilt ess Ed x AS B o ogy R v on No W n by T m F n
5 A second tRNA diffuses into the A site and recognises the
"RNA codon there
G The a"ino acids bet*een the t*o tRNAs join together for"ing a
peptide bond
I The tRNA in the 2 site diffuses into the cytoplas" and binds to
another specific a"ino acid
H The riboso"e "oves one codon do*n the "RNA chain so that the
2 site is filled *ith the tRNA fro" the A site and the A site is
e"pty
O ,hen the riboso"e reaches the stop codon it releases the
"RNA and the a"ino acid chain
Eost riboso"es translate *hilst attached to the rER The
co"pleted pri"ary protein is inserted into the rER, *here enAy"es
fold it into its secondary and tertiary shape
Eany riboso"es can translate the sa"e piece of "RNA at the sa"e
ti"e A pol!som e for"s
Ed x
1.&.1;
A / utat io n = a change in the genetic code
By changing the genetic code "utations ulti"ately change the
se9uence of a"ino acids in pri"ary proteins This changes the
se9uence of R groups in the protein and, therefore, the *ay in *hich
the protein folds up This affects on the function of the protein
/utation *+planation
1 eu tra l m u tat i on s
The function of the protein is unchanged after the
"utation &ie the protein still does its job as *ell as it
did before the "utation) There are 3 possible causes@
One codon is altered 7o*ever, the codon still codes
for the sa"e a"ino acid Therefore, the protein is the
sa"e
A codon is changed, leading to a different a"ino acid in
the pri"ary protein 7o*ever, this protein is not in a
place crucial for folding, so the protein is still the sa"e
shape and functions the sa"e
Deletion "utations
A nucleotide is deleted fro" the DNA code, *hich
changes all the codons after the deletion This causes
frame-s#ift
.nsertion "utations
A nucleotide is inserted into the DNA code, *hich
changes all the codons after the insertion This causes
frame-s#ift
5 ram e -s # i f t
m u tat i on s
All the codons in the se9uence are altered, "eaning
that every a"ino acid after the addition B deletion is
different Nor"ally, this has a huge i"pact on the
function of the protein
1on-s e ns e m u tat i o n s
One of the altered codons in the fra"e+shifted
se9uence changes to beco"e a sto p c o d on 2rotein
synthesis stops half+*ay through the gene, resulting in
only half of the protein being "ade Al"ost al*ays the
protein does not function
Any "utation in the - 5 T% g e n e that stops B i"pairs the function
of the - 5 T% pro t ein causes -!st ic 5i b ros i s To date over
3MMM different "utations have been catalogued, each of *hich
causes 1C
1.&.1=
K e! 0 ef in it ions :
3en e # a se9uence of DNA coding for a specific protein
All e l e # an alternative version of a gene
3e not!p e # the pair of alleles an individual possesses
) #e not!p e # the physical appearance
% e c e ss i 6 e # allele does not affect the phenotype in the presence of a
Do"inant allele
0om i nant # al*ays affects the phenotype
'omo A ! g o t e # individual possesses t*o copies of the sa"e allele
' et er o A! go t e# individual possesses t*o different alleles
A 3 en et ic 0 ia gr a m

2arents$ 2henotype# Bro*n eyes Bro*n eyes
2arents$ ;enotype# B b B b
;a"etes#
C/ ;enotype#
B b B b
B b
B
B B B b
b
B b b b
C/ 2henotype# 5 # / Bro*n eyes # blue eyes
Note the gametes are always put in circles
0isease 'eritabilit! *ffect
Sic(le 1ell Anae"ia Recessive
A "utation in the # a e m o g l o bin genes 1ause
hae"oglobin "olecules to stic( together inside
red blood cells RB1s beco"e distorted into a
6sic(le8 shape They can beco"e stuc( inside
capillaries leading to clots and stro(e RB1s have
li"ited o'ygen carrying capacity
Thalassae"ia Recessive
A "utation in &usually) the gene coding for alpha
hae" causes very slo* hae"oglobin production
This results in anae"ia and reduced hae"ocrit &W
RB1s per unit volu"e of blood) Regular
transfusions are re9uired
Achondroplasia Do"inant
1aused by a "utation in one of genes controlling
c o ll a g e n production in bones As a result bone
gro*th plates fuse too early, leading to
shortening of the long bones 7o"oAygous
do"inant genotype is f ata l
Albinis" Recessive
A "utation in the gene coding for me l a n in
protein
stops me l a n o c!t e s fro" producing "elanin
Eelanin colours hair, s(in etc and provides
protection fro" !L rays
Fou also need to interpret inheritance proble"s involving seed
morp # olo g! &shape) and plant height
1.&.1>
3 o b l et c e ll s secrete "ucus onto the surface of the epitheliu",
*hich lines the lungs Epithelial cells regulate the water content of
"ucus .n the alveoli "ucus is very *atery to allo* it to be *afted
easily by c i l ia 7o*ever, higher up the lungs *ater is dra*n out
of "ucus to reduce its volu"e# one cannot fit the "ucus fro" H
s"all bronchioles into one larger one, so *ater is re"oved
.n -!st ic 5 ib ros is the "echanis" controlling the *ater content of
the "ucus does not *or( properly and the water remo6al process is
c onst a ntl y s* it c h e d o n in all parts of the lung This "eans the
"ucus is too stic(y in the alveoli and cannot be *afted
1ormall! :
1l
+
"oves out of epithelial cells
into "ucus via the - 5 T% protein
Na
?
,ater
,ater
1l
+
/ucus
Tissue 5luid
Na
?
is dra*n into "ucus to
balance the charge Na
?
passes
bet*een epithelial cells
The co"bined effect of Na
?
and
1l
+
reduces *ater concentration
"a(ing # !p e rton i c "ucus
,ater is dra*n into "ucus by
osmos is and "ucus is
dilute
-!st ic 5 ibros is :
,ater
S
1l
+
/ucus
- 5 T% is bloc(ed or absent, so
1l
+
stays inside epithelial cells
Na
?
does not "ove into "ucus as
there is no charge to balance
Eucus is #!poton i c
Na
?
,ater
Tissue 5luid
,ater is dra*n into epithelial
cells by os"osis and "ucus is
stic(y
The stic(y "ucus causes the effects of 1C and affects@
a) :ungs,
b) Digestive syste"
c) Reproductive syste"
Tissue Effect of 1C
:ungs
Eucus produced is to o st ic (y and bloc(s the
alveoli This "a(es the person b r e a t # l e ss
The "ucus also provides ideal conditions for
bacteria, so c # e s t i nf e c t i on s are co""on
Reproductive
syste"
Eucus bloc(s the 6as deferens in boys and the
fallopian tubes in girls, "a(ing the individual
infertile
Digestion
Eucus bloc(s the bi l e d u c t and the
pan c r e at i c
d u c t EnAy"es do not reach the s"all intestine and
food is not digested properly
1.&.1B
The proble" *ith genetic diseases is that they are caused by a
"utation that is present in e v ery c e l l o f t he b o d y .n order to cure
the disease you need to change the DNA in every cell of the body,
*hich is i"possible 7o*ever, in the case of 1C because the 1CTR
protein is only transcribed by epithelial cells &the cells lining the
lungs, digestive syste" and reproductive tracts) only these cells
need to be targeted
So ho* can you change DNA inside living cells- Ans*er# use g e n e
t #e rap! , *hich atte"pts to a d d a nor"al copy of the 1CTR gene to
the DNA inside epithelial cells
;ene Therapy &in hu"ans D no plas"ids are used)
Step /# cut out a *or(ing copy of the gene fro" nor"al DNA using a
r e str i c t i o n e n A ! m e .% use r e 6 e r s e tr a ns c r i ptas e enAy"e to
"a(e a copy of the gene fro" 1CTR "RNA
Step 3# add the gene to a 6 e c tor , *hich *ill insert the ne* gene into
the DNA of the target cell
Step 5# hope the gene is successfully incorporated in the DNA in
the nucleus
Lectors are used to get the *or(ing gene into the epithelial cells
Lector E'planation
i posom e
An artificial 6esicle A little bubble of
"e"brane in *hich the 1CTR gene is placed
,hen the liposo"e is inhaled the gene can
enter the epithelial cell by e n d o c !tos i s
? i r us
Liruses naturally insert their o*n DNA into
host cells DNA So, if *e re"ove the viral
DNA and replace it *ith the 1CTR gene that
ought to be inserted instead
Somat i c - e ll s = Body cells So"atic 1ell ;ene Therapy therefore
only affects the targeted cells
3e r m - e ll s = ;a"etes ;er" 1ell ;ene Therapy therefore affects
the entire organism that is produced *hen the ga"ete is fertilised
N B# ;enetic engineering of bacteria is different and involves
plasm i d s and 0 1 A l ig as e enAy"e as *ell &loo( it up)
1.&.1C
3e n e t i c s c r ee n i n g is used to deter"ine *hether a person has a
genetic disease or not
Eethod Su""ary
Amn i o c e nt e s is
A long needle is inserted through the "other$s
abdo"en into the a"niotic fluid of the developing
e"bryo As this is produced by the e"bryo it *ill
contain e"bryionic cells and, therefore, e"bryo
DNA
- # or i on i c 6 i ll us
sampl i n g
As above, but cells are ta(en fro" the placenta,
*hich is also "ade by the e"bryo
) r e - i mplantat i o n
ge n e t ic d i a g nos is
I ) 73 0 J
;a"etes are fertiliAed in vitro &outside of the
body) and the resultant e"bryos are then tested
Only e"bryos (no*n NOT to have the disease are
i"planted in the uterus
1.&.&D
A dv ant a ges o f gen e t ic t est in g D is dv ant a ges o f g en et ic t est in g
1an opt for ter"ination
1an get counselling
1an buy special "edical
e9uip"ent B care in
preparation for birth
1an opt not to have children
&if parents are tested)
< t il itar ia n argu"ent
Abortion is "orally *rong
Tests can be inaccurate
S"all chance of test
resulting in m i s c arr i a ge
!nnatural procedure
E"bryos right to life
E"bryos cannot give
inform e d cons en t
End of Topic 3
E de ' ce l A S R e vis io n
!nit 3# Develop"ent, 2lants <
the
Environ"ent
T o pic ,: T # e ? o ic e o f t# e 3en o me
&.,.& $ &.,.,
)rokar!otic -ell
2ro (ar yot i c Or g an ell es #
%ibosom es Sa"e function as eu(aryotic cells &protein synthesis),
but are s"aller &OMs rather than RMs)
1 u c l e a r Mon e The region of the cytoplas" that contains DNA
There is n o nuclear "e"brane
01A Al*ays circular, and no t in chro"oso"e for"
) lasm i d Lery s"all circles of DNA, containing non+esential genes
1an be e'changed bet*een different bacterial cells
- el l m em bran e "ade of phospholipids and proteins, li(e eu(aryotic
"e"branes
/e sosom e Tightly+folded region of the cell "e"brane containing all
the proteins re9uired for respiration and photosynthesis
- e l l W all D.CCERENT fro" plant cell *all Eade of " u r ein &a
protein) There are t*o (inds of cell *all, *hich can be distinguished
by a ; r a" st ai n #
A# ; r a" pos it iv e bacteria have a thic( cell *all and stain
purple
B# ; r a" n e g a t iv e bacteria have a thin cell *all *ith an outer
lipid layer and stain pin(
-aps u l e &or Slime a!er) Thic( polysaccharide layer outside of the
cell *all !sed for#
/ Stic(ing cells together
3 As a food reserve
5 As protection against desiccation &drying out) and che"icals,
and as protection against phagocytosis &being bro(en do*n by
a *hite blood cell)
5 la gell um A rotating tail used for propulsion
*ukar!otic -ell
*n doplasm i c % et i cul um Site of protein folding &see 35G)
%ib osom e Site of protein synthesis
1 u c l e u s DNA 6store8 < site of "RNA synthesis
3 ol gi appa r at u s Site of protein folding and pac(aging &see 35G)
- e ntr i ol e Ea(es spindle protein, *hich pulls chro"oso"es apart
during cell division
? e s i c l e 6Bubble8 of "e"brane, used to transport "aterials around a
cell and bet*een cells
!sosom e A vesicle filled *ith digestive enAy"es 2rotects against
bacterial attac( and re"oves cell debris
- e l l m e m b ran e Eade of phospholipid and protein, controls
"ove"ent in B out of the cell
/i t o c # o n d r i o n Site of respiration
- # loroplas t Site of photosynthesis
) ro k ar!ot ic - e ll s * u k ar!ot i c c e ll s
S"all cells &Q I "") :arger cells &N /M "")
Al*ays unicellular Often "ulticellular
No nucleus or any "e"brane+
bound organelles
Al*ays have nucleus and other
"e"brane+bound organelles
DNA is circular, *ithout proteins
DNA is linear and associated
*ith proteins to for" chro"atin
Riboso"es are s"all &OMS) Riboso"es are large &RMS)
No cytos(eleton
7as a cytos(eleton
1ell division is by b i nar ! f i ss i o n
1ell division is by m i tos is or
m ei os is
Reproduction is al*ays ase'ual Reproduction is ase'ual or se'ual
&.,.9
A"ino acids are 6stuc( together8 in the correct order during
translation This ta(e place using ribosomes, *hich are therefore
the site of prot e in s!nt #e s i s
After synthesis, proteins are put into the r *% , *hich folds
pri"ary proteins into their specific secondary and tertiary for"s
3
M
and 5
M
proteins are pac(aged into 6 e s i c l es and sent to the 3 ol gi
.n the 3 ol g i , 5
M
proteins are stuc( together to for" co"pleted
G
M
proteins They are pac(aged into large s e c r e tor ! 6 e s ic l e s ,
*hich bud off the ;olgi and go the cell "e"brane for
e + o c ! t os i s The ;olgi also "a(es l! s osom e s
&.,.;
Ti ss u e # a group of specialiAed cells, *hich all carry out the sa"e
function
. r g a n # a group of different tissues
Although every cell contains the entire library of genes, each tissue
only e'presses a select fe* of the" This is because, as cells
beco"e specialiAed, they progressively switc# off genes This is
called cell d i ff e r e n t i at i o n
&.,.=
T# e - el l -! cl e
31 ) # a s e # ;ro*th phase
Appro'i"ately GMW of cell cycle
S ) # as e # DNA replication occurs
Appro'i"ately GIW of cell cycle
3& ) # a s e # 2reparation for "itosis
Organelles replicate
/i tos i s # 1ell divides
Appro'i"ately /MW of cell cycle
-!to ki n e s i s # 1ell physically splits
Appro'i"ately IW of cell cycle
Stage s 7nterp#ase
As above ;/ S < ;3
Stage s
/ DN
3 1en
5 1en
G Nuc
/
3
Stage E'planation
i # )rop#ase
A coils up onto chro"oso"es
triole divides
trioles "ove to cell poles
lear envelope disappears
Stage is# / eta p #a s e
/ 1hro"oso"es "ove to e9uator
3 Spindle attaches to centro"eres
5 1entrioles split
G 1hro" a t i ds s ep ar at e
Stage is# Anap # as e
1hro"atids separate co"pletely
N e* n u cl ear env elop e gro* s
Stage is# T elop #as e
/ 1yto(inesis occurs
3 1e ll s s e p a r a t e
i #
& , )
! nde rlin ed co" " ent s = def init io n o f sta ge en d
&.,.>
&.,.B
0ig up !our /i to si s -ore )ractical notes in t#e
)ractical 'andbook
/itos is produces genetically identical da u g# t er cells , *hereas
/e ios is produces genetically dissi"ilar gam e t es The variation in
ga"etes co"es fro"@
1. %an do m f us io n o f g am et es
Each individual "a(es "any ga"etes, each of *hich is
genetically different This creates a huge nu"ber of
potentially different e"bryos as *hich t*o ga"etes are
selected for fertiliAation is largely rando"
.f the nu"ber of different ga"etes "ade by both parents is
n, therefore the total nu"ber of possibilities is n
3
, *hich is
huge%
&. 7n dep en d en t assortm en t
During "eiosis, chro"oso"es p air up at the e9uator &they
don$t at during "itosis) ,hichever *ay up the pair are aligned
*ill affect the co"bination of alleles in the ga"ete
ie AA BB AB aa BB aB
aa bb ab AA bb Ab
,. -ross in g .6 er
W#en t#e c#romosomes are paired up during metap#ase
sections of 01A are swapped between c h ro" a t i d s It#is is
called crossing o6erJ. T#is means t#at alleles w#ic# were
pre6iousl! lin(ed wit# ot#ers Ii.e. in set combinations of
allelesJ become unlinked" t#us increasing t#e potential
number of combinations of alleles
&.,.C
A /a mm ali an .6um :
Collicle cells &fro" ovary)
Xona 2ellucida
1ytoplas"
Nucleus
:ysoso"es
:ipid droplets
1ell "e"brane
Adap t at io ns :
)art of .6um Adapted forN
Nucleus 1ontains only one copy of each chro"oso"e
&haploid)
Collicle cells Secrete che"icals that secrete the acroso"e
reaction
1ytoplas" Lery large so fertilised cell can divide i""ediately
:ipid droplets Source of energy for future gro*th and division
Xona pelludica 7ardens once sper" has entered ova, stops further
cells entering
:ysoso"es 1ause the Aona pellucida to harden once a sper"$s
nucleus has entered the ova
A /ammalian Sperm:
Adap t at io ns :
)art of .6um Adapted forN
Nucleus 1ontains only one copy of each chro"oso"e
&haploid)
7ead Detachable 1ontains the nucleus
Eiddle 1ontains lots of "itochondria, *hich "a(e AT2
Tail Eade fro" "otor proteins, *hich use AT2 to propel
the sper" for*ards
Acroso"e An adapted lysoso"e on the top of the sper"$s
head The acroso"e s*ells and bursts *hen the
sper" e"beds in the Aona pellucida &Aona pellucida
releases che"icals that trigger this) The enAy"es
in the acroso"e digest the follicle cells and the
Aona pellucida and allo* the cell "e"branes to fuse
1ytoplas" Lery little cytoplas", *hich "eans cells are s"all
and therefore can be released in large nu"bers
&.,.1D
CertiliAation is the successful fusion of t*o # aplo i d ga"etes to
create a d i plo id cell &a A ! g o t e ) The Aygote then divides rapidly
by "itosis to beco"e an e m b r!o
Ea" " al ian f ert il is a t ion #
/ The sper" is attracted to the ovu" by hor"ones released
by the follicle cells surrounding the ovu"
3 ,hen the sper" reaches the ovu" it e"beds its head in
the A on a p e ll u c i d a , triggering the a c ro s om e r e a c t i o n
5 The acroso"e s*ells and bursts, releasing proteolytic
enAy"es
G The enAy"es digest a hole into the ovu"
I Sper" "e"brane fuses *ith ovu" "e"brane and the
sper" nucleus enters the ovu" by endoc!tosis
H :ysoso"es in the ovu" cause the Aona pellucida to harden
once the sper"$s nucleus has entered the ovu", stopping
further sper" fro" penetrating the ovu"
2l an t f er t il is at ion #
/ The poll en grain &"ale ga"ete) lands on the s t igm a
3 2ollen grain gro*s a poll en t ube do*n into the stig"a The
pollen nucleus is at the tip of the tube
5 The pollen tube enters the o6ule
G The pollen tube reaches an o6um and the nucleus enters it
by endocytosis for"ing a Aygote
I Eany pollen grains "ay fertiliAe "any ova
&.,.11
St em - e ll # an undifferentiated cell &ie a cell that can gro* into
"ore than one type of cell)
T ot i pot e n t - e ll # an undifferentiated cell capable of gro*ing into a
ne* e"bryo
) l u r i pot e n t - e ll # an undifferentiated cell capable of gro*ing into
any cell, but not a ne* e"bryo
/u lt i po t e n t - e ll # an undifferentiated cell capable of gro*ing into a
fe* types of cell
Ste" 1ells are very useful because they can be used to gro*
replace"ent organs 7o*ever, it is not yet possible to get a
differentiated cell to revert to being a ste" cell Therefore, ste"
cells tend to be harvested fro" e"bryos, *hich causes serious
ethical proble"s
Fou "ight li(e to consider@
,here do the e"byos co"e fro"-
.s an e"bryo a hu"an-
Do e"bryos have the sa"e rights as adult hu"ans-
1an *e use ani"al e"bryos &or hu"an+ani"al hybrids) instead-
The utilitarian argu"ent
The right to life &for both adult and a"bryo)
&.,.1&
0ig up !our )l a nt - u lt u re -ore )ractical notes in t#e
)ractical 'andbook
&.,.1,
1ells beco"e specialiAed &or differentiated) by progressively
s* it c hi n g ge n es o f f This is so"eti"es done by adding "ethyl
groups to the gene, *hich stop it being opened in transcription The
gene is then permanentl! inacti6ated in the adult cell, but also in
an! daug#ter cell produced t#roug# mitosis
.n addition, so"e genes "ay re9uire a tran s c r i pt i o n f a c to r to
activate the" ie the gene is nor"ally off, but *ill be transcribed in
the presence of a TC !sually the TC is a #ormone &eg Steroids +
thin( about their effects), but so"eti"es it can be an
en6ironmental factor &eg, the presence of lactose in Ecoli D see
te't boo()
&.,.19
The phenotype is a product of the genotype and the environ"ent
Cor so"e genes the environ"ent has "ini"al effect &eg blood
group), but for the "ajority the environ"ent plays a significant
role Fou need to (no* G e'a"ples
An i ma l 'a ir -olo u r #
So"e ani"als have fur colour that is a product of the environ"ent
eg Sia"ese cats s h o u l d have blac( fur all over as their genotype
codes for the enAy"e t!ros i nas e that converts tyrosine into
m e lan in &*hich is a dar( protein D re"ind yourself of Albi"is" in
/3/H) 7o*ever, the enAy"e is d e n a t u r ed by b o d y h ea t , so only the
cold parts of the ani"al are blac( &tail, ears etc) and teh rest is
*hite
' u ma n ' e i g # t #
.s controlled by man! genes, each *ith a range of alleles, "a(ing it
an e'a"ple of pol ! ge n e t ic i n #e r i tan c e &ie controlled by lots of
genes) .n addition, diet has a huge effect on height
/ on o Am i n e . + i d a s e A I / A . A J #
EAOA enAy"es brea( do*n n e u rotra n sm i tt e r s released by
nerves in the brain 7igh levels of EAOA have been lin(ed to
r i s k -ta k i n g and a g g r e ss i on , *hereas lo* levels of EAOA can
cause d e pr e ss i o n
and ) a r kinson s di s eas e Eutations of EAOA are the genetic
co"ponent to these conditions, but environ"ental factors such as
str e s s l e 6 e l s also have a profound effect
-an c e r #
A t u mo ur is a ball of cells dividing 9uic(er than they
should Tu"ours that split apart and spread around the body
&m e tastas i s ) are the "ost dangerous &mal ig nant )
The rate of cell division is controlled by@
. n c o g e n es D speed cell cycle up
Tu mo ur S u pr e sso r 3e n es D slo* cell cycle do*n
Eutations in either of these genes can cause tu"ours Although
"utations occur naturally, the environ"ent can have an effect eg
radiation, free radicals, carcinogen che"icals all increase the
"utation rate
&.,.1;
0 i s c ont i n u o us 6a r i a t i o n # phenotypes appear in discrete categories
&ie blood group) !sually controlled by on e ge n e *here the
environ"ent has l it t l e e ff e c t
-ont i n u o us 6ar i at i o n # phenotypes appear in a range of categories
&ie height) !sually controlled by " a n yge n e &pol! ge n e s ) *here the
environ"ent has a l a r ge e f f e c t
End of Topic 5
Ed x AS B o ogy R v on No W n by T m F n e cel i l e isi tes ritte i ilt ess
E de ' ce l A S R e vis io n
!nit 3# Develop"ent, 2lants <
the
Environ"ent
T o pic 9: ( io di6 ers it ! $ 1at ur a l %es o ur c es
&.9.&
Ani"al and plant cells are both eu(aryotic cells, they have co""on
eu(aruyotic features 7o*ever, plant cells also have so"e features
uni9ue to the"
- e l l wall : A structure "ade fro" cellulose fibrils and pectin cross+
lin(s .t strengthens the cell and allo*s it to be turgid *ithout
bursting
Am!loplast: A "e"brane+bound organelle full of starch &starch
grain)
- # loroplas t: Site of photosynthesis
?a c u o l e : A *ater+filled "e"brane+bound organelle that helps a cell
"aintain turgor pressure
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Tonoplas t: The vacuolar "e"brane
) lasmo d e smat a : A junction bet*een adjacent cells *here the
cytoplas" of one cell joins the cytoplas" of the other !sed for
intercellular co""unication
) i t : A thin patch in the cell *all *here plas"odes"ata can for" or
have for"ed previously
/ i dd l e lam e ll a : A p e c t in 6glue8 attaching one cell *all to
another
&.9.,
2lant cells are strong because they are *rapped in a protective
layer of c e ll u los e This for"s the cell wall
1ellulose is a polysaccharide "ade fro" Y glucose "ono"ers
Alternate glucose "olecules6flip over8 in thechain, for"ing
# ! d r o gen b o n d s bet*een adjacent cellulose chains Because
cellulose has no side branches the chains can be pac(ed closely
*hich increases the strength of the hydrogen bonds further
Alternate glucose "olecules 6flipping over8
.ndividual cellulose chains are pac(aged together into
m ic rof ib r i l s The "icrofibrils *ind around each other for"ing
cellulose f ib r e s The cell *all is build fro" layers of these fibres
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
&.9.9
) r i mar ! c e l l wall # Cirst to for", cellulose fibres laid do*n in the
sa"e direction
S e c o n d ar ! c e l l wall # Cor"s later, cellulose fibres laid do*n at right
angles to those in the pri"ary *all 2rovides "uch greater strength
-oll e n c # !m a # found around t#e outside of t#e stem have their cell
*alls further strengthened *ith "ore cellulose &secondary
thic(ening) to for" thic( supporting cells
S c l e r e n c # !m a # in larger plants strings of collenchy"a begin to lay
do*n the protein l i g n in in their cell *alls to for" very strong
fibres *ithin the ste" These tend to for" as a cap to the
6ascular bundles in the ste" So"eti"es the sclerenchy"a can be
e'tracted by hu"ans for "a(ing into rope &eg hessian) or clothes
&eg fla' or jute)
&.9.;
?essel ocation in stem )urpose
O !l em .nside of vascular
bundle
1arries wa t er an d m i n e ral s up
the ste"
) # lo em Eiddle of vascular
bundle
1arries s u c ro s e up < do*n the
ste"
S c l e r e n c # !m a 1ap on vascular
bundle
Support for the ste"
-oll e n c # !m a .nside epider"is :esser support for the ste"
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
&.9.=
2lant "aterials are used for three "ain reasons@
/ S u sta i na b l e + they are not a li"ited resource as,
although they are used, they can be replanted
3 -ar b o n n eu tra l + do not contribute to rising 1O
3
levels
&although they "ay give off 1O
3
, replanting uses the 1O
3
up again)
5 (i o d eg r a d e
2lant "aterials are used as f ib r es &*ood, cotton etc) as they have
a high tensile strength and can be used in clothing, building industry
etc Oils fro" plants can be used as bi o f ue l s and starch can be
used in pa c k a g i n g , g l ue s , a b sor b ant s as *ell as for food
&.9.>
Syl e" S cl er en ch y" a
Regular rings of l i g n in
,ide lu"en
No end *alls &continuous
tube)
:ocation at inside of LB
.rregular layers of l ign in
Tiny lu"en
End *alls *ith pits
:ocation as cap to LB
2resence of s c l e r id s
&.9.B
0ig up !our -eler! 5i b res -ore )ractical notes in t#e
)ractical 'andbook
&.9.C
/ineral 5unction in plant
1 i trat e !sed to "a(e a"ino acids, *hich the plant uses to for"
proteins
-al c ium !sed to "a(e pectin for cell *alls
/ a g n e s ium 1entral ion in the c # lorop # !l l "olecule
2lants also need *ater for@
/ 2hotosynthesis &UIW)
3 1ooling via tra n s p i ra ti o n &U0MW)
5 Transport of substances &eg sucrose, "ineral ions)
G Eaintain turgor
I Solvent for che"ical reactions
H ;a"ete distribution
&.9.1D
0ig up !our )l a nt / i ner a l 0e f i c i enc i es -ore )ractical notes
in t#e )ractical 'andbook
&.9.11
0ig up !our / i nt L 3 a rl i c -ore )ractical notes in t#e
)ractical 'andbook
&.9.1&
Wi ll i a m W i t # e r i n g e'peri"ented *ith fo'glove e'tract as a cure
for dropsy &oede"a caused by congestive heart failure) 7e gave
the drug in increasing a"ounts until the patient beca"e ill, then he
*or(ed out a dose based on that 7e also (illed so"eone 7is
studies, though i"portant are NOT ethical and do not follo* the
basis of "odern clinical trials
1 l in ic al T r ial 2 ro c e ss #
Stage 2urpose of stage
2re+clinical
testing
/ 2roposed drug is tested in a lab *ith cu lt u r ed c e ll s to
see the general effects of the drug
3 2roposed drug is given to an i mal s to see the effects on
a *hole ani"al Any side effects a*ay fro" target cells
are noted
1linical Trials D
2hase /
/ A small group of #e alt #! 6ol u nt e e r s are given
different
doses of the drug They are told *hat the drug does
3 The distribution, absorbance rate, "etabolis" <
e'cretion profile of the drug are assessed
5 The effects of the different doses are assessed to try
and deter"ine the opti"u" dose
G An independent organisation &!4 Eedicines 1ontrol
Agency) assesses *hether it is appropriate to "ove to
2hase 3
1linical Trials D
2hase 3
/ A small group of p e opl e w i t # t #e d i s e a s e are given
the drug
3 Studies are very si"ilar to 2hase /
5 The opti"u" dose is *or(ed out
1linical Trials D
2hase 5
/ A large group of p e opl e w i t # t #e d i s e a s e are given
opti"u" doses of the drug
3 The patients are either given the drug or a pl a c e bo in a
d o ub l e - b l i n d t e s t
5 The results are analysed
G .f the drug has had a significant positive effect in the
treat"ent of the disease it is put for*ard to licensing
authority
&.9.1,
(i o d i 6 e rs i t ! # The nu"ber of species, the nu"ber of individuals
*ithin those species and the nu"ber and variety of alleles those
individuals
* n d e m i c # ,here a species is found only *ithin a particular niche in a
particular ecosyste"
Sp e c ies r i c # n e ss # is a "easure of biodiversity *here the nu"ber
and variety of species in an area is recorded 1an be "easured in
different *ays@
7 n d i c ato r sp e c i es ie the presence of specific species
&usually those least tolerant to pollution B cli"ate change
etc) are used to indicate the 6health8 of the ecosyste"
2opulation of ke !s t on e sp e c i es ie the population of crucial
species &usually those providing prey for the rest) are used to
"easure the 6health8 of the ecosyste"
K u ant i tat i 6 e sam p l i n g D a direct *ay of sa"pling the
biodiversity using 9uadrats
-apt u r e L r e c apt u r e D a direct *ay of *or(ing out populations
of species
3e n e t i c d i 6 e r s i t ! # the nu"ber of different alleles *ithin the gene
pool The greater the diversity, the "ore li(ely the species is to
survive environ"ental change or disease
&.9.19
A n i c # e is the specific part of the ecosyste" in *hich a species
lives and any adaptations the species has that "a(e it successful
there Adaptations can be@
(e # a6 i o u ra l eg .guana on the ;alapagos islands dive for sea*eed +
they are the only liAards to venture into the sea
) #!s iolo gic a l eg so"e Ethiopians have evolved a different shaped
hae"oglobin "olecule that rese"bles foetal 7b .t loads O
3
"uch
"ore efficiently at altitude &see end of Topic /)
Anatom ic a l eg the Ciddler crab
has t*o very different cla*s One
is huge and is used for 6fiddling8
ie signalling for a "ate The
s"aller cla* is, rather
disappointingly, used for feeding
&.9.1;
0arwin "ade t*o observations and a conclusion@
O/# Eore offspring are born than can survive
O3# There is variation *ithin a species
1onclusion# There is a 6struggle for survival8 only the 6fittest can
survive and reproduce8 This is 1 a t u ra l S e l e c t i o n
.n order for NS to lead to evolution a fe* e'tra conditions are
re9uired@
/ 7 solat i o n &see table belo*) so no flo* of alleles
3 S"all population < i n br ee din g
5 /utation &generates ne* 6fitter8 alleles)
G Eutations accu"ulate *ithin population
I Eventually the isolated population cannot reproduce *ith
the originals At this point a ne* species has for"ed
&sp e c i a t i on )
/et#od of isolation 0escription
Ecological isolation The species occupy different parts of the
habitat
Te"poral isolation The species e'ist in the sa"e area, but
reproduce at different ti"es
Behavioural isolation The species e'ist in the sa"e area, but do not
respond to each other$s courtship behaviour
2hysical inco"patibility Species coe'ist, but there are physical
reasons *hich stop the" fro" copulating
7ybrid inviability .n so"e species, hybrids are produces but
they do not survive long enough to breed
7ybrid sterility 7ybrids survive to reproductive age, but
cannot reproduce
Allopatr ic sp e cia t io n occurs *hen species are far fro" each
other
S!mpatr ic s p e c i at i o n occurs *hen species are close to each
other
&.9.1=
The ta+onom ic classification syste" follo*s a hierarchy of
groups &the I 4ingdo"s at the top, individual species at the
botto") in *hich all species are categorised according to their
anatom!
7o*ever, this is not necessarily the best approach as species *ith
si"ilar anato"ies &eg dolphin and shar() are not necessarily closely
related A better syste" is based on mol e c u la r p # ! lo ge n ! ie
co"paring the "olecules species are co"prised of The best
"olecule to e'a"ine is DNA
A recent proposal along this line &the three do"ain theory) argues
that all organis"s evolved into three broad groups@
(acteria D pro(aryotes, funda"entally different
structures
Arc#aea D those species that e'hibit characteristics of both &ie
6early eu(aryotes8 and their descendents)
*ukar!otes D eu(aryotes, funda"entally different
structures
v
a
s
c
u
l
a
r
t
i
s
s
u
e
&.9.1>
S e e d b an ks and Moo s help because they allo* us to preser6e
biodi6ersit!, reintroduce species, set up capti6e breeding
programmes, educate people about ecology and generate "oney
fro" touris"
7o*ever, be a*are that so"e species &those that have a lot of
leaned behaviours eg tigers) do not tend to fare *ell on
reintroduction progra""es
-o#esion-Tension T#eor! of Transpiration
This is not "entioned on the syllabus, but it is in the te't boo( The
prudent "an learns it any*ayJ
* p i d e r m i s : A single layer of cells often *ith long e'tensions called
root #airs, *hich increase the surface area enor"ously A single
plant "ay have /M
/M
root hairs
1 ort e ' # A t#ick la!er of packing cells often containing stored
starc#.
St e l e # contains the O!lem, )#loem < -ambium and is protected by a
layer of endodermis cells
eidermis
corte!
endodermis
eric"cle
hloem
cambium
!"lem
root
hairs
*n do der m is : A single layer of tightly+pac(ed cells containing a
*aterproof layer called the casparian strip This prevents the
"ove"ent of *ater bet*een the cells and helps 6*aterproof8 the
stele D (eeping *ater in
cell
#all
cell
membrane
c"tolasm
casarian
stri
vacuole
,ater "oves through the root by t*o paths#
&i) Sy"plast path*ay &/MW)
&ii) Apoplast path*ay &0MW)
S!mplas t pat #wa ! : *ater "oves fro" cytoplas" to cytoplas"
through plasmodesmata &holes in the cell *alls, *here cell
"e"branes of adjacent cells are joined + so there are no
"e"branes for the polar *ater "olecules to cross)
Apoplas t pat # wa! : *ater "oves fro" cell *all to cell *all The cell
*alls are 9uite thic( and very open, so *ater can easily diffuse
through cell *alls *ithout having to cross any cell "e"branes
7o*ever the Apoplast path*ay stops at the e n d o d e rm is because
of the *aterproof c aspar i a n str i p At this point *ater has to
cross the cell "e"brane and enter the sy"plast path*ay This
effectively *ater+proofs the Stele, *hich stops *ater loss higher
up the root
%oo t ) r ess ur e:
,ater "oves fro" high *ater potential to lo* *ater potential by
os"osis 7o*ever, "ost soils are dry &especially in the desert) and
the *ater potential of the soil is lo* 2lant cells are full of *ater, so
*hy doesn$t *ater leave the plant cells and enter the soil-
The ans*er is that plant roots ta(e up lots of ions fro" the soil,
*hich lo*ers the *ater concentration of their cytoplas" enough for
*ater to enter the root by os"osis, even if the soil if very dry The
ions are ta(en up by acti6e transport, by proteins in the cell
"e"brane of the root hairs This uses up lots of energy &uses lots
of AT))
Because of the lo* *ater potential root cells beco"e very turgid
This creates a s"all pressure, *hich forces *ater up the 'yle" in
the ste" This is called %oot )ressure .n s"all plants root pressure
is 6er! i"portant for transpiration .n *oody plants it does not
have a significant effect
Sy l e" Ti ss u e
small !"lem vessels
(tracheids)
Syle" tissue is co"posed of dead cells
joined together to for" long e"pty
tubes
Different (inds of cells for" *ide and
narro* tubes, and the end cells *alls are
either full of holes, or are absent
co"pletely
Before death the cells for" thic( cell
*alls containing l ig n in , *hich is laid do*n
in rings, giving these cells a very
characteristic appearance under the
"icroscope
large !"lem vessel
thic$ cell #all
emt" interior
Transverse Section (T.S.)
Longitudinal Section (L.S.)
lignin
rings
remains
o% end #all
er%orated
end #alls
:ignin "a(es the 'yle" vessels very strong, so that they don$t collapse under
pressure, and they also "a(e *oody ste"s strong The 'yle" vessels for"
continuous pipes fro" the roots to the leaves ,ater can "ove up through these
pipes at a rate of R" h
+/
, and can reach a height of over /MM"
,ater "olecules are polar and bind to each other by hydrogen bonds
for"ing a strong colu"n of *ater &for it$s dia"eter the
'
colu"n is stronger than steel%)
.
/ ,ater evaporates out of the leaves and causes lo*
' '
pressure in the leaves
.
3 This creates a suction &or tension) force *hich suc(s *ater
' '
up the ste"
.
5 Because *ater "olecules are polar they stic( to each other
and the entire colu"n of *ater in the Syle" "oves
' '
up*ards
.
G This "echanis" is called the co#esion-tension theory
'
End of Topic G