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TJ^VBTVER'S

COLT^CTTON OF SIMPUFIED
GRAMMARS
TIBETAN- GRAMMAR
h.^a;jaschk:.
I
^
%
TEUBNER'S COLLECTION
OF
ShMPLIFIED
GRAMMARS
OF THE PRINCIPAL
ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAUES.
EDITED BY
REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Ph.D.
vn.
TIBETAN.
BY H. A.J-ASCHKE.
trObher's
collecot of simplified
gramebs of. the
pbikcipe
asiatic and european
lmuages.
EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Ph.D.
"
I.
HINDUSTANI,
PERSIAN, AND ARABIC.
By the late E, H. Palmer, M.A.
Prke 5r.
II.
HUNGARIAN.
By I. Singer.
Prict 4i. Qd.
III.
BASQUE.
By "W. Van Evs.
Fries 3j. 6fl'.
JV.
MALAGASY.
By G. W, Parker.
Price 5r.
MODERN GREEK.
By E. M. Geldaet, M.A.
Price 2j C</.
VI.
ROUMANIAN.
By E. Torceamu,
VII.
TIBETAN.
By H. A.Jaschke.
Grammars of
the folio-wing are in freparstien:
Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyri, Bobemian, Bulgarian Burmese
,
Chinese,
Cymiic aiid Gaelic, Danish, Kinnisl,, Hebrew, Mday, Pah, Polish Russian,
Sanskrit, Serbian, Siamese, Singhalese, Swedish, lurHisH.
London: TROenER & CO., Ludgate
Hill.
I
TIBETAN GRAMMAR
,.^'
'#
H. A. JASCHKE
ORiTIAN UiaSIOKAKY.
-<s4:^^K^
SECOND EDITION
PREPARED BY
Dr. H. WENZEL.
LONDON:
TRtBNER
& CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL.
1883.
[A/I rig/Us risen/ed.]
'- ! ^;.^^/''r ."^ '1. '
'?
Preface.
The present new edition of Mr, JXschke's Tibetan
Grammar scarcely needs a word of apology. As the first
edition which was lithographed at Kyelan in 1 865 in a limited
number of copies has long been out of print, Dr. RosT
urged the author to revise his grammar for the purpose of
bringing it out in an improYed form. The latter, prevented
by ill-health from undertaking the task, placed the matter
in my hands, and had the goodness to make over to me
his own manuscript notes and additions to the original
work. Without his personal cooperation, however, I was
unable to make any but a very spariBg use of these, add-
ing only a few remarks from Gyalrabs and Milaraspa, with
some further remarks on the local TCinacular of Western
Tibet,
Indeed, special attention has been paid throughout
to this dialect; it is the one with which the author during
his long
residence at Kyelan had become most familiar,
and with which the English in India are most likely to be
brought into direct contact,
Besides the above mentioned additions, I have taken
a
number of examples from the Dzahlan, to make clearer
some of the rules, and, with the same view, I have altered,
here and there, the wording of the lithographed edition.
sasa
PU,, I II'
VI
Preface.
Abbreviations,
The order of tie paragraphs has been retained throughout,
and only one (23.) has been added for completeness' sake.
The system of trans!it.eration is nearly the. same as in
the Dictionary, only for ny, n is used, and instead of e, a
(respectively ) has been thonght to he a clearer represen-
tation of the sound intended. For the niceties of pronun-
ciation the reader is referred to the Dictionary, as in this
Grammar only the geneial rules have been given.
Finally I must express my warmest thanks to Dr. Host,
to whose exertions not only the printing of this Grammar
is solely due, but who also rendered me much help in the
correcting of the work.
Mavence, May 1883.
^
'
H. Wenzgl.
Abbreviations.
act. = active.
C or CT = Ceutral Tibet, espe-
cially tile provinces of U and
Taan.
cf. = confer, compare.
Dzl. = Bzatlim.
e. g. = exempli gratia, for in-
stance.
ET = East Tibet.
fut. = future.
imp. = imperative.
inf. = infinitive.
i. o, = instead of.
Kopp. = Koppen.
Kim. = Kunawur, province under
English protection.
Ld.
= Ladak, province.
Mil. = Milaraspa.
nentr. ~ neuter verb,
perf. or pf. = perfect,
pres. = present,
s. = see.
tenn. = terminative case.
Thgj.
- Thar
- gyan , scientific
treatises.
v. = vide, see.
vulg. = vulgar expression.
W or WT = Western Tibet.
Contents.
I. Phonology.
FagB
1. Alphabet 1
2. Remarks
'
, . . 3
3. Vowels 3
i. Syllables 4
6. l?inal Consonants 5
6. Diphthongs 6
7. Compound Consonants ^
S. Prefixed Letters 11
9. Word; Accent; Quantity 12
10. Punctuation
14
II. t } m !
g y.
1. Article.
11. Peculiarities cf the Tibetan Article 17
12. Difl'erence of the Articles 18
13. The Indefinite Article 19
n. Substantive.
14.
Number
20
15.
Declension
. 21
III. Adjective,
16.
Eelafion to the Substantive 25
I''-
Comparison
26
IV. Namerals.
lo-
Cai'diual
numerals
28
19.
Ordinal
numerals
31
20.
Eemarks
31
21.
Distributive
numerals
33
^2. Adverbial
numerals
33
'''*
fractional
numerals
33
Ki ^
yjlj
Contents.
V. Pronoun B.,
24. Personal pronouns . . - - -
-_ ,
.
25. Posaessiye pronouns
^^
26. Refleotiye pronouns
^7
27. Demonstrative pronouns
.81
28. Interrogative pronouns
"
29. Belative pronouns
^
VI. Verb.
30. Ibtroduction
^0
31. Inflection
^1
32. Infinitive
.... 42
33. Participle
43
34. Finite Verb
45
35. Present
^^
36. Preterit
^'^
37. Future
^8
38. Imperative ......."
49
39. Intensive
50
40. Substantive Verbs . 51
41. Gerunds and Supines
&*
42. VII. Adverb
65
43. VIII. Postposition
67
44. IX. Conjunction
"J*
45. X. Interjection
76
XI. Derivation:
46. Derivation of Substantives
'''
47. Derivation of Adjectives
'^8
HI. Sjntax.
48. Arrang'ement of Words
SO
49. Use of the Cases . ^h.
60. Simple Sentences
82
51. Compound Sentences 83
Appendix.
Phrases 86
Reading Exercise
92
Verbs
99
^
3, line
4, .
4, ,
4, ,
4,
4,
4,
5,
"',
1,
8,
8,
9=
10,
11,
12,
13,
13,
14,
20,
20,
20,
21,
Errata.
13 read at instead of in.
2

respectively.
7
,
which instead of whom.
9
under particular.
14 SjtS> instead of iUj*P.
20 , exertion.
21 dele to.
5 dele down,
4 read succession instead of conjunction.
5
,
each instead of either.
11

subscribed instead of subjoined.


11 , foot for food.
12 subscribed for subjoined.
16

homonyms.
19
,
language.
23 , over instead of above.
24 consonants.
10
, case.
4
,
judgment.
9
,
except.
21
, it instead of is, <
1
,
vrhicb serve to denote.
.7

preceding-.
6
, exclamation,
3

indiscriminately,
5 superseded.
19
,
But,
5 . adds.
pag
'^.
2
i. The Alphabet.
It is seen from this table tliat several sigos bave been
added to express sounds that are unknown in Sanscrit.
The sibilants
^'
e^'
^' evidentlywere differentiated from the
palatals. But as in transcribing Sanscrit words the Tibetans
substitute their sibilants for the palatals of the original (as
yS' for
^^),
we must suppose that the sibilisation of
those consonants, common at present among the Hindus
on the Southern slopes of the Himalaya (who speak tsar
for
^T^,
four etc.), was in general use with those Indians
from whom the Tib. Alphabet was taken (cf. also the Afghan
i. and j, likewise sprung from and
y
Q'
is differentiated
from R',
which itself often is pronounced n, as shewn in
the sequel; in transcribing Sanscrit, ^ and
^
both are given,
generally, by ^ only. (^' seems to be formed out of -/^'
to which it is related in sound. S' evidently is only the
inverted E'.
^'
corresponds with Sanscrit ^.
1^'
is newly
invented; for its functions see the following .
The
letters which are peculiar to Sanscrit are espressed, in
transcribing, in the following manner, a) The Unguals,
simply by inverting the signs of the dentals: thus,
?'
Z, p'
"3, ?'
^, Jfi' ^. b) The sonant aspirates, by
putting ^' under the sonants: thus, ^"^.
E' ^,
?'
5.
1^'
*) A very clear exposition of the ramification of Indian alphabets
by Dr, Haas is to be found in the Publications of the Palaeo-
graphical Societj Oriental Series IV, pi XLIV.
2. Eemarkg, Z. Vowels. 3
2. Remarks. 1. Regarding the pronunciation of the
single letters, as given above, it is to be bom in mind, that
surds 'H' y
CJ' are uttered without the least admixture of
an aspiration, viz. as k,
% p
are pronounced in the words
skate, stale, spear; the aspirates R' ^'
^ forcibly, rather
harder than the same in Kate, tale, peer; the sonants ^'
ly
CJ" like
(/,
d, h in gate, dale, heei: 2. The same difference
of hardness is to be observed in
5'
c&' E' or <-, c,
}
(c oc-
curs in church; !;, the same without aspiration;
)
in judge)
and in
^' ^' ^'
or ils, is, ds. 3. I^' is the soft modifica-
tion of s or the s in leisure (French j in jamah, but more
palatal). 4. C is the English ng in sing, but occurs in
Tibetan often in the commencement of a syllable. 5. 5i' n
is the Hindi sij, or the initial sound in the word new, which
would be spelled
%'
nu. 6. In the dialects of Eastern or
Chinese-Tibet, however, the soft consonants =f|' ^'
R' E" E',
when occurring as initials, are pronounced with an aspi-
ration, similar to the Hindi ^, ^, tn, ^,
or indeed so that
they often scarcely differ from the common English k, t,
p,
ch; also 1^' and
3'
are more difficult to distinguish from
-i^' and 5^ than in the Western provinces (Exceptions s.

^ 8).
3. Vowels. 1. Since every consonant sign implies, like
its Sanscrit prototype, a following a, unless some other
vowel
sign is attached to it, no particular sign is wanted
to
denote this vowel, except in some cases specified in the
1*
4
i. SjllaWes.
following . The special vowel signs are ^, ^-, ^^,
^,
pronounced respeetivily as e, *, o, u are in German, Italian
and most other European languages, viz.
^^
like ay in saj/,
or e in ten;
'^
like i in machine, fin; ^^ like o in so, on;
^
like M in rule, pull. It ought to be specially remarked
that all vowels, including e and o (unlike the Sanscrit vowels
from whom they have taken their signs) are short, since
no long vowels at all occur in the Tibetiin language, except
particular circumstances, mentioned below (a.
9. 5, 6).
2. When vowels are initial, \^ is used as their base, as is
1 iu Urdu, e- g-
^'^'
ania, , mother'. 3, ^ is originally
different from t?J', as the latter denotes the opening of the
previously closed throat for pronouncing a vowel with that
slight explosive sound which the Arabs mean by i
("J***),
as the a in the words: the lily, an endogen, which would
be in Tibetan characters fij'n^'I^I^i';
Q^
on the contrary is
the mere vowel without that audible opening of the throat
(as Arabic 1 without *), as in Lilian, OJ'nj'fl^S' In Eastern
Tibet this difference, is strictly observed; and if the vowel
is or M the intentional esercion for avoiding the sound of
l?l' makes it resemble to too and u-m: R^'SJ' ,the milk', al-
most like ico-ma, ^^'^' ,the owl' = imtg-pa. In western
Tibet this has been obliterated, and
0^'
is there spoken just
like J^'
4. Syllables. The Tibetan language is monosyllabic,
that is to say all its words consist of one syllable only,
which indeed may be variously composed, though the
6. Pinal cousonants.
5
componend parts cannot, in every case, be recognised in
their individuality. The mark for the end of such a syllable
. is a dot, called
S^j' fseg, put at the right side of the upper
part of the closing letter, such as ^' the syllable ka. This
(seg must invariably be put down at the end of each written
syllable, except before a kad
( 10), in which case only
t^' na retains its fseg. If therefore such a dot is found after
two or more consonants, this will indicate that all of them,
some way or other, foi-m one syllable with only one vowel
in it:
Tj'a^'
ka-ra, Tj^' kar (cf.

5. 8).
5. Final consonants. 1. Only the following ten: =T1' E^'
^V^'
q- 5^- f^-
J:;-
Oi' ^y (and the four with afExed
^,
V. 5) occur at the end of a syllable, 2. It must be observed,
that ^1"
^' CJ' as finals are never pronounced like the Eng-
,liah
(J, ti, b in leg, bad, cab, but are transformed differently
m the different provinces. In Ladak they sound like k, t,
p
e.
g. ^- ^ sock, 9]=^' = got,
'^'=
top. S. In all Central
Tibet,
moreover, final ^' and S', sometimes even ^', modi-
fy
the sound of a preceeding vowel: a to a (similar to
the
English a in hare, man), o into o (French eu in jeu),
w mto w (French u in mur). In most of the other provinces
'^ and ^' are uttered so indistinctly as to be scarcely aud-
ible, so that {=I|', 9]s:' become sci', (;5'. In Tsang even final
"^ is
scarcely perceptible, and final ^V, particularly after o,
IS
almost
dissolved into a vowel sound = a: ?|oj'CI" so-wa.
g
G. Diphthongs.
JsJilS'S^S^' kon-c/wa.*) i. Final
^'
is sounded as s only
in Northern Ladak; elsewhere it changes into i or
dissappears entirely, prolonging, or even modifying at the
same time the preceding vowel. Thus the following words:
5y5J'
,barley', ^^' ,know', S;:^' ,figure',
^'
,religion', !^^'
jbody', are pronounced in Northern Ladak: nds, scs, m,
cos, Zws; in Lahoal: nai, shei, n, co, lu; in Lhasa, and
consequently by everyone who wishes to speak elegantly:
na, se, ri, co, lu. 5. In some words final
5^' occurs as
a second closing letter (affix), after ^"
C
^'
?J',
as in
3;=T|:^" ,forest', 'Vp^' ,glacier-ice', i^SJ^' ,means', ^5|^'
,indigo'; these are pronounced in N. Ladak : nacks, ga/'is, iaps,
ramSj elsewhere nack (in U: ww), ffa/l (ET gl'Mng), tap, ram.
6.
5j' before CJ" and 5J"
is especially in ET very often pro-
nounced m., e.g.^'CJ' w(Mn-pa,^w'^' )7om-pa,5j^'C]' nern-pa.
6. Dipthongs. 1. They occur in Tibetan writing only
where one of the vowels i, o, u have to be added to a word
ending with an other vowel (s. 15.
1
; 33.
1
; 45. 2). These
additional vowels are then always written (i^, CS^, fl,',
never
^'
etc. (of.
3.
3)
; and the combinations ai, oi, ui
(as in CITjI^"^ ^^f^', ^'^') ^""^ pronounced very much
like ,'
;7, u, so that the syllables 50^', -JJP^
, ^\\ , cb K^
,
*) This ia the form in which the word, chosen hy the missionaries
to express the Christian Go(t" (cf. diet.}, has found its way into
seveial popular works.
7. Componnd consonants.
7
!^(!^' can only in some vulgar dialects be distinguished from
those mentioned in 5. 4. 2. The others ao, eo, io, oo, uo,
au,eu,m(qrTfi;;^
f^,
^5^',
^^K '^^K ^^^
qG",
135')
^''^ pronounced in rapid conjunction, but
cither vowel is distinctly audihle. In prosody they are ge-
nerally regarded as one syllable, but if the verse should
require it they may be counted as two,
7. Compound consonants. 1. They are expressed in
writing by putting one below the other, in which case
several change their original figure.
Subjoined consonants. 2. The letter 1/
subjoined
to another is represented by the figure -^, and occurs in
connection with the three gutturals and labials, and with
m, thus |Tj"
R"
3' 9'
S* S' S''
'^'^
former three have
preserved, in most cases, their original pronunciation kya,
%*! 9ya (the latter in ET: ghj/a s. 2. 6). In the Mongol
pronunciation of Tibetan words, however, they have been
corrupted into c, c,j respectively, a well known instance of
which is the common pronunciation Kanyur i. o. kangyur,
or eleg.
ka-ffyur ('^'^l^''^3^')- 9",
S", 9
^'^ almost
everywhere spoken without any difference from 5, S, E
(except in the Western dialect before e and i, where the
y
"is dropped and CJ^
i^^
q alone are pronounced).
^
is
spoken ny = ?i, 3, ? occurs at the foot of the gutturals,
dentals,
labials, of
5
,
5J ^ ^ ^
and
^
, in the shape of
_j.
In some parts of the country, as in Purig, these combina-
^
8
8. Compound consonantg,
tions are pronoanced literally, like kra, khra etc., but by
far the most general custom is to sound tliem like the In-
dian cerebrals, viz. 1]',
5, 5
indiscriminately =
^
t\
|g,
^^^=^Si1i;
^, 5.
g^^^' (inCT: (M); only iu the
case of 5 the literal pronunciation hr is not uncommon.
In Si, and 51 both letters are distinctly heard;
^
sounds like
shr in skri^, and so does
5J
generally. In U this r is dropped
nearly in all cases : thus,
^ P'^-'
5J
'* ^^"^^ ^- ^'^ letters
are often found with an 0^ beneath: ^' 31'
S' ^1' ^' ^'
in these the OJ alone is pronounced, except in S', which
sounds da. 5. The figure -J, sometimes found at the food
of a letter is used in Sanscrit words to express the subjoined
^, as in ^I'^fl' (cf. 9. 6) for
^t^t!
^^^ '^ '^^w pronounced
by Tibetans '= 0: soha; in words originally Tibetan it now
exists merely as an orthographical mark, to distinguish
homonymes in writing, as
5'
(sa!,hot'and iS' fsa,salt'; but,
as it is spoken, in some words at least, in Balti (e. g.
^
rfswa
,
grass', it must be supposed that, in the primitive
form of the language, it was generally heard. iVbfe. Of
such compoands, indeed, as ^' ,lot' it is difficalt to under-
stand, how they can have been pronounced hterally, if the
V was not, perhaps, pronounced before the
y.
Superadded consonants. 6. f above another con-
sonant is written ", and 11 contonants have this sign:
'fj'
^
'
^' ^' ^'
Sf Si'
"
S',
above ^' it preserves
7. Compound consonants. Eicamples. 9
its full shape, as better adapted to the form of that letter:
thus, ^'. In speaking it is seldom heard except provincially,
and in some instances in compound words after a vowel thus,
I?r^^' Vrffi/dn^ Urgym, ancient name of the country of
Lahore; r'g' cJ^jj^'e ,<yra'. Ladakees often pronounce it =s:
'
sta ,borse' elsewhere ta. 7. Similar is the usage in those
with a superadded OJ (namely: the surds and sonants of the
first four classes, the guttural nasal, and ^9), which latter
is often softly heard in WT, but entirely dropped else-
where, except in the ease of
^,
which is spoken = flj
in
WT, but with a distinct aspiration = hla or Iha in ET.
8. ?J is superadded to the gutturals, dentals and labials
with exception of the aspiratae, then ^' and \ It is, in
many cases, distinctly pronounced in Ladak, but dropped
elsewhere"). 9. =I|-
^
q- g-
^"-
with any superadded
letter lose the aspiration mentioned in
2. 6 and sound
=
9>
d, b,
},
<h 10. ^' g" g" often lose even the inherent
(-sound in pronunciation and are spoken like
),
s, z.
*) This win be indicated in the following examples by including
the s in parentheses, as (s)/;(>m.
1^'^x* kyir-kyir, round,
' "=>
circular.
h/i, dog.
3^''^"
gyen-la, upwards.
^^y ZltgCs), U: ?M, cattle.
Examples.
J^'
^j/M, hook.
Q^' Kyod, C: %6", yc
^^I'iJ' cug-jio, rich.
|j^' W: ped, C: ce\ half.
roil.
um^
\i-
10
Examples.
..jj; W: jd-mo, 0: ja-mo,
hen.
F^'
J.
W: a-wdjs, C: -nan,
misery.
^TjSl" torn, cabbage.
155^54' fim(s), judgement.
znr^- W: dan-mo, C: r?"-
-1
cold.
g=n'=r' ?M^-9M, child.
iiT-H- sran-ina, srart-vna,
-\\
pea.
=[]' ;, wages.
SC,'(f) knf-poj, wind.
S'O'
<^'*-w (s-

11 note),
S moon.
gj-'J'ji non-po, C: 710m-
fo,
^ sharp.
f^Cp' jafl-Ku (Ld, ?/), green.
^S|' (sj^ojw, thirst.
^' (sj^o, door.
^x'a*
(s)gyur-v;a, to alter,
S turn.
SS' W: (s)pin, C: &'*, glue.
^(^" fe-M, Ld : sre-M, monkey,
sji- W: (sjmara, C: man,
W I m.edieine.
3 sand.
^^'^' fiur-du, quickly,
W3J' fiji, tax.
,- W: di, fU (Pur: jfW),
-J knife.
rr-r W: dan-po, C:
if",
^ straight.
5^' dag, d^ag (brag), rock.
SflJ'i]' h-ul-po, ragged.
jS'SJ' Id-ma, priest.
S'5^' Id-mo, easy.
jflC'CJ' kan-pa, foot.
g-j- W: SWM, C; (fejm, lie,
^
I untruth.
rac-^
fcf(^mo {Ld. i(), C:
71 td'-mo, spectacle,
g-W: 5m*), C: to, hair.
S' (/a(vuIg:)'a),sound, voice.
^'
fy^M, small hair.
fk'q'
W:f3)t'0(i-a, C:a6"-
'
pa, to behave,
sjq- "W: Csb)nd, C: rfwi,
^
snake.
^j-ji- W: 'lion-pa, C: jiow-
S^ ya, mad.
8. Prefixed letters.
11
*) The concurrence of superadded ^' with a consonant already
8. Prefixed fetters. 1 The five letters =T|' ir q- 5|- Q^'
frequently occur before the real, radical initials of other
words, but are seldom pronounced, except in sirailar cases
/ as

7. 6. =T]' occurs before
5"
f J
'^
^"
'
(^'
3'
WJ-
fT 5^'
; ^
before the gutturals and labials with exception
of the aspiratae;
^'
before 'Tj' ET|',
the palatals, dentals and
palatal sibilants with the same exception as under =\, then
(^'
3'
^ -A"
^T; ^ before the guttarals, palatals, dentals
and palatal sibilants, excepted the surds; (^ before the as-
piratae and sonants of the five classes. In C.T,, to pro-
nounce them in any case, is considered vulgar. 2. The
ambiguity which would arise in case of the prefix standing
before one of the 10 final consonants, as single radical, the
vowel being the unwiitten a,

e. g. in the syllable
^^',
which, if
^
is radical, has to be pronounced dag, if prefixed
ga, is avoided by adding an OJ in the latter case: thus,
'^EHQ^'. Other examples are: ^=v'^a(?
C/a"^
and ^Tl^Q^'
da; CJ^' has (bq, da) and ^^IR' M; 5!^' mad(mff)&D&
51^Q' da;
^^^^
g^- This OC is added, though the radical
be not one of the mentioned letters; as, ^^f^^' kd. 3.
^
as a prefix and
^'
as first radical annul each other, so that
only the following sound is heard, as wiU be seen in the
eompound produces inW.T some irregularities, which cannot all be
specified here (see the diction,. The custom of C.'l'., according to
which the ?]' is enthely neglected is in this instance easier to Tie
followed.
12
9. Word; Accent; Quantity.
followiDg examples (S^C' etc.)- 4. Another irregularitj'
is the nasal pronunciation of the prefixed
^'
in compoaiids
after a vowel, which is often heard e.g.
^J7|'Q,^i5' pronounced
gen-dun, gen^di'm, but eleg.: ge-dun^ , clergy'; ^'^f^,''^^^*
kam-bum, eleg. ka-bdm, ,ljie 100 000 precepts' (title of a
book). Note. With regard to the aspiration of the soft
consonants in ET the prefi.ted letters have the same in-
finence as the superadded ones

7. 9,
Examples.
?1^^' ^?i
hos grunniens.
r^-x- fe-va (Ld: spe-ca).,
1 book.
CJS^'iJ" zdn-po, good.
Q^qq'C]' bab-pa, to descend.
^ClC^'wa^i, vulg.O:a,power.
rnjj'
Tf
Dame of the Lhasa
>3^ y-'
district.
^^S'CJ' en-pa, solitude.
^5^^'
y^KO:
*^5 figure.
^TI^'CJ' kdr-po, white.
^^I'q^'
dd-wo, enemy.
5IC^'*j'
ndt'-Tiio, sweet.
^ N fourteeD.
^^' M, resp, head.
^g^'^n' ijar-ka, summer.
^g'^'.i/e-tfja,e-M,'a, difference.
9. Word; Accent; Quantity. 1. The peculiarity of the
Tibetan mode of writing in distinctly marking the word-
syllables, but not the words (c 4) composed of two or
more of these, sometimes renders is doubtful what is to be
regarded as one word. 2. There exist a great number of
9. "Word: Accent: Quantity.
13
small monosyllables, which serve for denoting different
shades of notions, grammatieal relations etc., and are post-
poned to the word in question; but nevei- alter its original
shape, though their own initials are not seldom influenced
by its fioal consonant (cf. 15). 3. Such monosyllables
may conveniently be regarded as terminations, forming
one word together with the proceeding nominal or vei'bal
root. 4. The accent is, in such cases, most naturally given
to the root, or, in compounds, generally to the latter part
of the composition, as:
Sjcn'
j^j^^ ,eye', ^^'^l' mig-gi, ,of
the eye';
[^J?]'
lag, ,hand', flJ^T] -f^q^' lag-^u6(s), ,haad-
covering, glove'. 5. Equally natural is, in W.T, , the
quantity of the vowels: accentuated vowels, when closing
the syllable, are comparatively long (though never so long
as in the English words bee^ stay^ or Hindi l:=.L etc.),
otherwise short, as ^ ml ,man', 3^'OJ" m'l-ld ,to the man',
but 5!^' mur, , butter', In CT, however, even accentuated
and closiog vowels are uttered very shortly: ml, ml-ld etc.,
and long ones occar there only in the case of
5, 4. 5. and
8,2., as W5^' iu' ,work'; 5^' tv7 , religion'; ^^H^' da
, arrow'; ^3^" ,planet'; and in Lhasa especially: 5!^51'
na ,forest'; fS^^l^J'^l' le-pa ,good'; ^=T1?^' j-i ,class, sort';
OJ^?J" lo jSide'; !^^^' lH , manner'. In Sanscrit words
. the long vowels are marked by an
1^'
beneath the conso-
nant, as: S'SI"
{srmi
,caUed', SI'ry
(j^)
,root' (s. 3).
!
w
10. Pauctuatiou.
10. Puncfuation. Fnr separating ihe members of a longer
period, a vertical stroke:
|,
called -A^' sad Qa), is used,
wliich corresponds at once to our comma, semicolon and
colon; after the closing of a sentence the same is doubled;
after a longer piece, e g. a chapter, four sads are put. No
marks of ioterrogation or exlamation exist Jo punctuation.

2. In metrical compositions, the double sad is used for se-


parating the single verses; in that case the logical partition
of the sentence is cot marked (cf,
4).
I I sugar.
pC^'C)' Sa/i-pa^ house.
r-
"W: (fan, C: </an,
^r which?
^^' 'W: gur, C: (fur, tent.
CPi' nal, fatigue.
5'
ci, what?
j.j_.. W: cad-pa, C: ca-
\
fo,
punishment.
SC"^' cun-wa, little.
E" W:>, C: ja, tea.
^'5J' id-ma, sun; day,
ftC'SJ' nun-ma, turnip.
^^'^ftj' fe'i-n7,tea-pot,kettle.
A list of a few useful words.
Tia;' W: hwn^ C: hm, all.
pC^' Hun, hole.
CS'CJ'
"''""?"' J
C: nam-pa,
(5C* can, beer.
;5^'^'
cdr-pa, rain.
(53r]' cen-po, great. ,
ft' w, fish.
9C'^'
iiUTMva, little, few.
ft"5|' ile^mo, near.
^'^ fei^-fee (W), hoe.
Useful words.
15
^^'CJ" tag^a, rope.
?f^
fan, the plain.
^K^'duil-pa, (?m' -pa, smoke.
S^' wrf, wa', disease.
^''^'
^kuS'^"^'*'
^'
'^''^'''
^'
W: ^, C: .^, now.
^C rf/J, dan, and; with,
Scn'if nag-po, black,
X^'nor, wealth, property.
' q^'^'
Pf'-f^^,
a printed
I
(
book,
^f
^'
tSt^"'"""^'''
"'^'
^=f1'^3j>.9-,-rf, -, dove.
^'
6a, //a, cow.
Q" 5m, &, son.
?J'
me, fire.
3^^' med, me', there is not.
coC5^" isa/j-ma, whole.
^
io, 1(0, curdled miik,
^^
od, wd\ light, shine.
^'^'
^Z*-?^)
letter.
^^' .i/oi/, ^6", am, is, are.
^'
ri, hill, mountain.
f^' Za, mountain-pass.
!^^' lug, sheep.
CJOJ' Sd^j /ial, wool,
^'5J'
bu-mo, lj, daughter.
^C miw, name.
5?J' tsam, how much?
(^=r|'
3^, C: sag, day.
(^'5J'
o-ma, ivo-ma, milk.
y^' !/aw, also.
tSs- 3/"i
m, is, are (cf.
'^^
39).
^'5]'
ra-ma, goat.
^(5' rm, pnce.
I^5J' Zam, road.
J^' sa, flesh, meat.
"F
16 Useful words.
9^'
sin, tree, wood,
^' SM, who?
I^'S^" a-pa, (vulg.) father.
x^- (Ld: ras) ra, cotton
cloth.
Sff^-
(Ld; (/OS) go,
0,
cloth-
I jng,
?J5|5J' sem, soul.
|g=f]'
%,
blood.
^CJ'^' leb-pa, to arrive.
"
W: sa, C: fea, grass.
WS'sJ' non~fO, nom-fo, blue.
^3' 27(, bow (for shooting).
'-,
cqiS'm-
9^n-ka, gun-ka,
'-^ I I winter.
51^' fso, lake.
^5"^'
^*-"'! to ask.
?J'
s, earth.
?^'^"
s6-ma, new.
l?|'SI' a-ma (vulg.) mother.
^?|' (Ld: dus) da, t^, time.
^^^' t'ab(s), means.
rjETl'S" ^' ^'^.9-/i
C: Sag-
'
^ (fe, flour,
W do, do, wheat.
S=^'Slr gad-jjo, ga'-po, old.
S'H"
Cs)%e-w)a, to be bom,
^ grow.
^C wm, heart.
^3^' EJ^, leopard.
^ I ^a), last, quick,
aS"n"
4i-v- (bri-wa), to
"^
write.
11. Article.
Part IL
17
Etymology.
Chapter I. The Article.
11. Pecuriarities of the Tibetan article. 1. What have
been called Articles by Csoma and Schmidt, are a number
of little affixes: Cf'
rj" 51'
'Sf
^
^"^ and some similar
ones, which might perhaps be more adequately termed
denominators, since their principal object is undoubtedly
to represent a given root as a noun, substantive or ad-
jective, as is most clearly perceptible in the instance of the
roots of verbs, to which Zy oc
q'
impart the notion of the
Infinitive and Participle, or the nearest abstract and nearest
concrete nouns that can possibly be formed from the idea
of a verb. These affixes are not, however, ~
except
m this case essential to a noun, as many substantives
and adjectives and most of the pronouns are never ac-
companied by them, and even those which usuaUy appeal'
connected with them, will drop them upon the slightest
occasion.
2. Alrr.ost the only case in which a syntactical
use of fiiem, like that o the English definite Article, is
perceptible, is that mentioned
20. 3; a formal one, that
of distinguishing the Gender, occurs in a limited number of
words, where sf denotes the female, 'Sf- the masculine.
Thus:
2]J"^ ffi/dl-po ,king<, ^OJ''^- g^dl-tno ,queen'. Or,
?I
-ae^U.Jgmi--Ma-M''"'i*'-'" ""^ .J-Majui iii m||-jkJMWII
18
11.12. Article.
i the word in the masculine (or ratter commou) gender has
no article, ?f
is added: SjC'S]' hm-ge ,lion', ?te'=I|'^
,lioiiess'. 3. In most instances, by far, their only use is
to distinguish difei'eut meanings of homonymous root-s, e.g.
^arq' (s)t&nrfa (totir^a) ,teacher'; ^'Sf (a)t6n'im(t6n-
mw), ,feast'; ^Tp'
(s)^"-'^ (tQU'Ka) ,aQtumn'. Even this
advantage, however, is given up, as soon as a composition
takes place, and then the meaning can only be inferred
from the context, or known from usage: SlC'WS' (from
wi'5^') ,name feast' (given on the occasion of naming or
christeuiug an infant);
^^j^'
(from ^j'p') , autumnal
month'. In some instances the putting or omitting of these
articles is optional; more frequently the usage vai-ies in
different provinces. 4. The peculiar nature, of these affixes
is most dearly shown by the manner in which they are
connected with the indefinite article
13.
Note. The affixes
^'
^T
are after vowels and after
tlie consonants C
^' ^'
always pronoanced wa and wo,
instead of ba aitd bo\ thus, ^M^^' ka-wa ,difficult';
^"^'
re-wa ,hope'; =nC,'C[' gan-wa
(ffA)
,fuU';
3^'^' z&r-wa
(ser-wa) ,to say'; ^(H'^' uT/al-^a ,hell'; X'^>-wo ('/Ao-
tco) ,lord, master'.
12., Difference of ihe Articles among each other. 1. The
usage of SJ' ^ 5J'
is the most general and widest of all,
13. Indefln. Article.
19
as they occur with all sorts of substantives and other nouns.
. CI' is particularly used for denoting a man who is in a
certain way connected with a certain thing (something like
yt) and ^b in Hindustani and Persian: ^T da ,school',
^'CI' (literally: scholar) ,discip!e, novice'; ^'
&, .water',
^q' ,water-carrier' (^l, ^L); Sj ,horse', ^'CJ',horseman';
^^
, the province of U', S^^?^'CJ' ,a man from
tj',
^"
%m ,boy', O]' lo ,year', =n^?J' ni(s) ,two', hence: ^H'
5fET|^'C]" ,a two years' boy'. If the feminine is required
5] is either added to, or more commonly
used instead
of, the former:
^^5^"5I'
,a woman from D'; q'3Sf3fET|^-
SJ' ,a two years' girl'. The performer of an action is more
frequently denoted by
'2f
(or, in more solemn language,
q'tf), though, in conversation at least, S^pS' Is'an (Ken),
is preferred; ^=^1:^' )ed-pa ,to do, make; doing, making':
ST^' i'^'^'^i
f^'^P'^'
.tlie doer, maker'. 2. The
appendices Tj' p' qj" occur with a limited number of nouns
only, especially the names of the seasons, with numerals,
and some pronouns,
(j^
seems io be a vulgar form of
pronunciation for Tj'),
,
13. The indefinite Article. This is the numeral one
(13),
only
deprived of its prefix, viz: t=r|', which form it retains,
if the
preceding word ends with ^T K' q",as: piq'Scn'
20
14. Numlier.
Uab-cig, a needle; it is changed to -3^' after ^', *,^'i|^'
ras-lig, Td-M.g, a cloth; to Q^' ^ig (h'g) in all other cases.
Some authors use 5^' after any termination indisrimina-
tely. It is, of coarse, always without accent. The articles
]' ^'
etc. are not thrown out by the iudefinite article e.g.
wI'CI' , teacher, the teacher', ^'CI'SCji' ^a teacher'. It is
used even after a plurality: thus, ^'^i^'CIl^ (jW'^'^'S'f^"
jthere were some four wells', and even: 5JC(^^^^R^"^
,there being a multitude of them' (from Mil). Very often
it is placed after the interrogative pronouns (v. 27), and
sometimes its original meaning is obscoret! so much that it
occurs even after known and definite subjects, where one
would expect the demonstrative (see f. i. Dzl. 25, 1. 28,
6. 128, 14).
Chapter II. The Substantive.
14. The Number. The Plural is denoted by adding the
word 551?!' nam, or, more rarely, ^^' dag (dag), ^',
or a few other words, which originally were nouns with
the common notion of plurality. Bus this mark of the Plural
is usually omitted, when the plurality of the thing in question
may be known from other circumstances, e. g. when a nu-
meral is added; thus, SJ' ,man', ^'^5|^" ,raeii', sJ'^J^SI"
, three men'. When a substantive is connected with an ad-
jective, the plural sign is added only once, viz. after the
_!_;. .^>tia.a^fts^&&.
15. Declension.
21
last of the connected words: ^'Ciat^'if^SJ?^" ,the good
men'.
Note. The conversational language uses the words
S^^' etc. seldom, in WT scarcely ever fan exception s.
24, Remarks), but add, when necessary, such words as: all,
many, some; two, three, seven, eight, or other suitable
numerals (cf.
20, 5.).
15. Declension. The regular addition of the different
particles or single sounds by which the cases are formed is
the same for all nouns, whether substantives or adjectives,
pronouns or participles. Only in some cases, in the Dative
and Instrumental, the noun itself is changed, when, ending
lu an vowel, it admits of a closer connection with the cor-
rupted case-sign. We may reckon in Tibetan seven cases,
expressive of all the relations, for which cases are used in
other languages, viz: nominative and accusative, genitive,
instrumental,
dative, locative, ablative, tenninative and
vocative. 1. The unaltered form of the noun has some of
the fiinctiona of our Nominative and those of the Accusative
and Vocative. 2. The sign of the Genitive is ^' after
words with the finals ^'
q" ?^'
-, ^" after Sj'
5J'
a:,'
q;
^
after
^'^and C;afttirvowels^issimply"addedby means
of an
Q^
thus: (^', which then will form a diphthong with
the vowel of the noun (cf. 6), or if, in versification, two
syllables are req^nired, i appears supported by an WJ' form-
ing a distinct word. 3. The Instrumental or Agent is ex-
pressed by the particles ^^' ^^' or
|5I'
after the re-
If
92
15. Declension.
spective consonants as specified above; after vowels simply
^'
is added, or, in verse, sometimes t^^'
Ifote. The instrumental is, in modern pronnnciation,
except in Northern Ladak, scarcely discernible from the
genitive, and there are but few if any, even among lamas,
who are not liable to confoned both eases in writing.
In the language of common life, in WT, the different
forms of the particle of the genitive and instrumental, after
consonaDts, 'Tf
^' etc. are never heard, but everywhere
the final consonant is doubled and the vowel * added to it,
thus: 0^^', G. lus-si (Ld,), lu-i'f, ftl5J' G. lam-mi; =n?J^'
(gold), G. ser-}-i. etc. ; or, in other words, all nouns ending
in consonants are formed like those ending with ^' (see
the example Sl^'V In those ending with a vowel no ir-
regularity takes place.
4. The Dative adds indiscriminately the postposition
n^'
la, denoting the relation of space in the widest sense,
expressed by the EngKsh prepositions in, into, at, on, to.
5. The Locative is formed by the postposition
^
na ,in'.
6. The Ablative by <3i?^' na or ttj?^* la ,from' (the latter
especially with the meaning; from among), all three like-
'
wise without any discriminating regard to the ending of
the noun. 7. The Terminative is expressed by the post-
positions ^" or
^'
after vowels;
y
after final
^11'
and
^'
and, in certain words, ^' ^'
^T
;
^" after
^'
;
^' generally
after
5' S," ft|' and the other final consonants. All these
16. Declension,
23
postpositions denote the movement to or into. 8. The Vo-
cative is not different from the Nominative (as stated above),
if not distinguished by the inteijection ^' oh!, and can only
be known from the context.
Examples of declension. As exiample of the declension
of consonontal nouns we may take 1, for those in s (re-
spectively d, h), ^^' lus, la, ,body'; 2. for those in m (n,
r, I), 0\^' lam ,way'; 3. for those in
g
(H), 5j=T|' mi^
,eye',

of that of vocalic nouns: 4. W Jca or Icoriva ,snow'.
mi^VW
rn
u.. II i-ii !wtimmmmmmtim^
24
Inst.
Dat.
Loc.
Abl.
15. Declension.
Ijsn^?!'
mig-gis, -gl p?J' %;
p'^?^' Ma-wa
^'f^T mig-la
)r
pq-Aa.Z.;p-q-ai-^^^;^
s^^'i^r mig-na
Sjcn'S?^'
mig-ns
Term. ^^''T mig-tu
I ' I 'wa-na
/'(t-wia-n(i
Ua-vja-ru, Ma-war.
Plaral.
As the plural signs are simply added to the nouns,
without affecting their form, we here only give examples
o declension with the two most frequent plural particles.
As example for ^cn'the plural of the pron.
?*
,that' has
been chosen.
N. Ace.
^?J-^5J^-
lus(iri-)-na7n(s)
^'^^r^-
de-dag
'
Gen.
(^^'^SJ^J'IJ'
lus-nam(s)-h/i ^'^^'^' de-da-g-gi
Inst.
t^^-^S^^-J?!-
1^-^<^H')-
^^=^^-
de-dag-gis
^^'S^^V^'
lus~7iam(s)-la ^'^STT'O]' de-dag-la
i^^'^^^'"^' ltis--nam(s)-na
^^'^'"'i'
de-dag-na
Term. (^^'55]^'^' luB-^iiam(s)'&i
^'^^'S'
de-dag-tu
Dat.
Loc.
Abl.
16. Adjective,
2S
Chapter III.
The Adjective.
16. In the Tibetan^^language the Adjective is not form-
ally distinguished fiom the Substantive, so that many nouns
may be used one or the other way just as circumstances
require.*) Tlie declension, likewise, follows the same rules
as that of substantives Only two remarks may be added
here. 1. The particles C]' S^'
^
^'
are not very strictly
used for distingaishing the gender, since even in the case
of human beings CJ' and tf are not seldom found connected
with feminines, e.g.;
^'3^5]li?J'T
jst as well as ^'3?
5Is5J'5]" ,a fine girl'. 2. The Adjective stands after the
Substantive to which it belongs: thas, ^'SJ^'s' ri-fon-
po, : ri-fon-po, ,the high hill', when, of course, the case-
*) But the vnlgar language has a piedileBtioii for certain forms
of Adjectives 1, those with thegerundial particle s", as <^'^'
for the more classical ^X' ',warni'; these seem to be parijcularly
in use in Tsan: 5]^Q'%' .friendly', less eo in U. 2. componntl ad-
jectives either by simple reiteration of the root: ^QJ'a^aj' for
^flj'tf ,roniid', or changing the vowel at the same time; RKTT'in^l'
,complicate',
ETT^^'ETT'S^' awry etc Often they are quadrisyllables
after this form:
Siq-B^'^OI'S]- ,liitewann', ^cn-qj-^-ql- jmedley*.
26
17. Comparison.
signs are joined to the Adjective: k'Sr^'2fR^',of tbehigh
hiU',
^5i^''2f5515>I'
,the high hills' etc.
Or the Adjective may be put in the Gen- hefore the
Substantive: SJ^'^t^^', and then the latter only is de-
clined: si^2rS;-S;S^' , yf^''2j'^'^-^S!^\ In the vulgar
speech both of and WT the adjective sometimes pre-
serves, even in this position, its simple form (Nominative).
A third way of expression, when both are joined together,
without any artjcle, as ^^'^'Jastead of ^'S5J*'^the dry
land, is rather a compound substantive, with the same
difference of meaning as , highland' and ,a high land' in
English,
17. Comparison. 1. Special endings, expressive of the
different degrees of comparison, as in the Aryan languages,
do not exist in Tibetan. There are two particles, however,
corresponding to the English than: CJ?^', after the final
consonants C
^'
RJ' and after vowels ('^^', after
^1' ^'
S^ ^' 51" ?^'*)), and RJ?^'; these particles follow the word
with which another is compared (lite the Hind.
^) and
this then preceeds the compared one, finally follows the
adjective in the positive: 5'Cf?^' (or 1I?I") fe'S^'^'^"^'-
, horse than dog small is', just as in Hindustani:
^
Lj'
^^
Liis' ^j,j
^j
j^.
But also the position usual in
*) Some Mscr. and wood-prints, however, prefer, even after these
consonants, th^ form
J^?>f'
17. Comparison. .
27
our European languages occurs, thus: ^q'ya,gc;'^Q*
^^!:^5^^%'^^'^S^^^^a^^^^Q^ ,the mei-lt of
becoming a priest is relatively higher that mount Meru';
^'9'S^""^''!'^''^^'^'^''^^''^
,the king of Tibet is
greater than the other ones'. The particle ^?|'
(^^'J
may
be put, in the same manner, after adverbs. Thus, S^'
q?^'=n54ai"q^"5i^'Cl'?,'^^'y
,
(their eyes) became more'
keen-sighted than before'. Or, after infinitives, ^(^'?^C'
q'^5J''3;'255J'l5c,''3!'fi:I<3i' ,itis better(forhim)that his younger
brother shoald go (with him) than another'. 0\S^' for it-
self has the meaning of ,more than', with the negative:
,not more than', , only'; thus: CW^[;''=r|?l^'[^^'^'IJ'^S|^'
,more than two ounces I do not want' (cf. vulg.WT: ^^SJ"
SIS'S'^^' , there are not more than (only) three'); or , noth-
ing but', ,only', ^'^=T|?J-.J|i,-q'ni^-s^=T|l5,'q'5)^* ,there is
no pleasure (for us) but hunting, h. is our only pi'.
2. An Adverb which augments the notion of the ad-
jective itself, is S^'CJ^' ,more'; this can be added ad li-
bitum: 5'ci^'g'Si=r]'cj^'^c;'ci't^5^'.
3. Another adverb,
^'
means: ,more and more', ,gra-
duallymore', e.g. E'ft'R^'?TC^' ,going nearer and nearer'.
4. ,The elder

the younger' e. g, of two brothers, is
iip
T
28 18. Cardinal Numerals.
simply expressed by: ,the great the little'. 5. The
Superlative is paraphrased by the same means: TIS'OJ^'
^'Sf or ^^5=^'C|^*^-'2f ,greatr than all'. Or it is
expressed in the following manner: C^'%*fll"'2f^'5:c;'i3;"
Spi'CJ'^Ccb' ,of (among) the kings of the coontry which
one is the greatest (prop, great)?'. Adverbs for expressing
high degrees are: -f^Sj'^ or ^^^'^ ,very',
^S^'J
,all',
^^^'^" j^uite',
?|^'y ,exceediQgly' etc.
Na i^i
Note. The colloquial language of WT uses 5^C in-
stead of SJ^' or ftJ^J", and
5J' (*, always with a strong
emphasis, perhaps a mutilated foi-m of ^C.^' ,much') or
5IC"^ instead of
^^'J,
vrhereas that of CT employs 0^^'
in the former case, but repeats the adjective in the latter,
so that ,very large' is expressed in books by J^<5i'Er^'2f,
in speaking, in WT by md cen-po, in OT by vem^po ^em-po.
Chapter IV.
The. Numerals.
18. Cardinals:
2 ^
=TJ|?J-
fd(s)
3 5 '^^^' 3M
4 f
5 V
7 V
8 L
9 G
10
?=
11 ??
12 9i
13 ?5
14 ?^
15 ?V
16 9-S
17 W
18 !?L
19 ?
20 ^
21 ^;?
18. Cardinal Numerals,
29
5171'
W: ^JKC, 0: dhug
i^^^j'
W: dun, 0: dhifn
qgs^'
W: gyad, C: gya'
CJ^' tM, or ^^'^5J'^'
CM-fam-pa
q^'=T|S=Tj' bi-Hg
^^'J7|9j51'
OT-jiJ, vulg: cug-fd(s)
q^'lT|5|5]' cu-sum, vulg: dug-s'&rti
q^'^(5 cM-^, vulg; cw6-^
CJ^'Cj^S" cu-dun, C: -(?mm, vulg: tiii-d
Cf^qg^' co-gydd, C: -^'i/a',
vulg: co^*-^"
"h ^fl nz-SM
I'-iCj'^'FTI^-
nUusa^Hg, or ^'=rj=T|*
"J"
30
18. Cardinal Numerals.
30
31
40
41
50
51
60
61
70
71
80
81
90
91
100
101
200
300
5 ^^'^' sum-cii.
5^ ^5^''|I"^5=T|'
swn-hi-sa-Hg, ?f^%=f]' &o-ci0
a^ ^1^'^^' ii-^, Tulg: zib-cu
sy? CI^'q.g"g".cn5cr|' hi-cu-sa-Ug^ ^'^o'']" le-cig
y 3'^^' na-bii, vulg: nab-cu
^^
W^^''^^^^'
na^bursa-Hg, C"=T15=T]' na-cig
^
5^'^' t^MJ'-t'M, 0: dktig-cu
i' ^^^'^' dun-lu, C: dy,n-cu
i- ^^^'^' gydd'iu, C; gya-iu
^^
^^S,^^''^9y<^^'<^^<^i^g,'^^^^^

^^'CJ^' ^a-cM, vulg: gub-iu


(C: i?o-t?y)
?"
q*'(^SI'q') gya({dm-fa)
y^9
qs-^C'ci]^- or qg--=T]5=T]- ^^^*^??'
^^"
^ 9'^^'
''^'S'2/"'
vulg: nib-gya
18.20. JTuinerals. 31
400 C" Cf^'^^' si-gya, vuSg: zib-gfja etc.
1000
:?
^' f^^o"
10 000
?*"
6:
100 000
?=
'\^^' '"""
1000 000
?=
5^'l^' sa-ya
10 000 000
?==== ^'q' je-i(.-
There are, as in Sanscrit, names for many more powers
of 10, but they are seldom used.
19. Ordinals. ^^' W: rfa/(-po,C: rf^thefirst', thereat
are simply formed byadding q' to the cardinals, as : =T|^5J'CJ',
the second etc.; the 21. is ^-.fl-^'cri^JTI-q' ,the twenty-
oneth', not, as in English, ,the twenty first'.
20. Remarks. 1. The smaller number postponed indi-
cates, as is seen in 18, addition, tbe reverse multipli-
cation: SJC^T]^?!' 13, ^5J'^'
30: but in the latter case
the three first numerals are changed to S^,
^ , ^^ ;
and
^^^
as the second pan n a compound after conso-
nants, is spelled '. 2. The words
^^Z\ (al'ter full tens
up to one hundred),
^crj' (after hundreds and thousands*)).
Sjm- is used efipeciallj if the uumler tountiug tbe hundreds,
32
20. Numerals.
S" (with still greater numbers), ^I'e optional bat frequent
additions.
J'
is common instead of 'vC ,and', to connect
units with tens (s. 18), but it occurs also with hundreds
and thousands, and not seldom together with ^C, e.g.^t'
s^C'^'!'!^^', 1002. It is used also instead of ^SJ'CI' , as
:
^^'^ ten, ^'-^'-g" twenty; often it is standing alone for
^'-.'^'-g", as: ^'^'S^', twenty two. This latter custom may
have caused the belief, common even among educated
readers in C and WT, that ^' mast mean twenty, even
when connecting a hundred or thousand to a unit, as they
will usually understand the above mentioned number in the
sense of 1022 instead of 1002; but the authority of printed
books, wherever the exact number can be verified from
other circuni.stances, does not confirm this, which would in-
deed be a sadly ambiguous phraseology. 3. 'H' added to
a cardinal number means conjunclion: ^^?)'^', the two
together, both; =T|^3^''T|', the three together, ail three etc.
^' means either the same, oi' represents the definite article,
indicating that the number has been already mentionedj e.g.
Sl'-g'
q^C^I
l^Y^^S^'^""'
fi^ men were
sent , . , The five men arriving etc. 4. Cf is used, besides
thousands etc. follows: tliua, ^C^cn'*'.^ ,of thousands: twenty,
20 000'; ^^-ff'S]- ,ina]ij ten-thousands'. .
21.23. Numerals.
33
forming Ordinals, to express the notion of .containing', e. g.
t^-^j-^qj-q-
^that containing six letters', viz. the famous
formula:
W^f>'^'X^'
om ma^i padme hum;
^5J'^'^',
,that containing thirty (letters)', the Tibetan alphabet.
5. Such combinations as
=Tl^*=Tj^?}- etc. are frequently
used in common life, so denote a number approximately,
,two or three or so' (cf.
14 Note).
21. Distributive numerals. They are expressed by repe-
tition as in Hind:
^'^
each time six, six for each etc.
In composed numerals only the last member Is repeated,
thus ^??-^'^-=Tj^-Cf||^-
each time thirty two.
22. Adverbial numeraJs. 1. Firstly, secondly etc. are
formed from the ordinals as everj- Adverb is from an Ad-
jective, viz. by adding the letter
S^",
'^'^'s\ ^S^'^X:
etc. (s.

41). 2. Multiplicative adverbs, ,once', ,twice' etc.,


are expressed
by putting q<3j' ,times' before the cardinal:
^'^^ ^^^\
W: lan-Hg, lan-ni(,), C: Idn-cig,
Mm-,-,
once, twice' etc; seldom Is;-,
^^^ ^C?^- with the
sivme
meaning as fl]i5r.
23. Fractional numerals are formed by adding ^5'
,part';
tiius,
R^S; ,a hundredth part' etc., but also: ^^C'B^K
'^%^'S;(^
,one third of the treasury'.
Jfaolike,
Tibetan Gr.imiar.
3
34
2i.
Personal Pronoims.
Chapter V.
Pronouns.
24. Personal
Pronouns.
First person: C ; C=^'
'i^"^'
.-
r^-
-^s CLd);
f?^
/f.-to, ma.c., and ^if
K^-'mo,
fem.;
q=^=T
d^ .self- ,1';
Second person:
f=^-
%o^
fj^o'J),
g:^- %d
C%^"')
,tl.on,you-
Third persoi.:
^
Uo,
nSt' &A
,he, she, it'.
The plural is formed by adding SETl", ^SI^J',
3=I[^S!5^-
or ^,
but very often, if
clrcumstaDces
showthemeaoingwith
sufficient
certainty, the sign of the
plural is altogether
omitt-
ed The
deeleusion is the same as that of the
substantiyes.
Remarks: C
is the roost common
and can be used
by every body;
s^- seems to be
preferred in elegant speech
(s. Note);
^'
is very common in modern letter writing,
at least in WT; R^
,self', when speaking to
superior
persons occurs very often in books, but has
disappeared
from common
speech, except in the
provine^e^of Tsan {To^t-
Vm^o)
as also the following;
f'^, f^'
in easy con-
versation with persons of equal r^nk, or to inferiors.
2. person.
^' is used in books in
addressing even
'the highest
persons,
but in modern
conversation only
among equals or to inferiors; g^'
is elegant and respect-
ful,
especially in books,

mmm
24. Personal Pronouns.
35
3. person, p' seldom occurs in books, where the de-
inonstr. proii.
^
( 26) is generally used instead; KC" is
common to both the written and the spoken language, and
used, at least in the latter, as respectful. But it must
be remarked that the pronoun of the third person is
in most cases entirely omitted, even when there is a
change o subject. Instead of C5=T|' and j=;'-5=T|' the
people of WT use C"(^' and ^(Sj"; the vulgar plural of W
is pfcj-. _
To each of these pronouns may be added: ^Ottor
^
hid, iil' ,seIP, and in conversational language
C^C
p^'^C, p^C are, perhaps, even more frequently used
than the simple forms, without any difference in ihe mean-
iS- ^' is more prevalent in books, except the compound
^^C ni-ran, which is in modern speech the usual
respectful pronoun of address, like ,Sie' in German.
Note.
The predilection of Eastern Asiatics for a
system of ceremonials in the language is met with also in
libetan.
There is one separate class of words, which must
he used in reference to the honoured person, when spoken
to as well as when spoken of. To this class belong, be-
sides the
pronouns
f^'^C, |^',
pR-, all the respect-
ful
terms by which the body or soul, or parts of the same,
*'W>d
all things or persons pertaining to such a person, and
3
3G
24.-25. Pron.
- Bespectiul and Elegant Terms.
even his actions, must be called. The notions, most fre-
quently occurring, have special
expressions, as
gT*;^,"!-
stead of 0^^- lus, lu, ,body'; ^^-
u, i.o.
^^ S"
^^^^'^
g=I|5^- Ug<:^) (iJ: fii), i.o- ^^^'
^^C*'-^
'^''"^'' ''
^^
^d, yl\
,mind';
jq- yah, i.o.
q' (volg: IN'Sf),
,father';
S-qaC^' no-za, i. 0. ^' ">,
^n, ,coat', ,dres8'; SiR^
MCbX
i.o. ^- (r)ta, sta ,horse';
qj^Tl^'q'
S?r>;'" C^:
H-pa), i.o.
^:^-qVod-^, rf5'-pa ,tosit'; ^i.'^^' dzad-pa,
dza'^a i.o.
l^-q-
)ed-pa, jhf-pa ,to make' and many
others. If there is no such special word, any
suhstantive
may be rendered
respectful by adding g"
or ^=T]5^" re-
spectively (so, 1'^- i.o.
^- ,Hfetime'; gTl^'lJq-i.o.f
T
,anger') any ver^ by adding
5^^=^-^',
according to 39,
1.
Another class of what might be called elegant terms are
to be used when
conversing with an honoured person (or
also by a high person himself in his own speech), such as
q|i^-q- gyid-pa, gyC-fa
,to do'; S^^'^'
c'l-pa, ,to he';
^'^^'^
lad-du, la-du I o.
I^-^'
,for the sake of, with-
out'reference t the said
perso^himself.
Even uneducated
people know, and mate use of, most of the
,respectful'
terms, but the merely
,elegant' ones are, at least in WT,
seldom or never heard in
conversation.
25. Possessive pronouns.
The Possessive is simply
Mm
26.-27. Pronouna.
37
expresseti by the Genitive of the Personal, t^Cl',
^"J'
etc. ,His', ,her', ,its', when referring to the acting subject
(suus), must be expressed by ^C^'!^' or ^'^' ,his own';
otherwise (ejas) by
p^,
f^'^',
^^'- In 0, in the latter
case, C53i',
^'^'i W^'
^'"^ used.
26. Reflective and Reciprocal pronouns. 1. The Reflec-
tive pronoun, ,myseU', ,yourself etc. is expressed by ^C,
^', also q^^'- But in the case of the same person being
the subject an d object of an action, it must be paraphrased,
so for ,be precipitated himself from the rock' must be said
,he precipitated his own body etc' ^C'S|*(^^'; for , he re-
buked himself ,he rebuked his own soul' ^C'Sl'^S^^
T 2. The reciprocal pronoun ,each otlier' or ,one another'
is rendered by ,one one', as =Tl^^'S|^'=I^=n'C:i?.I=:' ,by
one one was killed', ,they killed one another'; =T]5=n'a]'
n^^"'T^"
'''*' ^^ ^ said', ,they said to each other',
27. Demonstrative pronouns. 1. QA' di, ,this';
^
de,
dhe ,that' are those most frequently used, both in books
and
speaking. The Plural is generally formed by ^=Tj',
but also by g^S^y and ^. More emphatical are O^^'TT,'
^1%
'^^"''f,
f^^'^i ,justthis', ,thissame'; ^Tj' etc.
,that
same'. The vulgar dialect also uses
^^
ha-ffni
mmmmmBm
38
28.-29. Pronouns-
aad
S^'J'
jm-ffyi
for ,that', ,yonaer', and, in WT, ^',
^if for , this' and I?^' for ,tliat';
ZI'J'
occurs even in
books.

2. It is worth remarking that tbe distinction of
the nearer and remoter relation is, even in common lan-
guage, scrupulously observed. If reference is made to an
object already mentioned, ^' is used; if to something fol-
lowing, P^; e.g. ^^=^'5^'!^'^ A^^
speech he said',
,tha3 he said'; O^^'^^'S^'f
^^' .^l^is speech lie said',
,lie said thus, spoke the following words'.
28. Interrogative pronouns. They are ^' su ,who?';
^f:
gan, gh. ,wiiich?'-,
5"
H ,what?'; to these the indefi-
nite article
'^ is often added,
^^^
etc. The two former
can also assume the plural termination =^=^', ^'^^i ^'-
rcn*.
In OT ^C,' is frequently used instead of 5
29. Relative pronouns. These are almost entirely want-
ing in the Tibetan language, and our subordinate relative
clauses must be expressed by Participles und Gerunds, or
a new independent sentence must be begun. The parti-
ciple, in such a case, is treated quite as an adjective, being
put. either in the Genitive before the substantive, or, m
the Nominative, after: Q^^^t^^S^^'
,the merchants
who would go (with him)'; ^-^^Jl-^Tl^'CI^'^'
>thecord
on which turquoises are strung';
qg^'SI'5JC*'^t*:J'C'^'l^'
29. Eelative Pronoims. 39
,one who gets (unto whom come) many presents'. Cf. also
33. Only those indefinite sentences which in English are
.introduced by ,be who', ,who ever', ,that which', ,what' etc.
can be adequately expressed in Tibetan, by using the in-
terrogative pronouns with the participle (seldom the naked
root) of the verb, or adding <3j' (,if

' v. 41, A. 4.) to the


latter. Instead of
5"
in this case E' is written more cor-
rectly. Thus: ^a]-f^54'qS;-^-5I^-CI'q2^=T|'t21'^'!^'
^Vs'iT ,if anybody who possesses the good faith teach it
me';
^'^'^^^''^^''J^'l^^^''^'
,when those of you
who wish to go are assembled'; =^'^'^^'M^'co''^^"^'Aj*\^'
CI'l^^'S^'S^'^^'^'O^^^^'^ jthis jewel (dntamani)
will make come down like rain whatever is wished for'
;
^5"B^"^'t'^'^'CI^'=;'g'S^ ,whatever you way say
and ask o me according to that I will act, or I will grant
you whatever you ask'. ^^N^'Si^^'SI^'l'S^^'q^l'ft'
SJcbP^'S'^^^JT^' jhaving scooped the water of the sea with
what force I have';
^^cf^'l"^'5'^''l'|=^'=^'CI=^=T'=J"
^''3!'^'^?Jf^' ,1 beg yon to show me what sort of jewel
you have found (got)';
5]C'3'|^'=flC'^=fl^'CJ^'=I]Sl^'J'
^'5^^'^^'R^ ,his footprints, in what place soever they fell
(v. lex. a. V. ^=T|^"), became gold-sand'.
40
80. Verb. latrodaofion;
But the participle is treated as if no relative was pre'-
ceding, thus ^^'I'^'gjJ'CI-q^'SJ'yil^r^
,lie did not
recede from (recall) the word he had spoken before'; vulg,,
WT, C:'=!]C;'^a'^'ClSj'pK;'^=!]' ,tlie room where I sat'.
Chapter VI.
Th Verb.
30. Introductory remarks. The Tibetan verb must be
regarded as denoting, not an action, or suffering, or con-
dition of any subject, but merely a coming to pass, or,
in other words, they are ail impersonal verbs, like taedet,
miseret etc. in Latin, or it suits etc. in English. Therefore
they are destitute of what is called in our own languages
the active and passive voice, as well as of the discrimi-
nation of persons, and show nothing beyond a rather poor
capability of expressiug the most indispensable distinctions
of tense and mood. From the same reason the acting
subject of a transitive verb must regularly appear in the
Instrumental case, as|the case of the subject of a neutral
verb, which, in European languages, is the Nominative --,
ought to be regarded, from a Tibetan point of view, as
Accusative expressing the object of an impersonal verb,
just as ,poenitet me' is translated by ,1 repent'. But it
win perhaps be easier to say: The subject of a transitive
verb, in Tibetan, assumes regularly the form of the in-
stromentiil, of a neutral verb that of the nominative which
is the same as the accusative. Thus, C^'Ws'C ispro-
PfW^W
IHPIF
31. InfleoliOH of Verbs.
41
perly; SC a beating happens, ^' regarding you, ^^'
by me = I beat you. To common life the object has often
the form of tbe dative,
S^'OJ', to facilitate the comprehen-
sion. But often, in modem talk as well as in the classical
literature, the acting subject, if known as such from the
context, retains its Nominative form. Especially the verba
ioquendi are apt to admit this slight irregularity.
31. Inflection of verbs. This is done in three different
a) by changing the shape of the root. Such different
shapes are, at most, four in number, which may be called,
according to tbe tenses of our own grammar to which they
correspond, the Present-, Perfect-, Future-, and Imperative-
roots; e.
g. of the Present-root ^f^'C[' ,to give' the Perfect
root is ^C^, the Future-root =T]^n;', the Imperative root
^'; of n^e^'CI-,tofilter,bo!t'respective]y: l^^^^Vtsa^Cs)
(U.: fsa), ^^cfj'
tsaff, .S^ isog. The Present root, which .
implies
duration, is also occasionally used for the Imper-
fect (in the sense of the Latin and Greek languages) and
Future tenses. It is obvious, from the above mentioned
instances, that the inflection of the root consists partly in
alterations
of the prefixed letters (so, if the Perfect likes the
prefixed
q, the Future will have =P1 or retain tlie S\\
partly
in adding a final
^'
(to the Perfect and Imperative),
partly in changing the vowel (particularly in the Impera-
tive),
But also the consonants of the root itself are changed
i
42
32. Infinitive.
sometimes : so the aspirates are often converted in the Perfet
and Future into their surds,
besides other more irregular
changes. Only a limited number of verbs, however, are
possessed of all the four roots, some caonot assume more
than three, some two, and a great many have only one.
To make up in some
measure for this deficieocy
:
b) some auxiliary verbs have been made available:
for the Present tense
t^js',
(^=\^,
0^^^' and others, alt
of which mean ,to be' ( 39);
for the Perfect ^^\
3^',
Sfc;-; for the Future O^^s",
iSj:', and the substautive ^'
c) By adding various
monosyllabic affixes, the InBrn-
tive, Participles, and Gerunds are formed.
These affixes
as well as the auxiliary verbs are connected partly with the
root, partly with the Infinitive, rcsp. its terminative, partly
with the Participle.
Note. The spoken language, at least in WT, acknow-
ledges even in
four-rooted verbs seldom more than the
Perfect root.
32. The Inlinitive mood. The syllables
q' pa or, after
the final consonants
[;" s;- 0^'
and vowels,
q' wa are added
to the root, whereby it assumes all tlie qualities and po^ye^s
of a noun. In verbs of more roots than one, each of them
can, of course, in this way be converted into a
substantive,
or, in other words, each tense has its Infinitive, except
the Imperative. From one-rooted verbs the different In-
finitives may be formed by the above mentioned auxiliaries:
thus, the Inf. Perf., by adding tJ^^'q' to the Infinitive of
33. Participle. 43
the verb in question, or ^^'^', aSj'q", ^^Cq" to the
root, and the Inf. Fut. by adding f^^^'q' to the Supine
(terminative of the infinitive, 41.B) thus, ^'^'q^'Og^q'
visurum esse, visum iri.
Note. The spoken language uses, in WT almost ex-
clusively, a termination pronounced cas in Turig and Balti,
tea, ie in Ladak, ie in Lahoul etc., )a in Kunawar, ie in
Tsaii etc., the etymology of which is doubtful, as it is not
to be found in any printed book. Lamas in Ladak and
Lahonl spell it 55^',
33. The Participle. 1. This is in the written language
entirely like the Infinitive t^3j"q" ,being', ^'^'q' ,giving',,.!
q^Cq' jhaving given'.
2. Whether the meaning is active
and passive, however, can only be inferred from the con-
test, e. g. qRCqf3,'SC0J' is of course ,the money given',
hot ^n]'qi;c;'qa'SI" ,tlie man having given, or, that has
given, the money'; the Tibetan participle means nothing
but that the action or condition is connected in some way
with a person or thing. But it is natural that in the pre-
sent participle the active notion should be the more frequent
one, as well as in the preterit the passive, 3. In the
instance of Intensive verbs (formed with ^KR'
38.1)the
usage of scieutiGc authors has strictly connected the active
sense
with those formed with ^^',
as =1^'^^' ton-jed,
toA-ye\
instead of aKC'qs,'3cq", doing give, giving.
I?"
44
33. Participle.
giver, and the passive to those with ^', as i^fjZ:^'
tonja,
ton
fa
i. o.
cij^'qs:^'^" ,to be given' (dandus), ^'T'^'
^^'^'^3:^'^^' ,to teach the things to be done and not
to be done' (ThgjO.
4. In certain cases, especially with
verbs that luean: to say, ask eto. the Participle is used
before the words of the speech, where we should use the
Imperfect: ^''^'g^'T"
,the king said .
.'.
Note. In the spoken language, of WT at least, the
Participle is formed by SJp^j', in the active sense as well
as the passive (whereas in books this syllable occurs only
in the meaning of the performer of an action s. 12. 1.):
iNC<^'CI=>:;'Sip5"%5)' ?ml tan Uan-ni mi (s. 15, Note) ,the
man giving the money',
qi^C'Sjp'?^'^''^^'^' ,
the money
given'.
Q^s;5I-^q]'3J5^,5^'^^^'^P^"5'g'51'
,the hima
who brought a coat for sale the other day'. ^'?l'|'^,^
f^'^raC^arSipS'^' ,the girl who had shewn the door to
his reverence' (Mil). The fature participle is represented,
just as in Enghsh, by the Infinitive (32, Note), so that
,the sheep to be killed', (in books crj^fs^-q^rg'qp^'f^cri' or
ETT^'qS'Wqi") is expressed, in the most Western provinces,
by: sad bassi lug. Lad.: sad^ces-si
%,
Lah. etc.; sac? cet
lug, Xsah: so'-se-iyi lug ^^^^'^'^\
and, moat like
the classical language, in Kun.: sod )a lug.
34. FJnitfl Verb. 45
34. The finite verb, 1. The principal verb of a sentence,
which always closes it (48.) receives in written Tibetan in
most cases a certain mark, by which the end of a period
may be known. This is, in affirmative sentences, the vowel o
(called by the grammarians:
}^'^'^')i
J" interrogative
ones the syllable am. Before both the closing consonant ot
the verb is repeated, or, if it ends with avowel, H^' and
0^
are written. The Perfect of the verbs ending in
5' ^'
OJ"^
which formerly had a ^' as second final ^'5^'

j
*^"
sume
"y
and
^5^'.2. These additional syllables are omitt-
ed a) in imperative sentences, 6) in the latter member of
a double question, c) when the question is expressed al-
ready by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, d) in coor-
dinate members of a period, with exception of the last one,
e) commonly, when the principal verb is the verb substan-
tive
[^3j-, Cfs;- etc. (40. 1.).
EaiampleB. a) ^C ,go!',
'^S'^''^'
^come here!'.

h)
5i^-C;5I-j-Si^- ,do you see or not?' - c) ^S^^'^^^
,who is there?', SSI'q^q' ,when did (he, you etc.) arrive?'.
,the
houses were destroyed, the men killed, the whole town
annihilated*.
e) =r]^C'qi^"|'5J''^*'']?^*^'W=;
f
,hi the
sand
of the river is gold'.
Note. In conversation the o is generally omitted, and
46
35. Present.
the in of the interrogative termination dropped, so that
merely the vowel a is heard, e. g- the question Sf^'CSJ'
,do (you) see' and the answer 3^"^^ ,(1)
see', are com-
monly spoken in WT: fon-nat Ion.
35. Present Tenses. 1. Simple Present Tense. This is
the simple root of the verb, which always will be found
in the dictionary; in WT, as mentioned above, of verbs
with more than one root, only the Perfect root is in use;
if, therefore, stress is laid on the Present signification, re-
coarse must be had te one of the following compositions,
(8. 31. and Note). Thus, SJ^' ,(I, thou, he etc.) see, seest
etc.', ^n^^fc' ,(1 etc) give' through all persons; in the end
of a sentence: SI^C'K^I
^'^'\
2. Compound Present Tenses, a)
^^
(s- 40,
1)
is
added to the root: ?|^'n=S=^' '
^<^^''
^^^"'^J^'
'C^)
give'. This is common in the dialect of WT especially.

6) The Participle connected with ^S^
,
^^'^"^^ .(1)
see'. In WT tiiis, of course, is changed to sl^'S^pS^'^N^'

e) One of the Gerunds (41, A) with ^=^' or ^=^=^1", as


5}^'|- (or S^^' or &]' or ^C;'), 0.^^' or U^S' .W
see,
am seeing'; it mnst, however, be remarked that both
ways of expression, f>) and <;), are not very frequent.

d) ^^'^^' or QSI'TI' is the proper form for the compound
36. Preterit.
47
English present: 5|fc'=n3rf3'^=n' ,(I) am seeing', f^^'^i'
A^^l' ,(I) am writing (just now)',
36. Preterit Tenses, 1. Simple Preterit, Perfect or Aorist
Tense; this is the Perfect root: ^'^^', at the close of the
sentence CI!^C;C| ,gave, have given, was given'; in one-'
rooted verbs it has, of course, the same form as the present :,-
^^C,'(C) ,saw, have, or was, seen'. This is tlie usual
narrative tease like the Greek Aorist or French Parfait
defini.
2. Compound Preterit Tenses.
a) The root with
?fc', ^"^cSlt' ,have given, gave, was given', 5^^'?JC'
,have seen, saw, was seen'; rarely met with in books, but
in general use iu the conversation -of WT. In CT 5^' /**"
is used in a similar way: 0?^'JjSIl'gC ,the doghasbit'.

b) The root with


35"
(more in books), or
**,'
(more in
common languitge), the true Perfect as the tense of accom-
plished action: CIi^C'Bs', CJisC^^' ,have given etc.', ,the
action of giving is past', 5l'54Cc&^' ,the man has already
left. c) The Participle connected with
^^
occurs more
frequently in the past sense than otherwise. Here, in the
common talk of WT,
^"
is used, even in those cases where
the
books have ^', t^'^l'CITIOJ'rj'cljiS;' yi-ge kdl-pa ym,
or,
contracted, kdl-pen, ,the letter has been sent off', in
books:
qijai-q-t^^j- (s. II, Note), even
gj'q'^.^'CI'^^'^i'
asm
48
HflBHHBpi IWHP
37. Future.
la tdns-pa yin, tdns-pen, ,tbe wages have been piiid' i. o.
qi^C-q-t^Sj-.
-
d) Gerunds in ^- (WT) or S^^' (CT) with
Sfe- or
ai^' (the same as 35. 2. c); also (in C Tsai and
lter bqoks) the mere Perfect root -with
^T^',
the
J
or
S?J" being dropped: ^fC^T'^"
,ha8 gone'.
37. Future Tenses. 1. Simple Futare. The Future-root,
qi^'(C^) ,sha!l, will give, be given'. - 2. Compound Fu-
ture, a) The auxiliary verb <^^^'^' (to gw, become)
added to the Terminative case of the Infinitive: IJJ^'^'^
P^-('3?) ,shall, will give, be given', Si^'^^'Q^^X"^)
.s^I, -will see, be seen'. This is the most common, and,
together with the Simple Future and the Intensive (:^9.)j
C|a::n'(^, the only one in use with the early classical
authors in all cases where a specialFuture-root iswanted, and
even where this exists. It dissappears,
however, gradually
froBJ the literature of the later period, and is rei)laced by
the two foUowing
compositions.
~ b)
^^^^
connected
with the root; SJ^-g-t^^'
,shall, will see', qj^-g-yq^'
,shall, will give' etc. (g'
is originally a substantive, mean-
ing material, cause, occasion).
c) the root with
0^
or
SfC, ^^'Sfc ,will arrive', or, i. o. the root, the Term. Inf.,
Sq'CI^'Ofh'.
Both b) and c) are even now in common
38. ImperatiTe.
49
use in CT, whereas in WT: -
d) ^^- connected with the
root is the general form: 5J^C;-y^3j- ton ym, vulg.: t6mn
,sliall, will see', qi^CT-C^^j-
io/im,shall, wiU give', ZTTjOI-siar
'Ad^im,will send', ^EaJ^'
la'ifin, Uin, Un ,-will go'.
-
e) In books the Participle with C^^'
(.85. 2. 6, 36. 2 c) oc-
curs sometimes also as Future.
38. Imperative mood. 1. This is usually the shortest
possible form of the verb, which often loses its prefixed
letters,
though in some iustances a final
^-f
is added. In
many verbs with the vowel a, and in some with e these
vowels are changed into o, besides other alterations of the
consonants.
Particularly often the surds or sonants of the
other
tense-roots are changed to their aspirates in the Im-
perative.
Thus, ^-
,give!', from qj^'q"; f^^'ld:
Ito.,
CT:
^Moofe!',from
^^
.^
^
,throw!', from
Q^^q?>J-q'.
In
one-rooted
verbs it is, of course, like the Present, but
It can always
be sufficiently
distinguished
by adding the
particle
q|-
(fi^
^^ ^, according to 13.)- This is used
in
the
classical
literature
indiscriminately in addressing the
ighest
and the lowest persons (or, in other words, as well
to
command,
as to pray),
but according to the modem
custom
of
CT only when
addressing servants and inferior
people.
~ 2. In forbidding,
the Present-root is used with
^he
negative
particle
SI",
SJ-q^" ,donot give!',
^'^ ,do
Jisdlke,
Tlba
firsTumar.
4
50
38. Imperattre, - 39. IntensiveB.
not look!', SJ'R^^q^' ,ao not throw!' 3. la praying
or wishing (Precative or Optative) either the same forms
as under 1 . are used, or the Imperatives of f^^^'^' ^o
come' or
(Sf:
,to come' (the latter,
^^\\
of a quite diffe-
rent root) are connected with the Termin. Infin. 3^^C'^^'
ms;,'^' or .J^%=r|' ,may (I, you, he etc.) see!' 4. In
none of the three a person is indicated, but it is natural
that in commanding and forbidding the subject will be the
second, sometimes the third person; in the precative also
the first person can be understood.
Note. The common language of WT, acknowledging
only the Perfect-root, changes nothing but the vowel:
qijt' ,g!ve!' from qi^C^'; '^' ,look!' from
^'^';
qi^q- ,throw!' from qi^q'S^J- (Perf. of (^^q^^'q^).
Instead
of ^', which is not much used,
q""^' (give!) is often
added to the roots of other verbs (s. 39), thus, ^^'q^'
ton ton ,take out!' from q^'S^' (l^^'^')-
^
*^^
^"
perative is paraphrased by ^5^* ffos
(Ld).
ffo,
goi ,mu8t',
added to the root ot the verb: q^=^-'^9|^' ,must be killed'.

In CT the changing of the vowel seems to be usually


omitted, but the
^' is more used. Here, also, the Per-
fect root is not so exclusively preferred.
39. Intensive verbs. 1. Very frecLuent in books is the
wim^mmmmmmmmm
39. Intenaives. 40. Sbst. Vei-bs.
gj
connection of the four-rooted verb ^'q'
(Pf.
q^1\ Fut
q'
Imp.
I^-)
,to do', elegantly
q^^-q-
(Pf.
qg^^ p^^_
qj-. Imp.
1^-), respectfuDy ^^^'q'
(i^p_ ggr;^-^
^^^^
the Term. Inf. of another verb, to intensify the action of
the latter. By this means not only one-rooted
verbs can
be made to participate in the advantages
of the four-rooted,
as 5I^-q3^-|i^-
,gee', Sj^'qii^-gsi-
,saw',
^'^qK^
,shali, wiU see',
Sf^'q^-g^- ,see!', but also several other
periphrastical
phrases are gained for speaking more pre-
-
cisely than
otherwise would be possible. The Future tense
$(^y
serves, besides its proper notion of futurity, par-;
ticularly
to express the English
auxiliaries
,niust, ought
etc.':
thus,
qX^'q^^-^a; ,must not be uttered, ought not
to be uttered',
sometimes it may be translated by the Im-
perative
mood.
The spoken language, at least of WT, is
evoid
of this
convenience, and possesses nothing of the
kind
except
the above mentioned
intensive form of the
Imperative,
formed
by
qfc:
(s. 38., Note).
-
2. Another,
olass
of
intensive
verbs are formed by connecting two
jy^oiiymes,
as Q^|sT15^-^rT|-q-
^^ be afraid', literally ,to
be
fear-frightened',
and other similar ones.
*0- Substantive
and Auxiliary Verbs. 1. To be a) ^ST
2^
in
elegant
and
respectful speech 0J=T]5^-q- la^-pa, 0:
"pa
(the latter
word
never used in WT) is the mere means
4*
r
mmmmmm
wm
52
40, Substantive Verbs.
of connecting the attribate -witli its subject, as:
^'P^^^f^
^ET|5.I-q-di3^- ,this man is
aLadakee', ^-gj^-ajqi^^-^ISl-
,is
it you, Sir?'. Therefore the question ^'t^ai- is to beunder-
stood ,w]io are you' or ,who is he' etc, the personal
pronoun
being often let to be guessed.
- t^^' itself is often omitted
in daily life inWT as well as in poetiy, e.g. I?l'p^'^'^'
|aj-"^- ,this load (is) very heavy' WT. Negatively: SJ'IM^',
^3j- vulg. ^S^, resp.
S^'O^^: -
b) ^^'^'
^^-P^^
hH^a, negat: 5)^',
^-^^^^ SfrjJ^l^^-
means ,to esist',
or ,to be presents ,to be found at a place',
therefore the
(question ^-Cifs^- is to be understood :
,Who is here? Who
is there?'
- l^^ and q(^iT|5T'q- are in general use,
5^^"
1'
is seldom heard. When connected with the Dative of a
substantive it replaces the English ,to have, to have got', as:
Ca]-c^nj-SCf=^- ,1 have money';
C;-aI-^CT|-t)'(^' ,1
have pain'.
In this case the
respectful term is not ^^^^'^-
bt
King an
indisposition?'
i.e. ,is Your Majesty ill?'. - c)
C^s^ETl-CI- dug-pa (eleg.
^i^f^R' is seldom heard), resp.
qfflimj-q-, ,to be present, stay, be found at a place'; negat.
40. Substantive Verbs.
53
^a,^=T]-. Both q^=r|-CJ- and tSf^^'q- can be used instead
of UqSj'q', though not this instead of them.

rf) ^K'SJ'
re'-pa= R,^=T|-q', negat. 5|'^=;-
in Spiti and CT, seldom
in books. e) ^'q' mod-pa, mo'-pa has a somewhat em-
phatical sense: ,to be (something) in a high degree', ,to
be (somehow) in plenty'. It occurs most frequently in the
Gerund with ^' (41.), when it frequently has the sense of
,though', but never with a negative.
/) fCq'
nan-ma,
origiaally ,to appear, to be visible, extant', negat.
^'fC.
Sometimes in books, and common in certain districts.

p)
In books the concluding o (.S4.) is, moreover, found to
represent the verb ,to be' in all its meanings, and is capable
of being connected with words of al! classes besides verbs,
e.
g. ^Cq S^ ,is the first' =
=^q'2f
t^S^'. Jn a similarmanner
also the 5=r]' of the Imperative
(38.) implies the verb ,to
te'.
h) The Preterit root for ail these verbs is
SIC' son
,was, has been', and besides also ,has gone, become', which
IS Its original
meaning.
For the use of these verba as
auxiliaries
s. 35. sq.
^- '^^'^'
originally ,to be changed, turned into some-
^faing'
then
,to become, to grow', auxiliary for the Future
_
*^se in the old classical language, as mentioned in 37.
mce
this can be considered as the intransitive or passive
notion,
opposite to g^-q- ,to make, render', the connection
!iH
54
40. Subst. Verbs.
41. Gerunds and Supines.
of 03^'^' with the Term. Inf. of another verb must, ia
manycases, be rendered bythe passive voice in our languages.
In WT the -verb
<5'^5^' ca-ie ,to go' is used in the sense
of ,to become, to grow'. The Perfect root for both is ?TC
,(-went), grew, became, has become, is' (s. above). In CT
and later books l^^gC^' is used instead.
3. ,must' is expressed by "^^^Tl^'CI'
,to be necessary'
(s. 38. Note). In WT this is used in a very wide sense for
any possible modification of the notion of necessity: ,1 musi,
should, want to, ought' and even , I will, wish, beg (for
something)' is nothing but C'P^'^=T|?^' ,to me is necessary'
which maybe, in the last mentioned case, rendered somewhat
more politely by adding {^' hi ,py!' C'OJ'l?!'^''^^'^"
,1 want potatoes, pray!' is as much to say as ,Will you
kindly give me some potatoes'. In books and more refined
language several other verbs are used in the same sense,
viz. S,=n5J"Cr ,it is right to' (usually with the Genit. Infin.),
^[;'C1' ,it is meet, decent',
^V^'^'
'* ^^^' 'i'^^"^'' ^^^
with the Supine; ^=na^''!3' ,to like' with the Dat. Inf. The
popular sahstjtute of the last, especially in use in WT, is
a.iK'CI', of similar meaning, added to the root.
41. Gerunds and Supines. We retain these terms, em-
ployed by former grammarians, but observe that they do
not refer to the form, but to the meaning, as well as
that Gerund is not to be understood in the same signification
41. A. Gerunds. 1.
65
as in Latin, but as the Gerondif of some French gram-
marians, or what Shakespeare caDs Past conjunctive parti-
ciple in Hindi. These forms are of the greatest importance
in Tibetan, being the only substitutes for most of those
, subordinate clauses which we are accustomed to introduce
by conjunctions. They are formed by the two monosyllabic
appendices
y
(so after the closing consonants
5' ^'
OJ' ?.|;
^
after
^, ^
after
^\^ Z.' CJ' 3^ and vowels and 5^'
(3^'
or ra^' according to the same rule as 5=T]' 13.), both of
which are added to the root, or by the terminations men-
tioned in 15. as composing the declension of nouns, which
are added partly to the root, partly to the Infinitive or
Participle.
A. Gerunds. All the following forms can be rendered
by the English Participle ending in ing, but the more ac-
curate distinctions must be expressed by various con-
junctions.
1.
y
(K etc.), the most frequent of all these endings.
It is added to the Present-root as well as to the Perfect-root:
^^"^ .giving',
^"^C^ ,having given', and stands for all
clauses
beginning with when, as, since, after ete. Also in
iie
spoken language of WT it is used most frequency.
Examples:
^'^'(^'^'"^'^13^' ,the child, having been car-
ried
away by the water, died'; gf^'^-^'^goj"^?^"^?^'

^^^C'C;' ,the king having died, the prince occupied


immmmm"
56
41. A. Gerunds. 2.-4.
the throne (kings-place)';
^'^'^=^'^'^'3^=^'^''^'!!'^'^'
gq'lf ,as there is a great water, we cannot go'.
2.
^'
f^C.' etc.), of a similar sense, chiefly used for
smaller clauses within a large one; ^''^^fjQ^'l^C'jg^Ty,when,
being displeased, he became angry', or ,grow!ng displeased
and angry'. Often it denotes two actions going on at the
same time, or two states of a thing existing together, and
then can only be translated by ,and', thus, SJ^'^^'SC
^SJ^' ,without end and boundary';
^'a]'3'^'|g=f]'fll't2^'
CI' ,to eat flesh and drink blood'*). It stands also in a
causal sense: ,by doing etc.', as: ^'q^S,-(^'Kl^^?S^ .(we)
live by catching fish'. These two (1. and 2.) cam also, like
the closing o, as mentioned in 40. 1. g,
be added to every
class of words, in the sense of being : W^'^''|5J'c5'qC,'5I^'
q'$'
,as yon are high (-born), being of a great family'.
In conversation, SC is scarcely ever heard.
3.
^^' (from, or after, doing something) in temporal
clauses -with ,after, when, as'; practically it is very much
like ^", and often alternating with it. In most cases, in
speaking always, it is added to the root, seldom to the infi-
*) The objects of 3'^' and naC'^
often assume the dative-
sign, of. English ,to feed on'.
II,. yjii i,;i^||i|iRt||ji|(i
41. A. Genmds. 4. 5. 57
nitive. Examples. 5i3sI'OJC^'i5?J"?|C' , when the night had
risen (viz. at daybreak) he went'; 0^'55J*?fc , after you
will have risen, go!' ^'S^^-^j?!-*^!^'^-!-^?!-^ ,whenl
saw that, raising clamour, I wept'.
4.
5'
,in (doing something)' again for clauses with
, since, when, as', but in most cases by far for ,iE' and con-
ditional ,when': l^^^i' ,if, or, when (I) go, or went'; ^'
<5^"3I' ,when, after (he) has died', ,if he is already dead';
3"5'
,i (he) die, should die', ,if (he) died', ,when (he) dies';
g^'S' ,if.. do, did';
^'5'
,if' . . were to do'. It is added
to the root, seldom to the infinitive, and as common in
talking as in books.
5.
^'
is of more various use. When added to the root,
it is very much like 5C,
which it replaces in the conver-
sational language oi CT (where the first example of 2. would
be,
^'^^'2.'I^'J3^^),
but does not occur so often except
m imperative or precative sentences, when it is added to'
the Imperative root of the subordinate verb, just like other
gerunds:
?|C''^''^' ,going look!', ,go and look!' njE^'flJ'
vJC' ,rise and go!'. This particle, like the above-mentioned,
implies the verb ,to be', especially when added to adjec-
tives
denotbg a personal quality.
^'^=I]'t2]'^'^t^5j^
,being
ngly and short'; s^CI^'i^i7|5^'^''^d^S=T|-tlI-S!iiN'
58
41. A. Geronds. 5. 6.
^'
,
pretty, being of a good figure and nice to betold'.
Wten added to the Infinitive, it denotes : a) of course, the
real Dative, or the iisual meanings of the postposition f^'
with a substantive; thus, ^?K'^''^'^^f2^''^' ,to rejoice at
killing, be fond of killing', b) nearly the same ag W or ,a8'
in English, e. g.
aj5^-g-ris;-:^-^'^3^-^-D;ji^-q-q-^-g;-aj^-
^^'^'
,as there was an idol-shrine in the middle of the
way, (she) alighted from (her) chariot'; Sai'^^'^^'^raS'
S l^'E^'s^'^''^^^''^"
'^^ *^^ ^^ ^'^' th^re daily tj>
bathe'; f3^|=r|-'^3^'j5iC'3j-5}-'^C-q-0]-Q^^-^-a^[:-q-5-t^3j- ,a8
(it) does not occur in the (whole) world, what is (its) oc-
curring here, or, how is it that is occurs here?'. Finally,
in the language of common life OJ' is added to the repeated
root in order to express the English , while, whilst': C?r
,j3'cnra'mcq-q-Sc'm:^-,nC,'^'
na ia tub-tub-la Hydd-di
(15., Note) siK%o/i WT, or
^'J^5I'^C;-qT[^-^- %o'-
hfi sin kur-hog CT ,while I am cutting the meat into pieces^
bring you (some) wood'.
6.
^^' added only to the Infinitive, literally ,out of
(the doing)'. This may mean ffl) , after', ^jq'q'aiSI'PJt;'
^'
,to rise from lying, after having lain';
S^''^!'^^''']^?!'
(a^^=n'C]"f3J-^'^^'S?J'qC' ,after having been three days in
41. A. Gerunda. 7. 8.
59
the grave (I) came out of the grave'.
5)
, while', in
which case the root of the verb may be repeated, as: ^^
?jt'CI'a^5J'g?J'B'=n'^C;'^^'X^ jout of my walking i.e. when
walking along, (I) met with a brahman'; C-^'^TK^'^RCJ'
q"tai5|"^'^5|'3t;'rjT]j;,"5"J3&l' (the above mentioned
example (s. HJ') translated into classical language); c) also
the English , being about to' is, in books, often expressed
by this Gerund: 3^C;-S^-^C;'q'0]^-^q5S^'^ ,when (1)
was
about to enter, the door was shut'; il'^'''j^'g^'5^|?fil^'
^^^
,when (I) was going to die, (1) wa,s restored to life
again'. Which of the three is the real meaning, will in
most cases be clear from circumstances. This gerund is
not used in talking, at least in WT.
7. ^?^' (g?^' etc.) or ' (^' etc.),or thelnstrumental
and Genitive cases of the root, mean a) ,by doing some-
thing' or ,because', e.g. ^^j^'^^'f^'^'C ,we come (here),
because it is necessary'. pf5j5J'91=n:?|'q':^5J'^C5]'^C;'
f?pn' ,siace I am resolved to help you, do not be depressed!'
This, originally, is a function of the Instrumental only, but
in later times the other cases also are used in this mean-
ing. V) more frequently they are used adversatively,
,though',
especially when connected with 5^^' (40. 1. e),
^'g^"^=^'5?|'^^'t^^'^5|'qi,'a^3^' ,though (you) did
60
41. A. Gercnds. 8. 9. B. Supines.
say so, by what shall (I) believe (it)?' In other cases
it may be )ft untranslated when the next sentence will
commence with ,but': a^^'qa^^^'Q^'^^^'a^M'^'S^flJ'
CI'^^J'^J" ,not liking delicate food, he ate vulgar food' or
,he did not like d, f., but preferred v, f. This Gerund is
scarcely used in talking, at least in WT.
8. CJ5J' (R^'),
the Instrumental of the Infinitive, ,by
(doing something)' is, of course, the proper expression for
,because', but also very often used indiscriminately for
y
or 3i5J' only for the sake of varying the mode of speaking:
^3ry=^'T|[:i^'C]t^3^'q^' , because it is very difficult'; '^^'
C|?^' ,when (he) looked'.
9. Also hIS' the proper use of which has been shewn
above (35. 2. d.) must be mentioned once more as it occurs
in a similar sense to ^C,
^a!5I'i:^^q?^'q|<^"^'^=r]'
,walk on prayiug (preces faciendo)!'; 5^'q^C^n3I'C5|'^5^'
jbeating (her own) breast and weeping'.
B. Supines. They are expressed simply by the Ter-
minative Case of the Infinitive or of the Boot, 51^'^^'
or ^C,'^' ,to see'. In many instances the use of either is
optional, iu others one is preferred. Their use is: with
adjectives like the Latin supine in m, e.g.
^^^'y^'T|Q^'q'
,difficult to learn'; with verbs expressing ,to go, to send' etc.,
il. B. Supines.
61
also ,to pray' etc. like that in um:
ojs'y??^'
,gotofetch',
^tSC^'^'tTT^OJ' ,(I) beg (you) to permit, for permission'.
In these cases the root is most common, but the Inf. q^*^'
CI^', or
cns^'q^', SjS'q^' may also be used. 2. Another
use of the Supine is a) with verbs of sensation and, less
freq^uently, with those of declaration, where we use sentences
vrith ,tliat' or the Participle or Infinitive: 5|'(^C'CI^*5|^C"
3!?J'
jSeeing (his) mother coming' (instead of which, how-
ever, "(^Ui'R' may be said as well);
' '
"
qa^'^^J'OJ'CJCI'qs;,'
-a^l'S;^^'
^ knowing that the time of . . . ing had arrived'
(lit: ,that it bad come down to the time')!; aOl'^O^'^'^iSj'
. CJ^'^iX'S^' , remembering him to be the kings son' or ,that
he was . ,
.'. b) in an adverbial sense, when we say ,So
that', especially in negative sentences, , so that not' , without
. . . ing", 51?J'T}C'5^'^>'q*^' ,so that nobody may (did) per-
ceive it', or , without anybody perceiving it.'
Note 1. The modern language of WT uses in the first
instance (B. 1.) either the simple Infinitive, ^^^CJ's^^'Pfll'
^ (or J^TjETj-lf),or the same with O]', CIg}q-^?J-ai-|C!=r|'
^, orwith ^"aj' (for the g=^' of the books s. 7.2.), S\^R'
"'J'^'SJ'pqri^; in the second either the same forms, or
f^
particular one, which consists in repeating the final con-
62
41. B. Supines, Notes.
sonant of the root with the vowel a, to which also ^
may
he added; thus, nj5j-5j-?|fc-, g^-^c;-q-^=r|-q|'ai-Sfc^'?fc;-
,(I) have come to meet you'; in the third, the direct Im-
perative adding (^' for the sake of civility, ^^C^J'l^'
,pray permit!'
In the case of B. 2., instead of 5J-(3j;'q^'5|^'5^5f
;
the expression in common use will be l^'SI'U^C," or U*!^'
C'Sf^'^j^'; instead of ^'^^"^^^^ eitherthe same
form, 5]'c^'^', or the Gerund, SJ'^^^y.
In CT those
examples would respectively, stand thus,
^^i^'^
or ^^^'
CJ' or
qS^'q^'iSrJ^Tmcfl"'^' Uh-U^ Uh-ha (sounding al-
most Id-wa), Idb-pa <f^m-du kag-po; in the third instance
a peculiar word, ,rog^, is used, which is said to be origi-
nally the same as ^^^' (^^^')
,riend,assistant' ,and ser-
ves now as the respectful substitute of 5^', Particleof the
Imperative, a|3jC;'2S^' ,pray permit!', ^^'^^' ,pray give!'
Instead of 5|'co^'^' etc. the most usual form in CT wiU
be the simple Participle, 5^'3?|"CJ',
Note 2. All the forms, of course, where
^' or ^'
are
met with might in certain cases belong to the Participle,
and hot to the Infinitive.
Note, 3. The reader will have missed any mention of
tenses of the class of Plupeiiect, Past Future etc., and.
41. B. Supinas, Notes,
gg
indeed, there exists no form of the kind, and they can only
be reodered by a Gerund, e.g. t^Sl'S^'Bs'S^J'CJTTaj-^'
,when (he) had written the letter, (he) sent (it) off'; V^Sf
^^'%S^S^^^Y-3:!^^:Q^S, (WT:
qTiq-wlaj-, CT: ^^10]-
5"^'^') i^*^^" i^^)
shall have written the letter, (he) will
sent (it) off'. Neither have the Conditional or Subjunctive
any special form. Thus, e.g., n^^'^J'^^^'aj'^-Q^^ci; ,if
w;e did not do that, we could not live (i.e. we cannot earn
our sustenance in anyother manner); -ga'as^'Sr-^ii^'q-^^
^
,why should not I hear (grant) what you say (your
wish)?';
q^'5i'q?f5j-^c:-^=Tj?j-5j-si^-a^-s|-'^?^-tf^-q:^j:T|-
,if (you) had not explained it, and (we) had not seen^the
signs, we would not have understood it'; Ij^'lj'i^^'q?.!'
'^''=^'^'^^''^^j^' ,as a man would not find it, I must
send an emanation'; vulg., WT, ^'^Eri'^crj-^C-SJ-wJ^-^-
C^"S'^''^^'^'2'fc'tf3<5j' ,if the distance was not so great,
they would come to me (visit me)'. Here may be added,
that
also the intention of, or attempt at, doing something
is
expressed by the simple verb: thus, ^^JJj'qi^TjrnEI]'
IC Srcj'^^*^?^-
,though I did try to hinder him, I could
^^"C'^^'^'S'^^^'i^^^'^
las he saw his own disciple
h
g4
A Sntvey of the principal fomiS of the Finite Teih.
on the point of springing into the water (and that he had
sprung off the bank), he held him back by the force of his
magic, so that he did not touch the water' (s. 41. B. 2. b.).
EspeciaUy the gerunds in Pi^' (41. A. 6.) have often this
meaning:
q=^=Tl-^:T|-=^[;-gai-q-ai?J-^-l-^^'5*J-|f
,when I was about to be parted from life, he saved it';
,the snake, having become angry, though sheintented (on
had at first int.) to let out her poison, reflected thns'. As
will be seen from these examples, the action, in such cases,
is thought to have begun in fact.
A Survey of the principal forms of the Finite Verb.
Present:
=lj^', "W
q^C^'q^tT]- give
Sj'^-q-!^^^- 5:|^E;'5^pi5j-y^3i-
I see intens.
?i^'q^'=^'
C 5J^C:-^-Q,i^=ri'
(or d^'^)
w
5#:-^3j-^^^i-
(or etfs^-); c si^'j-a^=r]'
I am seeing
Perfect:
qrc- W
qt^C"^' gave, have given
5|^C- C S^X^-^C:
saw, W ?rC^^^'
C ^C-Of'^'
went
went
Rj:.-^^
qiiC'.^' I have given, intens. S^^'q*:^?^'
qcc5^-q-:^S' has been gi^n
42. The Adverb.
65
Fnture:-
^C:
W
q^t^^' shall, will give
^^'q^'O^'
C Sl^'g-U^^- intens. SJ^-qa^'g-
shaU, will see
gq'Sfc;-, ^q'q^'a^c;- will arrive
Imperative:
^-
Wq"^' give!
q'^-q'^C' take out! q^T^^-J^^"
kill!
5i^'5=T|" see! intens. S^^'q^^'^
negat. 5I'=T|!^C;' ?]'q^' do not give! Sf^'q^'5|'B';'
Chapter VII.
The Adverh.
42. We may distinguish three classes of adverbs:
1. Primitive adverbs. 2. Adverbs formed from Adjectives.
3. Adverbs formed from Substantives or Pronouns.
1. Very few Primitive Adverbs occur; the most usual
are:
^
,now', d^^y ,wheu',
^C (books and OT) or
g^^"
(WT)
,to morrow', and a few similar ones; UJC , again',
and
the two negatives ^"
and SJ', the latter of which is
Med
m prohibitive sentences, and with a past tense, as
^^' .(I) do not give', k^C: ,(I) shall notgive', but:
^I'^'^C;-
,did not give',
5I-=T]^- (WT: S^-q^Cj ,do not
JSaoliks,
Tibtiaii Oramnisr.
5
M
ee
42. Adverb.
give!' The verbs tl^-^', t^^^', 51^', ^=^' l>ave always
S!' instead of
^'
before tbem (40.).
Anotber particle of
this kind, of a merely formal value, is^, which is added
to aoy word or group of words in order to single it out
and distinctly separate it from everything that follows. It
is, therefore, often very nsefal in lessening the great in-
distinctness of the langaage,
especially so when separating
the subject from the attribute;
5)-^-^-01''^lT]5J-C|-!^c^- ,that
man is a Ladakee'.
(There is scarcely an ade<iuate word
to be found in our modern languages, but the Greek ye,
or fter ^fi , are very similar.) In talking it is seldom
heard, and, when used, in WT pronounced:
5^".
3. Adverbs may be forniea from any Adjective by
putting it in the Terminative case. qaC"2f
,goodS qSC'^'
,weU';
^=1'
,
principal', ^l^'J ,
principal, very'; ^O]'
If ,violent',
5=T|-^- or
5^^]
J
,\'iolently'.
3. Nearly all the local Adverbs are formed from
Substantives or Pronouns with some local Postposition:
aifc' ,the place (space) above, upper part',
SJC'SJ"
,above',
ajC-y ,upward8'.
^fC^^^'
,from above (downwards)'; 0^
,t!iis', P^S^ ,in this, here', Q^^'^', P^^' ,Hther, here'
(cf. 15.), a^^-3j5I-
,hence'; ^- ,that', ^3^- , there', ^5',^^'
,thitlier, there', ^^^'
,from there, thence, then, after that'.
Hi
43. Postposition.
67
Note. In talking the simple adjective is used, mostly,
instead of its adverb
(2. class):
S!^?.f-q- for
qs^-
,quickly, soon'.
Chapter VIII.
The Postposition.
43. There are two kinds of Postpositions: 1. Simple
Postpositions.
These are the same that we know already
as forming the cases
(15). 2. Compound
Postpositions,
formed in the manner of local Adverbs (42. 3), with which
they are, indeed, with a few exceptions, identical.
1- Simple Postpositions.
These are: a]-(theaf6x
of the Dative), ^' (Locative),
<5j5I' and
Qi^' (Ablative),
5)
^'.
^', ^', S' (Terminalive).
Their use will be best seen in the following examples:
I!
^-
I!
aj^j-^nj-Sf-oi'^-
WT, 3c;^-^-q-c[^-
(jnst. of ^-
38,
Note) CT ,put the degchi on the fire!'.
^'^'^Cl!'Q,f(3;, vulg: a^^'q^JT|-,
Tsang: IJC'sn-^^-QJ-
"Ci
n^'
'*''*' *^^ ^o^^s himself on the ground'.
^"^'^y (or aj?^-) a,^,having mounted on the horse (he)
goes', or ,(he) goes on horseback'.
S"f^-5jpQ^-aj-Q^^^-X=, vulg(WT):%-CI- (corrupted from
5*
gg
-
43. 1. Simple PostpoBitiona.
q-a^^3:,'q]5J'q=viT|" ,the bird flies in the sky'.
Sl^'nj'St^^ WT, 3jSIWn3^g'^3j-
CT ,(we) shall set
out at night'.
^q-^3j;j-i^ain^-^-
(books and CT), ^q-?iC'^Q,^-^-
WT ,being very glad at this'.
garOI'Sip^^'C]' jskilful in medicine'.
SCOJ-'SS?^-^, vulg: C)?r^" ,inyited him to beer'.
^S|fq-f=T]'^=I]'=Tl'
WT, qS^'=ri5I'
CT ,is (there) ache in
(your) head', ,bave you head-ache?'
n
^,
5"
^'^'-
11
|5I-3^-
(OT K) f=^',
vulg: prq-OJ- (or ^)
i^^ ,(he) is
in the nouse, at home'.
g5j-r-?fC vulg: pC'CJ'^'
(orOI'^^fCgointothelioase,
home,!'.
c^'%EIl-5-, vulg:
(^^^l'^^^'
,at a (certain) time, once'.
c-^-[a=n'q!;5'5r (books) ,from to-day in (after) seven days'.
5J5J-q-C]rq^-g^'if; WT: t?I-3^5|-^-cg-qCOJ'p^'3=:;CT:
U^j-jJ^^'g'CICTl^'P^'^'
ithe mother carried the son
in (her) arms'.
Bfq'vS'JN' (books, for vulg. see Compound adv.) ,for
years'-
' seven
48. 1. Simple Postpositions. 69
^^gOI-^^-SJ^CIl-^f (or:?^-^), W: |QJ-cfftI'=?fTl-
,(they) made (or selected, raised) that man to (be) king'.
^S'^'f^'^'^^^'^'
CT: 05^5=^' (or ^-ajcri-)
^^oj-
^S^'
i(*bey) made (their) luggage into a pillow, used
it as a pillow'.
a|C'^-(or=Tl-^-)(5^^, WT: =T]-^-'5^3j- (s. 35. 2. 6,
t^^'
omitted," 40. 1. a), CT: r]'nj'a^^S]?^-tlJ3j' (^'or CJ^',
provincial irregularities 35. 2.
c)
, where are(you)going?'
Z.^K^- (or p5q]-^^-Q]-) O^gaj-Qi^cri- (vulg.) ,I am going
. to Tino (or K'oksar)'.
11
^^'
11
l^'^'^S^'S^' , after eight months'.
J'C|'rjSs;'q"(?;5|' ,from (after) the eighth month'.
^S!'<5j?|' (books and CT), WT: 5i^5I'3j?^'
,from the
beginning '.
^Tj^'pjt^'OJIJJ' ^fiom the window, through the window'.
l^fSa^-q-Ql^l-Q^^-q-, vulg:
'
'
' 3j5^'q^q'q* ,to deliver
from the circulation (transmigration)',
^*=fl''3^^'pc;'I'|=il'!-,
WT: s^^; Tsang: q-cr|^-^c;-|=f]'
^'
,to build a house out of brick (Ts: a house of brick)'.
^"^S'S^^'OJ^' ^from the sutra Zamatog'.
70
43. 1. Simple PostpoBitioiis!
^CI-3^-aj^-Er|%q|- (vQlg:
gq-^5;'5it''3^^'=fl^')
,oiie of
(from among) the pupils'.
^aj-ai^j-sjjn^j-ci- (books and CT), wt.- cgrsi^'^C'sip?^'
CJ' , wiser than all, the wisest, most skiltul of all'.
'TjWJ'ftl?!'^'!^?^'^ ,more than two are not leff.
C.''^?^'^''^^^' ,more than myself are not'.
Besides these ^C," , with' is to be mentioned as Simple
Postposition: thus, ||f^-=^C;-g^-'^' , WT: g&|'^-=^C'
OJCJ'^" ,s[ieaking (conversing) with the youtt'; C'^C ,witL
me', or, in fuUer form,
C;-^[;-^3^'=T|^cr]y, C:^Z:q^^'^-
vulg: C'^C^J^"'^
,together with me'. In WT it is even
used for the instrumental when the real instrument (tool)
of an action is meant, e. g. gpi'^'^''2f^'^'^^'q^'^'
so in books, but WT: ^q'^'^C'^?!^-
,the king killed the
minister with the sword'. It is, moreoTer, added to many
Adjectives and Verbs, when we use the Accusative or Da-
tive or other Prepositions, e.g. ^^d^5'^' J'l's (with)
that, similar to that'. With an Infinitive it denotes the
synchronism of the action with another one, ^Sl'-fl^'^'
^C" jwith the sun rising, at sunrise'; ci]^'?fC'I'^Cwith
(on) their going to sleep, when they went to sleep';
^'lf^'^'S^'^^'5'^"
jCwith) saying so he went home'
or also ,he said so, and went home'. Often it is found with
48. 2. Compoand Postpositions. 71
an Imperative, without any perceptible signification, if it
is not to be regarded as a substitute for -5^"
(38): ^'S^^C"
,now eat!'. For its use as a conjunction see the next chapter.
2. Compound Postpositions. These may con-
veniently be grouped in two classes; a) Local Compound
Postpositions, which are virtually the same as the Local
Adverbs specified in i2. 3.: thus, S^Z'S^ ,in (the midst of)',
3f.''\
,into' also ,in', 5:C'S?J' ,from, out of. The most usual
ones will be seen in the following examples:
^'Sl'aC'S;' (or
^')
ra^'f^'*^'
ito bathe in a pond'.
^(^"5iC^'(5=n5J' ,be entered into the water' (both in books
and common talk).
^(^'5;C3\"=nS
s
ithe lord among the gods'.
pC^Q.'5;c:"<3;?J"a^^' (or f3,gC) vulg. ,(he) comes (emerges)
out of the house',
^^cfjfc'y (or 5', or (^") , above the door' (books and
volg., but more usual in WT: ^''^^\
CT ^'^').
tMq-|-(it'7a^s^^', vulg.: tM=I"5'^^''^'
(orl^c^-q-), CT
also ^'^'RJ' ,he died before his father'.
WT:
p'^^^l'^"
(^'^'0!'), CT: s^5)CflI' ,to sit on
^
lotus-flower'.
72
43. 2. Comjjoirad Postpositions.
^n^'O^i^'^' (or 0]", or S") (books and talk) ,beside,neaf
the door'.
^^j-^C^-, yulg.:
5]S^^q-,
J-Sj-,
^^- ,uiideratree'
(literally: , in front, by the side, of a tree").
^aj-^-CJ^-^^T- (5J=^<3j's:;') O^g^'q' ,to take before the
judge'.
3'CJ-q^i:-^-|?J-ai' CT, ^COJ' WT ,after eight months'.
3"q'lTT^^'|T)'^3i'ni' (or ^-^'f^') vulg. .before two months,
two mooths ago',
^^S=I|yqj^^-|2^-Cr books and CT, WT: ^^-"Scil'RJ'
nj^'S'SJ' ,to hide a treasure below the ground'.
^S^''S^=T]-<3j:^-i3^gc;'ci' ct, wt:
5jQ;-af^i-3^-q|^-q-
,to
emerge, come out, from, below the ground'.
^S^X<'^'S^' books and CT, in CT also: SJ*:,-gq]?]-E]'
,
WT: 2J3:,'p'ai', CJ^'C^'QJ' , beyond the water, river'.
^^'^^^'^' ''*'^^ ^^ ^^' ^^-
^^'P'"^'
>o t'lis ^'<^^
of the water'.
(^ai^5?-^-(or^?f)^-^^-5I-Kary|^-]^-a^gs;-^,CT:
sj-Xaj-ygq-Dfc;-, WT: f^-ra-q'fq't^3j- >
(after)
three days he will arrive heyond this plain, will have
crossed it',
pC']a^'^=Tl?^'i:i"^' ,in the four regions o the house,
roundabout'.
43. 2. Compound Postposifjons.
73
t^nj'^^^^l'fiJ'^fC' ,go in the direction of, towards, that
village'.
(3fq5:s-g-iJ^-2r-,CT:i5fq^5W(Cl-), WT: |'=r|'q',for
seven years',
-o 'ss
O^S^^-^^-C^^-i^,
CT:
Q^^-^^-^-g=Tl-zy, WT: t^-aj^'B^-
^^rCI' ,from this to that'.
r^''^'^'5-^5^-^=T|-q- WT, ,tiU I go to Kullu'.
i) General Compound Postpositions, expressive of the
general relations of things and persons. They are formed
in the same maimer as the Local ones, from substantives,
adjectives, and even verbs. Their use may be learned from
the following examples:
^^B^XS)
'^'" ^'^' ^'^'^^^ ^'^'^ CT, WT: C;^''(^' ,for
me, in my behalf, for my sake, on my account',
5jfi^-^^^-|;^-|c-,
WT: a;-^-q-D;ft;?r, CT: '=^^-^^^:
^'3^' '^^ what reason has that illness come? what
is the cause of etc.?',
^Sl^I'Sa^'^^'S'^'^'s^s^'
,in behalf of all living beings'.
^j-^-q-'^
(WT: ^q-) q^- ,give (apply) stone in-
stead of wood'.
^^'^' ,according to, like, as'
Snj'IJfi^^'IjrTIG^'qraS'
^5^7
''i'^i'ig according to the word of the king'; S'
74
44. Oonjanctioii.
q^'^' .according to that, like that, thus, so'; ^'57'CI^'=^"
,as formerly, as before'; instead of it the dialect of WT
uses Sr'i*^',
generally with the Genitive, thus the last
example there would be: ^3j"5](^'3p''^^",
'^x: ,like', K-^^-
,like a hill'; a^'^^^, ^%^'
,like
this, like that, thns, so, t'^^', CT: ^Q'^^' ,like what?
how? in what manner?'.
In the dialect of WT ^^=^15^' or ?|c6=I15I'^' is used
instead (which is a corruption of ^^C.^\ occurring in
books with the same meaning): thus, ^'SI^^^^'^J'
,like
a hill'; a^^"5I^5J', ^'5^^^'
,thus'; or g=T]- (properiy
i^'), ^'W^\ ^'I^'
't^'i^''
i"i^"
'^'^-'-
Chapter IX.
The Conjunction.
44, The written language possesses very few, the
spoken still fewer, Conjunctions, most of which are coordi-
native. The common word for ,and' is ^C which we have
seen above in the sense of ,with', =Tj^^"=^Cl ^^f^^'^C'I
^q|5J'q'?^^'q"
,gold and silver and iron and collection
(i. e. and so on)', though the position of the sad (10.)
after
the word ^C
shows that it is always considered as belong-
ing to the preceding member of the sentence, similar, in
44. Conjunction,
75
this respect, to the Latin -.que'; nor can it in any case
begin a sentence. Yery seldom, and only in later literature,
it appears as combining two verbs, if not, indeed, the root
ought to be regarded there as abbreviation for the infini-
tive. Further: W^C , also, too'. When belonging to a single
word or notion it is put after it in an enclitical way like
,quoque' in Latin. It is changed according to the termi-
nation of the preceding word, into T}C' after =n' K' CJ'
^*}, into 0^^' often after vowels (cf. 6). Thus:
R'W^'
'^'^\^
staking also a son (with him)'. When repeated,
it has the signification of Latin ,et et', S^'^^R'-Sj
q".
^^'"T^II
'^''^^ mother and son died'. Often, especially
in negative sentences, it means ,even', ^S^Tl'TJC^l'^^''^
,even one (they) did not find not even one'. This is the
only means for expressing ,none, no, nothing', ^'SJ' (or
H]C') ^C-RI-(3j;^- (resp. ^::^-) , nobody came'; ^S^'%'
WC" (^ap:, or 5C') ^=^' ,there is nothing' (cf. 29). When
combined
with verbs, '^^'^'t^C;'5J'^^'^ ,even searching
(they) did not find', it serves as another expression for
,though'
or also ,but' (s. 41. A. 7.6): thus, ,though they search-
es,
they etc' or ,they searched, but they etc.'. Standing
)
This ia not very carefully observed even in good mecr. and
prints,
where
U^[;' will occnr aometlmes after ^\'
etc., and mC.'
ter the other conaonanls and even after vowels.
76
44. Conjunction, 46. Interjection.
for itself (not leaning on the precediog woid) it means
, again, once more' (when it is to be regarded as adverb),
^^'yi|C'Q,p51?^"<^5^' , there (I) fainting once more etc.'.
In the beginning of a sentence it is ,and, again, moreover',
and may occasionally be rendered by , however, bat'.
V^'S^, ,or'; repeated, y^C'5^"" y^C'Sj"" ,either or'.

,0r' is expressed also by the interrogative affix of the


finite verb (34. 1.), t^^SJ' etc., STj^^^-^fU'O^SJ
|
3^^'
^q?J-'2f
,a bottle of gold, silver, or copper'. ^^'^C
,uevertheless, but', vulg:
t^^'^JC
occurs much less fre-
quently in Tibetan than m the European languages.
The only Subordinate Conjunctions are: 1. ^f^'y
,if', introducing conditional sentences ending in ^j" (40, 1.
A. 4 ). But, as the <:onditional force really rests on the closing
5', the initial ^f^"^ may be put or omitted at pleasure; 2.
%
,butif';
cnq-'^-S^-S'
"
,if lean...', I-^'^'^^T
,but it' not , . .'; this last is found only in books.
Chapter X.
The Interjection.
45. The most common Interjection is ^', or, repeat-
ed, ^'^' ,oh!, alas!' used also before the Vocative. The
es,
language of common life uses instead: ^j" "^i
"^ fl*^
'"'^'
46. Derivation.
77
Chapter XL
Derivation.
46. Derivaiion of Substantives. As most of what belongs
under this head has already been mentioned in 11. and 12.
only the formation of abstract nouns remains to be spoken
of. I. The unaltered adjective may be used as an abstract
noun, especially with the article
^, as: =nc;'^'X^'^^"
'^3^'
J***
'^'^ '^ changed into warmth',
To this may
be added the pronoun
^^'
(!T|C;'q'|;^" ,ipsum frigidum');
but this is used scarcely anywhere else than in metaphy-
sical treatises, from whence a few expressions, such as
^'CJ'^' ,the vacuum, t)ie absolute rest in deliverance
from existence' have become more generally known.

2. In the case of two correlative ideas existing, frequently
the compound of both is used, esp. in common talk, c&'5C'
jsize' (lit. ,large and small'),
?I'^'
,thickness' (,thiek and
thin'), e.g. ^'^C'^';^^'n,g'^3^' ,the size as much as a
mustard-seed'. 3.
gJ^'
,difeerence' (or, sometimes, ^^',
ro^',measure') is added, Sl'^ig*;', height',
S^'R^'
,"wealth,
nches', i. iMental qualities are in most cases paraphrased
^y ^5?^', or g^ with a genitive, qas^-CyQ^-^S^?^- ,niind
of
suffering, enduring, i.e. patience',
5jp5J''^^''^ ,wise
ttind,
wisdom, skill'; ^q|i3^-cra^-^5J?^- ,mind of rejoicing,
78
47. Derivation.
joy' (vulg: ?53^^'=^=r]G,'3f
),
^^^^'^^^T
,mind of belief
(also ,a believing mind'), faith'.
5. Diminutives are
formed by adding the termination P,', often with an alte-
ration of the preceding vowel:
5' ,horse', Sp^' ,little horse,
foal';
^'
,man', ^l^' , little man, dwarf; "^ ,stone', ^'
,small stone, calculus'. If a word ends with a consonant,
only u is added, and a new syllable formed: !^^'
,sheep',
f^-q]' ,lamh'.
'
47. Derivaiion of Adjectives. 1. Possessive adjectives
are regularly expressed by adding the syllable 5^', or the
phrase SiR'tS^'CJ' , abridged
35'
to any substantive, S^'
SS' ,having a head'; ^'SJ^S^^' ,having the head of a man';
a'53;' ,having hair, (long-) haired'; =;=I]"CI'53j',
^^\'^'
^'fSSr^Y ,possessing knowledge, learned, wise';
^^"^^
zy is never heard in common talk in W,T. 2. Adjectives
of appurtenance are generally expressed by the genitive of
the substantive,
^Tj^^'J M S^^,
golden'; -f|S;'^=Il'
,lhe
eyeofflesh, the carnal, bodily eye', oppos.: ^^--i^q'^'litTI'
,the eye of knowledge, spiritual eye'.
3. Negative, or
privative adjectives are formed iu'several ways: a) by the
simple negative ^', ^'i^^' ,unworthy'; S^'^^'CJ" ,un-
fit';
^'^^'
, unheard of. b) by adding ^^' ,witLout'
47. Derivation.
79
5j9y^^' ,headless';
^^^'
,faultless'. c) by adding the
verb
gf^X^')
)Separated from', ^^''^C'gaj-q-,
l^^'S^'
, separated from the body, bodiless'.
4. The English
adjectives in -a6fe, -ible are expressed by ^^'CJ' ,to befit',
added to the Supine, or to the simple Root, (3,SC'^'5C^*,
R^'^C ,fit for drinking, drinkable', vulgo; qi^C'ftS'
(from ^'CJ' ,to be able'), R.^C;'S=T]' (^' ,permitted,
lawful').
^
80
48, Arrangement of words.
Part III.
Syntax.
48. Arrangement of words. 1. The invariable rule is this:
in a simple sentence all other words must precede the verb;
in a compound one all the subordinate verbs in the form
of gerands or supines, and all the coordinate verbs in the
form of the root, each closing its own respective clause,
must precede the governing verb (examples s- below).

>.
The order in which the different cases of substantives
belonging to a verb are to be arranged, is rather optional,
so that e.g. the agent may eitlier precede or follow its ob-
ject. Local and temporal adverbs or adverbial phrases are,
if possible, put at the head of the sentence. 3. The order
of words belonging to a substantive is tliis; 1 The Geni-
tive, 2. the governing Substantive, 3. the Adjective (unless
this is itself put, in the genitive, before; 16), 4 thePronoun,
B. the Numeral, 6. the indefinite Article: thus, C^^'Sf^'
C'C\^' ,this my little daughter'-, 9]^'^3^^''Sf^=^' ,a red
gown'; =t]5|'=NS!'^'q^ or ^^5IJ^^S^&j?^ ,the red gown';
^n|'ra?|5^-^'^(2^^'=T|^5J" , these three great kingdoms'.
Adverbs precede the word they belong to: ^<3j'y(S5|t]'
,very great'; ^c^'l^'S^^^'^^'-JI^'
,come very quickly'.
49, Use of ae Cases.
81
4. In correlative
sentences (of. 29) the Relative precedes
the Demonstrative:
=TlC;-&5"s^-q-^-^-^q|-
, what there is,
give!' i.e. ,giye whatever
you bave', and in comparative
sentences the thing with which another is compared, or-
dinarily precedes this (cf. 17).
49. Use of ihe eases. As the necessary
observations
about the instrumental have been made in 30, about tte
_
other cases and postpositions partly in
15, partlv in 43, it
is only the Accusative,
that requijes a few words' more, as
It IS very often used absolutely (as in Greek), a) Ace.
temporalis:
Sf^^-jf ,at night'; r^^^-SfS;-^-
, daring
(his etc.) lifetime';
^^^,^-:^^- ,at that time'
;
^-a^'qj^-
^^^^'5j^' ,having studied for one day, after one day's
study'.
b) Ace. modalis; S^q^-^^-CI" , regarding
*e size,
round';
^Ij^'aq-ig^-^-S!^^--:? ,regarding the
depth, eight cubits' (cf.
12); p-=^-2;j-jq-(^-^^-5tfc-^-
, re-
garding colour, being like smoke' (cf. 50, 1, a); ^qi?^'
^^Cf ,with regard to (his) birth, equal' i. e ,of equal
birth'.
Here ^- (42, 1) is very often employed: '^q^'
1^^
etc. Nearly in ail cases, however,
postpositions
'oay
be
added, and in talking they are preferred to the
simple
Accusative:
Sl^'sfDJ', SJcE^j-O]-, ^^-^'dj', s^q^-
'^
etc,
JSsohko,
Tibaai, GraniiBu.
a
^twfi^wn
g2
50. Simple SentsEoes.
50. Simple Sentences.
1. Affirmatiye
sentences.

a) the attribute being a noun, the verb; to he, become,


remain etc.:
^O^^-^'Sip^^'CI't^a^'
,this man is wise'; R,^
"^^S^p^^'tl'^'i^^j- ,this is a wise man'.
When the verb
is C\g^'=I*
(to become),
^^'^' (to remain) etc. the at-
tribute must be put in the Terminative
:
^^^''l^'^'J^T
,(his) hair became wbit^';
^^^=^SI'^-CI^3j-q^-=T13;51-
3f,
Tulg:
qeaj-ifcri^^ST-q'J^a^
,the king remained stead-
fast on his vow'; in some special cases this may take
place, even if the verb is simply ,to be': (^?^''^1=^^'
his whole shape was hke a man's, his foot only was pie-
bald', h) the attribute being any other verb: g'^.^TJ^f^'
^S-llf=Tl-q|-=n5^'^ ,aii ancient king of China built a very
large wall in the north of that country'.
2.
Interrogative
sentences.
a) simple:
gs^'^
J:rpc;'^'l^'^",^''^^'
'^^ y*"^^ ^'^ '"
the house?'; \^'^
Xi5,^ ,who is^tbeie?'; t'^^^
,what do you come for?',
,what do you want?'.
- R^'^J^' W (^^'^-^
C) ,how
much (is) the price?'.
Besides the affix am the later literature
and the con-
50. Simple Sent. -
51. Compound Sent.
33
versational lauguage of CT lias the accentuated
interrogative
particle
W e, immediately before the verb: gCT^^-yt^-afe-
fab e yo' ,is there any means ....?'; aj?:|-|:i^^-Sr-[^-i;^-
la di je' S nu ,can you do this work?'.
^
The form of a question is also used to express uncertain
suppositions Gikely to become realized), as: |s:-iq-^:;'CS;j-
,is forgetting possible?' for ,he may possibly have forgotten
it'; ^^qd|5^^Sf ,won't he die?';
f:^^-CI!^=^-3;i-!^5j-5j51- ,this
(apparition) is not the devil, I hope?'.
h) double:
5ir^-yT^-^5I-^^-,is (he) within or not?';
^'^^''^'1^5'^^'^^'^'^^'
''^ '* agreeable (to you i. e. do
you consent) to give me (jour son) or not?';
CT^C^yq'^
'\^'C\^'^f^-
,are you sorry at my arrival, or what
(else) is the matter (with you
because you weep)?'.
3. Imperative and Optative or Precative sentences do
not
require any additional remarks besides what is said
in 38.
51. Compound Sentences. After having examined in 41
the different
gerund.s as the constituent parts of compound
sentences,
a few examples will suffice for illustration.
1. Compound
sentences, for the most part coordinative:
1) R^fSQ^'q-, perf. qsQ^- , to make' esp. , institute,.
6*
Hllllllil
WB
g4
51. Compound Sentences.
,The king haying given a law, the good were given rewards,
the bad punished, measures and weights arranged, and
people taught letters (i.e. reading and writing)'.
2. subordinate sentences:
^^'^^^i'^^'^^l^'^^T^^'
^1
5j5i'Kf^-q^-''5^^-^i
]^^:^-^^-^^^-^'^^'^-
arrange'; gerand. 2) i.o. qa^-'^fq-. 3)
, to cut', but S^'
q'
(or CI?^") ^^^'
,to inflict a punishrDent'. 4)
^^^
aj-Q^q^'^^i'
,to set in order, arrange'; perf. SJ^'. 5)
q'
q\
perf. ^^R^y
,to learn'.
1)
42. 3. 2)
indefin. art. after numerals s. 13. 3)
Ac-
cus. modal., 49. 4)
^^T^',
perf.
^^^\:
5)27.2. 6) P^l^'
Cr, perf. ^C^\
imp. 5^^';
Cf- il- 5- ^) 29. 8)
O^g^-
q-, perf. and imp. Q^'. 9) 43. 1. 10) 42. 1. 11) 41. 8.
12) the object of the fear usually in the instrumental. 13)
ter-
min. of inf used as adverb, 41. B. 2. b, 14) 44. 15) 42. 2.
51. Compound
Sentences,
85
^T^^^'g^'t^^S'S"^'"^!!
-There being certain two women
quarrelling about one boy, the king (being) wise of under-
standing having examined (the case) thus , ordered: You
two, Laving seized from each (side) a hand of the boy,
pull, and who gets him, (she) may carry him ofl'.
~-
When
he had so spoken, she who was not the boy's mother, be-
cause she had no compassion for the boy, not fearing
(she
might) hurt (him), pulled with what force she bad. She
who (in truth) was the boy's mother, because she had
compassion with the boy, fearing (she might) hurt (him),
thoBgh she was able by force, did not pull hard. The kin^
said to her who had pulled hard; Because this, not being
your son, is the other woman's son, say (it) outright'.
When he had so spoken, as he had turned out to be the son
of the gentle puKer, (she) carried off the boy'.
16) 42. 1. 17) ^' , other', almost always with the in-
defin.
article; 13. fin.-
18) ^' is sometimes
pleonasticaliy
added
to q^'
(q^V), to strengthen its meaning.
19} 43.2.
20) |-q-, perf.
1^-, imp.
|^.
21) C^'q',
perf.
^=^
properly
,as he has come to be'.
^
^
,
M?"
86
Phrases.
Appendix.
A collection of phrases from daily life, in the modern dialects,
romanized.
WT Kyod gd-na yon^
GT %o' cjd-na yon.
W Uyod m yin., C %o' s. y.
W Myod (C %o')
s^i) j/m.*)
W %od rdni min H zer^
C liyo'-kyi min-la (fan zer-
gi yo'-d'am.
"W Hyod-di Udn-fa
gd-na
yod,
C Uyo'-kyi Han-pa ^d-na
y'6'(-pa).
W ^od bi-la ymt,
C %o' fjan-la yon.
W ci-ia 'i-ru rfwp.
W ti krun-te dad.
W rft i/M?-K min H zer,
C yul dl min-la (fan
zir-
)**) yimr^a.
Where do you come from?
Who are you?
Whose (man, servant) are
you?
What is your name?
(rule 34. 2. c is not always
observed)
Where is your house?
Why do you come?
(What do you want?)
Why are you here?
I sit here to watch.
What is tlie name of this
village?
*) The numbers refer to the notes at the end of the collection,
exhibiting the spelling of some of the words that are most disfigured
in pronnnciation.
**) vulgar supine 41, Note 1.
Phrases.
87
y^ Myod-la del-wa^)
siff
Have you any errand (hn-
ydd-da, siness)?
C %' la don zig yo'-dam.
W can med; '66n-la yon(s), Not any; I have come to no
C dan me'; don - mi^- la purpose.
yon.
W da fug pa fun-ce-la kan- Then go home to eat (drink)
pa-la-son. your soup.
W yod: nd-la man^) iig Yes: please give me some
sal^), medicine.
G /o': nd-J/i man Hg nan-'")
rog.
W nd-la zug^) yod, Ts sug I am ill (I have got, am
gydg'^)-gi, befallen with, an illness)
U nd-la nd-fsa ton^)-gi
dtig.
W siir-mo rag, C --dug. I feel pain.
W gd-na, C g'd-na. Where?
W d(id-pa^)-la,G do'-pa-la. In the stomach.
W gd-(a zug rag, C yo'. I have headache.
W na-ha yan-pa-la ca-ce~la Weshould have taken awalk,
tsan-te rag. but it is too hot.
WC di len. Take this!
W di icyer, diUur son. Take this with (you)!
W di /cyan, C di Uur hog. Bring thisl
W di gd-zug io-ce, G di How shall I do this?
cfdn-da^") je' ton (or
)g' gyu) yin Qim-pa).
W di-zug bo mi gos (goi, You must not do it in this
gi}), *ay.
G di-daje' mi go.
.88
Plirases.
W nd'la da-run 6-ma zig I want some more milk.
C nMa da-run wd^ma sig
'
W i Idg-mo CO, G di Ug- Clean this!
mo ja.
W he-ina dan p^^ybe. Wast it with sand!
G je-ina til.
"W no-la ^u cunzadCGsd^') Giye me some water,
dig nan^^) zig (C Ug). please!
W Idg-pa Idg-mo god-da, Are (your) hands clean?
C Idg-pa Ug-mo (Id-mo,
or tsan-wa') e yo^.
, W o-ma fsag-rd-la (sag Filter the milt through the
tori,
filtering cloth!
C wo-ma
- - - fsag sog. ,
...
W fab (funse de cog-la bor- Pot the httle stove there!
ion, C decog (co)-
la hag'^yUg.
yil p&n-dil sd-la pW^) Put the pot (ife^-a) down on
(pab-ton),
the ground! .
C san^^) sd-la pdb-sig.
W zan('bu) im dan ne-mo Put the pot near the fire!
boT,
G sari me dan ne-mo hag.
W pog ton.
Take it off!
W hi-ma gds^^)-sa (ga-a) As soon as the sun sets,
tsdm-zig-gamep'u^''), light a fire!
G
- - ga t&am-Hg-la

.
W har-yol Kyon-na son. Go to fetch the china!
- -
len-na hog. Come to take away - -.
Phrases.
89
W cu ddri-mo^^) dan tn~na If you wash with cold ft'ater,
kar-y6P^) mi dag (or the china does not become
kar-yol la^-mo mi &- clean; wash it well with
yin); t'sdn-te Ug Idri,- some hot (waler)!
te gyaUla tu gos (go),
CM dd-A m tu na Jtar-yol
mi dag; tsdm-mo si'g
gi leg (la) -pa- tu. sog.
W Ids {la)-ka fsari-ma tsar- Unless all the work is done,
nq mdn-na ma ta, don't go! (or) you must
C mam-pa do'^) mi not go.
cog.
W aol-cog^^) fal-dig'^2) co-a, Shall I makethe tableready?
C _;e' gyu yi7irna(m).
W o-nd; cog-idn tiri'^^) ton, Yes; lav (spread) the
C yd-^a; cog-tan tiri-eig.
cloth!
W tib-rillinan-nacumdri- Is there much waler in the
po yod-da nuri-riuydd,
teapot, or little?
C gyi-nan-na cu mdn-
po yS'-dam nuri-nu yd'.
W nnn 7iu Ug yod (a-fsig (But) a little.
man-na med),
C riiiri nu big y6\
W tib^ilcu kari'^'^)-teliyon, Fill the teapot with water,
C - - <Su kdn-na Kur hog. and bring it!
W tib-ril dzag dug. The kettle leaks.
W
hdr-ya^^')danjm'^)gos It must be soldered (fastened
(geX with pewter),
G
kdr-ya(or&a-kar-gyi)
jar go.
^ gar-wqP) tsar^ Uyer, . Takeittothe blacksmith's.
C l^w son.
//
mmtm-
90
Phrases.
Phrases.
91
W sel-kor gas (ga) soi,
C Sel-por ga sm.
W ndmazer-naHn'malcyon,
ser-na h/aP^).
W sab mol-na Ihjon yin^
C sa-kib sun-^)-na hyalgyu
The
tumbler (glass-cup)
has got a crack.
Unless I tell yon, do not
bring wood!
When master coramands,
I shall bring.
ym.
W nab gd-zug mol, C na-
"What did you say, sir (did
Mb ^an sun wa yin.
the gentleman say)?
W ma^an^^yMdmah-g^^),
Don't cast it away! Do not
C ma 6or-wa /e'; fiw' ma
bug.
WC rig-pa dwi^), W ^a-
dar do.
W ndn^)-ie man,
C ndn gyu min.
W i}ds^)-si (da-i) lag-ma
ti^^-te bor,
C da-kj)ilhdg-m,a fsag ja.
W lag-ma mi dug, can ma
lus (lu).
W o-ma lud ma iug^
C
vio-ma lu' ma hug.
W ^n-pa^'') ma tuh^^)'te
sdn-te Myon,
fsdn-ma (or
g'dn-mo) Icur-iog.
W a~lu Su-te tub tm,
C kyi-u (or t?o-ma^^)^M-
te tub-dig.
man-pb (or yun rin-mo)
ma gor.
let it slip!
Take care! Cautiously!
You must not press!
Put by the remainder of the
rice!
There is no remainder,
nothing is left.
Do not let the milk run over
!
Kot cutting the liver, bring
it as a whole!
Feel the potatoes, and cut
them in pieces!
"W gyog^a (C gyog-po, gyo-
po) sog.
W ma jed^),
C ma je^.
W yid-la zuirt^''-) tuh-ba,
sem-la ne (uh-ha.
W yid-la zum gos (go),
C ne-pa
fe' go.
nan-du son; nan-du hog.
W nan-du hjod^%
C nan-du peb.
W dodi^\
da',
hig^).
Come soon!
1. Do not forget! 2. (I) did
not forget.
Can you r erne mberit(b ear
it in mind)?
You mnat bear it in mind,
(malse it certain).
Go in! Come in!
Go (or come) in, sir!
Sit down!
Please sit down, sir!
Don't tarry much!
1) ^^' 2)
|aj-q-
3)
n^-
4}
^- 5)
^\sf
6)
=rif
=i|-
7)^- 8)=^^- 9)^- I0)=r|-a^5?j-
ii)^ig- l2)^\sf
13) CI(^- 14) O^^q^J-q- iprv. 15) SC^^ 16} Q^^'
17) 1^5^'^' iprv. 18)
^f^-
19) ^^Tjs^-Dvfoj-
20)
Q^^
21)
CT|?|a]-|=T|-
22) O^^at'O^f=!] 2.S) ^Z: prf of ^^
24)
qTj^- prf. of (^^SjC^CI'
25J
i;^rT|s;-q|lsJfa^-
26) S^'
prf. of g^-q-
27) ^=r|^-qq;-
28)
g"^'
29)
qgoj-
prf. of
|arq-
30) CTj^r 31) Q^Z: iprv. of Q^S^^' 32) CJ^CTj-
prf.of n^|cr|-q-
33)a^^si' 34)2r]5j5j' 35)a^g?f
36)^^
37) 5?^-q-
38) R^' prf. of q^q-q'
39) ^5^-
40)
l'^'
41)^5^-i.o.qg^-fromQy5j-q-
42)
J^'
43)^- 44)q(^cr|5^-
92
Keading Exercise.
Reading
Exercise.
The Story of Yug-fa-ian the Brahman 0-
''K,
''-'
'123/
L.J. ju- i^
1) From the Dzan-hm (5J^i;^'g3j').
'i) 13.

3) 15^
5.
_
4)
gs^-CI", perf.g^', futg',
iv.g^-,tomake,
do' in some cases: ,to say, caU', ^'^'^I'
,so to be caUed,
so called'.
=:g=TlTJ'53i' is a translation of the Sanscrit
name
t^^^.
-
5) 40. 1. c. -
6) 41. A. 1
.
-
7)
4fl. 1.
?<
and 47. 3. b.
-
8) 34. 1. and 40. 1. ^.
-
9)
15. 5.
-
10)
42. 3. -
11)
perf. of
'^'fi'R'
,to give; to send, let go'.
-
12)
perf. of njCq' ,to rise'. 13) s. 4).

Reading Exercise.
'
93
14) 41. A. 7.

15) imp., of 5j"q' ,to give',
^^"'
,to return'.
16) 37. 2.
17) =lj^"q" s. 11); ,don't let
pass'; 38. 2.
18) perf. of qa^'q' ,take, seize'. 19) perf.
of
Q^^^j-CI' ,to throw, fling'.
20)
perf. of =r|^-q- ,to
break'.
21) s. 14).

22) 43. 2.

23) perf. o
'^^'^'
ito
prepai-e, purpose'.
24) rule 30. is not always strictly
observed.
^^
31
94
EeadiDg Eseroise,
25)
43. 2,
26) perf. of ^Cq'
,to fall'.
27) perf.
of C^^^r ,to seize'.
-
28) 43. 2, b.

29) 41. 6. S; (^^"
= ^^'^^'^^'-
30) 49.
31)
,from the inner (i.e. other)
side to this', ,across'.

32) carpenter (lit. ,laknwald\ cf.
12. 1.).

33)
perf. of
n^l'q'
,to ask'. 34) 40. ^.g.
35) 41. A. 8.
~
36)
perf. of
g^'^' ,to throw down'.

Beading Esercise.
95
37) s. 29).

38) ,sat down'.
39) if the verb is in
the infv., the subject is usuaUy put in the accus., when we
use the genitive.
40) , returning it so that the owner
saw it'; 41. B. 2. J.
41) ,1 did not return it with the
mouth i. e. by saying anything',
42) , because (41 . A,
8)
that Yugp. did not say it (viz: I give back)'.

43) 41. B.
2. a.
44) 41. A. 5.
45) perf. of
Q^'^^J-q" ,to tie,
fasten'. ~
46) impv. of ^5'q' ,to take out, pull out' etc.
47) ,firstly', less frequent and somewhut different from
^'^^'
(22).

48) ,my' (24).

mm BWBH
ITYIZ-W:::
96
Beading Exercise.
^?^-|5^-q5|-|-^-%qi
|^5q|-q-53^-^-^''^(^qc;^-q?T-
qa|-q-^i^-%q|
j
|j-^?j-|^-q
] q||q|
jqs^q|-^^-q^^
|
cf|^-^-qs^cr|'q|-|'cri5=^'q'q5|| sg=ri'q-53j-gq'q=^'
^g^'S^'S'^ 1 1
^=Tqa;'^c;-5T^'|^'q
i =^=T^'^'
49)
,seDondly'.

50) 17. 1.
51) ,it is better that
Y. should be the -winner, than that besides having been
robbed of my ox, I should lose my eyes into the bargain.

52)
,aiiotber said: god! etc' (gi' used in addressing a
king like Sanscr. ^).

53) peri of n^=I15J-q- ,to IdH';


acn3^-q-
,to die' has perf. =I]?^'; an elegant word (24,
Note).
-
54) perf. of R^f^Tj'q'
,to enter', 55) S^S'q'
perf.
^^' ,to go, walk'; eleg, ,to say'. 56) 41.A.
5. b.

57) NomiQ. for InstTum., s. 30 lin.

n Beading Exercise. qt
a!-^g-5^c;^-q^-S8p^|rr|5j-^|^j^-:^.n,5^-^^.^5^.^.^.
qi ^C^-^^^f^-^^3f3^^^^^ |^^-|^-^|
=r[^
jq^=T|-Sj-f
q.^z^
f
^^^^a,n;'^-^^m-q^''
\
^=T|-q-53j-|a,-q^-C^g^-^Cn?(,
,
^c-^p^.g^-^.^
j
^=^-q-5^-^-e*q^q|-^-^^-q|^..g5^.^^.^^.^^
I
p-
S^'^c:'^-q-^-q^^-q^'^=j]^-5-"'^
p-aj-g^^-q?^
I
^z:
58) perf. of SlCq" ,to be much, many; to become m'.
59) partic, ,that a man was concealed (behind it)'.

60) 41. A. 5. -
61) 27. 1. -
62) imper. of qg^'q- eleg.
ior
0^q'; igoandmake the husband of this saiiie(woman)'.

63) ,thaii that he should be (my) husband'.


64) s.57).

65) partic, ,the axe which I held from (i. e. with) my


mOQth'.
~
66) 40. 3 ,whatever things be carried, it being
"gilt
to carry them on the shoulder'.
67) for
^^^I'SJ^'
^^f
S.29). _
'
^
JSsthke,
Tibelao Grjraiaar. i
RHPHI
mmmmmmmi
98
Reading Exercise.
Verbs.
99
.68
68) '
W^'
.different, several',
'
' ^^' ,separately,
eacb for himself.

A list of the more
frequent
verbs").
) Four-ro
Perf.
vv
100
Pres. Perf.
Terbs.
Fut.
Imperv.
WT
a^<s^q- ^^
=T|=^q ^q
throw.
.^p_^^j
q^^^zri^-
^rr,5j- tie, biud.
.^p_ ^^;^
"MS' get, drive, out. ton-c'C
always for Q^^'^'
^qq'
^C throw, hurt. ipan-ce
S?^' do, mal^e. for it co-ce
J^'
briiig,let, down, p'ab-ce
iJ5=T|'
5=^1' filter, sift. feay-te
ZJSn;' cfc' sell.
feow-i';;
in^C gC seize.
sMm-i:'^
S3C f^:"5^"),f^'5;' take. Un-ce, lan-bc
q^q'
^^' learn; teacb. lab-he
h) Three- rooted verbs,
Pfes. I'erf, Fnt. Inipen'.
a^ps,-q-
qOji,- p=^" carry.
n^gfc-q- gt5J'
gC"
bring.
WT
Icur-ie
Uyon-ce
for
(^^'^'
Pres.
Q^qq-cj-
ojC-q-
TerliB.
Perf. Fut. Impei'v.
*q'
qgq-
101
WT
throw, cast. .
^y^:'-'
imp. gyob
for Q^^q^T'q'
ran.
break.
qq(^)' qq(5-0'
|3fr ^- say.
OJCSr
f^' rise.
gyug-ce
cag-ce,
imp. co^
tell, explain. had-ie
ten-cf.
to lead; ran-he
to remove; den-ce
hold.
draw.
descend.
blow (act.). pu-ce
put off, drop (act.), pud-ce
take, pull, out. p'in-ce
open (act.). - r'/f'
'^
^ -^
imp, pe(sj.
8. i^-q-
Pres.
l^^'q-
,|^-q-
c) Two-rooted verbs.
Perf. Imperv.
f^'
be bom.
ZjSc" bear, beget.
0^'
E^'
'^^rry.
WT
skye-ce
sh)e-te
Myer-ie
102
Pies.
Verts.
Perf.
Is
Imperv:
3^' become.
^C go; become.
WT
ffyur-ce
do-ce
[only in certain sentences.
iJ^' alter.
gyur-ce
ntL~ce
M-ie
hor-ie
zug~ie
weep,
die.
ilee.
(^=T|?J- enter.
bay.
^' sit; stay.
increase (aeiitr.).
|^(^)'
pour.
/Mj,.^e
blow (neutr.).
pu-ce
'q^^
call. .
^O'f^e,
imp. 60s f^oi, 60;.
appear, originate.
jun-he
dad-he
imp, dod
pel-he
enjoy.
^^\' build up.
(^^' ask.
arrive.
nan-ce
tsig-le
zu-'ce
Qu-be)
leb-be
Verbs.
103
rf) One-rooted verb.
WT
be glad, to like. Ld. ya-ce, Wbesides M^'q'
fall, drop. Ml-ce, also Q^^ajvq'J
^cbC^J'q' leap, jump, con-he
lie down,
meet.
be able.
find, get.
hear.
see.
be glad, to like.
come out, go out.
wish, like, desire,
be able,
stay, dwell, remain.
burn.
perceive.
^^^'q'
do, make (resp.)
tial-de
tug-he
(ub-ce
tab-he
(fsor-i:e)
fon-be
iad-be, neai'ly ahvays for
^o^^' and (3;^"q'
fon-ce, usual for Qqcq'
rare.
s, gq-q-
-^
Mas (nai, nq)-<:e, but
usually: dad-be
bar-be
tsor-he
, and usual for
dsad-be, imp. dzod.
104 Verts.
.say.
remain, be left.
turn back, retnra.
know.
C^'J^fpSJ' understand.
WT
zer-He, nsual for 5|'q'
lus-ce
hg-ce
&es (ke)-ce
hd-go-ce
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