Electron Theory

Electricity is the movement of electrons through a conductor. Electrons

are attracted to protons. Since we have excess electrons on the other
end of the conductor, we have many electrons being attracted to the
protons. This attraction sort of pushes the electrons toward the protons.
This push is normally called electrical pressure. The amount of electrical
pressure is determined by the number of electrons that are attracted to
protons.
The electrical pressure or electromotive force (EMF) attempts to push an
electron out of its orbit and toward the excess protons. If an electron is
freed from its orbit, the atom acquires a positive charge because it now
has one more proton than it has electrons. The unbalanced atom or ion
attempts to return to its balanced state so it will attract electrons from
the orbit of other balanced atoms. This starts a chain reaction as one
atom captures an electron and another releases an electron. As this
action continues to occur, electrons will flow through the conductor. A
stream of free electrons forms and an electrical current is started.
This does not mean a single electron travels the length of the insulator,
it means the overall effect is electrons moving in one direction. All this
happens at the speed of light. The strength of the electron flow is
dependant on the potential difference or voltage.
The three elements of electricity are voltage, current, and resistance.
How these three elements interrelate governs the behavior of electricity.
Once the you comprehend the laws that govern electricity,
understanding the function and operation of the various automotive
electrical systems is an easier task.
So far we have described current as the movement of electrons through
a conductor. Electrons are negatively charged particles that move
toward something that is positively charged. Electrons move because of
this potential difference. This describes one of the common theories
about current flow. The electron theory states that since electrons are
negatively charged, current flows from the most negative to the most
positive point within an electrical circuit. In other words, current flows
from negative to positive. This theory is widely accepted by the
electronic industry.
Another current flow theory is called the conventional theory. This
states that current flows from positive to negative. The basic idea
behind this theory is simply that although electrons move toward the
protons, the energy or force that is released as the electrons move
begins at the point where the first electron moved to the most positive
charge. As electrons continue to move in one direction, the released
energy moves in the opposite direction. This theory is the oldest theory
and serves as the basis for most electrical diagrams.
Trying to make sense of it all may be difficult for you. It is also difficult
for scientists and engineers. In fact, another theory has been developed
to explain the mysteries of current flow. This theory is called the hole-
flow theory and is actually based on both electron theory and the
conventional theory.
Fortunately, it really doesn't matter as long as you know what current
flow is and what affects it. From this understanding you will be able to
figure out how the circuit basically works, how to test it. and how to
repair it.
Remember that current flow is the result of the movement of electrons,
regardless of the theory.

Movements of electron


The difference in voltage between the ends of the resistor
produces an electric field. Any electrons which are able to move
are then dragged towards the positive (+ve) end and pushed
away from the negative (-ve) end. In a vacuum they'd get faster
and faster until they smashed into the positive end. However,
inside a material they find that the atoms keep getting in the
way.

Each time the electrons bump into the atoms of material they
tend to lose kinetic energy and bounce off at a random angle.
As a result they keep being accellerated by the electric field and
'losing their way' each time they hit an atom. The overall effect
is to make them tend to diffuse through the resistor. They
squeeze their way passed the atoms, a bit like toothpaste in a
tube when you squash it at one end. The harder you squeeze
(apply a bigger electric field) the higher their average velocity.
Since the current is just a measure of how quickly charge moves
along the piece of material we find that the current we get is
proportional to the applied voltage.
A basic definition: Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional
systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current work and concepts
that are more advanced.
In its original sense, 'nanotechnology' refers to the projected ability to
construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being
developed today to make complete, high performance products.
Microtechnology is technology with features near one micrometre (one millionth of a metre, or
10
6
metre, or 1m).
In the 1960s, scientists learned that by arraying large numbers of microscopic transistors on a single
chip, microelectronic circuits could be built that dramatically improved performance, functionality,
and reliability, all while reducing cost and increasing volume. This development led to
the Information Revolution.
More recently, scientists have learned that not only electrical devices, but also mechanical devices,
may be miniaturized and batch-fabricated, promising the same benefits to the mechanical world
as integrated circuit technology has given to the electrical world. While electronics now provide the
brains for todays advanced systems and products, micromechanical devices can provide
the sensors and actuators the eyes and ears, hands and feet which interface to the outside
world.
Today, micromechanical devices are the key components in a wide range of products such as
automobile airbags, ink-jet printers, blood pressure monitors, and projection display systems. It
seems clear that in the not-too-distant future these devices will be as pervasive as electronics.


The term picotechnology is a neologism intended to parallel the term nanotechnology. It is a
hypothetical future level of technological manipulation of matter, on the scale of trillionths of a meter
or picoscale(10
12
). This is three orders of magnitude smaller than a nanometer (and thus
most nanotechnology) and two orders of magnitude smaller than mostchemistry transformations and
measurements. Picotechnology would involve the manipulation of matter at the atomic level. A
further hypothetical development, femtotechnology, would involve working with matter at the sub-
atomic level.
Picoscience is a term used by some futurists to refer to structuring of matter on a
true picometer scale. First time, emerging trend of picotechnology over nanotechnology was
speculated with alleged examples in homeopathy, picoscale physical measurements and value in
biological assembly molecules. Picotechnology was described as involving the alteration of the
structure and chemical properties of individual atoms, typically through the manipulation of energy
states of electrons within an atom to produce metastable (or otherwise stabilized) states with
unusual properties, producing some form of exotic atom.
[1]
Analogous transformations known to exist
in the real world are redox chemistry, which can manipulate the oxidation states of atoms; excitation
of electrons to metastable excited states as with lasers and some forms of saturable absorption; and
the manipulation of the states of excited electrons in Rydberg atoms to encode information.
However, none of these processes produces the types of exotic atoms described by futurists.

The microfarad (symbolized F) is a unit of capacitance, equivalent to 0.000001 (10 to the -6th
power) farad. The microfarad is a moderate unit of capacitance. In utility alternating-current
(AC) and audio-frequency (AF) circuits, capacitors with values on the order of 1 F or more are
common. At radio frequencies (RF), a smaller unit, the picofarad (pF), is often used. This unit is
equal to .000000000001 (10^-12) F.
In RF scenarios, capacitances range from about 1 pF to 1,000 pF in tuned circuits, and from
about 0.001 F to 0.1 F for blocking and bypassing. At audio frequencies (AF), capacitances
range from about 0.1 F to 100 F. In power-supply filters, capacitances can be as high as
10,000 F.


Capacitor conversion chart compliments of:
Electronic Supply Center
"click here"

pF nF uF or mf FARAD
1,000 1.0 0.001 *
10,000 10.0 0.01 *
1,000,000 1,000 1.0 *
* 10,000 10. *
* 100,000 100.0 *
* 1,000,000 1000.0 0.001
* * 10,000 0.01
* * 100,000 0.1
* * 1,000,000 1.0

Capacitance is a physical quantity that represents the ability of a conductor to accumulate charge. It is
found by dividing the electrical charge magnitude by the potential difference between conductors:
C = Q/
Here Q is electric charge, which is measured in coulombs (C), and is the potential difference, which
is measured in volts (V).
Capacitance is measured in farads (F) in SI. This unit is named after the British physicist Michael
Faraday.
One farad represents extremely large capacitance for an isolated conductor. For example, an isolated
metal ball with the radius 13 times greater than that of the Sun would have capacitance of one farad,
while the capacitance of a metal ball with the radius of the Earth would be about 710 microfarads
(F).
Because one farad is such a large quantity, smaller units are used, such as microfarad (F), which
equals one millionth of a farad, nanofarad (nF), equalling to one billionth of a farad, and picofarad
(pF), which is one trillionth of a farad.
In the extended CGS for electromagnetic units the main unit of capacitance is described using
centimeters (cm). One centimeter of electromagnetic capacitance represents capacitance of a ball in
vacuum that has the radius of 1 cm. CGS system stands for centimeter-gram-second system it uses
centimeters, grams, and seconds as the basic units for length, mass, and time. Extensions of CGS also
set one or more constants to 1, which allows to simplify certain formulas and calculations.

When an electric charge is in motion it produces electric current. Magnetism can be described as lines
of force. The relationship between magnetism and electricity was first established by physicist Hans
Christian Oersted in the early part of the nineteenth century. He observed that when a magnetic
compass needle is placed near a wire that is carrying electric current, the needle get deflected. This
showed that electric current produces a magnetic field in the nearby region. English physicist Michael
Faraday went on to explain the relationship between electricity and magnetism further. According to
him, if magnetic fields are changed through a loop of wire, then electric current will be produced
within the wire.

Relation between Magnetism and Electricity at Atomic Level

There is a relationship between magnetism and electricity as both use positive and negative forces.
Every atom consists of electrons which are negatively charged particles, protons which are positively
charged, and neutrally charged neutrons. Just because these two different charges exist in the atom,
the phenomena of magnetism and electricity occurs. Electricity, in its static form, is nothing but an
imbalance of positive and negative charges. When an electron is moving round the nucleus, a loop of
electric current is formed. This in turn, results in the formation of a magnetic field within the electrical
loop. It is believed that this is the basis of the magnetic properties found in different types of
materials.


Properties of Electric and Magnetic Fields

Electric field is the area surrounding a charged particle, where if any other charged particle makes an
entry, it will experience a force. Magnetic field is the area surrounding a magnet, where apparent
magnetic influence can be found. These two fields are interrelated. Noted Scottish physicist and
mathematician James Clerk Maxwell derived some equations to explain the relationship between the
properties of electric and magnetic fields, as well as their geometric relations involving the circuits.
The derivations of his equations are described as follows:
Any change in an electric field would result in the formation of a magnetic field.
On the other hand, changing magnetic fields would yield electric fields.
When an electric field is constant, it does not produce magnetic fields.
Similarly, a magnetic field with a constant value would never produce any electric field.
Magnetic monopoles do not have any existence. This means that no magnet can have only a north
pole or just a south pole.
When the electric current is carried in a straight wire, the magnetic field thus produced encloses the
wire in a circular manner. In this case, the direction of electric field and magnetic field follows the
right hand rule.
When the current is carried by a circular wire, the magnetic field produced will be same as the
magnetic field of a bar magnet with the presence of a north pole and a south pole.
If a linear magnetic field is continuously changing, it would produce a circular electric field.

Earth science or Geoscience is an all-embracing term for the sciencesrelated to
the planet Earth.
[2]
It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only
known life-bearing planet(that we know of). There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to
Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically, Earth scientists will use
tools from physics, chemistry, biology, chronology, andmathematics to build a quantitative
understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state.
Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in
the religious, mythological, and astrological practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found
in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy, and not
completely disentangled from it until a few centuries ago in the Western World (see astrology and
astronomy). In some cultures astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication.
Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as stars remain relatively
fixed over the centuries while planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short
time.

Thales (624-547 B.C., Ionian) was a Greek philosopher who
traveled widely in Mesopotamia and Egypt, and brought
astronomical records from these cultures back to Greece. He
believed that the Earth is a disk floating on an endless ocean.
Legend has it that he correctly predicted a solar eclipse in the year
585 B.C.

Anaximander (611-547 B.C.,
Ionian) was a Greek
philosopher who made the
first detailed maps of the
Earth and the sky. He knew
that the Earth was round,
and believed that it was free-
floating and unsupported. He
measured its circumference,
and was the first to put
forward the idea that
celestial bodies make full
circles in their orbits. One of
his greatest contributions
was the fact that he was the
first to conceptualize space
as having depth.

Pythagoras (569-475 B.C.,
Ionian) was a mathematician
who put forward the idea that
the universe is made of
crystal spheres that encircle
the Earth. According to him,
the Sun, the Moon, the
planets, and the stars travel
in separate spheres. When
the spheres touch each
other, a 'music of the
spheres' can be heard.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.,
Greek), the great
philosopher, proved that the
Earth is spherical, and
believed that it was at the
center of the universe. His
reason for believing this was
actually quite scientific: he
knew that if the Earth
revolved around the Sun,
then we should see the stars
shift position throughout the
year. Since he did not have
the technology to detect this
shift, as we do today, he
concluded that Earth must
rest at the center of the
universe. According to him,
the Sun, planets, and stars
were located in spheres that
revolved around the Earth.

Aristarchus (310-230 B.C.,
Greek) was the first to put
forward the idea that the Sun
was actually in the center of
the universe. His theory was
considered far too radical.
Unfortunately, history tends
to forget that he came to this
conclusion about 1,750
years before Copernicus did!
He also attempted to
measure the relative
distances between the Earth
and the Sun and the Earth
and the Moon. Even though
he used a reasonable
method, his results were not
very accurate, because he
lacked the technological
equipment to make a precise
measurement.

Hipparchus (190-120 B.C.,
Greek) is widely considered
to be the greatest
astronomer of ancient times.
He compiled the first known
star catalog to organize
astronomical objects, and
also came up with a scale to
define the brightnesses of
stars. A version of this
magnitude system is still
used today. He measured
the distance from the Earth
to the Moon to be 29.5 Earth
diameters (we know today
that the real value is 30
Earth diameters). Perhaps
his greatest discovery was
the precession, or wobble, of
the Earth's axis, which is
caused by the gravitational
pull of the Sun and Moon.

Claudius Ptolemy (85-165
A.D., Greek) was an
astronomer who used
Hipparchus' extensive
observations to develop a
model that predicted the
movements of the Sun,
Moon, planets, and stars. His
model, called the Ptolemaic
system, visualized an Earth-
centered universe and
assumed that all
astronomical objects move at
constant speeds in circular
orbits. The circle was
considered by the ancients
to be the perfect shape, and
regardless of the evidence
against circular orbits,
Ptolemy built his model to fit
this idea. The Ptolemaic
model is one of the longest
upheld scientific theories in
history: it was the
cornerstone of astronomy for
1,500 years.

al-Khwarizmi (780-850,
Islamic) was the inventor of
algebra. He developed this
mathematical device
completely in words, not
mathematical expressions,
but based the system on the
Indian numbers borrowed by
the Arabs (what we today
call Arabic numerals). His
work was translated into
Latin hundreds of years later,
and served as the European
introduction to the Indian
number system, complete
with its concept of zero. Al-
Khwarizmi performed
detailed calculations of the
positions of the Sun, Moon,
and planets, and did a
number of eclipse
calculations. He constructed
a table of the latitudes and
longitudes of 2,402 cities
and landmarks, forming the
basis of an early world map.

Omar Khayyam (1048-1131,
Persian) was a great
scientist, philosopher, and
poet. He compiled many
astronomical tables and
performed a reformation of
the calendar which was more
accurate than the Julian and
came close to the Gregorian.
An amazing feat was his
calculation of the year to be
365.24219858156 days long,
which is accurate to the sixth
decimal place!

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-
1543, Polish) began a new
era of astronomy when he
concluded that the Sun was
the center of the universe
instead of the Earth.
Copernicus felt that the
Ptolemaic system was
contrived, but in his revisions
of that model, he kept the
orbits circular. The
revolutionary idea was not
popular with the Church, but
several other astronomers
such as Brahe and Galileo
helped to eventually prove
that this model of the
universe more accurately
portrayed reality.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601,
Danish) built an observatory
from which he made the
most accurate astronomical
observations up to that time.
His observatory contained
sophisticated equipment for
mapping star positions, and
for more than 20 years he
made detailed records of his
findings. He believed that the
universe was a blend of the
Ptolemaic and Copernican
models, and created his own
model in which the planets
orbit the Sun and the Sun
orbits the Earth.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642,
Italian) is the father of
observational astronomy. In
1609, he heard about the
Dutch invention of the
telescope, and built one for
himself. Even though his
telescope was not very
powerful compared to the
amateur equipment available
today, he was able to make
a number of stunning
discoveries which changed
the face of astronomy. He
saw the craters, mountains,
and valleys of the Moon,
noticed the huge number of
stars making up the Milky
Way, kept precise records of
sunspot activity and the
phases of Venus, and
discovered four moons
orbiting Jupiter. These
moons are still called the
Galilean Moons today, in
honor of the earth-shattering
scientific effects of the
discovery. During a time
when the Earth was still
considered to be at the
center of the universe, he
publicized the fact that other
astronomical bodies, such as
Jupiter's moons, were clearly
revolving around something
other than the Earth.
Galileo's support of the
Copernican model of the
universe frightened the
Church, which put Galileo on
trial in 1633. He was forced
to renounce his Copernican
views and was held under
house arrest for the rest of
his life.

Johannes Kepler (1571-
1630, German) was Tycho
Brahe's assistant and
student. He inherited his
teacher's extensive
collection of astronomical
records, and used them to
develop three laws of
planetary motion. He
believed in the Copernican
model of the universe,
although he found it difficult
to fit Tycho's observations of
Mars into the model with a
circular orbit. He therefore
used the idea of elliptical
orbits to describe the
motions of the planets, which
became known as Kepler's
first law. His second law
states that a line from the
Sun to a planet sweeps out
equal areas in equal
amounts of time. The third
law was a masterpiece of
simplicity: the square of the
number of years of a planet's
orbital period is equal to the
cube of that planet's average
distance from the Sun.