MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

METROLOGY
Dr.B.Ramamoorthy
Professor
Manufacturing Engg. Section
IITMadras 600 036
Errors in Measurement
Measurement is made to an accepta!e degree of accuracy
"o measurement is perfect
"eed to specify accuracy of determination
#or e$amp!e%
Error measured using an instrument is & 0.00'mm
(ccuracy of determination is &) * 0.00+mm
If this instrument is used for measuring 0.0,mm- then it is fine.
Types of Error
Errors that an !e e"iminate#
'. Ca"amitous errors
a. Misreading an instrument% e$. micrometer is misread as 6.,/mm or +.0/mm
instead of +.,/mm.
. (rithmetic error% usua!!y errors of addition.
,. A"i$nment Errors
Due to misa!ignment. Para!!a$ error is another form of this error. #ig '
Fi$ure %
3. Errors due to amient conditions
a. Direct measurement
Error 1 ! 2 3t 4 t s.
. 5omparati6e Measurement
Error 1 ! 32' 4 2 ,. 3t 4 t s.- 7here ! is nomina! !ength- 2 is coefficient of therma!
e$pansion and t is temperature.
8. Errors due to E!astic Deformation
Errors that annot !e e"iminate#
'. Sca!e errors
Possi!e to o6ercome y ca!iration
,. Reading Errors
(!ignment- super positioning- symmetrica! framing
3. Measuring error
#ig.,. Support Positions for different conditions of measurements
&tan#ar#isation
Metro!ogy Ru!e%
A GOO' METROLOGI&T I& A (ER&ON )ITH A &U&(ICIOU& MIN'*
LOO+ING FOR FAULT& AN' ERROR&* AN' NE,ER ACCE(TING THING&
AT THEIR FACE ,ALUE& UNTIL HE HA& &ATI&FIE' HIM&ELF THAT &UCH
,ALUE& ARE TRUE IN COM(ARI&ON )ITH &TAN'AR'& )HICH HE
+NO)& HE CAN ACCE(T
&TAN'AR'&
Many attempts ha6e een made to define !ength standards
%- EN' &TAN'AR'
'09, a f!at p!atinum end ar :as used- a rectangu!ar Brass ar 3 ;ueen
E!i<aeth ' period . - Maintained up to '/,8
.- LINE &TAN'AR'
'/,8 - P!atinum Iridium (!!oy- Tresca design cross section
7ith engra6ed !ines. #ig.'a.
'/++ to '960- Bron<e ar :ith =o!d p!ugs- ' inch s>uare cross section- !ines
engra6ed. #ig. ' . -pro6ed unsta!e.
/- )A,E LENGTH &TAN'AR'
Meter is defined as '-6+0-063.03 :a6e!engths of ?range Radiation in @acuum of
Arypton /6
(ccuracy of reproduction is one part in '0
9

'a '

#ig ' a and ' Bine Standards
EN' &TAN'AR'&
S!ip gauges 3=round- Bapped :ith >ua!ity standards.
Materia! a. Cardened Stee! * Dimensiona! stai!ity
. Tungsten 5aride- 5eramics 4 a!most <ero therma! e$pansion
S!ip gauges =radesD
=rade II 3:orEshop.-
=rade I 3Inspection.-
=rade 0 3ca!iration. and
=rade 00 3reference.
Sets of S!ip =auges 3gauge !ocEs- /' gauges.
7ring S!ip gauges 4 air fi!m is remo6ed
Mo!ecu!ar (ttraction
Co!d them across and rotate
Reduce ruing and :ear
S!ips set -@a!ues in mm '.00'- '.00,- '.003 FFFFFFF '.009
'.0'- '.0,- '.03FFFFFFFFF '.09
'.'- '.,- '.3- FFFFFFFFFFF '.9
'- ,- 3- '00
7ringing of S!ip gauges 5!inging po:er of S!ip =auges
5hecEing a B!ocE for #!atness using an optica! #!at
5hecEing of =auges :ith a comparator
(pp!ications of Dia! =auge
Primary standard of !ength 3metre.
3Esta!ished y interferometry.
Secondary standards
3@erified y interferometry.
=rade oo or 5a!iration grade s!ip gauges
3@erified y interferometry.
=rade 0 or s!ip gauges
3@erified y Cigh magnification comparator.
=rade II s!ip gauges
3@erified y Cigh magnification 5omparator.
7orEshop method
3@erified y suita!e =auging method.
Gra#es of s"ip $au$es* &tan#ar#s
Manufature of Gau$es
* Rough machining * heat treatment
* =rinding and Bapping * using 5B" arasi6es
* Spread on a f!at 5I p!ate- non directiona! !apping
* Inter changing of gauges to a6oid taper
Fits an# To"eranes* Gau$in$
* Theoretica!!y a designer can choose any fit and to!erance
* 5ommon e$perience made it possi!e to set standards
* #or e$. British Standard has '/ grades of To!erances- se6en finest grades co6er up to
+00 mm- remaining '' up to 3'+0 mm
These to!erances are ui!t from fundamenta! to!erances :hich are mu!tip!es of
fundamenta! to!erance unit 0 i G
#or a Diameter 3or si<e. D-
7here D is in mm. D is not e$act!y the si<e under consideration.
=rades IT ' to IT + is chosen aritrari!y
IT 6 1 '0 $ i %
IT 0 1 IT 6 $ '0 0.,%
IT / 1 IT 6 H '0 0.8%
IT '' 1 IT 6 H '0%
FFFF.
IT '6 1 IT 6 $ '00 and so on.
Cigher 6a!ues ascend from this in =eometric progression on the fi6e series preferred
numers in :hich the factor is fifth root of '0.
( ) mm 00' . 0 D 0' . 0 D 8+ . 0 i
3
=
D is range for e$. ,8 to 30 mm si<e-
Then D 1 30 $ ,8 1 ,6./ mm
Barge :orE pieces more to!erance as too! def!ects
To!erance grade /
0.0'8 mm for 3.00 mm si<e
0.330 mm for 3000mm si<e
Co!es ( to C- shafts a to h% 6a!ues are same- ut opposite direction% ho!es positi6e and the
Shafts negati6e
Specifying the To!erance
Co!e asis and Shaft asis Systems
Co!e maEing to a si<e is difficu!t-
30 C 0 g 6 * 5!earance #it
30 C 0 E 0 * Interference #it
TOLERANCE GRA'E&
up to '6 - IT'6 grades are used
Be!o: + Precision Manufacturing
' I , J!tra Precision Manufacturing
Barge 7orE pieces To!erance is more as the Too! is not sta!e- def!ects during machining.
Jni!atera! To!erance and Bi!atera! To!erance- :here To!erance !ies on one side and on
either side respecti6e!y.

7hy To!erancesK
To achie6e interchangeai!ity
Economica!- Mass Production
Se!ecti6e assem!y
=rade Indicates
To!erances and the 5apai!ity of the machine to e used.
Bathe 5an "ot e used in P!ace of Bapping ) Coning
Machine ) Process =rade
Bathe / 4 +
Dri!!ing / 4 0
=rinding + 4 ,
Super #inishing , 4 '
So- Designer Jses these numers- (na!yses for
'. Se!ecting the #it
,. Se!ecting the Process
IT =rades he!p the '. Designer- ,. Shop f!oor Engineer
(nd a!so te!!s 3. the Machine 5apai!ity
M?RE TC(" TCE EMPIRI5(B #?RMJB( ("D TCE DERI@(TI?" ?#
T?BER("5ES- PR?PER JSE- (PPBI5(TI?" ("D J"DERST("DI"= T? JSE
T(BBES IS IMP?RT("T.
LIMIT& AN' GAUGING
The #unctioning of the Products depend on
' . the 5orrect Si<e of the 5omponents
, . the :ay they are assem!ed. Jnfortunate!y It is impossi!e to maEe a part to a
Specified @a!ue e$cept y Remote 5hance.
E6en It is made - it is impossi!e to measure it accurate!y to Pro6e it.
#ine To!erances and =ood surface finish increases the 5ost.
SEBE5TI@E (SSEMBBL he!ps.
Bimits and #its
'. Interference #it
,. Transition #it
3. 5!earance #it
Assem!"y
'. Co!e Basis
Co!e si<e Eept constant- #its are otained 6arying the !imits on Shafts.
,. Shaft Basis
Most!y Co!e Basis is used as great many ho!es are Produced using Standard too!ing !iEe
Dri!!ing- reamers etc. :hose Si<e is not (dMusta!e.
The "e:a!! System of Bimits and #its.
The British Standard System of Bimits and #its.

Co!es designated :ith capita! !etters (- B- 5- D- F.
and Shafts a- - c- d- F..
#or e$. C ho!e :i!! ha6e !imits & $
* 0
h shaft :i!! ha6e !imits & 0
* $ and so on.
( Typica! Co!e Basis System from BS 8+00 series :ou!d e as fo!!o:s.
Co!es% C8 C0 C9 C''
Shafts% u6- s6- p6 m6- E6 h0- g6- f0- e0.
Interference Transition 5!earance #its :ith C0 Co!e
LIMIT GAUGE&
5hecEing Co!es and Shafts :hether they are :ith in !imits.
'. 7hat magnitude of To!erance to e app!ied to the =augeK
,. Re!ati6e to the 7orE- ho: the to!erance Nones are DisposedK
3. 7ear (!!o:ancesK
Re!ationship et:een a Co!e and a Shaft
GAUGE TOLERANCE&
=rades IT 0- IT 0'- IT ' to IT + are chosen aritrari!y
IT 6 1 IT' $ '0
IT 0 1 IT 6 $ '0
0.,
1 '0 $ IT ,%
IT / 1 IT 6 H '0
0.8
1 '0 $ IT 3%
IT '' 1 IT 6 H '0%
IT ', 1 IT 0 $ '0
FFFF.
IT '6 1 IT '' $ '0 1 IT 6 $ '00 and so on.
Genera" Ru"e of Measurement
Measuring E>uipment need to ha6e To!erance accuracy Ten times that of the :orE.
Cere- for C'' Co!e the =auge to!erance is IT 6 and so on.
'isposition of To"eranes
a. GO Gau$e to!erance is i!atera!!y disposed at a distance < 3<' for gauging Shafts.
:ithin the to!erance <one for the :orE from the Ma$. meta! !imit.
. NOT GO Gau$e Is i!atera!!y disposed aout the Minimum meta! !imit for the :orE.
@a!ues of the ao6e and )ear a""o1anes are in BS 8+00 Part ,
Disposition of To!erances in P!ain a. P!ug and . =ap and Ring =auges
Tay"or2s Theory of Gau$in$
GO GAUGE checEs Ma$imum meta! condition and shou!d checE as many dimensions as
possi!e.
NOT GO GAUGE shou!d checE Minimum meta! condition and shou!d checE on!y one
Dimension at a time.
Therefore- a separate NOT GO =auge is re>uired for each indi6idua! dimension.
E$. #ig. . Separate NOT GO =auges for !ength and Breadth :ou!d reMect the
component- :hereas one gauge for oth :ou!d ha6e accepted it.
=? gauge :i!! e !engthier to checE form errors :ith Ma$. Meta! condition.- and for
identification from NOT GO =auges.
Jse of =(P and RI"= gauges- use of fu!! form gauges 3e$. !oed components. is idea!.
3#ig..
To!erance <one for a rectangu!ar ho!e
Therefore- a separate "?T =? =auge is re>uired for each indi6idua! dimension.
E$. #ig. . Separate "?T =? =auges for !ength and Breadth :ou!d reMect the component-
:hereas one gauge for oth :ou!d ha6e accepted it.
Rectangu!ar ?6ersi<e Co!e in ?ne Direction 4 ( #u!! form "?T =? =auge :i!! "?T
reMect.
=? gauge :i!! e !engthier to checE form errors :ith Ma$. Meta! condition- and for
identification from "?T =? =auges
Bengthier =? =auge :i!! "?T enter the non straight ho!e
Jse of =(P and RI"= gauges- use of fu!! form gauges 3e$. !oed components. is idea!.
Effect of Boing in 5y!indrica! 5omponents



("ain 3 Threa# ("u$ Go an# No Go Gau$es
( sma!! circu!ar area is raised y E!ectro p!ating- an amount e>ua! to :orE To!erance.
NOT GO gauge conforms to Tay!orOs Princip!e. ?ne diameter at one time.
&tan#ar#s of Len$th
)a4e"en$th &tan#ar#s
The definition of standard using !ight :a6e!ength
5ame in '9+/
' 6+0 063.03.03
7a6e !engths in 6acuum- orange red radiation of isotope Erypton /6% reproduction ' in
'00 mi!!ion.
Interferometry dea!s :ith science :here !ight rays from common source tra6e! t:o
different path !engths and comine.
"ature of !ightD '. Emission theory ,. 7a6e theory
Emission theory y "e:ton considers !ight as partic!es emitted y !uminous odies and
impacts eye causing sensation of !ight.
)a4e theory y Cuygens considers !ight as a :a6e motion propagated in the ether. This
:ith suse>uent de6e!opment e$p!ains the phenomena of interference. Bight is
considered as E!ectromagnetic :a6es of Sinusoida! :a6e form 3fig. . .. #or any
monochromatic !ight source the characteristics are 6irtua!!y independent of amient
conditions. The primary co!ors ha6e such i!! defined :a6e!ength .So- scientists used
monochromatic !ight such as that from Mercury '9/ and Erypton /6 ha6ing a precise-
reproduci!e 7a6e!ength.
Con#itions for Interferene
a. Bight from a sing!e source must e di6ided in to t:o component rays.
. Before comining the components must tra6e! path !engths differing y an odd numer
of ha!f :a6e !engths.
IT IS TCIS (BIBITL T? SPBIT BI=CT #R?M ( SI"=BE S?JR5E I" T? T7?
5?MP?"E"T R(LS- T? RE5?MBI"E TCEM- ("D ?BSRE@E TCE 7(L TCEL
RE5?MBI"E- TC(T (BB?7S TCE 7(@EBE"=TC ?# BI=CT T? BE JSED #?R
ME(SJREME"T.
a. ?f different amp!itudes a ( and a B ut in phase
Monochromatic !ight is composed of infinite numer of :a6es of e>ua! :a6e!ength.
5onsider t:o such rays. The resu!tant amp!itude is a R 1 a ( & a B- and it is ma$imum and
therefore the intensity as :e!!.
. ?ut of phase y 5
c. Resu!tant amp!itudes of t:o :a6es ( and B ?ut of phase y ha!f :a6e !ength 3'/0
0
.
?ut of phase y ha!f :a6e !ength 3'/0
0
. - as 5os '/0 ) , 1 0 - The resu!tant 3 a R . is
Nero % 5omp!ete Interference et:een t:o :a6es occurs and eye registers no sensation
of !ight.
( and B are t:o Point Sources of Monochromatic Bight ha6ing a common origin. S is
screen p!ane Para!!e! to !ine Moining (B.??' is perpendicu!ar to screen- intersects (B at
Midpoint. Since oth ha6e 5ommon origin- 7a6es :i!! ha6e same :a6e !ength and :i!!
e in phase. If (?' 1 B?'- 7a6es :i!! arri6e in phase at ?'I produce ma$imum
I!!umination. If B?, 4 (?, 1 3,n&'. P ),- :here n is an integer- then :a6es :i!! e '/0
0
out of phase producing darEness
Formation of a"ternate "i$ht an# 'ar6 areas on sreen* #ue to 1a4es from soures
A an# 7 tra4e"in$ #ifferent path "en$ths8
Formation of interferene frin$es on a f"at surfae 4ie1e# un#er an optia" f"at
usin$ a para""e" !eam of monohromati "i$ht
Testin$ F"at surfaes
* ?ptica! f!at- ground and !apped on oth sides is used as a standard. si<e 6aries from
,+ to 300mm in diameter.
* ?ptica! f!at !aid at an ang!e G Q R
* #ig. . Sho:s t:o !ight path !engths - ref!ections from
G a R and G R - if ac 1 P ) ,- and def 1 3 P ) ,-
* 5onditions for interference satisfies- fringes are seen.
* Pro6ided the surfaces are f!at- right ang!es to the p!ane of paper etc.
* (!so if a 1 c 1 P ) 8 -and de 1 ef 1 3 P ) 8 %
* Then #e a! 9 : ; .
O7&ER,ATION&
'. 5hange in separation is ha!f the :a6e !ength.
,. If it is too !arge- the fringes ecome c!ose!y spaced and indistinguisha!e.
3. In practice- the contact cou!d occur at more points.
Interferene frin$es for a on4e< surfae8
Spherica! con6e$ surface 5ontact occurs at one point- resu!ting in fringe pattern of
concentric circ!es. (dMacent circ!es represent change in e!e6ation. n $ : ) , 1 Tota!
change in e!e6ation from the point of contact- n is the numer of fringes oser6ed.
&pheria" an# Cy"in#ria" &urfaes interpretation
The sharp drop off is seen 5ounting the ands on unEno:n part pro6ides
By the c!oseness of fringes the measurement of height difference

Both ha6e same numer of ands ut one is a s!ant surface
)hen the #ifferenes are sma""* the #ia$ona" patterns are use# for Measurements
Metho# of testin$ Con4e<ity* ona4ity
Frin$e pattern forme# on a surfae 1hose entre "ine is ha"f 1a4e "en$th hi$her
than its e#$es
#ringe pattern represents contour map of surface under test- spacing of fringes represents
height inter6a!s of optica! f!at of : ) ,.E$. #ig. . Points 5 and B are of same distance from
optica! f!at ut oth are : ) , farther from D. Therefore* point C ou"# !e "o1er or
hi$her than ' !y : ;.8
Fi$8 Interferometer for testin$ F"atness of &urfaes
Interferometer for testin$ F"atness of &urfaes