Regulatory Compliance

and
Generator Control





Kestrel Power Engineering
www.kestrelpower.com


Session 1 -
Introduction/Power Systems

Introduction
Overview of Regulatory Compliance
Compliance Requirements (NERC/Regions)
Basic Generator Control
The Per-Unit System
Virtual GS - Power Flow
Objectives
At the end of this module the trainee will be able to do the following:
List the customer deliverables on the power system and
indicate how they are measured.
Define active and reactive power.
Describe how reactive power is transferred from one point on
the power system to another.
Describe how active power is transferred from one point on the
power system to another.

Notes:



















Virtual GS - Power Flow in ac Systems
This simulation illustrates the relationship between active and reactive power flow
between two points on an ac power system. The key objective is to help you
understand the relationship between active power and angle and between reactive
power and voltage. The simulation reproduces a system with two buses, denoted
source (S) and load (L) interconnected by four parallel transmission lines of equal size
(and therefore impedance). Four switches (shown below) are provided to control the
status of the four parallel transmission lines. With all four switches open (down
position) there is no connection between the source and load, and obviously no power
can be transferred.



In addition to deciding the number of in-service lines, you can control the flow of power
by varying the source voltage level, load voltage level and angle of the ac voltage
between the source and load. The controls for these functions are grouped under the
Input heading shown below. To change the levels place your cursor over the slider and
hold down the left mouse button (or equivalent). Moving the pointer will cause the
levels to increase/decrease. You can also type in new values by placing the cursor in
the text box on the right and clicking the left mouse button. Type your changes and hit
the ENTER key. This will change the controlled variable and move the slider to the new
position. Entering a value that is outside of the control range will cause the value to
reset to the lower or upper limit.



The following instructions will lead you through this exercise.

Virtual GS - Power Flow in AC Systems (contd)


1. Start the simulation by clicking on the Run/Stop toggle switch. The trend-style chart
displays two sinusoidal voltages. The red trace is the source or sending end voltage,
while the blue trace is the load or receiving-end voltage. Vary the source and load
voltage amplitudes and the phase angle between them using the sliders or numeric
entry boxes. Note the effect that the changes have on the corresponding sinusoids
on the chart displays.

2. Place one transmission line in-service and set both the source and load voltages to
100%. Increase the angle between the source and load starting at zero. What is
the maximum active power (MW) that can be transferred across the single
transmission line?

At what angle does the maximum level occur?

Draw a simple graph that relates the active power transferred (in MW) to the angle
(in degrees between 0 and 180). (use attached sheet for this purpose)

What is the maximum active power you can transfer across the interface with two,
three and four lines in-service?

3. Place two transmission lines in-service. Set the load voltage to 100%, and the angle
to 30 degrees. Vary the source voltage between 90% and 110% using the
slider. On a piece of graph paper, plot the active (P) and reactive (Q) powers, along
the vertical axis versus the source voltage, along the horizontal axis.

What do you conclude about the relationship between active and reactive power and
source voltage? What is the difference between this simulation and a generating
unit in terms of active power?

Can active power be transferred between the source and load if either of the
voltages is zero?

4. If your source is rated to supply a maximum active power of 200 MW, with the
source voltage at 100% and the load voltage at 100%, what is the minimum number
of transmission lines that must be in service?
P
S
+jQ
S
j X
E
S
0
o
E
L

j X
j X
j X
P
L
+jQ
L



0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Angle (degrees)
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 95 100 105 110
Source Voltage (%)
P
o
w
e
r
(
M
W
,

M
V
A
r
)
Notes:

Apparent power sent by source to load (meter at source end, looking down the line,
same convention as adopted for the current):

)
Apparent power received by load (meter at load end, same direction convention as used
for the current):

)






























Session 2 - Generator
Capability

Overview of Requirements
Reactive Capability
NERC MOD-025 Confirmation of
Reactive Capability
Test Plans for Reactive Testing
Virtual GS - Reactive Capability

Objectives
Objective At the end of this module the trainee will be able to do the
following:

Draw a simple diagram relating the inputs and outputs of the
generator for off-line (speed-no-load, ac breaker open) and on-line
(ac breaker closed, synchronized to grid or isolated load)
operation.
Identify the factors limiting the capability of a synchronous
generator for on-line conditions, by labeling a conventional
generator capability curve.
Explain how the reactive output capability of the generator is
affected by the operating voltage at the terminals of the generator.
Discuss the implications of temporarily operating the generator
outside of its over-excited reactive capabilities for limited periods
of time.

Notes:

















Generator Reactive Capability
The goal of this exercise is to verify the reactive capability of the generator by varying
the active and reactive power using the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) and
governor raise/lower controls. The following ratings will be used throughout this
exercise:

terminal voltage 20 kV
apparent power 100 MVA
power factor 0.9 pf
stator current 2.89 kA
field current 1500 Adc

The unit controls are shown below. To operate the Raise/Lower buttons click with your
left mouse button.



The AVR control will raise/lower generator terminal voltage reference which is displayed
in units of percent next to the controls. On a unit without reactive current
compensation, the terminal voltage will be equal to the reference. Reactive power
(MVAr) will also change as the voltage is increased, the relationship being determined by
the system voltage and strength of interconnection.

The Speed control will raise/lower the governor speed reference (%) which will in turn
position the gates/valves to increase output power (MW). Operation at speed-no-load
occurs with a speed reference of 100%. The speed reference required to fully load the
unit depends on the droop setting. For example, with a speed droop of 5% a speed
reference of 105% would correspond to full load.

Feedback on the operating levels on the unit is provided by the set of Meters shown
below. The Meter ranges will be set to match the ratings of your simulated unit.



Several alarms are provided to allow you to monitor the state of the excitation system
and one trip function. Three limiters are included with the excitation system (UEL =
Under-Excitation Limiter, OEL = Over-Excitation Limiter, AVR Lim = AVR reference limit).
Their alarms (shown below) will indicate (by changing colour and beeping) when they
are active to prevent you from operating the unit outside of the allowable range.



The limiting factor on reactive capability may be one of these limiters or the stator
current level. The LOE indication will tell you if the unit has tripped due to operation of
the loss-of-excitation (40) relay. Normally the UEL is set to operate before the LOE but
this may not be the case if they have not been properly coordinated.

The following instructions are provided as a supplement to the instructions you will be
given in the classroom. The intent of the simulation is to allow you to run through the
steps that are used to verify the reactive capability of a generator connected to the grid.
Your instructor will review the reactive capability curve of the unit prior to starting this
exercise using Kestrels GenCap software.

1. Start the simulation by clicking on the Run/Stop toggle.

2. Use a piece of graph paper (attached) to plot the reactive capability of the unit.

3. Use the governor speed reference raise/lower controls to change active power
levels and use the AVR reference to change the reactive power. Choose five
different active power levels between zero and the rated MVA of the unit (0%,
25%, 50%, 90%, 95%), and determine the reactive power limit in both the
under-excited and over-excited regions at each of these power levels by varying
excitation until a limit has been reached. Either plot these values or compare
them to a curve that you are provided by your instructor.

-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Active Power(MW)
I
n

U
n
d
e
r
e
x
c
i
t
e
d










R
e
a
c
t
i
v
e

P
o
w
e
r

(
M
V
A
r
)










O
u
t

O
v
e
r
e
x
c
i
t
e
d
When verifying the capability of a generator in this manner, a few things must be
considered. First, the field current and stator current ratings issued by the
Engineering group should always be respected; however the various temperature
indicators for the machine must be monitored throughout the test, to ensure that
limits are not being exceeded. List the applicable limits here for the exercise:

Second, the rating for the generator is based on operation at nominal voltage.
Normally the unit ratings apply to a voltage range of 95% to 105% of rated.
Throughout this exercise you must simultaneously monitor the various current
levels and terminal voltage simultaneously to ensure that you do not exceed any
of the continuous ratings of your generator. List the applicable limits here:

4. (GenCap) Load the GenCap application and review the limits that appear on the
interface against the plot you created in the previous step. Note any differences
between the expected limits and those that you were able to measure. Were
you able to reach the limits at each active power (MW) operating level? Is the
LOE properly coordinated with the UEL on this unit?

5. At your station, what techniques can you use to maintain the generator terminal
voltage within the rating, while still adjusting the reactive power output on the
unit?

6. The over-excited limit is directly affected by the operating terminal voltage of the
unit. On your plot or example curves, draw in approximate limits for the 95%
and 105% voltage levels. Provide a simple analogy to explain how the over-
excited limit is affected by voltage.

7. (GenCap) Using the terminal voltage control on the main form adjust voltage
between 90% and 110%. Note how each of the limits changes with terminal
voltage. What happens to the over-excited capability of the unit as terminal
voltage decreases? What happens to the under-excited capability of the unit as
voltage goes up? Explain the implications of these two effects on: a) actual
system operation during disturbances, b) testing of reactive capability.

Notes:











-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Active Power(MW)
I
n

U
n
d
e
r
e
x
c
i
t
e
d










R
e
a
c
t
i
v
e

P
o
w
e
r

(
M
V
A
r
)










O
u
t

O
v
e
r
e
x
c
i
t
e
d
GENERATOR CAPABILITY CURVE
Notes:


















Notes:


















Session 4 Part I - Excitation
Systems


Operation and Design of Excitation
Systems
Reactive Current Compensation
AVR / MANUAL
Virtual GS - Voltage Control
Objectives
At the end of this module the trainee will be able to do the following:

List the main components of the typical excitation system.
Describe the difference between operation under AVR, MANUAL and VAR
control.
List the advantages of operation in AVR control.
Describe the purpose of reactive current compensation.
List the types of limiter functions that may be found on a modern excitation
system. Relate this to the unit that you are currently operating.



Notes:






















Excitation Control
This exercise is a simulation of the excitation control and voltage regulation of a
synchronous generator. The unit can be operated off-line (open circuit) or synchronized
to the grid by closing the main generator breaker. The goal of the exercise is to provide
you with a clearer understanding of excitation control and the differences between the
operating modes of most utility-scale exciters.

The unit is equipped with a full static excitation system with three different modes of
operation:

MAN manual control maintains constant field voltage
AVR automatic voltage regulation maintains constant generator terminal voltage
VAR reactive power regulator maintains constant reactive output



The VAR regulator is only operational when the AVR is in-service. When the VAR
regulator is in-service its setpoint is displayed in the corresponding display box in units
of MVAr.

A balance meter has been provided to provide an indication of when it is safe to transfer
to the other control. A bumpless transfer will only occur when this meter is in the
centered position. To center the Balance meter you will need to raise/lower the out-of-
service control. For example, when operating under AVR control, raising the MAN
control will bring the balance meter toward the center position from the right.

Three separate alarms have been provided to monitor the state of the unit:

O/V - overvoltage alarm for excessive ac terminal voltage
LOE - loss-of-excitation relay alarm for operation in the extreme
under-excited operation. Not all units are equipped with this type of an
alarm and will normally have an under-excitation limiter that will prevent
bringing the unit into the LOE characteristic unintentionally.
Ref Lim - AVR reference adjuster limits indication

Three breakers are provided to control the simulation:



Field - closing the field breaker applies excitation to the generator. If the toggle
switch is in the Field Flash position, voltage will build up to approximately rated
conditions in preparation for synchronizing. If the toggle switch is in the Zero
Start position, voltage will only build up as the reference adjuster is raised.
Generator - closing the main generator breaker synchronizes the unit to the
grid.
Load - closing the load breaker connects a large customer load to the local
transmission system producing a sudden voltage drop.

The unit can be started in one of two modes depending on the setting of the following
control switch. In Field Flash mode closing the field breaker will cause the exciter to
build up voltage toward the preset level, normally slightly below the unit's rated voltage.
This is the normal operating mode for most exciters and for this simulation. In Zero
Start mode, closing the breaker will not result in the build-up of excitation. Excitation
control will be completely under your control. This simulates the configuration of some
units where excitation control is completely manual.



The final control used in this exercise is the droop dial shown below.

This dial controls the influence of reactive power on the setting of the AVR. With this
dial at zero, the AVR's controlled voltage will always stay the same regardless of how
much reactive power the unit is supplying to the grid. With the dial at 10%, the AVR
will allow the generator voltage to drop by 10% as the unit's reactive load increases
from zero to full rated output.



The following instructions will lead you through this exercise.

1. Start the simulation by clicking on the Run/Stop toggle.

2. Set excitation control to AVR and the start control to Field Flash. Close the field
breaker to start excitation. Allow the unit to settle to rated terminal voltage. If
necessary, use the AVR reference Raise/Lower buttons to make adjustments.
Record the field current and voltage along with the generator terminal voltage
for rated conditions.

3. Use the Raise and Lower buttons to adjust voltage under AVR control. Center
the balance meter with the Manual raise/lower controls. Initially the balance
meter will be off-scale and you will need to raise the Manual reference until it
comes into the balanced position. Once balanced, transfer to Manual and adjust
voltage up and down using the Raise/Lower buttons.

While operating in Manual, adjust the out-of-service regulator (AVR) to move the
balance meter from its center position.

Transfer between AVR and Manual allowing time for the terminal voltage to
reach steady-state prior to performing each transfer.

What are the differences between the response of the exciter in Manual and AVR
control?

4. With the unit operating in AVR, adjust the reference to achieve rated voltage.
Close the "Generator" breaker, connecting the unit to the grid. Turn the VAR
regulator on. Adjust the VAR regulator setpoint up and down and observe how
the terminal quantities change. Turn the VAR regulator off and note what
happens. Is this what you expected and, if so, why?

5. Make sure that the droop dial is set to the zero position. Adjust the reactive
power to approximately zero using the AVR. Set up a table similar to the one
shown at the bottom of this question. Tabulate the generator terminal
quantities, field voltage, field current, terminal voltage and reactive power under
the column heading "Before load added". Close the Load breaker to add a large
customer in the vicinity of your generator and observe the response of the
unit. Tabulate the final values under the "AVR" column of the "After load added
heading". Open the Load breaker and allow the terminal quantities to settle
back to their original levels.

Transfer to Manual (note: balance meter should be centered). Reinsert the load.
Tabulate the final quantities under the MAN heading. Open the Load breaker
again.

Transfer back to AVR and turn the VAR regulator on with a setpoint of zero.

Repeat the load switching, allow everything to settle and mark down the final
quantities under the VAR column.

What do you conclude about operation in these different modes? During a
system disturbance which mode of operation would be preferred and why?

Before Load After Load added
AVR
(no droop)
AVR
(5% droop)
MAN VAR
Voltage (kV)
Field (Vdc)
Field (Adc)
Reactive (MVAr)


6. (Optional Question) Starting from the initial voltage level with reactive power at
zero increase the droop dial setting to 5%. Switch in the load and tabulate the
final levels. What effect did applying reactive droop have on the response of the
unit?

7. (Optional Question) With the unit on open-circuit, use the Raise/Lower controls
to adjust the voltage up or down until the reference limits are reached. Note the
level that the upper voltage limit is reached as a percentage of the rated
level. Compare these levels to those of your own station.

8. (Optional Question) Synchronize the unit to the grid, and reduce voltage until the
Loss-of-excitation alarm is triggered. Note the corresponding MVAr level and
field current level. Is this LOE setting appropriate?

Turn the VAR regulator on to restore the reactive power to approximately
zero. Trip the field breaker, without tripping the generator ac breaker.

9. (Optional Question) Re-start the simulation. Set the start selector to Zero
Start. Close the field breaker and transfer to Manual control. Using the Manual
control, increase the excitation in approximately ten steps between 0 and 10%
above rated terminal voltage. Plot a curve of terminal voltage versus field
current. Plot field current along the x-axis (Adc) and terminal voltage along the
y-axis (kV). You will have to wait for the terminal voltage and field current to
settle after each move due to the time constant of the machine.

Determine the base field current for this generator from your graph and tabulate.
Session 4 - Part II - Excitation
Systems

Tuning/Modeling of AVR Controls
Excitation Performance Requirements
Virtual GS - AVR Tuning and
Simulation
Measurement Techniques
Excitation System Testing/MOD026
Notes:


















Notes:



















Vt
Vref
-
+
Vt Vrmax-Kc Ifd
Vt Vrmin
1 + sTc 1 + sTc1
1 + sTb1
1 + sTb
Ka
1 + sTa
Efg
AVR Tuning and Simulation
This is a dynamic simulation that allows you to fit the response of a closed-loop voltage
regulating system for a machine operating on open circuit (i.e. speed-no-load with ac
breaker open) to measured data. Your instructor will direct you to the steps listed
below based on the objectives of your session (e.g. tuning regulators, fitting simulations
to measurement results).

The simulated AVR can be tuned to obtain different closed-loop performance by
adjusting the gain, lead time constant (Tc) and lag time constant (Tb) using the AVR
settings screen. Values can be typed into the entry boxes or the knobs used to quickly
change the entry.
















To test the effect of different settings a test signal generator is supplied. When the
"Step Signal" button is pressed, an AVR reference change controlled by the "Step Size"
entry is introduced to the front end of the simulated AVR. The step size is entered in
per-unit of terminal voltage (e.g. 0.02 in per-unit corresponds to 2% of rated terminal
voltage). Simulation results appear as red traces in the charts.



The graphs display terminal voltage and field voltage.

The machine ratings are as follows:

Et base = 20 kV,
If base = 600 Adc,
Ef base = 100 Vdc

The following instructions will lead you through this exercise. Refer to your instructor
for directions on which steps are part of your session.


1. Leave the Data switch in the off position initially. Type in 0.02 (2%) into the
Test Generator step size box. Start the simulation by clicking on the Run/Stop
toggle. Apply the test signal and allow the terminal voltage to settle to its new
level. Stop the simulation and use the chart controls to take a closer look at the
response. Calculate the final generator terminal voltage change (i.e. difference
between starting voltage and final voltage after steady-state is reached) in per-
unit or percentage.

terminal voltage change = pu

Does the change match what you expected?

List the approximate rise time (i.e. time to reach 95% of the final terminal
voltage) for the as-found AVR settings.

rise time = s

Measure the amount that the field voltage changed initially (i.e. difference
between initial steady-state value and peak value) when the step was first
applied.

Delta-Ef = Vdc

Use this value to calculate the AVR transient gain using the base values provided
by your instructor.



K'a = pu Ef/pu Et ref

2. Use the controls to increase the AVR gain to 200 and set the lag time constant,
Tb, to ten seconds. Repeat the measurements and calculations of the first step.

terminal voltage change = pu

rise time = s

Delta-Ef = Vdc

Calculate the AVR transient gain.



K'a = pu Ef/pu Et ref


What was the effect of the AVR gain increase and time constant? Explain the
meaning of the term "transient gain reduction" and how it relates to the
measurements and calculations you just performed.



3. Turn the data switch to the ON position and perform another step response. The
measured data appears in blue along with the simulation in red. For
convenience the step switch synchronizes the disturbance applied to both units.
Adjust the AVR gain and time constants until you get a reasonable fit between
the measurements and simulated results. List some of the factors that can
produce differences between measured and simulated results.
Notes:


















Notes:

















Session 5 - Coordination of
Protection and Limiters

Excitation Limiters
Generator Protective Relay
Coordination, PRC-019
Voltage and Frequency Ride-through,
PRC-024
Notes:


















Notes:


















Coordination of Under-excited Capability
This exercise will use the GenCap program to review coordination of the generator
capability with under-excitation limits and the loss-of-excitation capability.

Load the GenCap application. The main form view should look like the following display.

The following ratings will be used throughout this exercise:

terminal voltage 20 kV
apparent power 100 MVA
power factor 0.9 pf
stator current 2.89 kA
field current 1500 Adc

The simple Loss-of-excitation (LOE) relay and Under-Excitation limiter characteristics
were used in the first generator capability exercise will be replaced by practical settings
based on realistic requirements.

The following steps will guide you through the remainder of the exercise:

1. Select the Under-Excited Limits tab and delete any existing limits using the
Delete button provided.

2. Select the LOE (40) tab, delete any existing limits and use the Recalculate button
to refresh the display. This now shows the generator capability on its own.

3. On the Field Limits tab set the minimum rotor current level to 25 Adc

4. Select the Under-Excited Limits tab and delete any existing curves. Add a new
limit using the control button. Double-click on the limit type and select Steady-
State Stability Type1 from the drop-down list. Set the external reactance to 0.2
pu. This represents the combined reactance of the main output transformer and
transmission lines connecting the generator to the main power grid. The
calculated limit is a simplified representation of the steady-state stability limit for
constant excitation (i.e. constant field voltage) operation. What is the
significance of the intersection of this curve with the P=0 axis?

5. Select the LOE (40) tab. Add an LOE relay characteristic. Double click on the
Type and select Pre-defined. From the list, select IEEE2. The values that are
displayed correspond to a mho-impedance circle with radius of Xd and negative
offset of Xd/2. Hit Recalculate to display the curve. What do you notice about
this characteristic relative to the minimum field current and steady-state stability
limit characteristics?

6. Add another LOE relay, this time selecting a circular RX characteristic. Set the
radius and center as shown below. This results in an impedance circle with a
positive offset (i.e. encircles the origin). What is the significance of having a
positive offset?


7. Select the Under-Excited Limits tab and add a limit. Use the Manual data points
option and enter a piecewise linear curve that coordinates with the second loss-
of-excitation relay that you just created. Do this by entering at least five pairs of
(P,Q) data points that draw a limit curve that has at least 5 MVAr of margin to
the LOE curve. (Hint: Use your mouse to drag the cursor to different parts of
the LOE curve the coordinates will be displayed in the bottom right-hand
corner of the screen. Once you have entered the complete table, set the
voltage exponent (VE) to zero. With this setting the limit will remain constant
regardless of generator terminal voltage. Hit re-calculate to view the final curve.

8. Begin reducing voltage using the terminal voltage entry on the main form. What
happens to the coordination between the UEL and LOE as voltage decreases
from rated (1.0 pu) to 95% of rated (0.95 pu)? What can be done to remedy
this problem?

9. What is the relationship between the steady-state stability limit calculated in this
manner and the design and operation of the exciter? Does your Utility
coordinate LOE relays with this limit or set them to operate for loss-of-excitation
detection? What is the significance of the 0.95 pf line in the under-excited
region and the selected relay characteristics and limits?

Notes:


















Notes:



















Session 6: Power System
Stability and Stabilizers

Power System Stability
Effect of Excitation Systems on Rotor
Angle Stability
Power System Stabilizers
Virtual GS PSS Operation
Tuning of AVRs and PSS for Stability
VirtualGS - Power System Stabilizer
Tuning
Objective
At the end of this module the trainee will be able to do the following:
Provide one or more definitions for power system stability as it relates to the
synchronous generator in a hydro power plant.
Explain how the AVR affects stability.
Describe the basic operation of a power system stabilizer.
List the inputs to the PSS and where it is normally located.

Notes:

















Power System Stabilizer Operation
This exercise simulates the operation of a generator synchronized to the grid. A Power
System Stabilizer (PSS) is included as part of the excitation system to provide
supplementary damping of the unit's electromechanical oscillations.

The excitation system can be operated in AVR or Manual (MAN) control with the PSS on
or off using the control switches shown below. The PSS gain is adjustable between 0
and 50 using the slider.



Disturbances are introduced using the test signal source shown below. A user-selected
step change in the AVR reference is applied using the Step Signal control button. This
initiates a generator voltage change that will also excite the unit's electromechanical
oscillations for test purposes. Modern digital excitation systems include a digital test
generator that can be used on actual units.



The final control is a switch that applies a failure to the unit for troubleshooting
purposes. The use of this switch is included in the corresponding instruction.



The following instructions will lead you through this exercise.

1. Start the simulation by clicking on the Run/Stop toggle.

2. Enter a 2% (0.02 pu) step change in the test signal entry and apply the step
change. Click on the test button again to remove the signal. Adjust the PSS
slider to different gain levels and note the response of the machine in the space
provided below.

3. Set the PSS gain to 0. Apply the step disturbance and stop the simulation after a
few electromechanical oscillations have been completed. Zoom in on the power
or speed trace and measure the damped frequency of oscillation. Record the
value in Hz.

Oscillation frequency = Hz

4. Reset the PSS gain to 20. Start the simulation and click on the failure
button. Observe the strip chart recorders, and note your observations
below. Where is the problem located? How did you come to this conclusion?


Notes:



















Power System Stabilizer Tuning
This exercise is intended to familiarize you with the effect of the PSS adjustable
parameters on its operation and the response of the generator. The scrolling charts
display changes to the generator active power and PSS output.

The AVR/PSS control box contains the adjustments that will be used throughout the
exercise. PSS ON/OFF and AVR/MAN toggle buttons control the exciter's mode of
operation. The PSS gain and lead/lag time constants are adjusted using the provided
entry boxes and sliders. Values can be typed into the entry boxes or the sliders used to
quickly change the entry.



To test the effect of different settings a test signal generator is supplied. When the
"Step Signal" button is pressed, an AVR reference change controlled by the "Step Size"
entry is introduced to the front end of the AVR. The step size is entered in per-unit of
terminal voltage (e.g. 0.02 in per-unit corresponds to 2% of rated terminal voltage).



The following instructions will lead you through this exercise.

1. Start the simulation using the Run/Stop toggle switch. Enter a 2% step change
(0.02 pu) in the test signal entry and apply the step change. Click on the test
button again to remove the signal. Adjust the PSS slider to different gain levels
and note the peak-to-peak power swing levels in the space provided below:

Ks = 0 2
nd
cycle power swing = MW
Ks = 10 2
nd
cycle power swing = MW
Ks = 20 2
nd
cycle power swing = MW


2. The measured on-line closed-loop transfer function for the generator of this
example is given on the preceding page. Several example PSS compensation
functions have also been plotted for reference. Select the lead/lag time
constants that appear to provide the best fit to the generator
characteristic. Enter these values using the sliders or data entry boxes. Repeat
the step response tests for the same gain values.

Ks = 10 2
nd
cycle power swing = MW
Ks = 20 2
nd
cycle power swing = MW

Describe the difference in the damping. Which phase compensation would you
select?

3. Set both the lead and lag time constants to the same value, and repeat the step
response test at one of the higher gain values. What happens? Why?


Appendix D. Transfer Functions

The following exercises can be performed using the spreadsheet (TransferFunction.xls)
provided as part of the course material in Appendix D.6. This spreadsheet contains one
worksheet per exercise.

1. Enter the following low-pass filter transfer function (set T = 0.1s and compute the
frequency response between 0.1 Hz and 10 Hz.


What is the phase lag introduced at a frequency of 1 Hz? What is the maximum time
constant that can be used to keep the phase lag below 5 degrees at 1 Hz?

2. Enter the following high-pass filter transfer function (set T = 1.0s) and compute the
frequency response between 0.1 Hz and 10 Hz.


What is the phase lead introduced at a frequency of 0.2 Hz? What is the minimum time
constant that can be used to keep the phase lead below 10 degrees at 0.2 Hz?

3. Enter the following lead-lag transfer function (set Tld = 0.2s and Tlg = 0.02s) and
compute the frequency response between 0.1 Hz and 10 Hz.


What is the phase lead introduced at a frequency of 1.0 Hz? What is the peak phase
lead provided by this transfer function, and at what frequency does it occur?

Notes:













Session 7: Verification of
Governor Controls

Frequency Control on Large Power
Systems
Closed-Loop Control Systems
Operation of Speed Governors
Governor Droop and Dead band
Virtual GS - Governor Droop
MOD-027 Verification of Unit Frequency
Response
Temporary Droop and Damping
Objectives

At the end of this module the trainee will be able to do the following:

Describe the basic operation of a speed governor.
Explain the requirement for AGC and how it operates.
Define speed droop.
Define isochronous operation and describe how it could be used in an
islanded system.


Notes:


















Governor Droop
This simulation represents the operation of three 100 MW units on an isolated system
connected to a similar quantity of customer load. The objective of the simulation is to
provide a clear grasp of the effect of governor droop on load sharing.



The units can be connected or removed from the system using the breaker control. The
customer load is added or removed in blocks of 50 MW using the switches. To add or
remove load select a switch with the cursor and press the left mouse button. The new
load total will appear in the display box.





Each of the generators has the unit controls shown
here. The governor speed reference is set using the
Up/Down command buttons. The speed reference
dial has two hands similar to a clock. One complete
turn of the small hand will move the large hand by 1
division corresponding to a 1% change in speed
reference.

The gate limit control allows you to limit the opening
of the gates. The black pointer indicates the actual
position while the red pointer indicates the limit.

The breaker control button is used to synchronize
the unit to the islanded system.

The droop dial controls the unit's droop between 0%
and 8%. To change settings move the cursor on the
dial while holding the left mouse button.





The following instructions will lead you through this exercise.

1. Start the simulation by clicking on the Run/Stop toggle.

2. Synchronize one unit with its breaker and close one load breaker. Note the gate
position and frequency once it settles to steady state.

3. Increase the governor speed reference until the frequency reaches 60
Hz. Explain why you have to increase the speed reference by this amount. How
is it related to the permanent droop and the gate position?

4. Reset the speed reference to 0/0. Reduce the droop to zero. This makes this
unit an isochronous unit. Explain what happens.

5. Synchronize a second unit and close a second load breaker. Note the final
frequency and gate positions. Synchronize the third unit. Note the final
frequency and gate positions. Open the breaker of the isochronous unit. What
are the final gate positions of the other two units?

6. With two load breakers still closed, reduce the droop of one of the units to 4%
and set the other to 2%. Note the final gate positions of the two units. Open
one of the load breakers and note the final gate position. State the relationship
between the loads accepted by each unit in terms of their droop.

7. If the isolated system was suddenly connected to the main grid (by a breaker not
visible in this control screen), what would happen to the frequency? What would
happen to the gate position of each unit?
Notes:
















Hydro Governor Damping
This exercise simulates the operation of a unit in an isolated system (electrical island
with a single unit connected to a customer load of approximately equal size).

The breaker button represents a breaker on the transmission grid (i.e. not the local
generator breaker) and controls whether the unit is synchronized to the complete grid
(closed position) or operating in an island with an equal amount of customer load. A
separate button is provided to simulate a sudden change in customer load.



The unit is equipped with a mechanical actuator governor. Gate position limit and speed
reference controls are provided to control the loading of the unit. The gate position is
indicated by the black pointer while the gate limit is indicated by the red pointer.



The governor settings include the following:

permanent droop dial (calibrated in %)
temporary droop slider (calibrated in %)
dashpot needle valve (calibrated in turns open between 0 and 1)
dashpot bypass switch

The dashpot reset time is controlled by both the needle valve opening and the status of
the bypass switch. With the dashpot in the bypass position the reset time is very short,
and is not affected by the position of the main needle valve.



A frequency meter is provided along with a trend of the gate position to monitor the
operation of the unit during the simulations. The accumulator tank oil level is also
displayed. During periods of sustained servomotor motion, the level will drop - if it
reaches the trip level the simulation will automatically stop.



The primary goal of this exercise is to operate the unit such that it operates in a stable
fashion in the island.
The following instructions will lead you through the exercise

1. Select the fixed mode of simulation and start using the Run/Stop toggle
switch. With the unit synchronized to the grid, switch the customer load. What
happens to the unit output and why?

Open the system breaker to isolate the unit from the grid (it remains connected
to customer load equal to approximately half of its rating) and switch the
customer load again. Observe the response of the frequency and gate
position. Close the dashpot bypass and attempt to stabilize the unit by closing
the needle valve. Did this do what you expected?

2. The mechanical starting time of the generator and turbine is 4.8 seconds and the
water starting time is 1.5 seconds. Calculate the optimum settings for the
temporary droop and reset time using both formulae provided in the course
notes.


Woodward
Temporary droop (Rt) = %
Reset time (Tr) = s

Perform the customer load step and monitor the response of the system for
each of these settings.

3. Operate the solenoid-actuated dashpot bypass using the provided switch. What
is the response of the system? What do you conclude about the use of the
bypass in isolated systems?

Notes:


















Notes:




















Session 8 - Conclusion /
Evaluation



Review of Compliance Requirements
Course Evaluations


Notes:


















Notes:


















Module 1 Assessment

Q: What are the customer deliverables on the power system and how
are they measured?

A: Energy delivered with acceptable voltage, frequency and reliability.

Q: Define active and reactive power.

A: Active power is a measure of electrical energy capable of
performing work. It can be converted to other forms of energy.
Examples include heat, light and mechanical motion.

Reactive power is a measure of electrical energy that is stored in
electrical fields (capacitors) or magnetic fields (inductors) throughout
the power system. Reactive power is required on the system to
magnetize the components that transmit active power (e.g.
transformers, transmission lines, motors)

Q: Describe how reactive power is transferred from one point on the
power system to another.

A: Reactive power is transferred on the system by creating an
amplitude difference between the voltages at any two points.

Q: Describe how active power is transferred from one point on the
power system to another.

A: Active power is transferred on the system by creating an angular
difference between the voltages at any two points.
Module 2 Assessment
Q: Draw a simple diagram relating the inputs and outputs of the generator for
off-line (speed-no-load, ac breaker open) and on-line (ac breaker closed,
synchronized to grid or isolated load) operation.


Q: Explain how the reactive output capability of the generator is affected by the
operating voltage at the terminals of the generator.

A: Less field current is required to produce a constant amount of reactive power
when the voltage is lowered at the generator terminals. Therefore, the reactive
capability (as limited by the heating of the field winding) is effectively increased
as terminal voltage decreases. The opposite effect occurs for increases in the
terminal voltage.

Q: Discuss implications of temporarily operating the generator outside of its
over-excited reactive capabilities for limited periods of time.

A: If the generator is operated beyond its continuous reactive capability (as
limited by the maximum continuous field winding capability), the rotor
temperature limits will be exceeded. Each units has some limited-time overload
capability that allows the unit to be operated at higher levels without significant
loss-of-life for the insulation. Most units are equipped with an excitation limiter
that will prevent damage to the unit, however ultimately it is the operators
responsibility to be aware of, and respect these limits.
Turbine/
Governor
Exciter
Generator
Mechanical
Torque
Field
Current
Speed
Terminal
Voltage (ac)
Turbine/
Governor
Exciter
Generator
Mechanical
Torque
Field
Current
Speed
Terminal
Voltage (ac)
Power
System
Active Power
Reactive Power
Turbine/
Governor
Exciter
Generator
Mechanical
Torque
Field
Current
Angle
Terminal
Voltage (ac)
Power
System
Active Power
Reactive Power
Turbine/
Governor
Exciter
Generator
Mechanical
Torque
Field
Current
Angle
Terminal
Voltage (ac)
Q: Identify the limiting factors affecting the on-line operation of a synchronous
generator, by labeling a conventional generator capability curve with the
following labels:
A - stator current limit
B - field current limit (95% V)
C - field current limit (100% V)
D - field current limit (105% V)
E - under-excitation limiter
F core end heating limit
G Loss of Excitation Relay

-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Active Power (MW)
R
e
a
c
t
i
v
e

P
o
w
e
r

(
M
V
A
r
)
Notes:


















Notes:


















Module 6 Assessment
Q: Describe one or more power system stability phenomena related to the
synchronous generator in a hydro power plant.

A: Angular Stability: associated with changes in the angular positions of
generators relative to each other.
Voltage Stability: associated with changes in the voltage profile of the system.
Frequency Stability: associated with islanded operation of units and changes in
the system frequency.

Q: Explain how the AVR affects stability.

A: The AVR increases the synchronizing forces acting on the generator rotor.
This improves steady-state stability and transient stability. The AVR may also
reduce the damping forces acting on the rotor. This can worsen oscillatory
stability (hunting).

Q: Describe the basic operation of a power system stabilizer.

A: The PSS acts as a damper on the rotating mass of the generator, turbine and
interconnecting shaft. It measures changes in the shaft speed and introduces
electrical torque changes, using the exciter as an amplifier.

Q: List the inputs to the PSS and where it is normally located.

A: The PSS will normally have one or more of the following inputs: speed probe,
watt transducer, PTs, CTs. It is normally located inside the cabinet of the
excitation system. On digital systems, it is supplied as part of the computer code
that operates the exciter.


Notes:


















Notes:


















Module 7 Assessment
Q: Describe the basic operation of a turbine speed governor.

A: The speed of the turbine is measured and compared with the desired speed
reference. The steam valves are opened or closed as required to restore the
speed to the desired level.

Q: Explain the requirement for AGC and how it operates.

A: AGC automates the matching of tie-line flows with their scheduled levels. It
also ensures that each control are contributes to the control of power system
frequency.

Q: Define speed droop.

A: Speed droop refers to the reduction in the speed reference of the governor
with increasing loading (normally measured indirectly through gate position).

Q: Define isochronous operation and describe how it could be used in an
islanded system.

A: A governor operated with zero permanent droop is said to be operating as an
isochronous control. When operated as an isochronous unit, the governor will
open or close the control valves as much as is required to restore the units
frequency to exactly the selected reference.